AERUL ŞI APA

COMPONENTE ALE MEDIULUI

ZIUA MONDIALĂ A APEI

ZIUA MONDIALĂ A METEOROLOGIEI
COMITETUL DE COORDONARE
Prof. dr. A. MARGA
Acad. D. BĂLTEANU
Prof. dr. P. COCEAN
Prof. dr. Luminiţa SILAGHI-DUMITRESCU Prorector, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai
Prof. dr. D. PETREA
COMITETUL ŞTIINŢIFIC
Prof. dr. Liviu APOSTOL
Prof. dr. Octavia BOGDAN
Dr. ing. D. CIATARÂŞ
Prof. dr. doc. P. GÂŞTESCU
Prof. dr. J. MIKA
Prof. dr. C. POPOVSKA
Prof. dr. P. PAUL
Prof. dr. Gh. ROMANESCU
Prof.. dr. V. SOROCOVSCHI
C.p. I dr. P. STANCIU
Prof. Dr. doc. K. TAR
Prof. dr. L.TOUCHART
Prof. dr. Liliana ZAHARIA
COMITETUL DE ORGANIZARE
Prof. dr. G. PANDI
Conf. dr. F. MOLDOVAN
Ing. I. ROŞU
Conf. dr. Gh. ŞERBAN
Şef lucr. dr. Adina CROITORU
Şef lucr. dr. R. BĂTINAŞ
SECRETARIAT
Şef lucr. dr. I. HOLOBÂCĂ
Şef lucr. dr. HORVÁTH Cs.
Asist. drd. BARTÓK Blanka
http://aerapa.conference.ubbcluj.ro/
e-mail:aerapa@geografie.ubbcluj.ro
Rector, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai
Director, Institutul de Geografie al Academiei Române
Prorector, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai
Decan, Facultatea de Geografie, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai
Universitatea „Al. I. Cuza”, Iaşi
Institutul de Geografie al Academiei Române
S.C.C.A. „Someş” S.A., Cluj-Napoca
Universitatea „Hyperion”, București
Univ. Eszterházy Károly, Eger, Hungary
Univ. of Ss. Cyril & Methodius, Macedonia
Univ. Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, France
Universitatea ”Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi
Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
I.N.H.G.A. Bucureşti
College of Nyíregyháza, Hungary
Universite d’Orleans, France
Universitatea Bucureşti
Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
Adm. baz. de apă „Someş-Tisa”
Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca
 UNIVERSITATEA BABEŞ-BOLYAI
FACULTATEA DE GEOGRAFIE
CATEDRA DE GEOGRAFIE FIZICĂ ŞI TEHNICĂ
în colaborare cu
ADMINISTRAŢIA BAZINALĂ DE APĂ „SOMEŞ-TISA”

AERUL ŞI APA
COMPONENTE ALE MEDIULUI

ZIUA MONDIALĂ A APEI

ZIUA MONDIALĂ A METEOROLOGIEI
18-19 MARTIE 2011, CLUJ-NAPOCA, ROMÂNIA

EDITORI: GAVRIL PANDI ŞI FLORIN MOLDOVAN

PRESA UNIVERSITARĂ CLUJEANĂ

2011
 Instituţii partenere:
S.C. COMPANIA DE APĂ „SOMEŞ” S.A. – Cluj
S.C. HIDROELECTRICA S.A. – Sucursala Cluj

ISSN: 2067–743X

© 2011 Editorii volumului. Toate drepturile rezervate. Reproducerea

integrală sau parţială a textului, prin orice mijloace, fără acordul
editorilor, este interzisă şi se pedepseşte conform legii.

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 CUPRINS

Gavril Pandi, World Water Day – 2011 ..................................................................v

Florin Moldovan, World Meteorological Day – 2011.......................................... vii

János Mika, Global and Regional Climate Change:

New Evidences between Two IPCC Reports ..........................................................1

Lucia Căpăţînă, Effective Flood Risk Management

in the Republic of Moldova: a Strategic Imperativ ................................................9

D. C. Petrescu, D. M. Gavriletea, I. V. Petrescu-Mag,

Integrative Negotiation for Sustainable Water Management...............................14

Carmen-Sofia Dragotă, Cătălina Mărculeţ, Loredana-Elena Mic,

Mapping Wet Time-Scales in the Curvature Carpathians and
Subcarpathians (Romania) by the Standardized Precipitation Index ..................22

M. Luca, R. Balan, A. Manescu, Monitoring the Pollution

of Groundwater in the Area of Industrial Waste..................................................30

Gavril Pandi, The Influenced Flow Regimes ...........................................................38

L. Apostol, O. Machidon, Considerations on the Hail Regime in Moldavia

between the Siret and Prut Rivers ........................................................................45

S. Russel, L. Rossa, Contamination of Surface and Ground Waters

by Runoff Water from a Cattle Farm at Falenty, Poland.....................................53

Paul Calanter, Octavian Serban, Anca Dragomir, Economic and Environmental

Aspects on Energy Alternatives for a Clean Air – Wind Farms...........................61

V. Sorocovschi, Horváth Cs., Assessment of Water Demands

in the Rural Settlements of the Someşean Plateau ...............................................68

Á. Juhász, K. Hrotkó, L. Tőkei, Sap Flow Response

of Cherry Trees to Weather Condition .................................................................76

A. E. Petter, L. Buz, Legal Aspects Regarding the Cooperation

under the Agreement between the Government of Romania and the Government
of Hungarian Republic on the Cooperation for the Transboundary
Watercourses Protection and Sustainable Use. Case study: Barcău River Basin ..83

v
T. Tudose, F. Moldovan, Characteristics of Heavy Rainfall Parameters
in the North-Western Romania.............................................................................91

Florina Bran, Ildiko Ioan, Cristina Popa, Financial Crisis, Subsidies

and Climate Change in the Equation of Sustainable Development .....................99

Romanescu Ana Maria, Romanescu Gheorghe, The Hydrological Risk

in the Moldovita River Basin and the Necessary Measures
for the Attenuation of High Flood Waves..............................................................107

Raisa Nastas, V. Rusu, T. Lupascu, Ludmila Staris, Maria Sandu,

Water Conditioning for Food Industry Uses......................................................115

Ilona Pajtók-Tari, János Mika, Zoltán Utasi,

Satellite Observations for Education of Climate Change ..................................122

C. (cas. Axinte) Doltu, D. A. (cas. Timofti) Donciu, Considerations

on the Surface Water Quality Condition in the Siret Hydrographic Basin ........131

Andreea Mihaela Domăşneanu, The Statistical Analysis

and the Quantitative Assessment of Annual Maximum Flows
Recorded in the Hydrographical Basin of Timiş River ......................................139

Adina-Eliza Croitoru, Florentina Mariana Toma,

Considerations on Streamflow Drought in Central Romanian Plain ................147

Gabriela Elena Dumitran, Liana Ioana Vută,

The Eutrophication Phenomenon in Goleşti Lake – Romania ...........................155

Ildiko Ioan, Carmen Valentina Rădulescu, Integrated Mechanisms

for Aproaching Priority Environmental Issues at Global Level ........................163

Mihaela Dumitran, Surface Water Quality in the River Prut ................................171

M. Retegan, M. Borcan, Estimating the Tendency and the Variability

of the Rainfall Amount in Ialomita River Basin
and Their Influence upon the Liquid Run-Off ....................................................178

N. Cianga, D. Costea, The Chlorosodium Mineral Waters in Cluj County,

Lasting Touristic Protection and Capitalization................................................185

Alina-Daciana Dumitra, The Negative Effects Associated to Hydrological

Phenomena of Risk in the Almaş-Agrij Depression and Cluj and Dej Hills.
Social and Economic Effects .............................................................................192

vi
Iulian Pricop, Florian Stătescu,
Risk Factors Influencing Soils Cultivation in Area Răducăneni, Iaşi................198

Vasile Rusu, Larisa Postolachi, Monitoring of Phosphorus Content

in “Water-Particulate Materials-Bottom Sediments System” for River Prut ....206

Ines Grigorescu, Carmen-Sofia Dragotă, Some Issues Related to Dryness

and Drought Phenomena in the Bucharest Metropolitan Area..........................214

A. Ungureanu, A. Unguraşu,
Aspects Concerning Nitrate and Nitrite Pollution of Groundwaters .................222

Maria-Elisabeta Lovász, Irina Dumitraşcu, Ovidiu Traian Popa,

Anca Elena Gurzău, Determination of Organochlorine Pesticides
in Drinking Waters Sampled from Cluj and Hunedoara Counties.....................230

Violeta Gjesovska, Hydrometeorolgical Analysis of Dojran lake.........................238

N. Maier, I. Haidu, Radar Climatology of Hail in the Apuseni Mountains...........247

Liana Ioana Vuţă, Gabriela Elena Dumitran, Some Aspects

Regarding Chlorine Decay in Water Distribution Networks ............................253

I. Minea, D. Butelcă, M. Niculiţă, The Evaluation

of the Hydrological Risks Associated with the Maximum Discharge
in The Upper Water Catchment of the River Bârlad..........................................260

Anca Elena Gurzau, Cristian Pop, Ovidiu Traian Popa, Irina Dumitrascu,
Identification and Risk Assessment of Central Water Supply Systems – Case Study268

Raisa Lozan, Anatol Tărîţă, Raisa Zacasovschi,

Deposition of Sulphur and Nitrogen via Rainwater
(Case Study – the Administrative Territory of the Hincești District) .................276

G. Minea, G. Ioana-Toroimac, L. Zaharia, R. Zarea, M. Borcan,

Spatial Variation of Stream Power in the Buzău
and Ialomiţa River Catchments (Romania)........................................................283

A. Mănescu, M. Luca,
Considerations on the Evolution of the Șomuzu Mare River
Water Quality in the Dolheşti Monitoring Section.............................................292

Carmen Valentina Rădulescu, Florina Bran, Cristina Popa,

Climate Change – between Costs and Benefits ..................................................299

vii
Alin Mihu-Pintilie, Gheorghe Romanescu,
Morphometric and Morphological Suitability of the Relief
from the Crucii Lake Basin (Stânişoarei Mountains) ........................................305

Horváth Cs., St. Buimaga-Iarinca, G. Roşian, Oana-Antonia Pop,

Flow Regimes Spatial Variability ......................................................................313

Reti Kinga-Olga, I. D. Manciula, Factors Influencing the Degree of Pollution

with Chromium of Târnava Mică River in Târnăveni City ................................320

Diana Braga, The Dynamic of Using the Rivers Energy

from Republic of Moldova Territory ..................................................................327

Cornel Blaga, Considerations on the Drought Phenomenon in Cluj County........333

Cristina Burada, Adriana Bacescu, Carmen Manescu,

Variability of the Precipitations Regime for the First Decade
of XXIst Century in Southwestern Romania ........................................................341

V. Nemes, C. Serac, A. Capony, W. Klok, Issues Regarding the Flood Impact

on the Herpetofauna Habitats from Riparian Areas from Barcău Basin...........349

Adina Sanda Șerban, Surface Water Pollution with Heavy Metals

in the Lower Catchment of Jiu River Basin,
According to the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/ec)..............................357

Cornelia Diana Hertia, Anca Elena Gurzau, Maria Ilona Szasz,

Technological Process Assessment of the Drinking Water Treatment
at Târgu-Mureș Water Treatment Plant.............................................................365

Marcela-Corina Roşu, Ramona-Crina Suciu, Simina Dreve, T. D. Silipaş,

I. Bratu and E. Indrea, Nanostructured TiO2 Sensitized with Porphyrins
for Solar Water-Splitting....................................................................................373

C. E. (Telteu) Păsculescu, Consideration Regarding the Mean Runoff

of the Main Rivers from the South Dobrogea.....................................................379

Olivia Anca Rusu, Cristina Neagu, Irina Dumitrascu,

Iulia Neamtiu, Alexandru Zeic and Eugen Gurzau,
Assessment of Human Exposure to Toluene Diisocyanate.................................387

V. Paraschiv, The Wind Influence on the Forest Landscape

in the Upper Basin of Mureş River.....................................................................396

viii
Gavriletea Marius Dan, Petrescu Dacinia Crina,
The Climatic Changes Influence on Romanian Agriculture Sector ...................403

Irina Blaga, Risk Weather Phenomena in Cluj County in June 2010 ....................410

Natalia Urban, Study of The Synoptic Situation

That Favor the Freezing Rain in Northwestern Transylvania ...........................418

T. M. Cornea, M. Dima, D. Roca, Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources ..425

M. Alexe, Izabela Amalia Mihalca, The Importance

of Technical Infrastructure in Territory.
Case Study: Drinking Water Supply in Dângău Mare, Cluj County .....................434

I. C. Nicu, Gh. Romanescu, Determination of the Ground-Water Level

by Modern Non-Distructive Methods (GPR Technology) ..................................441

Cociorhan Camelia Simona, Micle Valer, Studies and Research

on Pollution of Environmental Factors in the Area SC Romplumb
Baia Mare from Anthropogenical Activity .........................................................449

Ion Marinică, Iulia Lup, Andreea Floriana Marinică,

Climatic Features of the Autumn 2010 in Oltenia .............................................456

G. Hognogi, G. Nicula, Gabriela Cocean, Flash floods in the Ilişua Basin ..........465

D. Timofti, C. Doltu, M. Trofin, Eutrophication Phenomena in Reservoirs ........473

V. Tiplea, S. Todică, Ioana Simea, T. Anghel, Ionela Georgiana Gavrilă,

Using GIS to Identify Potential Areas Susceptible to Flood.
Case Study: Soloneţ River ..................................................................................479

I. C. Stângă, Use of Logarithmic Function for Drought Severity Assessment.......487

Adriana Muntean, Mirela Coman, The Nitrogen Regime of the Sasar River,
in Baia Mare Section, the Period 2000-2010.....................................................495

Toma Florentina-Mariana, Barbu Ion, Issues Concerning

Occurrence of Floods on the Vedea River .........................................................502

Rodica Mereț, Considerations on the Mineral Waters

from County of Brașov, Spa and Recovery.........................................................510

M. Ştefan, G. Romanescu, Problems of Sea-Going navigation in Kerci Strait.....517

S. A. Alexandrescu, F. Tămășanu, Complex Use of Resources

in the Regional Water Supply Systems ...............................................................526

ix
A. Ungurașu, A. Ungureanu,
Aspects Regarding the Methods of Soil Aeration...............................................533

I. L. Melenti, E. Magyar, T. Rusu, Heavy Metal Analysis

in Waste Water Samples from Valea Șesei Tailing Pond...................................539

Anca Elena Gurzau, Cristian Pop, Ovidiu Traian Popa, Irina Dumitrascu,
Identification and Risk Assessment
of Central Water Supply Systems – Case Study .................................................545

E. Radu, M. Radescu, C. Radu, A. Pandele, M. Minciuna,

Geological and Hydrogeological Considerations on the Phreatic Aquifer
of the Tarnava Mica River Flood Plain and Terraces .......................................553

Roşca Sanda, The Flash Floods Analysis,

Representative for Niraj River between 1970-2008 ...........................................560

C. Nucuţă, C. Timiş, C. Buţiu, O. Scridonesi,

Assessment of Tornados with the Enhanced Fujita Scale in Romania...............568

O. Scridonesi, C. Buţiu, C. Nucuţă, S. Leahu,

Romanian Terminology in the Meteorology of Severe Weather –
Case Study of the Supercell from Arad Country on the 14th of June 2010 .........576

x
 WORLD WATER DAY – 2011

Every year 22 March is an occasion to reflect on one of the most vital

elements of geographical crust: water. It is an opportunity to ask ourselves and
others numerous questions regarding the present and future quantitative and
qualitative status of water resources, from which depends fundamentally the
existence of every natural and anthropogenic component of the most complex
system of Earth.
The United Nations awards each year a motto to this day, which should
draw attention to various aspects that concerns water resources. The motto of this
year is Water for Cities and reflects the fundamental link between freshwater
resources and the most developed habitats of mankind.
Earth's freshwater resources are not inexhaustible. Because of regional
distribution of solar energy, the water resources together with all natural resources
present spatial differences. There are areas rich in water and regions where water is
insufficient. The demographic boom, the creation of large urban and industrial
concentrations has led to diminution of water resources in areas where there were
plenty before. And so, the water quantity insufficiency appeared. Society has taken
action, and by spatial-temporal redistribution of resources, this quantitative
deficiency was mostly resolved.
However almost instantly, because of the same factors the water resources
quality insufficiency appeared. Although there were sufficient quantities, the
resources are not suitable for use due to pollution. This second problem is very
difficult to resolve. Society by its very existence pollutes the components of the
natural environment. Urban concentrations, industrial and agricultural activities,
transport, etc. creates quasi-permanently pollution, sometimes very significantly.
Water treatment is therefore a continuous need; therefore, the insufficient quality
can not be solved through structural measures as the quantity problem.
Therefore water has become a general good of society, with a growing
economic importance and value. Prevention and decrease of the two problematic
aspects of water resources must be in constant attention of the contemporary
society. The presence of water determines the daily life of every member of
humanity. However the relationships between this fundamental resource and the
society, particularly urban society, are not often balanced. The period in which it
was considered normal for the resources to meet the requirements is now in the
past. If water can not be managed, in the future it will create significant

xi
imbalances, which will occur primarily in the drinking water of major cities. Future
generation will depend, among other things, on how Earth’s freshwater resources
are managed, protected, and exploited.
UNESCO’s International Hydrological Programme addresses problems of
conflicts due to water in urban areas. Regarding the origin and nature of water
scarcity in an urban context they specified the following causing factors:
-quality/extension of drinking water services and their continuity
-quality/extension of waste-water collection treatment
-urban hydrology problems (storm water control)
-impact of large cities upon their environment in particular water resources
use and misuse
-financing of investments issue
-tariff setting and cost recovery
-degrees of freedom left to the urban dwellers vis-à-vis service provider
Water for cities focuses on the potential risks in urban water systems. The
problems arising from urbanization and industrialization are combined with the
effects of climate change whether natural or anthropogenic origin. The conflict
management is the task of governments and nongovernmental organizations, of the
directly involved cities, of each individual and also the wider international
community.
In this context the Physical and Technical Geography Department with
support from the Faculty of Geography and the Babes-Bolyai University, in
collaboration with other institutions from Cluj, organizes the annual conference
with international participation “Air and Water Components of the Environment”.
The first conference, the early first step, was held in 2009. The works of
many specialists, teachers, researchers and practitioners have been published in two
journals of the Faculty of Geography: “Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai” and
“Riscuri si catastrofe”. The successful first edition has urged us to persevere the
following year. There was an ample national and international participation. But
the most important achievement was the publication of a volume dedicated to this
scientific event, which has achieved international DOAJ indexing since then.
This year the conference has for the first time an international scientific
committee, in time the topics crystallized, covering a wide range of issues related
to quantitative and qualitative aspects of air and water resources.
Through this scientific event we wish to honor the World Water Day and
the World Meteorological Day, to represent a drop in the Earth’s “air and water
ocean” in the course toward environmental protection.

Gavril Pandi,
Professor, PhD

xii
 WORLD METEOROLOGICAL DAY - 2011

As has been the case in previous years, this year the 23rd of March is
dedicated to the World Meteorological Day. This day is an occasion to
acknowledge and show appreciation to the work conducted by all those who, one
way or another, are in the service of this science in each of the 189 countries
affiliated with the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). Again as usual, in
2011 the World Meteorological Day is celebrated under a generic title. This year, it
is Climate for you. This choice is intended to suggest that the WMO, through all
the activities it co-ordinates, has set as its fundamental goal serving humankind’s
central interests.
In his 2011 World Meteorological Day address, Dr. Michel Jarraud,
Secretary General of the WMO, makes special reference to some of the major
reunions organized by the WMO over the past 5 years, which have had as debate
points a number of aspects related to a more efficient involvement of Meteorology
and Climatology in the everyday lives of the inhabitants of our planet. Among
these events we may mention: the WMO Technical Conference on Climate as a
Resource (Beijing, November 2005); the WMO Conference on Living with
Climate Variability and Change: Understanding the uncertainties and managing the
risks (Espoo, Finland, July 2006); the WMO International Conference on Secure
and Sustainable Living: Social and Economic Benefits of Weather, Climate and
Water Services (Madrid, March 2007). In the same address, the WMO Secretary
General draws attention to the fact that in 2007 the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), a structure closely connected with the WMO and the
United Nations, was awarded the prestigious Nobel Peace Prize, in recognition of
having drafted and published the 4th report on the current state of world climate,
entitled Climate Change 2007.
The beginning of 2011 has brought about the publishing of the first data
related to the evolution of air temperature on a global scale in the year 2010. The
sources for the data are: UK Meteorological Office Hadley Centre/Climatic
Research Unit (HadCRU), the U.S. National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), and
the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). According to
the findings available so far, 2010 can be considered the warmest year since the
first systematic instrument-based observations were conducted (1850). In fact, the
values of the annual global mean temperatures in 2011, 2005 and 1998 are very
close to one another, the differences between them being almost irrelevant

xiii
(±0.09°C). In concrete terms, the mean temperature in 2011 was 0.53°C higher
than the mean annual temperature of the reference period 1961-1990, which is
14.0°C. If we take into account the whole decade 2001-2010, then the mean annual
temperature calculated for this period was 0.46°C higher than the mean annual
temperature of the above-mentioned reference period. Consequent on this, the first
decade of the 21st century became the warmest period of 10 consecutive years since
the first ever systematic instrument-based meteorological observations.
2010 was an exceptionally warm year over much of Africa and southern
and western Asia, and in Greenland and Arctic Canada, with many sub-regions
registering temperatures 1.2 to 1.4°C above the long-term average. In December
2010, the Arctic sea-ice extended over 12 million square kilometres, that is, 1.35
million square kilometres less than the December average during the 1979-2000
period. Nevertheless, in 2010 warming was not the case everywhere, the cooler
regions including the north of Europe and central and eastern Australia.
Against the general background of warming, 2010 was characterised by
numerous risk-posing meteorological and hydrological phenomena. Among them
we can mention, for instance, the torrential rains and the subsequent catastrophic
floods in Sri Lanka (January 2010), those affecting the Rio de Janeiro area
(December 2010) and eastern Australia (again, in December 2010). Also, we can
mention the hottest recorded summer in Russian history and the wildfires that
broke out across Russia in late July-early September 2010. Such events were not
foreign to Romania either, and we may mention in this sense the extremely high
amount of precipitations recorded in the summer of 2010, especially in June, or the
uncommon glazed frost formed on the 1 December 2010. The first two decades of
November 2010 partially compensated for the above, as the weather remained good
and unusually warm for that period of the year, exhibiting daily maximum values
that exceeded 25°C in the southern and south-eastern parts of the country.
In the future, the main mission of the WMO remains that of predicting,
with utmost possible precision, the likelihood of risk-posing meteorological and
climatic phenomena, as well as of contributing, as much as possible, to the
diminution of their negative effects, with special attention devoted to the problem
of Global Warming. In addition, a most efficient management of the climatic
resources of different regions of the world remains an essential task of the
specialised departments in all WMO member states. All of these problems will
represent central issues during the 16th World Meteorological Congress, to be held
between 16 May and 3 June 2010 in Geneva.

Florin Moldovan,
Associate Professor, PhD

xiv
 GLOBAL AND REGIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE:
NEW EVIDENCES BETWEEN TWO IPCC REPORTS

JÁNOS MIKA1

ABSTRACT. – Even the economical crisis was not strong enough to deflect the
anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing for more than one year. It tends to develop
at the upper edge of the IPCC (2007) projection band of uncertainties. The part of
the emitted carbon dioxide remaining in the atmosphere is increasing due to
weakening of both the biospheric- and the oceanic sinks of this greenhouse-gas.
The new radiation balance estimations must admit the imbalance between the
atmosphere and the oceans indicating the fact that the greenhouse warming
definitely takes place. The year 2010 became most likely the warmest one on the
global temperature record. The sea-level rise also follows the most rapid track
among the foreseen scenarios. In the meantime modelling effort to better estimate
regional features of the changes also develop in their full strength. The
ENSEMBLES Project ended in December 2009 and published a lot of maps with
25 km model resolution. These results, however, do not show convergence in the
estimations for many regions, including Central Europe, either.

Keywords: carbon-dioxide, radiation balance, sea-level, regional climate models

1. INTRODUCTION

Climate of our Planet has never been constant, but the recent changes are
by two orders of magnitude faster than the natural changes since the appearance of
anthropogenic effects. The discernable global warming started in the 19th century
and after speeding up in the 20th century, it has reached about. 0.8 K. This fact and
the realization of the likely reasons for the changes, plus rapid development of
computer technology have resulted in systematic investigations of climate science.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) finalised its
Fourth Assessment Report in 2007. The present paper surveys some recent
moments of global and regional climate change issued after the Report.

2. CHANGES IN THE GREENHOUSE GAS CONCENTRATIONS

The worldwide economical crisis led to -1.3% decrease in 2009’s annual

fossil-fuel CO2-emission (Fig. 1.) comparing to 2008. One should note, however,
that this 8.4±0.5 PgC emission is still larger by 37 % than that in 1990, considered
as a reference in various mitigation policy calculations. The annual increase was as

1
Department of Geography, Eszterházy Károly College, Eger, Hungary & Hungarian Meteorological
Service, Budapest, Hungary. E-mail: mika.j@met.hu

1
large as +3.2% in the 2000-2008 period and for 2010 a >3% increase had recently
been projected. (Global Carbon Project, 2010).
The pace of the CO2-emission indicated in Fig. 1 was steeper than any
IPCC (2007) scenario, originated from the study by Nakicenovic and Swart (2000)!
1.0
1
CO2 emissions (PgC y-1)

Trend: 0.31 % y-1

0.8 (p=~0.9)

Airborne Fraction
8 45%
40%
Fossil fuel 0.6
6
0.4
4
Land use change 0.2
2

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Fig. 1. Trends in the fossil fuel vs. land-use forms of anthropogenic CO2–emission
1960-2009 (left - Global Carbon Project, 2010) and the fraction of the emission
remaining in the atmosphere (right - Global Carbon Project, 2010)

Natural land and ocean CO2 sinks removed 57% of all CO2 emitted from
human activities during the 1958-2009, each sink in roughly equal proportion.
However, there is the possibility, however, that the efficiency of the natural
sinks is declining. According to complex model calculations, the experienced
decrease in both the biological and oceanic sources in the recent decades broadly
explains this increase. If we can believe in the graph presented by the right panel of
Fig. 1., than a dramatic increase of the airborne fraction is going on with a 5 %
increase, from 40 % to 45 % of CO2 remaining in the atmosphere.
Both the steeper than expected increase of the emission and the increased
fraction of the emitted CO2 point at the possibility, that the present, post-IPCC
(2007) estimate of the main greenhouse gas forcing is even more rapid than it was
assumed by the Report in 2007! This increasing forcing is already seen in the
global radiation balance, as presented in the next Section, below.

3. CHANGES IN THE RADIATION BALANCE

The state of climate system largely depends on the radiation process, and
human activity can primarily modify the radiation processes, too. Hence it was
inevitable to know the actual radiation balance of the Planet with high accuracy.
Recently, Trenberth et al. (2009) re-considered (Fig. 2) the earlier radiation
balance estimations (Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997). The earlier study was based on
observations from 1985-1989, while the recent estimates covered the March 2000 –
May 2004 period. In some cases the difference between the two estimates is ca. 10
Wm-2, or over 20 % in relative terms. Majority of the changes are likely caused by
uncertainties of the estimation, not by the climate change during this short period.

2
 Climate change is seen not from these differences but from the 0.9 Wm-2
unbalance between the atmosphere and the underlying surface, i.e. mainly the
oceans. This heat is removed from the atmosphere and leads to slower warming at
the surface. On the other hand, this heat would be given back to the atmosphere
after stabilisation of the atmospheric composition at a certain time, afterwards.

Fig. 2. The global annual mean Earth’s energy budget for the Mar 2000 to May 2004
period (Wm–2). The broad arrows indicate the schematic flow of energy in proportion
to their importance. Source: Trenberth et al (2009) Remark: The Fig. indicates global
averages, independently from the type of the surface in the illustration.

It might be interesting to compare these figures of the energy balance with

those changes summarised by the IPCC (2007: Fig. 2.20). The increase of
greenhouse effect modified the balance by 2.3 Wm-2 since the beginning of
Industrial Revolution. The value is only 1% of the captured Sun originated energy
but 1/5 of the changes happened in the last decade. (The energy balance remains
zero at the top of the atmosphere, but it needs higher temperature near the surface!)
Among the important anthropogenic forcing factors, the greenhouse effect
influences the backward atmospheric long-wave radiation to the surface. (Its
present value is 333 Wm-2, see above in Fig. 2.) The aerosol content modifies
mainly the reflected short wave radiation (79 Wm-2) and, to a smaller extent, the
atmospheric long wave emission (239 Wm-2).
The land use determines mainly the surface-reflected short-wave radiation
and the sensible and latent heat exchange between the surface and the atmosphere.
Among the natural forcing factors, decadal oscillations of solar activity directly
modulate the incoming short wave solar radiation (341 Wm-2), while the few big
volcanic eruptions increase the reflected shortwave radiation 1-3 years.

3
 The concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide has grown from about
280 ppm before the Industrial Revolution to 385 ppm in 2008 (Copenhagen
Diagnosis, 2009). The methane concentration has grown from 0.715 to 1.774 ppm
in 2005. Both values are much higher than any time in the last 650 000 years! The
atmospheric mass of nitrous oxide has reached 0.319 ppm in 2005 from 0.270.
The components of atmospheric aerosols have modified the atmospheric
radiation balance in the opposite direction. The direct effect of aerosols, mainly the
backscattering of solar radiation is about -0.5 Wm-2. Their indirect effect, through
changes in cloud composition, is another -0.7 Wm-2 since the industrial revolution.
Further small effects, e.g. changes in land use, and increasing carbon
content of snow leading to smaller reflectivity cause -0.1 − -0.2 Wm-2 in the
radiation balance of the Planet. The Report also states that the influence of solar
activity oscillations is +0.12 Wm-2 since 1750. This value is the half of the previous
estimation (IPCC, 2001).

4. CHANGES OF GLOBAL TEMPERATURE AND SEA LEVEL

The global mean temperature is generally derived in comparison with its

1961-1990 average. This solution is explained by the fact that it is not easy to
define the absolute value of the present, or any time’s global mean temperature.
This is explained by the sparse distribution of the observing stations. Fig. 3
indicates long term tendencies of the global mean temperature between 1881 and
2010. As it is seen in Fig. 3, global mean temperature is gradually increasing since
ca. 1960. The year 2010 is one of the warmest ones in tough competition with 1998
and 2005. The warmest decade on the record is the last ten years, for sure.

Fig. 3. Global mean temperature as reconstructed by four international data centres:

NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, NOAA National Climate Data Centre,
Meteorological Office Hadley Centre/Climate Research Unit and the Japanese
Meteorological Agency. Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/Robert Simmon.

4
 Another indicator of the thermal processes is the sea level, driven mainly
by the thermal expansion and the water balance with the continental ice. Sea ice
melting does not influence the sea level, in correspondence with the Archimedes’
principle on the floating objects.
Fig. 4 is an evidence of warming showing the sea level rise, combining the
tide gauges and microwave satellite observations. They measure the sea level
heights between 66°N and 66°S in ten-day averages since 1993. Accuracy of the
individual ten-day mean sea-level anomalies, of satellite microwave measurement,
is ±5 mm. According to the processing of the measurements, the rise of sea level is
3.1±0.7 mm per year which mainly happens in the Southern Hemisphere.

Fig. 4. Sea level change during 1970-2010. The tide gauge data are indicated in red
(Church and White 2006) and satellite data in blue (Cazenave et al. 2009). The grey band
shows the projections of the IPCC Report (2007). The graphs show the difference
from the 1993-2001 period’s average in mm unit. The satellite data till 2002 are based
on TOPEX/Poseidon, later on Jason satellites. (Copenhagen Diagnosis, 2009: Fig. 16)

Hence, the temperature increase has already been detected in the upper 3
km layer of the oceans. The reason is that 80% of the radiation balance surplus is
absorbed by the oceans. (This is the 0.9 Wm-2 deviation of the total balance in Fig.
2) This warming together with the thawing of land ice has already caused 17 cm
elevation of sea level (IPCC, 2007).
According to the Copenhagen Diagnosis (2009), the contribution of
glaciers and ice-caps to global sea-level has increased from 0.8 mm/year year in the
1990s to be 1.2 mm/year today. The adjustment of glaciers and ice caps to present
climate alone is expected to raise sea level by ~18 cm, (i.e. by 1 cm more after
three years from 2005, than the IPCC AR4 estimation).
The area of the Greenland ice sheet, experiencing summer melt, has
already been increasing by 30% since 1979, parallel to the increasing air
temperatures. The net ice loss from Greenland accelerated since the mid-1990s and
is now contributing as much as 0.7 mm/year to sea level rise due to both increased
melting and accelerated ice flow.

5
 5. RESULTS OF REGIONAL CLIMATE MODELLING

Nowadays the regional features of climate change are mainly based on

finer resolution models imbedded into the mainframe GCMs, providing the
boundary conditions for the partial derivatives of the fine-mash computations.
However, diversity of these results sometimes even in signs, e.g. for precipitation is
several seasons (Christensen et al., 2007; van der Linden, P. and J.F.B. Mitchell,
2009, see on the next page, as well) is a challenge to solve before finally neglecting
the other sources of information applied in the impact and adaptation studies.
One reason of the diversity of regional model results may be the difference
between boundary conditions taken from the mainframe models. This problem is
presented by Fig. 11.6 of the IPCC (2007) Report, where two different mainframe
models led to different responses in the same regional model, even in the sign of
precipitation change in many sectors of Europe.
Table 2 indicate how the ENSEMBLES Project wanted to limit the effects
of the boundary conditions and the variety of the results among the regional
models. But, since far not all combinations of GCM + RCM can be performed for
several (not only practical) reasons, one can calculate that the average number with
which a regional model is combined is only 1.7!

Table 1. ENSEMBLES regional climate model experiments with 25 km horizontal

resolution. The lines indicate the 15 regional models and the columns represent
the 8 global mainframe GCMs, applied in the Project. These 25 combinations
from the 120 ideally possible combinations mean a rather low proportion.

The results differ fairly much even among the regional models (Fig. 5). This
indicates the “large ensemble” where the regional models and the parameterizations
were varied. For temperature this uncertainty involves just the measure of warming
between tolerable to dangerous degrees in many regions of Europe. For precipitation,
however, even the sign of the change is questionable comparing the two deciles.

6
 Fig. 5. The 10 % and 90 % deciles of the distribution derived from the forecasts for 2080-
2099 comparing to 1961-1990, summarized in Table 1 and further diversified by a set of
different parameterizations (“large ensembles” see: van der Linden, P. and J.F.B.
Mitchell, 2009) . The first columns always show the temperature changes (K), the second
columns indicate the precipitation changes (%). The upper two pairs of figures indicate the
changes in winter (DJF) whereas the third and fourth pairs correspond to the summer
changes (JJA).

7
 6. CONCLUSION

Two main conclusions can be compiled from the presented recent results:
(i.) Both the anthropogenic global radiation forcing and its temperature and
sea-level consequences have been developing according to the IPCC (2007)
assumptions or even worse after 2005. Hence its mitigation remains one of the
most important long-term challenges of our era.
(ii.) On the other hand, even the fast development of the coupled global
and regional models could not really decrease the quantitative uncertainty. Hence,
no single GCM output can be applied for adaptation-related consequences, and the
embedded regional climate models aimed to overcome the insufficiency of the
GCM-resolution are strongly influenced by the boundary conditions.

REFERENCES

1. Cazenave A, Dominh K, Guinehut S, Berthier E, Llovel W, et al., 2009. Sea level

budget over 2003-2008: A re-evaluation from GRACE space gravimetry, satellite
altimetry and Argo. Global Planetary Change 65:83-88
2. Christensen, J.H., Carter T.R., Rummukainen, M., Amanatidis, G., 2007. Predicting
of regional scenarios and uncertainties for defining European climate change risks
and effects: The PRUDENCE Project. Climatic Change 81: Suppl., 1-371.
3. Church J.A., White N.J., 2006. A 20th century acceleration in global sea-level
rise. Geophys. Res. Lett. 33:L01602, doi: 10.1029/2005GL024826
4. The Copenhagen Diagnosis (2009): Updating the World on the Latest Climate Science.
(I. Allison, and 25 co-authors) The University of New South Wales, Climate Change
Research Centre, Sydney, Australia. 60pp.
5. Global Carbon Project (2010): Carbon budget and trends 2009. (K. Assmann + 36
co-authors) [www.globalcarbonproject.org/carbonbudget].
6. IPCC (2001): Climate Change (2001): The Scientific Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental panel
on Climate Change (Houghton J.T., et al., eds.), Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge UK. & New York, N.Y. USA, 881 p. http//:www.ipcc.ch
7. IPCC (2007): Climate Change (2007): The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, 2007 (Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B.
Averyt, M. Tignor, H.L. Miller, eds.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge & N.Y.
8. Kiehl J. T., Trenberth K. E., 1997. Earth's Annual Global Mean Energy Budget.
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78:2, 197-208
9. Nakicenovic, N. and Swart, R. (eds.), 2000: Emissions Scenarios: A Special
Report of Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Special Report on Emissions Scenarios. Cambridge Univ. Press, 612 pp.
10. Trenberth K.E., J. T. Fasullo J. K.,2009. Earth's Global Energy Budget. Bulletin
of the American Meteorological Society 90:3, 311-323
11. Van der Linden, P. and J.F.B. Mitchell eds., 2009: ENSEMBLES: Climate
Change and its Impacts: Summary of research and results from the ENSEMBLES
project. Met Office Hadley Centre, FitzRoy Road, Exeter EX1 3PB, UK. 160 pp.

8
 EFFECTIVE FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT
IN THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA: A STRATEGIC IMPERATIV

L. CĂPĂŢÎNĂ1

ABSTRACT. – Effective flood risk management in Republic of Moldova: a

strategic imperativ. The current status regarding flood risk management in the
Republic of Moldova allows to highlight the inefficacy of existent plans. As a result, it
is necessary to develop a medium and long-term strategy, for a more efficient
management of flood risks that are continuously increasing (2008, 2010). Realizing
Flood Risk and Hazard maps would contribute to the establishment of a quick and
effective Decision Support Spatial System. The scenarios used in flood mapping in EU
member states, the standards linked with flood risk management from EU Flood
Directive (2007), could serve as an example for the Republic of Moldova in order to
reduce the floods impact on the health of people, on the economic activities and on the
environment, as well.

Keywords: flood risk management, EU Flood Directive, flood risk map, hazard map,
risk mitigation.

1. INTRODUCTION

Lately, in the Republic of Moldova the frequency of natural disasters has

increased, especially floods. The European Commission presented in April 2009 a
policy paper known as a White Paper. The main goal of this is to reduce the
European Union's vulnerability to the impacts of climate change through making
measures and policies suitable for it. [1] To this end, the Central and Local
Authorities from Republic of Moldova have to take into account the influence of
climate change in implementation of the decisions on flood risk control.
Flood risk is a combination between the probability and the consequences
of the floods, but flood risk management aimes to propose plans that, by
implementing the proposed measures, would minimize flood risks.[1,2]
In the last two years (2008-2010) the majority of the territory of the
Republic of Moldova was exposed to flood risk, but the most affected areas were
the Nistru and Prut’s floodplain zone. So, the localities that are placed in rivers'
floodplains were the most vulnerable. And, as was expected, the Local Public
Authorities did not have ready a plan for flood management, even though in 2008
they have been confronted with such events. In conclusion, „the lessons were not
learned by them”.

1
Tiraspol State University, Faculty of Geography, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova, e-mail:
capatina.lucia@gmail.com

9
 2. FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT IN REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA

Floods from June-August 2010 in the Republic of Moldova requires the

empowered institutions/persons to pay more attention to this subject considering
that the floods are affecting not only the economy of the country, but have a direct
impact on the population and environment. The floods from the summer of 2010
caused losses of more than 75 mln. USD, and two human lives. The importance of
mitigating disasters risks in Moldova is major, especially since the forecasts give
evidence of probability of extreme temperatures and heavy rainfall as a result of
climate change.
According to the facts, in Republic of Moldova due to the inefficacy of the
„existing” flood risk management, the measures are taken either during the event or
after-event. The measures that exist in the management plan can not be applied in
practice.
Up to the present day, the Legislation of the Republic of Moldova does not
contain plans of flood risk management that were approved by Government,
exception being the Government Decision nr. 1030/2000 regarding approving The
protection scheme of localities from Republic of Moldova against floods. [3] The
protection scheme is to be implemented in 5 steps of 5 years each step, beginning
with 2000. At the moment, we should already have a complex report on the first 2
steps, but instead of this our country is having more serious problembs than 10
years ago. If the main goal of The Scheme was to protect localities against floods
through technical – engineering measures (purifying river bed and developing
water discharges network, reconstruction of existing protection breakwater and
bridges, in order to increase the security of lands and localities before the dikes,
also constructing the new ones), the failure of implementing these has caused in
thes last years the surface of zones vulnerable towards flood risk to extend.
A well-argumented management plan with real possibilities of
implementing in practice is not the only problem in the Republic of Moldova. The
other problems are: the lack of a building code, low standards in building,
inappropriate planning of the terrain usage, illegal building of houses in vulnerable
areas, outdated system of flood control (over 3500 breakwaters and dams require
urgent repair in order to cope with such crises situations as from 2010), insufficient
works with a protection role against floods, the necessity of establishing a flood
monitoring system at the national and sub-regional level up to international
standards. At same the time, there is a lack of collaboration between the designing
institution „Acvaproiect”, „Urbanproiect”, „Ruralproiect” and the Institute for
Design of Auto Road in order to develop some general complex plans of building
construction, taking into account protected measures against floods.
Thus, emergency situations can happen not only as result of natural
overflow, but also as a result of accidents from the rivers' hydrotechnical
construction. The management of these emergency situations generated by floods
is more than a necessity considering the producing frequency and the dimension of
those effects (over 75 mln USD - 2010).

10
 United Nations (UN), during the International Day for Disaster Mitigation
(October 13, 2010), organized, in partnership with Central and Local Authorities in
Hînceşti city, a workshop called „Disaster risks. Learned lessons after floods”
topic. During the session was presented a practical guide regarding management of
emergency situations in case of floods, „Mayor's handbook for emergency
situations management in case of floods” which is used by the chairmen (mayors)
of the local committee for emergency situation from Romania. In the next period, it
is going to be analyzed by the Central Authorities from Republic of Moldova, after
that geared and reassigned at each district from the country, especially to those that
are placed in flood risk area. The proposed measures in the guide need to be
analyzed and completed with others for a quick response in case of emergency
situations.
At the same time, at the national level all efforts are made to realize a
project proposal regarding flood risk management for medium and long term based
on the EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), EU Flood Directive
(2007/60/EC), and National Strategy of Flood Risk Management for medium and
long term from Romania.
Taking into account that in the Republic of Moldova the main hidrographic
basins (Prut and Nistru) are transboundary basins, it’s necessary a collaboration
between neighbour countries. In June 2010 Romanian Government and Republic of
Moldova Government signed an Agreement regarding cooperation for protection
and sustainable Prut and Danube water usage. [4]

3. FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN ACCORDING TO EU

FLOODS DIRECTIVE

Flood risk management aims at mitigating the impact of such extreme

events as floods.
A final document, within the EU, was enforced in November 2007 - EU
Flood Directive 2007/60/EC – with the main goal being evaluating and managing
flood risk. At first, the Directive was proposed to the European Commission to be
examined in January 18, 2006, after that it was published in the Official Journal in
November 6th 2007. The Paper was written officially in two languages, English and
French and it consists of 8 Chapters and 19 Articles. However, at the foundation of
the Directive were others documents which were implemented within the EU
member states. [2]
The main document was EU Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC from
October 23, 2000, published in Official Journal and enforced in December 22,
2000. Among other documents were Council Decision 2001/792/EC, Euratom
from October 23, 2001; Environmental Impact Assessment Directive (EIA) from
June 27, 1985, which was modified 3 times until now: in 1997, 2003, 2009; The
Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive (SEA) from June 27, 2001, etc.
EU Flood Directive regarding floods, has as its main goal minimizing and
controling flood risks that affect population's health, environment, cultural heritage

11
and economic activities. Floods increasing in Europe during 1998 - 2004 (more than
100 major floods), determined EU Authorities to implement the Directive in this
field. Even though the floods are a natural phenomena, through an exact action plan
it will be possible to mitigate both the number of losses of human life and economic
damage. This type of hazard can affect the environment as well, for example in case
of flooding of a storage with toxic substances. This way, the Directive includes some
steps and stages which, once taken, will minimize flood risk. [1,2]
EU member states have to assess preliminary the areas which are exposed
to flood risk both inside the country as well as nearby. The assessment has to be
realized at the end of 2011 so far.
For areas which are exposed to flood risk it is needed to be realized flood
risk and flood hazard maps, identifing areas with high and medium risk. If in the
potentially affected areas there are some localities, enterprises or other potential
risk for the environment, it is necessary that all these elements be pointed on the
map. The deadline of this stage is 2013, included.
Until 2015 it has to be reliazed the plan of flood risk management for each
area. The plan will include a complet cycle of the flood risk management, but
focussed on risk prevention (preventing damage caused by floods), protection
(proposing of measures that will mitigate the impact), preparedness (training the
population from areas that are exposed to flood risk, especially focussed on their
behaviour in case of floods).
However the plan of flood risk management has to revised once every 6
years, the possible changes or modifications will be coordinated with the
responsibles from EU Water Framework Directive.
Precision of management plan depends directly on precision of flood map-
ping process. Thus, in the Directive there are 2 Chapters which describe the steps of
flood hazard and flood risk maps achievement. Also, it will depend on the standards
which are differnt from one area to other. At once, there are presented more than one
mapping scenarious and each country can adapt them on the local conditions.
According to the Directive, the key-elements for an effective flood risk
management are damage preventing by avoiding building houses and other
buildings in flooded areas; taking practical measures for affected areas by floods in
order to mitigate their impact; informing the population about the being flood risk
and the main measures which can be taken in case of flood; developing the plans of
emergency response in case of floods, after that, the final stage is recovering which
has to be faster in order to mitigate the social and economic impact of floods on the
affected population.

4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Regarding the assessment realized by the international experts the main
way of resisting along with one’s community to disaster, it would be getting the
building, planning and land use principles, assessment of public institution safety,
keeping and developing infrastructure that mitigate the risk as well.

12
 Another solution for protection against such risks it can be property
insurance in case of floods, practices that used in USA, EU member state. For
example, in Romania there is the Law 260/2008 ragarding mandatory insurance of
houses against earthquakes, landslides and floods. [5]
An important aspect in realizing an effective flood risk management
belongs with collaboration between Central and Local Public Authorities. This
kind of partnership will contribute on best results in the process of both the
abolishment of floods consequences and risk management.
Flood risk management implementation in the Republic of Moldova is
necessary because it implies the existence of strategies, measures, effective plans in
case of floods. It can be mentioned that the flood risk management isn’t based only
on statistical data and theoretical information, but it based on flood hazard and
flood risk maps created on existing standards. This fact is admitting to make
decisions based on fact materials. Even the EU Flood Directive is in
implementation process, the actuality of the analyzed topic and necessities in this
field it will bring that this Paper to be the basic documnet in flood risk
management.
In parallel with working process on the strategy, it is necessary to start an
investment program regarding infrastructure, created with the goal of flood
protecting and its management.
At last, but not the least for an integrated flood risk management it
would be necessary a complex GIS which represented an effective Decision
Support in risk situation management in case of floods.

REFERENCES

1. Freissinet (SOGREAH) Catherine, (2009), The EU Flood Directive, ASEM

WaterNet, WP3 “Flood” July. www.asemwaternet.org/FILESERVER/asem-WP3-
CFt-090708.pdf
2. Mostert E. and Junier S. J., (2009), The European flood risk directive: challenges
for research, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., 6, 4961–4988 p. www.hydrol-
earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/6/.../hessd-6-4961-2009.pdf
3. ***(2000) Hotărârea de Guvern privind aprobarea Schemei de protecţie a
localităţilor din Republica Moldova împotriva inundaţiilor, H.G. nr. 1030/2000
din 13.10.2000, Monitorul Oficial (Republica Moldova) nr. 133-136 din 26
octombrie 2000.
4. ***(2010) Acordul între Guvernul României şi Guvernul Republicii Moldova
privind cooperarea pentru protecţia şi utilizarea durabilă a apelor Prutului şi
Dunării, Acordul din 28.07.2010 conform H.G. nr. 1092/2010 din 3.11.2010,
Monitorul Oficial (România) nr. 756 din 12 noiembrie 2010.
5. ***(2010) Legea 248/2010 pentru modificarea şi completarea Legii nr. 260/2008
privind asigurarea obligatorie a locuinţelor împotriva cutremurelor, alunecărilor
de teren sau inundaţiilor, Monitorul Oficial (România), Partea I nr. 844 din 16
decembrie 2010.

13
 INTEGRATIVE NEGOTIATION FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER
MANAGEMENT

D. C. PETRESCU1, D. M. GAVRILETEA2, I. V. PETRESCU-MAG3

ABSTRACT. Integrative Negotiation for Sustainable Water Management.

Sustainable water management relies on efficient negotiation among stakeholders. The
importance of the water on all the aspect of the lives and activities of people – private,
economic, social etc – and the complexity of the problems related to it require carefully
planned negotiated agreements over water. Imposed solutions may determine people
not to comply and to make the water resources overused, polluted and degraded.
Instead, negotiated decisions among the stakeholders with interests in water issues
strengthen the quality of the agreements, of the commitment on complying with them
and of the practical implementation. The paper focuses on the relationship between the
skills to design, facilitate and participate in multi-stakeholder negotiations, to conduct
them according to a win-win strategy and the objective of reaching fair, effective and
sustainable solutions and thus improving water management.

Keywords: integrative negotiation, sustainable water management, conflict, interests,

win-win solutions.

1. INTRODUCTION

The watersheds of the world’s 261 transboundary rivers cover almost half of
the land surface of the Earth (Wolf et al. 1999, apud Wolf, 2000). Clean freshwater is
a resource for which there is no substitute, which becomes scarcer every day, while
the demand for it increases rapidly, which is protected and managed through a poorly
developed international legal frame compared to the needs. Under these
circumstances, there is no wonder that the water is one of the most feared and
powerful conflict sources in the world, which draws more and more attention and
requires increasing efforts to be prevented and settled. Sustainable Water
Management is a wise way to diminish and avoid the water conflicts.
Sustainable Water Management means, briefly, to manage the water
resources while taking into account the needs of present and future users.
Sustainability in water management requires sound knowledge from various fields:
geography, biology, engineering and may others. Only the integration of all the
necessary competences into a common effort can lead to the sustainable results
expected. Such multidisciplinary approach includes negotiation skills, too. While the

1
Universitatea „Babeş-Bolyai”, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, Facultatea de Business, e-mail:
crina.petrescu@tbs.ubbcluj.ro
2
Universitatea „Babeş-Bolyai”, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, Facultatea de Business.
3
Universitatea de Stiinte Agricole si Medicina Veterinara „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iasi, Romania,
Facultatea de Zootehnie.

14
legitimacy of the natural or engineering sciences is never contested, the necessity of
the expertise from other fields, like negotiations, is, sometimes, less obvious.
Throughout this paper we will try to highlight the necessity and importance of a
professional negotiation, with a win-win approach for reaching the results demanded
by a sustainable water management.
Negotiation is omnipresent; it is not exclusively related to business, or
assigned only to business-men, but it exists in any field of our life: cultural, political,
environmental, personal etc. A negotiation is an interactive communication process
that may take place whenever we want something from someone else or another
person wants something from us; during a negotiation, some interests are shared and
some are opposed.
“Negotiations proceed through a form of prudently cooperative communi-
cation. And negotiations commonly follow a recognizable four-step path: preparation,
information exchange, explicit bargaining, and commitment… (The negotiators)
gather in their conference rooms and run through their carefully scripted
openings... They discuss the issues, then usually ask for more and offer less than
they expect to settle for in the end… From here, people get down to the business of
making concessions and establishing commitments. Negotiation is, in short, a kind
of universal dance with four stages or steps. And it works best when both parties
are experienced dancers.” (Shell, 2005, p. 6-7)
Negotiation is not a battle and is not a competition for scoring points, but it
is the most powerful alternative dispute resolution, which enables people with
competing interests to engage in dialogue that leads to mutually beneficial outcomes.
Negotiation is not just arguing, is not manipulation, but it explores mutual interests.
Negotiating does not require aggressiveness, but assertiveness. Negotiation is not a
quick fix, but it requires time and effort (Wachtel, D., 2011).

2. INTEGRATIVE NEGOCIATION FOR SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS

The way a negotiation is conducted depends on the strategy used. There are
two main strategies for negotiation: distributive and integrative. The distributive one
usually takes the form of a win-lose negotiation. This is a zero-sum game, where the
gain of one part means the loss of the other, where the “fixed pie” mentality
dominates the negotiation. The win-lose negotiators determine what they want, raise
that 10 or 15 percent, and then engage is a series of compromises to obtain to a result.
The effort is on the position they take, and getting as much of that position for
themselves as possible. Their mission is not to get a satisfactory deal for both parties.
It is only to win for themselves. The distributive strategy will not support long-terms
relationships and does not create sustainable solutions, so, with almost no exception,
it will not be suitable for a water negotiation.
A totally different approach has the integrative negotiation, which is mostly
found under the form of win-win negotiation. A win-win strategy supposes that both
parts win and the gain of one doesn’t translate into a loss for the partner. In other
words, the participants try to “expand the pie”, to explore each part’s interests and to

15
find creative solution to fulfil them. The win-win negotiators are committed to
meeting their needs, acknowledge that the other party has needs that must be met too
and invest their efforts in finding the best solution for both parties. They believe such
innovative solution (and negotiation strategy) will bring more value to them than any
other.

3. STRUCTURED APPROACH FOR AN EFFECTIVE NEGOTIATION

Like in any other activities, a sound preparation, a clear vision of the process
and a deep understanding of the interests in stake are sine qua non conditions for an
effective negotiation.
Negotiation is not a simple haggling, a mere exchange of demands and
concessions, but includes other activities – before, during and after this exchange.
We can observe three main stages of the negotiation: pre-negotiation, negotiation
itself and post-negotiation, each having various sub-stages.
Pre-negotiation is the stage when the negotiators collect as much
information as possible about the partner, the context of negotiation etc. Among
others (like the best alternative to negotiation, the sources of power etc), there are
two elements that must be always assessed in relation with a negotiation: the stake
(along with the potential of conflict) and the importance of the future relationship
with the negotiation partner (Shell, 2005, p. 172). The stake represents the
importance of the subject which will be negotiated (Petrescu, 2007, p.171). When we
evaluate these two factors on a scale from low to high and compare them to each
other, we obtain four situations, which can be represented on a situational matrix
(Fig. 1; Shell, 2005, p. 172-180):
High

Perceived I.
stake
II. Balanced
Tranzacions concerns

III. Tacit IV.

coordination Relationships
Low High
Percived importance of future
relationship between sides
Fig. 1. Situational matrix
Source: after G. R. Shell, 2005, p. 172

Negotiations focused on water issues are usually located in the “Balanced

concerns” area because both the stake and the relationships are highly important for
achieving a sustainable agreement. This is the most complex and challenging
situation of all four. The win-win strategy is the only adequate one. Here, we must
have a balance between getting favourable prices, terms, imposing bearable
obligations for each part etc and maintaining a trusting relationship. This is

16
important because sustainability is the final goal and, by its nature, this implies
cooperation, which, at its turn, is possible only through good relationships. In most
cases the water issues are very sensitive, they have a high conflict potential. Good
relationships and the concern for maintaining a balanced coverage of all parts’
interests represent the prerequisites for neutralizing the conflicts and preventing
them from damaging the agreement (either future or already closed).
The negotiation itself is the stage when the sides meet to exchange
information, to bargain, to put into practice the strategy, the tactics. Post-
negotiation comprises all the activities following the signing of the agreement and
which are related to it: implementing the agreement, complying with the provisions
of the agreement, writing press releases, analysing the negotiation process,
consolidating the relationship. In water negotiation, the post-negotiation must
never be left aside because it is the time when all the efforts made so far come into
life. The implementation of the agreements is sometimes more difficult than to be
signed because: the timeframe until finalization may be large, the factors that can
affect it are numerous – changes in political, administrative, natural, economical,
social environment –, the resistance to change of the parts involved can be high,
elements that were not foreseen may appear and so on. The press releases are
sometimes not only recommended, but compulsory, because the decisions taken
during negotiation affect many stakeholders that did not take part to the negotiation
process and they must be informed. The consolidation of the relationship among
the participants should be of high concern for them because this is the foundation
for a good implementation of the agreement reached and for future collaborations.

4. DISTRIBUTIVE VS INTEGRATIVE NEGOTIATIONS.

CASE STUDIES – ARAL SEA; WATER OF DRYLANDS

A distributive negotiation is supported by a competitive style and a zero-

sum mentality. It is not an option for water negotiations and it doesn’t create viable
and beneficial solutions, as it shows the following example about the Aral Sea
(source: R. K. Paisley, The Challenge of International Watercourse Negotiations in
the Aral Sea Basin, apud Dore, Robinson and Smith (Eds), 2010, p. 31).
The shrinking of the Aral Sea has been called “one of the planet’s worst
environmental disasters” (***, 2010, Daily Telegraph). The Aral Sea – once the
fourth largest inland body of water in the world – has been steadily shrinking and
by 2007 was reduced to 10% of its original size and split into four lakes. Since the
1950 the two rivers that feed the Aral Sea – Amu Darya and Syr Darya – have been
loosing most of their waterflow due to intensive use in agriculture and
hydroelectric plants, so less and less fresh water gets into the Aral Sea. The Aral
Sea region is now also heavily polluted, creating serious public health problems.
The old prosperous fishing industry has been destroyed, bringing unemployment
and economic hardship. The whole area is plagued by salinization and is
contaminated; the retreat of the sea has also caused local climate change, with
summers becoming hotter and drier, and winters colder and longer.

17
 The water demand is increasing, the supply is declining and the nations
repeatedly fail to work together. One of the most acute disagreements over
resource sharing concerns the “energy-agriculture” trade-off between upstream
countries (Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan) and downstream countries (Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan). The international conflicts related to the
transboundary resource sharing are caused mainly by inadequate national policies
and practices, that lead to an excessive use of water (Bosnjakovic, 2003, p. 30).
The negotiations on water-related issues in the Aral Sea basin have
suffered from the legacies of the Soviet times, such as an inward-looking
bureaucratic approach, top-down control, lack of inter-sectoral communication and
coordination, no participation of the local government or of non-governmental
actors in the decision process, limited knowledge of the modern international water
law, general rivalries between the States, and lack of skills and understanding about
how to reach win-win solutions. Each country approached the problem as a zero-
sum game and attepted to increase its control over water and energy, often to the
detriment of the others. The relatively little consultation over most of the projects
on building new reservoirs and dams or to expand irrigation intensified suspicions
between states. Moreover, the tensionate climate of Central Asia made the
countries imply they are willing to defend their interests by force if necessary
(Bosnjakovic, 2003, p.24).
The countries of the region have frequently expressed their good intentions
to work together, but they have not yet developed a clear and consistent concept for
effective cooperation. The water sector is a striking example of fragmentation,
confusion, and duplication of transboundary cooperation. In the course of recent
years, several regional institutions have been established in the hopes of solving
environmental as well as socio-economic problems in the Aral Sea region.
Toghether with help from other institutions and countries, some success was
achieved, but the enforcement is difficult and the progress is slow. The main
problem of the misuse of water that lead to this desaster is far from being solved.
Cooperation of all stakeholders is still needed. Also, an organization charged with
the long-term development of the river basins as a cooperative effort should
function and deal with issues such as: duties of the basin states with regard to
unilaterally planned water utilization, identification of pollution sources, pollution
abatement, monitoring water quality, responsibilities of states in case of floods,
drought, or emergency situations, environmental impact assessment in the
transboundary context, public information and participation, liability regime for
damage, dispute settlement mechanism (Bosnjakovic, 2003, p. 17-18).
In the Aral Sea basin, much effort is still needed to overcome old visions
and practices and shift from the win-lose approach to a win-win one, that would
integrate all interests – of all states and of all sectors (economical, political, social,
environmental). Competition for water is constantly increasing, cooperation is
hampered by disagreements over who has rights to scarce water and how it should
be used, and tensions will continue to rise unless better mechanisms are put in
place to manage the problems. The basic requirement for resolving upstream–

18
downstream water-related conflicts of interest and to redirect toward a wiser water
management is the political will and ability to negotiate win-win solutions.
While the win-lose mentality wasn’t successful in the Aral Sea case, the
win-win strategy is working very well for centuries for Berbers and Bedouin, as
described in the following case (source: reproduced after Wolf, 2000).
The Berbers of the High Atlas Mountains and the Bedouin of the Negev
Desert have lived in drylands for centuries and more and they had to find a way to
share one of their most precious resources – the fresh water. Their negotiation
skills refined over time through the need of finding lasting solutions and of getting
maximum value from limited and common resources; so, they developed
integrative solutions, which allowed them to survive and which are a precious
lesson to be learned by many of us for our modern water negotiations. The key
points of their win-win agreements are presented hereinafter.
1) Allocate time, not water. Berber water management quantifies water in
units of time rather than in units of volume. International water treaties generally
tend to allocate a fixed amount (divided equally of by specific volume) to each
state. Those that do not designate one state to receive a fluctuation in water supply
simply serve the excuse of the hydrologic reality of a fluctuating river. Allocating
by time allows for two benefits. The first is that it spreads the risk of the
fluctuations of the river as broadly as possible – to the individual user. For
example, when one has rights to one hour of irrigation, the irrigator himself plans
for greater and lesser supply at the most local level. The alternative method of
allocating a set volumetric amount would concentrate risk among those users
selected to bear the burden of fluctuation. In a prior appropriation setting, for
example, risk would be concentrated among the most-recent irrigators; in an
international arrangement, all of the risk would fall to the users of one country. The
second benefit of time (over volume) allocations has to do with the potential of
water markets. Allocating by the clause to “use or lose” that water that was
allocated to you, provides no incentive for a user to conserve. However, if one is
able to save a part of that water that was allocated to him and sell it for a greater
price than the cost of conservation, it is argued that the “invisible hand” can then
guide water to its most efficient use. As religious reasons didn’t allow the Bedouin
to sell water, selling time was an acceptable option. The shift in allocations from
volume to time can be applied to the international settings not by assigning days or
weeks, but by looking for other ways to share the risk of fluctuating supplies. As
real-time models of watersheds are possible, an allocation based on percentages of
real flow rather than firm volumes of hypothetical flow is possible, even in large,
international basins. A switch to percentages would not only have the same risk-
dispersion effect that a time-based system might have, allowing for management of
the river’s fluctuations throughout the basin, but it would also allow for markets
between users even without storage facilities.
2) Assign priorities for different water uses. Along with designating one
state to accept an uncertain supply, an alternative method of allocating a fluctuating
supply is to work on the demand side – that is to prioritize the use or user. Often,

19
the priority was set by giving progressively lower priority to progressively more-
recent users, regardless of how the water is put to use. Berbers and Bedouin
prioritize demand differently, but each provides a hierarchy of importance. This
allows for less important uses to be cut off throughout a valley during low flow
regimes, rather than entire down-stream villages; it also protects investments in
infrastructure. For instance, for Berbers the order of importance is: drinking water
for humans, followed by drinking water for animals, than irrigation water which
flows through the canal system, than water to mills an so on. Unfortunately,
international water treaties have prioritized use only occasionally, generally
focusing instead on allocating fixed amounts. Even in those agreements assigning
priorities in use, the water itself as an environment component or other
environmental aspects are disregarded and requirements related to them are
missing. The problem of equity can be incorporated in the international agreements
in a more balanced way by prioritizing uses; thus the risk is distributed more
equitably, allowing critical uses among all parties to have high priority in times of
fluctuating supply.
3) Protect downstream and minority rights. In the absence of a treaty,
upstream riparian states have a hydrological advantage. In the absence of political
constraints to the contrary, these upstream states have occasionally abused this
advantage. In order to achieve equity in sharing the water, Berbers allow only
traditional diversion structures for water which, through their “inefficiency”, allow
for flow to continue downstream. Bedouin concepts of equity involves honor and
pride, as well as right and wrong, which helps maintaining equity in sharing the
water.
4) Incorporate the tools of Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR). Each
group (Bedouins, Berbers) has sophisticated mechanisms of dispute resolution,
from which modern international conflict management might benefit. Techniques
include recognition of a defined water authority, “shared vision” exercises (during
which the participants are asked to share their individual views of what the future
might look like both if negotiations are successful and if they fail), “threat” of the
best alternative to negotiation.
5) The ceremony of forgiveness. The “sulha” is followed by both Berbers
and Bedouin: it is an Islamic practice of a ritual ceremony of forgiveness that can
be done after a wrong has been committed. It consists of private, often mediated,
negotiation of redress between the affected parties, followed by a public
declaration of forgiveness and, usually, a festive meal. Once the ceremony is
performed, the dispute may not be discussed, as if it never occurred. The agreement
is legally binding on both the individuals and on the community. A modern version
of such a practice would be the press releases or a public ceremony that would
allow the community affected by a dispute to celebrate its resolution and to be
more committed to the implementation of the agreement reached.

20
 5. CONCLUSIONS

Water negotiations are highly challenging and win-win approach even

more. Negotiation is often seen as time-consuming and frustrating, but it remains
the best option to resolve the numerous problems arising out of water disputes in a
way that harmonises the interests about human health and welfare, business
efficiency, environmental balance. Often seen as a rightful and easier process, the
hard-bargaining approach (win-lose) may lead to decisions in the short term, but it
usually produces long-term results that all parties find unsatisfactory. On the
contrary, win-win negotiation places greater emphasis on collaborating, valuing
multiple perspectives, building consensus, integrating interests so as to reach fair,
durable and effective water decisions, to strengthen constructive engagement and
to obtain the actual compliance with the agreements. Furthermore, the use of the
negotiation process itself, practiced with sincerity, skill, diligence and real concern
for mutual benefits, motivates people to invest their trust in each other and trust
fosters relationships, which are vital for implementing the agreements of
negotiations. In water management field, a successful negotiation is one finalized
with an agreement that covers all three dimensions of sustainability – economical,
social and environmental and has all the chances to be followed up by its
implementation.

REFERENCES

1. Bosnjakovic, B., 2003, Negotiations in the context of international water-related

agreements, UNESCO, IHP, WWAP, IHP-IV, Techincal Documents in
Hydrology, PCCP series, no 8.
2. Dore, J., Robinson, J. and Smith, M. (Eds) (2010), Negotiate – Reaching
agreements over water, Gland, Switzerland: IUCN .
3. Fisher, R., Ury, W., Patton, B., 2007, Răspunsul lor…”Da!”: negociază înţelept
fără a ceda, Ed. Almatea, Bucureşti.
4. Moore, Ch. W, Negotiation, http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/army/usace/
negotiation.htm, accessed on Feb. 2011.
5. Petrescu, D. C. (2007), Negocieri în afaceri, vol. 1, EFES, Cluj-Napoca.
6. Shell, G. R. (2005), Negocierea in avantaj. Strategii de negociere pentru oameni
rezonabili, Ed. Codecs, Bucuresti.
7. Wachtel, D., Improving Your Negotiating Skills: Tips learned in the Trenches,
http://www.negotiations.com/articles/negotiating-skills/, accessed on Feb. 2011.
8. Wolf, A. T., 2000, Indigenous Approaches to Water Conflict Negotiations and
Implications for International Waters, in International Negotiation: A Journal of
Theory and Practice, Volume 5:2, December 2000.
9. ***, 2011, Aral Sea “one of the planet's worst environmental disasters”, in Daily
Telegraph (2010-04-05),
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7554679/Aral-Sea-one-of-the-planets-
worst-environmental-disasters.html, accessed on Feb. 2011.

21
 MAPPING WET TIME-SCALES
IN THE CURVATURE CARPATHIANS AND SUBCARPATHIANS
(ROMANIA) BY THE STANDARDIZED PRECIPITATION INDEX

CARMEN-SOFIA DRAGOTĂ1, CĂTĂLINA MĂRCULEŢ1,

LOREDANA-ELENA MIC1

ABSTRACT. – Mapping wet time-scales in the Curvature Carpathians and

Subcarpathians (Romania) by the Standardized Precipitation Index.
Identifying and describing excess precipitation hazards in the Curvature
Carpathians and Subcarpathians, as well as excess precipitation anomalies to the
mean Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) values were analysed over a period of
3, 6, 9 and 12 consecutive months within the 1961 … 2000 interval. Homogeneous
data were recorded at the Lăcăuţi, Întorsura Buzăului, Pătărlagele, Penteleu,
Tulnici, Râmnicu Sărat, Buzău, Ploieşti, Câmpina and Predeal stations. SPI values
are a good indicator for determining and characterising excess precipitation. The
results obtained were synthetised on maps of SPI territorial distribution values (%)
of the extreme precipitation class of the sub-classes: moderately wet (2  2.5) and
extremely wet (2.5). The share of each SPI value set analysed is illustrated on
graphs.

Key-words: Curvature Carpathians and Subcarpathians, excess precipitation,

precipitation anomalies, SPI.

1. INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to outline the wet component of the Curvature
Carpathian and Subcarpathian rain regime by means of the Standardized
Precipitation Index (SPI) developed by McKee, Doesken and Kleist (Colorado
State University) in the early 1990’s (McKee et al., 1993).
The index is used to quantify precipitation anomalies to the mean at
particular time-scales. Noteworthy, the results are comparable for large
geographical areas situated in distinctively different physical-geographical
conditions based on the occurrence probability of some reference quantities
irrespective of time of the year, place, or climate.
The SPI was created with a view to defining and monitoring drought
occurrence and evolution by taking into account only atmospheric precipitation and
not the other elements definitory of drought and precipitation in excess: soil water
resources, soil moisture, underground flow, air and soil temperature, frequency of
characteristic days in the warm season (summer days, tropical nights and
cannicular or tropical days), the presence of hydrometeors in the atmospheric air

1
Romanian Academy, Institute of Geography, 023993 Bucharest, Romania,
e-mail: dragotacarmen@yahoo.co.uk; cmarculet@yahoo.com; loredana_myc@yahoo.com

22
and on the atmosphere-soil interface, etc. However, these shortages in using the
SPI are included in the various time-scales these additional elements act on.
Basically, SPI is applicable to any landform in order to quantify the excess
and deficit of precipitation for different time-scales, first for 3, 6, 12, 24 and 48
months (Hayes, 2003), and for shorter time-spans (month, weak). So, one of the
main SPI advanteges is temporal flexibility (NDMC, 1996).

2. TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL ANALYSIS

The SPI elaboration procedure is detailed out by Colorado State University

<http://ccc.atmosf.colostate.edu/spi.pdf>. The procedure consists in comparing a
gamma distribution probability function with the distribution of the frequencies of
precipitation amounts. The soft required by this SPI variant can be obtained via ftp
(ulysses.atmos.colostate.edu/pub/spi-0.2.tar.z), that works under Fortran language.
Regionalising SPI values for the geographical area studied relied on the
maps of territorial distribution of SPI values for each of the months covered (3, 6,
9, 12) and the sub-classes of the wet category (Păltineanu et al., 2007) obtained by
interpolating the values calculated for 10 basic met stations of the study-area
(Lăcăuţi, Întorsura Buzăului, Pătărlagele and Penteleu) and its neighbourhood
(Tulnici, Râmnicu Sărat, Buzău, Ploieşti, Câmpina and Predeal). The programme
used was Surfer 8 (Surface Mapping System, Golden Software Inc 2002) with
kriging method, point-friging type, no-drift, ordinary kriging option. Assigning
SPI-based precipitation values to the time-scales studied follows a scale of
different value grades. McKee et al. (1993) uses seven such value grades (Table 1).

Tabel 1. Precipitation value grades assigned to the analysed time-scales or to other scales
of interest in terms of the SPI value ( source: McKee et al., 1993)
SPI ≥2 1.5 - 1.99 1.00 - 1.49 0.99…-0.99 -1.00…-1.49 -1.50…-1.99 ≤ -2.00
Precipitation extremely very wet moderately near moderately severely extremely
value grades wet wet normal dry dry dry

In Romania, based on the precipitation data registered over the years 1961-
2000, low SPI value variations were obtained for the extremely wet sub-class. Low
spatial variations occur at 1.8% years, on average, both throughout this country
(from a minimum of 0.0% to a maximum of 7.5%) and in the study-area (Table 2).
A complete and much more accurate regionalisation (on a larger scale) for
the Curvature Carpathians and Subcarpathians was eventually worked out having
in view the initial SPI values and the local conditions (altitude, slope aspect and
slope declivity). The respective maps can be seen on figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. The
shades of gray found in the Arc Gis 9.2. Programme were used to work out a value
hierarchy of SPI magnitudes and range for the extremely wet SPI category. The
number of gray shades (from white to black) corresponds to the frequency classes
mentioned in the legend to each map. The histogrammes indicate the spatial
dimension of each sub-class expressed in percentages (with the same shade).

23
Table 2. Magnitude and variation range of SPI (%) values for sub-classes in the extremely
wet class  2, for 3, 6 ,9 and 12 consecutive months in România over the 1961-2000 period
Class Class
ISP SPI Class >2 (%) total SPI Class >2 (%) total
variation range interval >2 (%) interval >2 (%)
> 3 3.0 -2.5 2.0-2.5 >3 3.0 -2.5 2.0-2.5
Maximum 0.7 1.3 3.1 0.8 1.9 4.3
Minimum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Mean 3 month 0.1 0.3 1.4 1.8 9 month 0.1 0.3 1.4 1.8
Standard deviation 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.4 0.8
CV (%) 171.9 89.6 41.1 302.3 143.0 58.9
Maximum 0.6 1.9 3.2 1.5 1.7 7.5
Minimum 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Mean 6 month 0.1 0.3 1.4 1.8 12 month 0.0 0.3 1.4 1.7
Standard deviation 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.4 1.0
CV (%) 231.4 110.7 48.2 460.1 170.7 74.8
*Source: processed after Păltineanu et al.,2007.

The geographical distribution of the SPI 2 (extremely wet class) in the

Curvature Carpathians and Subcarpathians over the three month interval (SPI 3M)
usually varies from 14% to 50%. Highest SPI values (2%) cover 35.7% of the
area in the Clăbucetele Întorsurii Buzăului, the Teleajen Subcarpatians, the
northern sector of the Buzău Subcarpathians, and the outer rim of the Vrancea
Subcarpathians. The SPI value threshold of 1.5% holds the greatest share (50.4%)
occupying the highest summits of the Vrancea, Penteleu and Siriu mountains and
the southern sector of the Buzău Subcarpathians (Fig. 1A). For SPI 6M, the highest
value range (2.5%) is seen in the Vrancea Mountains (28.5% of the overall area);
the areas having a SPI value of 2% represent 31.7% and cover the Clăbucetele
Întorsurii Buzăului, the Siriu Mts, the Întorsura Buzăului and the Comandău
depressions, the Gârbova and Bisoca hills and the Subcarpathian depressions of
Jitia and Lopătari. The lowest SPI values (1%) cover 13.1% of the area in the
value range of 1-1.5% (12.8% of the area) and 1.5-2% (13.9% of the area) in the
Teleajen and Buzău Subcarpathians and in the south-east of the Vrancea
Subcarpathians (Fig. 1B). The distribution of SPI 9M and SPI 12M is similar, in
that the higher values (2-3% and 3%) occur mainly on the summits of the
Curvature Carpathians in proportion of 10.4% and 24.6% (SPI 6M), 9.3% and
36.7% (SPI 12M) of the area of interest respectively. The lowest SPI 6M values
(1.5%) are found in the southern sectors of the Buzău and Teleajen
Subcarpathians, while minimum thresholds (1.0 and 1.0-2.0%) on the SPI 12M
Map overlap most of the Curvature Subcarpathian area (Figs 2A and 2B).
The frequency of the extreme sub-class (SPI 2.5%) of the extremely wet
class in terms of SPI value thresholds calculated for 3, 6, 9 and 12 months, remains
in the sub-unity range. The lowest value thresholds (0.2-0.4%) for SPI 3M occur in
the eastern and western marginal areas, rising progressively with the altitude up to
0.6-0.8% in the mountain region and to 0.8-1.0% on the highest summits. The
histogramme shows an overriding proportion (57.0%) of SPI 3M values between
0.4% and 0.6%, whereas the 0.8-1.0% threshold represents only 7.9% (Fig. 3A).

24
 A

1B

Fig. 1. The territorial distribution of SPI values 2%, for 3-month scale (A) and 6-month
scale (B), representing the frequency of extremely wet periods in the Curvature
Carpathians and Subcarpathians (Source: processed after Păltineanu et al., 2007)

25
 A

Fig. 2. The territorial distribution of SPI values 2%, for 9-month scale (A) and 12-month
scale (B), representing the frequency of extremely wet periods in the Curvature
Carpathians and Subcarpathians (Source: processed after Păltineanu et al., 2007)

26
 A

57,0%

18,9% 16,1%
7,9%

0,2 - 0,4 0,4 - 0,6 0,6 - 0,8 0,8 - 1,0

36,8%

22,7% 22,6%

15,3%

2,6%

0,0 - 0,2 0,2 - 0,4 0,4 - 0,6 0,6 -0,8 0,8 - 1,0

Fig. 3. The territorial distribution of SPI values 2,5%, for 3-month scale (A) and 6-month scale
(B), representing the frequency of extreme sub-class of the extremely wet class in the Curvature
Carpathians and Subcarpathians (Source: processed after Păltineanu et al., 2007)

27
 A

43,9%

30,5%
25,6%

<0,0 0,0 - 0,5 0,5 - 1,0

83,4%

14,4%
2,2%

<0,0 0,0 - 0,2 0,2 - 0,4

Fig. 4. The territorial distribution of SPI values 2,5%, for 9-month scale (A) and 12-month scale
(B), representing the frequency of extreme sub-class of the extremely wet class in the Curvature
Carpathians and Subcarpathians (Source: processed after Păltineanu et al., 2007)

28
 Very low values (0.0-0.2% and 0.2-0.4%) are notable for SPI 6M in hills
and depressions, the highest summits having a 0.8-1.0% record. As shown in the
graph, one-third of the study-area (36.8%) has values of 0.2-0.4%, and only 2.6%
of it reaches the 0.8-1.0% threshold (Fig. 3B). Also in regard of the entire space of
the Curvature Subcarpathians and of the outer rim of the Curvature Carpathians, SPI
9M indicates that the proportion of low values (0.0% and 0.0-0.5%) is of 43.9% and
30.5%, respectively. It is only in the higher mountainous side of the study-area
(which amounts to 25.6% of the overall area) that values stay in the range of
0.5-1.0% (Fig. 4A). When looking at SPI 12M it emerges that only 2.2% of the area
of interest falls into the extreme sub-class of precipitation in excess, with values of
0.2-0.4%, while 83.4% of the area registers values of 0.0% (Fig. 4B).

3. CONCLUSIONS

SPI values 3.0 %, correspounding to the maximum international level set

for the extremely wet class, are absent in the Curvature Carpathians and
Subcarpathians. As a matter of fact, even the extreme sub-class (2.5%) of the
extremely wet class is very poorly represented. In view of the above, it follows that
these values are not specific to our study-area in which Föehn processes make the
intensity of precipitation in terms of SPI values come second after other areas in
Romania. Characteristic of Föehn processes is higher temperature simultaneously
with lower nebulosity and implicitly fewer precipitation, depressed air moisture,
etc. In the Curvature Carpathians and Subcarpathians SPI values are unevenly
distributed, the isolines crossing both the wetter Carpathian sector and the drier
Subcarpathian one, but what essentially counts is the order of magnitude of these
values within the extremely wet class (SPI 2%).

REFERENCES

1. Hayes, M.J. (2003), Drought Indices, U.S. National Drought Mitigation Center-
NDMC, <http://enso.unl.edu/ndmc/enigma/indices.htm#spi>
2. Holobâcă, I. H (2010), Studiul secetelor din Transilvania, Edit. Presa Universitară
Clujeană, 242 p., ISBN: 978-973-610-981-2.
3. McKee, T.B., Doesken, N.J., Kleist (1993), The relationship of drought frequency
and duration to time scales. Preprints, 8th Conference on Applied Climatology,
pp. 179-184, January, 17-22, Anaheim, California.
4. NDMC (1996), North American Drought: A Paleo Perspective.
http://www.drought.unl.edu/monitor/spi.htm.
5. Păltineanu, Cr., Mihăilescu, Fl. I, Seceleanu, I., Dragotă, Carmen, Vasenciuc,
Felicia, Ariditatea, seceta, evapotranspiraţia şi cerinţele de apă ale culturilor
agricole în România, Ovidius University Press, Constanţa, 2007, 319 p., ISBN:
978-973-614-412-7.

29
 MONITORING THE POLLUTION OF GROUNDWATER
IN THE AREA OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE

M. LUCA1, R. BALAN2.A. MANESCU3

Abstract - Monitoring of the underground water pollution in the deposit of waste in

industrial area. The paper presents the monitoring of the pollution phenomenon of
underground water in the industrial landfill area. Industrial landfill causes pronounced
underground water pollution in the operation phase, but also in the conservation phase.
The pollution monitoring is carried out on all environmental components: air, soil and
underground water. Pollution phenomenon is analyzed in time by using a tracking and
data reception characteristic control section. The data taken is processed and interpreted to
achieve the best environmental measures in the area of the landfill site. By using
simulation models provides a forecast of the pollution in different periods of time. The
simulation model is applicable to the operating period taking into account the change in
quantities and concentrations of pollutants. This paper presents remediation measures
appropriate to the type of industrial landfill analyzed. The results obtained allow modeling
of environmental protection measures and especially the subsoil and groundwater.

Key words: industrial waste deposits, pollution flow modeling, pollution pheno-
menon, protection.

1. INTRODUCTION

Waste is one of the most pressing environmental problems in the current

state of economic and social development. In Romania there are large amounts of
waste generated each year due to economic development, increase production and
consumption.
Handling, transport and storage of industrial waste causes many cases of
air pollution, soil and groundwater. The pollution produced by industrial landfill
has a negative impact on environment and health. Industrial waste is deposited in
warehouses located within or outside entities. Industrial landfills were not always
designed and built taking into account the risk of environmental pollution. The
design was not considered diverse nature of the harm that would be stored and its
evolution over time. Thus, while some landfills by virtue of their design has not
succeeded in stopping the pollution of the environment:
- heaps of ash from power plants producing electricity and heat;
- slag heaps from the units in the steel industry;
- deposit of residue from the chemical industry and construction materials industry;
- landfills in the oil industry, etc.

1
“Gh. Asachi” Technical University, Faculty of Hidrotechnic, Geodesy and Environmental Engineering, Iasi,
Romania, mluca2004@yahoo.com,
2
Water Administration Prut-Barlad,
3
Iasi, “Gh. Asachi” Technical University, Iasi

30
 Landfills produce a groundwater contamination varying durations of time.
The phenomenon of underground sources of water pollution affects their removal
from the circuit and cause water supplies. One problem is the way of
environmental engineering, remediation of groundwater affected by the presence of
landfill.
The amount of hazardous industrial waste generated in Romania has
decreased continuously in recent years due to reduced activities of large economic
units. In this context industrial waste storage dumps in use or in storage, will be
collated and made safe.
In areas with industrial waste will be carried out ecological restoration
works to reduce and prevent the risk of accidental pollution of the environment.
Rules and new standards governing the protection of the environment in
the placement of waste dumps require their cooperation with potting medium.

2. POLLUTION OF GROUNDWATER IN THE INDUSTRIAL

WASTE AREA

Industrial waste is deposited at landfills or entities located within or

outsider. Industrial landfills were not always designed and built taking into account
the risk of environmental pollution. The design was not considered diverse nature
of the harm that would be stored and its evolution over time. Industrial waste
pollutes the environment during the operational phase and later phase post
conservation. Soil is the environmental factor most stable, long trail that keeps
pollution. Soil and subsoil determines default and groundwater pollution.
A research program conducted over six years at the site of an industrial
landfill highlighted its particular impact on groundwater. Landfill belonging to a
Bearing factory opened in 1953. Waste dumps are stored as diverse as nature and
environmental risk: myths inert from the treatment emulsions, carbide, ion
exchange filters, oil residues, dross, ash, brick, etc., (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Overview of the old dump

31
 The landfill has changed over time as a constructive form, a waste treatment,
environmental conditions, etc. The phenomenon of pollution produced on site and
in particular on groundwater caused the closure of the deposit. It was refurbished
with a series of works to limit the pollution. Old warehouse is in the stage of
conservation (Fig. 2).
After processing the data collected in monitoring wells conducted in 12
stands of indicators values exceed industry standards required by Table 1, 2 and 3).

Table 1. Water quality parameter values taken from drill F 2 - Albie sepsis
CMA Cl NH4 CCOMn Extract. Cr6+ NO2 pH MTS
Env. Aut. * 0,5 * * 0,05 0,3 8,5 *
Quarter II 60 0.43 21.67 0 0 0.53 6.8 56
Quarter III 48 0.75 20.16 0 0 0.61 7 40
Quarter.IV 55 0.21 22 0 0 0.58 7 50
Mean 2004 54.333 0.4633 21.2766 0 0 0.573 6.93 48.7

Table 2. Water quality parameter values taken from drill F 4 - Stana

CMA Cl NH4 CCOMn Extract. Cr 6+ NO2 pH MTS
Env. Aut. * 0,5 * * 0,05 0,3 8,5 *
Quarter II 300 1.01 20.62 0 0 0.032 6.5 86
Quarter III 290 1.23 24.52 0 0 0.016 6.5 100
Quarter IV 310 1.12 21.64 0 0 0.09 6.5 80
Mean 2004 300 1.12 22.26 0 0 0.046 6.5 88.7

Table 3. Water quality parameter values taken from drill F 5 - East waste dump
CMA Cl NH4 CCOMn Extract. Cr 6+ NO2 pH MTS
Env. Aut.. * 0,5 * * 0,05 0,3 8,5 *
Quarter II 280 0.47 24.69 0 0 0.81 6.5 63
Quarter III 300 0.41 25.61 0 0 0.79 6.5 60
Quarter IV 280 0.36 23.72 0 0 0.8 6.5 36
Mean 2004 288.67 0.4133 24.673 0 0 0.8 6.5 53

Fig. 2. Overview of the dump of old and new.

32
 Groundwater in the area is used for water supply to villages in the area.
Pollution it had imposed restrictions on use. Given the lack of sources of water
pollution requires a process for obtaining water quality parameters.
Data-analysis shows significant overshoot in nitrites (NO2) and ammonium
(NH4). Such pollutants have adversely affected groundwater quality in the area.
The phenomenon spread to underground pollution imposed closure of old landfill
and industrial waste in postutilzation passing.
New waste-storage facility was equipped with a monitoring system for
groundwater quality parameters, air and soil.

3. PROGNOZIS OF THE POLLUTION AND/OR DEPOLLUTION

PHENOMENOM OF THE GROUNDWATER

Transport of pollutants in the underground industrial waste was examined

using a mathematical model. Transport model was designed to be used in solving
the following problems:
A. The flow processes through porous unsaturated/saturated media, in the
stationary/transitory regimes.
B. The processes of miscible/non-miscible pollutants transport from porous
unsaturated/saturated media, in transitory regime.
The mathematic models of the transport of pollutants consisted in:
1. Non-governing equations (also called basic) of the flow and/or
transport processes.
2. Contour conditions.
3. Initial conditions (only for the processes dependent of the time t).
The equations governing the flow consist of the equations of the
fluid mass balance – named also the continuity equation and, respectively,
moment equation, the famous Darcy’s equation, generalized to non-
saturated porous media. These can be presented under the following general
form [Voss, C.I., 1984]:

  n  Sw   
    n  S w    v   Q p  (1)
t
 k  kr 
v     p  g    (1)
 n  S w  
where the symbols present the following significations:
n  n  x, y, t  , porosity [1];
  T x , y , z  , water density, [ML-3], temperature dependency T;
 = nabla differential operator, [L-1];
v  v  x, y, t  , the average speed vector of the fluid (water) through the
pores of the porous medium [LT-1];

33
 Q p  Q p  x , y ,t  , the intensity of the distributed (punctiform) source of
volume (specific debit) of fluid, [T-1];
  T  x , y ,t  , the dynamic viscosity of water, [ML3T-1], dependent on
the T temperature;
p  p  x, y, t  , fluid pressure from the pores, [ML-1T-2] (the relative
pressure in relation with the atmosphere pressure; the manometric pressure for
p  0 or the vacuum manometer pressure p  0 );
g = g (x, z), gravitational acceleration vector, [LT-2].
The definition relations for each of the classical types of contour conditions are
[Luca, M., 2010]:
1º type 1 contour conditions (Dirichlet);
2º type 2 contour conditions (von Neumann), where are given the values of
the H size flow, according to the n direction of the normal to the Γ frontier.
3 type 3 contour conditions (Cauchy), when the values of the flow qnH (x,
y, z) depend also on the H variable, according to a law considered as linear.
The numerical simulations achieved for different scenarios and for a
certain period can appreciate the dispersion of a pollutant in a carrier of water.
The observation period regarding the underground water layer was
between 2005…2009. In his period, we collected data regarding the pollution
phenomenon parameters. For the prognosis, we considered a period of 10 years,
respectively 2010…2019. The analysis carried out on the main pollutant substances
indicated for the first prognosis stage the consideration of the anion from the NH4
ammonium.
For solving the proposed problems, we achieved a conceptual model, for
which we elaborated a mathematic model of pollutants transport. The mathematic
model represents the flow and transport of pollutants from one layer of underground
water from the analysis field. For the numerical simulation, we used the FEFLOW
program package.
In the analysis, we used a complex of basic data specific to the case study.
The data introduced in the calculation model come from systematic measurement in
13 observation wells positioned in the location of the industrial waste deposit.
We successively treated a flow problem in four scenarios and two flow and
transport problems (therefore, in total, 6 calculation variations) [Luca, M., 2010]:
1. The flow problem for the study duration, t  [0, 1825] days in four
scenarios regarding the functioning of drillings from the area of the closed deposit
(for establishing the optimal scenario)
- without pumping;
- with pumping from the drillings.
2. The flow and transport problem for the study duration, t  [0, 1825]
days, in the scenario established as being optimal within the flow problem (for
monitoring the pollution phenomenon in all the interest points from the domain Ω.

34
 Fig. 3. EF scheme in the study area waste industrial dump.

3°. The flow and transport problem in the perspective of the following
decade, t  [0, 1825] days (2010 - 2019), in the scenario established as being
optimal within the flow problem 1° and through the simulation of the contour
conditions and variation of the material parameters.

Fig. 4. The initial piezometric load field for the flow problem represented through the colour
code (numbers in black colour represent the piezometric load of the support points).

35
 Fig. 5. The NO4 initial concentration represented by isolines of equal concentration.

A part of the accidentally polluted water sources can be subject to a

depollution process, of certain duration, in order to be reintroduced in the
circuit of water supply for either industry, or population. Through the
analysis and prognosis model conceived, we attempted a response to this
problem that has been affecting, lately, the underground medium, more and
more stringently.
In order to determine the evolution of the pollution process in the
entire interest field, we can only make interpolations on bi-dimensional
fields, according to certain mathematic techniques accepted in this field.
The intensity of the evacuation process of a pollutant soluble in
water through pumping, at a constant debit, decreases to the diminishment
of its concentration in the carrier of water, and in order to obtain /maintain
an acceptable intensity of this process, the pumped debit must be increased,
or certain processes of the pollutant biotransformation be activated.

4. CONCLUSIONS
The interpretation of the data obtained allows the enunciation of the
following general conclusions:
 Monitoring the transport of pollutants in industrial waste must become
a compulsory activity of the waste producer.
 Modeling the transport of pollutants in the soil in the area of industrial
wastes deposits has a special importance for the protection of
underground waters.
 The simulation model elaborated allows the analysis of the pollutant
transport in the area of underground waters by emphasizing the
variation of concentrations in time and space.

36
  The simulation model through the FEFLOW program package has
allowed the analysis and the methods of underground waters
depollution for a certain determined period of time.
 Using the numerical simulation techniques, we can solve both the
problems regarding the monitoring of the pollution process for the
entire duration of the experimental measurements (approached
problems, but insufficiently solved through the current monitoring
techniques), but also the future evolution, on the extended periods, in
different scenarios, of the pollution and/or depollution processes.

REFERENCES

1. David, I., Şumălan, I., Beilici, E., (1998), Influenţa discretizării în modelarea
numerică a transportului poluanţilor în acvifere. Bulet. Ştiinţ. al Universităţii
„Politehnica” Timişoara din România, seria Hidrotehnica, tom 43 (57), vol. I, p.
121-131.
2. Hâncu, S., Moriton, C., Măgdălina, I., (2002), Modele matematice privind transportul
poluanţilor în sol şi în apele freatice. Lucr. Sesiunii Ştiinţifice „150 ani de învăţământ
superior agricol” USAMV, Bucureşti, p. 163-174.
3. Hâncu, S., Marin, G., Vîrsta A., (2003), Transportul şi dispersia poluanţilor. Edit.
BREN, Bucureşti.
4. Luca, M., Bălan, R., P., (2010), The modelling of pollution processes in the area of
industrial waste, Bulet. Ştiinţ. al Univ. “Politehnica” Timişoara, tom 55 (68), Fasc. 1, 2,
seria Hidrotehnica, p. 61-66.
5. Luca, M., Bălan, P., R., (2005), Consideraţii privind punerea în siguranţă a haldelor
de deşeuri industriale, Conferinţa Internaţională, „Monitorizarea Dezastrelor şi
Poluării CI.MDP.2”, Universitatea Tehnică „Gh. Asachi” Iaşi, 2005.
6. Luca, M., Bălan, P., R., (2008), Monitoring the exploitation of the industrial
waste dump, Bulet. Ştiinţ. Instit. Polit. din Iaşi, secţia Hidrotehnică, Tomul LIV
(LVIII) Fasc. 2, p. 25 - 35.
7. Marinov, A., M., Poruţ, A., D., (2004), Model matematic bidimensional, orizontal, al
dispersiei unui poluant în apa subterană. Rev. Hidrotehnica, vol. 49, nr. 5-6,
Bucureşti, p. 26-35.
8. Voss, C., I., (1984), SUTRA. A F.E.M. Simulation Model for Saturated-Unsaturated,
Fluid-Density-Dependent Ground-Water Flow with Energy & Chemically Single-
Species Solute Transport, U.S. Geological Survey, S.U.A.
9. *** NTPA 001/2002, Normativ privind stabilirea limitelor de încărcare cu poluanţi a
apelor uzate industriale şi orăşeneşti la evacuarea în receptorii naturali, H.G. nr.
188/28.02.2002

37
 THE INFLUENCED FLOW REGIMES

G. PANDI1

ABSTRACT. The influenced flow regimes. The presence and activities of

humanity influences the uniform environmental system, and in this context, the
rivers water resources. In concordance with this, the natural runoff regime suffers
bigger and deeper changes. The nature of these changes depending on the type and
degree of water uses. The multitude of the use cause different types of influence,
whit different quantitative aspects. In the same time, the influences have
qualitative connotations, too, regarding to the modifications of the yearly water
volume runoff. So the natural runoff regime is modified. After analyzing the
distribution laws of the monthly runoff, there have been differenced four types of
influenced runoff regimes. In the excess type the influenced runoff is bigger than
the natural, continuously in the whole year. The deficient type is characterized by
inverse rapports like the first type, in the whole year. In the sinusoidal type, the
influenced runoff is smaller than the natural in the period when the water is
retained in the lake reservoirs, and in the depletion period the situation inverts. At
the irregular type the ratio between influenced and natural runoff is changeable in
a random meaner monthly. The recognition of the influenced regime and the grade
of influence are necessary in the evaluation and analysis of the usable hydrological
river resources, in the flood defence activities, in the complex scheme of the
hydrographic basins, in the environment design and so on.

Keywords. -natural regime, influenced regime, water use, influence degree,

regime types

1. INTRODUCTION

The completely natural conditions existed within geosystem at mesoscale

confer special laws for riverbed flow processes. The flow regime represents the
whole of the laws and the features for this process during a year. Any river stream,
no matter the size and location is characterized by the flow regime.
The climatic factor, consequence of the solar energy influx distribution, is
the main factor of the flow control. The precipitations are water suppliers, which
provide water for riverbed directly as surface flow, and indirectly as subsurface
flow. The surface flow is characterized by discontinuous water supply and a fast
reaction time of the river, whereas continuity and a slow reaction time characterize
the subsurface flow. The temperature influences the flow by precipitations, state of
aggregation, evaporation intensity and existence of the ice formations within
riverbeds.

1
Babes-Bolyai University, Faculty of Geography, Clinicilor Street 5-7, 400006, Cluj- Napoca,
e-mail: pandi@geografie.ubbcluj.ro

38
 There are many others natural, non-climatic factors that influence the flow:
tectonics and petrography for geology; altitude, morphometry, morphology, aspect,
hypsometry for relief; state, structure and texture for soil; types of associations,
degree of coverage, rainfall interception, evapotranspiration for vegetation; are
many other factors that hallmarked on the river flow regime.
In this very complex context of horizontal and vertical zonality, in addition
with local and regional conditions, the rivers have a great variety of flow regimes.
Of course, zonal distribution of solar energy prevails and due to this, climatic zones
have specific flow regimes.
The great relief units, especially the mountain massifs but the oceans and
the seas (on the shore areas) as well cause characteristic flow regimes. What is
characteristic for spatial and temporal distribution of water drained off quantities is
an infinite combination of general and local factors. Thus, there are relatively few
rivers with a flow regime typical, well defined. These rivers are small usually
having hydrographic basin located within the same climatic zone and the same
relief unit (relatively homogenous).

2. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE NATURAL FLOW REGIME

The human society has a constant upward influence over the environment,
from which it belongs. The influences follow three major ways:
- the areas where the man influence natural processes are extended;
- more and more natural processes are influenced;
- the influence degree of processes is growing.
Of course, water resources make no exception in this respect. Throughout
all ages, humanity settled their habitats near waters. The using of water resources
has exponentially grown and in the same times, a continuous alteration of aquatic
bodies has produced. Today, there is a strong debate over the influencing of natural
hydrologic cycle, not only at micro and mesoscale level, but throughout the globe
as well.
The rivers are water bodies the most susceptible to human influence. The
riverbeds are widespread over huge continental areas. The water from rivers is easy
to use and due to a continuous dynamics is purging itself.
Various activities carried out by humans within riverbeds or riverbeds
surroundings areas modify the natural flow regime laws during time and space.
There is a great variety of activities carried out, classified here under various
criteria:
- The way of flow influencing
- water consumption activities
- redistribution of flow during time activities
- transfer the water from a reservoir to another.
- The time of flow influencing
- permanent activities (industrial type)
- seasonal activities (agriculture type)

39
 - The type of human activity
- activities related to following domains: urban, industrial, agricul-
tural, energy supply, transport and recreation.
-According to characteristic of used water
- activities for which are very important: water quantity, water
quality, water surface and potential energy.

3. THE DEGREE OF FLOW INFLUENCING

Demographic boom in the world, widespread of intensive farming and

industrialization process have determined a great stress upon natural water
resources, especially water provide by rivers. Consequently, the more and more
rivers suffer a strong influence and pressure from human part.
The type and magnitude of activities influence the degree and character of
the flow. For the most activities this typification is combined, consequently they
have multilateral influences over the natural flow regime of the river.
Dam lakes have the most spectacular influence for the rivers flow; these
lakes redistribute water resources during time. The activities of industrial
consumption of water and transfer pipes from a reservoir to another can have major
influences as well.
To represent in which degree is influenced the natural flow it is necessary
to compare the value of water quantity drained off and the value of natural flow.
For these recordings it is necessary to be used values taken on the spot or/and
medium values of the same time interval. Thus, temporal and/or spatial relations
with a role for water amounts qualitative assessment are obtained.
Representation of flow’s influencing degree can be expressed in absolute
values, in flow capacities and volume units. However to express the flow’s
influencing degree as relative values is more evident, the quantity of influenced
water being the random variable.

50

40

30

20
Q(m /s)
3

10

0
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
-10

-20

-30

Fig. nr. 1. Representation of influencing degree in absolute values

40
 20

15

10

5
%

0
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
-5

-10

-15

-20

Fig. nr. 2. Representation of influencing degree in relative values

4.THE TYPES OF INFLUENCED FLOW REGIME

For the rivers, having an influenced flow regime the quantities of water
drained off depends in a great or small manner by the assets existence and
exploitations. The distribution during time of water necessities is a function of
social and economical systems functionality. Consequently, the distribution laws of
water quantities drained off during a year depends of the way and measure of
natural flow regime.
The human component of the environment stays under laws not as rigorous
as those corresponded to natural phenomena. There are many temporal ways to
capture and return, or to redistribute some quantities of water, function of social
and economical necessities.
On the base of a great number of influenced hydrographs analysis, in
various years, located downstream from the influenced riverbeds areas, four types
of influenced flow regime were distinguished.

4.1. Excedentary type

The deviation has positive values throughout a year (Qinfl > Qnat). The
characteristic influenced flows are higher compare to the corresponded natural ones
for every month of the year. This type is typical for rivers that receive an additional
water supply from the others hydrographics basin located in proximity.

41
 Fig. nr. 3. Excedentary type model of influenced flow

4.2. Deficitary type

The deviation has negative values throughout a year (Qinfl < Qnat), therefore
monthly influenced flows drained off are smaller then those corresponded to
natural ones. This type is characteristic for the areas downstream where are water
intakes made in riverbed, where from a quantity of water is conducted to a near
hydrographyc basin or to an areas with a constant consume of water. In addition,
this type is found downstream of dam lakes that usually provide water constantly
for consume. The influence degree is not very high for this type also.

Fig. nr. 4. Deficitary type model of influenced flow

4.3. The sinusoidal type

Is characteristic for downstream areas of dam lakes having a dominant role
of redistribution of the water with time, the regularization having an annual
periodicity. This kind of water accumulation can have an energetic or water supply
function. In this accumulation, the water saved during the excedentary period of
spring is subsequently restored to the riverbed during the period with deficitary
flow autumn-winter. For the months when the water is saved, the influenced flows
have a magnitude less then those natural, and for the months when water is
evacuated the ratio reverse the order, the variation graphic having a sinusoidal
shape. The influencing degree has a greater value during the water lakes
accumulation period compare with the period when water is released.
42
 Fig. nr. 5. Sinusoidal type model of influenced flow

4.4. Irregular type

This type is characterized by randomly alternation of the ratio between
monthly influenced flows and natural ones. The quantity of water drained off can
have a greater value or a smaller one in comparison to that natural depending on
the social and economical, food and defence against flooding necessities. This type
characterizes downstream areas of the dam lakes that have the role to attenuate
high floods waves, where a period of accumulation is followed by a period when
the water is released. Here the influenced degree can have extremely great values.

Fig.nr.6 Irregular type model of influenced flow

5. CONCLUSION
From the smallest water streams to the very large rivers, the natural flow
regime is more frequently and more intense influenced. It can be said that the
influenced regime became a characteristic of rivers flow, particularly for areas
having a great number of people. Consequently, the characteristic values of the
flow, average values, but especially those extreme, do not form homogeneous
series easy to use for statistics calculations and dynamic analysis. Eventually series
of hydrological data make up having other characteristics in comparison to those
usual for hydrology and water management activities. In order to analyse an assess
usable hydric resources of a river, for activity of defence against flooding, for
complex arrangement of hydrographic basins for environment planning, etc., it is
necessary to take into account besides the natural laws those laws induced by social
and economical necessities.

43
 REFERENCES

1. PANDI, G. (2000), Influenced Drainage Regime in the east part of the Carpathian
Basin. Voda i zastita voda srednjeg dela sliva Dunava. Subotica. Yugoslavia
2. ŞERBAN, P., GĂLIE A. (2006), Managementul apelor. Principii şi reglementări
europene. Ed.Tipored. Bucureşti
3. UJVARI, J., PANDI, G., DUMITRESCU, F. (1996), Evaluarea şi valorificarea
resurselor de apă din zona de graniţă româno-maghiară. Határon innen, határon
túl. Szeged. Ungaria
 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE HAIL REGIME IN MOLDAVIA
BETWEEN THE SIRET AND PRUT RIVERS

L. APOSTOL1, O. MACHIDON2

ABSTRACT. – Considerations on the hail regime in Moldavia between the Siret

and Prut rivers. The paper is based primarily on data measured between 1961 – 2010.
They are summarized in tables and their interpretation is supported by graphs and
maps. The used data come from climatological weather stations and rainfall stations
that have operated continuously in the analyzed interval [4], [5]. In order to establish
the trend, we used the moving average method, with a 10 year moving average shifted
by one year and the drawing of the trend line using the specialized module of the
EXCEL software. Calculations based on long strings of observations (1967 - 1998)
have shown that the probability of a small number of days with hail or the absence of
the phenomenon is quite high. At the climatological weather stations in the studied
area, the annual number of days with hail is at levels far below those known in the
literature [3] and it has record values for Romania in some of the rainfall stations
(Motoşeni - 0.14 days / year; Mânzaţi - 0.08 days / year). Higher values of the annual
number of days with hail can be reached only on the alignements at higher altitude and
in the cities. We noticed that it is very difficult to detect trends, since we are dealing
with local factors.

Keywords: hail, spatial distribution, evolution.

1. INTRODUCTION

Hail represents a significant climatic risk; although it occurs rarely, it can

shortly result in damages on local or regional scale, depending on the route
followed by the Cumulonimbus clouds that generated it.
In the normal course of activity in various fields, hail is a phenomenon that
must be taken into account while planning outdoor work, especially in agriculture,
where the cultivated species and their vegetation period are under the hail’s
incidence.

2. SPATIAL ANALYSIS

To highlight the differences that exist in the spatial distribution of the

annual number of days with hail, we have used data of the period, being the most
consistent period, taking into consideration meteorological stations and rainfall

1
"Al. I. Cuza" University, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Iaşi, Romania,
e-mail: apostolliv@yahoo.com
2
"Al. I. Cuza" University, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Iaşi, Romania,
e-mail: ovidiumachidon@yahoo.com

45
stations located in the most different geographical and physical conditions (altitude
and degree of relief fragmentation, exposure or shelter from wet and dry air
masses, the coating of the underlying surface, etc.).
The data from some of the stations (e.g. Strunga and Balinteşti) were
registered in the period between 1967 to 1998, but have not included all the years.
However, we preferred to use these data because they helped us a lot in the
separation of differences in the spatial distribution of hail. Based on these
characteristics, some climate characteristics can be assessed in order to respond to
the demands of the daily practice and to the current climatological service.
The average number of days with hail is the parameter that highlights the
qualitative aspect of the phenomenon. Knowing the number of days with hail has a
great practical importance because it gives an indication of the possibility of
production of this phenomenon and therefore, the possibility of damage occurrence
in some days of the year. This possibility should not be neglected while designing
and operating the economic objectives according to regions, while planning various
works according to their timing and to their area and while planning the means of
intervention in case of breakdowns, accidents, etc. The monthly and annual average
number of days with hail is expressed by a ratio between the monthly or annual
number of days with hail and the number of years of that period.

Table 1. Monthly and annual average number of days with hail registered
on climatological weather stations between 1967-1998
Altitude Month
Name of station Sum
(m) II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI
Barnova 396 0.19 0.28 0.25 0.13 0.13 0.09 1.06
Cotnari 289 0.11 0.20 0.17 0.31 0.09 0.09 0.97
Strunga 280 0.06 0.33 0.52 0.06 0.97
Plopana 274 0.21 0.24 0.11 0.09 0.65
Darabani 259 0.03 0.03 0.14 0.23 0.06 0.03 0.51
Avrameni 240 0.09 0.09 0.17 0.06 0.09 0.49
Dorohoi 240 0.06 0.14 0.14 0.11 0.03 0.03 0.52
Roman 216 0.04 0.28 0.23 0.15 0.11 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.89
Onceşti 203 0.11 0.13 0.19 0.09 0.52
Bacau 184 0.06 0.18 0.33 0.21 0.12 0.03 0.93
Barlad 168 0.12 0.19 0.40 0.18 0.11 0.06 1.06
Botosani 161 0.11 0.20 0.34 0.26 0.14 0.03 0.15
Negresti 134 0.06 0.15 0.27 0.18 0.09 0.75
Balintesti 126 0.04 0.08 0.22 0.30 0.17 0.06 0.04 0.91
Vaslui 121 0.03 0.15 0.39 0.30 0.03 0.12 0.06 1.08
Stanca Stefanesti 110 0.14 0.14
Iasi 102 0.06 0.03 0.30 0.21 0.18 0.09 0.09 0.03 0.03 1.02
Adjud 101 0.09 0.21 0.06 0.09 0.06 0.51
Husi 97 0.12 0.09 0.21
Podu Iloaiei 82 0.08 0.13 0.29 0.10 0.04 0.06 0.70
Galati 69 0.12 0.21 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.09 0.03 0.97
Rauseni 62 0.03 0.20 0.14 0.17 0.11 0.06 0.03 0.74
Tecuci 60 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.12 0.61
Focsani 57 0.09 0.36 0.23 0.23 0.14 0.05 1.09
Maicanesti 18 0.23 0.14 0.13 0.50

46
 Table 2. Monthly average number of days with hail registered on rainfall stations
between 1967-1998
Altitude Month
Name of station Sum
(m) II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI
Dersca 370 0.33 0.13 0.33 0.79
Bacesti 292 0.12 0.08 0.20
Poieni 265 0.19 0.16 0.26 0.23 0.1 0.03 0.06 0.03 1.06
Certesti 255 0.14 0.24 0.07 0.07 0.52
Averesti 255 0.18 0.39 0.27 0.03 0.12 0.03 1.03
Boghicea 254 0.27 0.18 0.18 0.27 0.18 0.09 1.18
Tudora 250 0.09 0.23 0.14 0.03 0.03 0.52
Madirjac 250 0.16 0.25 0.25 0.13 0.06 0.06 0.91
Gherghesti 250 0.05 0.14 0.19
Motoseni 235 0.06 0.08 0.14
Girceni 225 0.06 0.09 0.22 0.06 0.03 0.47
Malusteni 225 0.16 0.36 0.28 0.28 0.08 0.12 0.04 0.04 1.36
Cristesti 220 0.15 0.24 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.06 1.36
Vaculesti 220 0.03 0.16 0.13 0.35 0.03 0.70
Stanita 220 0.05 0.23 0.32 0.18 0.09 0.86
Parincea 205 0.20 0.53 0.67 0.07 0.07 1.53
Gohor 200 0.12 0.18 0.29 0.19 0.78
Havirna 200 0.08 0.28 0.12 0.04 0.08 0.60
Dobrovat 200 0.03 0.03 0.16 0.03 0.16 0.41
Manzaţi 200 0.08 0.08
Al. Vlahuta 200 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.12
Podu Turcului 200 0.17 0.17 0.33 0.33 1.00
Pomirla 190 0.03 0.09 0.23 0.23 0.20 0.03 0.81
Grajduri 190 0.14 0.18 0.5 0.36
Draguseni 185 0.06 0.03 0.16 0.03 0.06 0.06 0.42
Huruiesti 185 0.13 0.25 0.75 0.25 0.13 0.13 1.63
Virlezi 180 0.03 0.13 0.20 0.20 0.07 0.03 0.66
Suharau 175 0.10 0.31 0.31 0.33 0.13 0.08 0.03 1.29
Tibanesti 175 0.12 0.27 0.15 0.03 0.58
Coarnele Caprei 165 0.09 0.13 0.34 0.13 0.13 0.82
Viisoara 165 0.13 0.23 0.17 0.27 0.07 0.87
Baleni 160 0.03 0.20 0.13 0.23 0.20 0.03 0.07 0.89
Pungesti 160 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.22 0.09 0.09 0.03 0.66
Vorniceni 150 0.16 0.19 0.34 0.13 0.03 0.03 0.88
Mogosesti 150 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.22 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.55
Laza 150 0.08 0.08 0.12 0.15 0.19 0.04 0.08 0.74
Rosiesti-Gara 150 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.18 0.04 0.44
Vutcani 150 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.05 0.24
Mileanca 145 0.06 0.23 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.58
Hirlau 140 0.06 0.35 0.23 0.19 0.03 0.86
N.Balcescu 135 0.03 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.36
Codaesti 134 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.32
Suletea 130 0.03 0.09 0.13 0.13 0.06 0.03 0.47
Voinesti 125 0.03 0.19 0.25 0.42 0.22 0.11 0.03 0.03 0.03 1.34
Corod 120 0.11 0.13 0.2 0.1 0.03 0.03 0.61
Nicoresti 120 0.03 0.03 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.06 0.91
Gorbanesti 120 0.03 0.06 0.10 0.03 0.22
Solesti 120 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.12 0.08 0.42
Roma 105 0.07 0.26 0.16 0.05 0.02 0.56
Radauti-Prut 101 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.03 0.24
Larga Jijia 100 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.31

47
 Table 2, continuation
Altitude Month
Name of station Sum
(m) II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI
Mitoc 95 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.03 0.27
Santa Mare 95 0.05 0.14 0.24 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.57
Raducaneni 95 0.09 0.15 0.09 0.06 0.39
Cudalbi 90 0.03 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.31
Ripiceni 90 0.03 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.31
Ungureni 90 0.12 0.09 0.06 0.12 0.09 0.48
Tg Frumos 90 0.03 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.19 0.08 0.60
Plugari 80 0.11 0.20 0.17 0.11 0.06 0.65
Grivita 75 0.03 0.03 0.29 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.82
Bivolari 65 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.12
Chiscareni 60 0.14 0.29 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.55
Frasuleni 60 0.04 0.32 0.16 0.08 0.08 0.68
Ghidigeni 50 0.14 0.07 0.25 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.64
Oancea 47 0.06 0.16 0.03 0.09 0.34
Tg. Bujor 45 0.04 0.04 0.11 0.15 0.04 0.38
Cavadinesti 45 0.10 0.15 0.10 0.35
Pechea 40 0.03 0.06 0.21 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.42
Ungheni 40 0.04 0.15 0.07 0.22 0.07 0.04 0.59
Lunca Banului 35 0.03 0.17 0.24 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.61
Piscu 30 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.15 0.04 0.79
Schela 30 0.14 0.17 0.21 0.07 0.59
Grozesti 30 0.08 0.44 0.32 0.32 0.12 0.04 1.32
Berezeni 30 0.06 0.13 0.19
Firtanesti 25 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.16
Frumusita 25 0.03 0.03 0.15 0.06 0.03 0.30
Fălciu 25 0.18 0.18
Sendreni 20 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.15
Umbraresti 20 0.09 0.32 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.68

The analyzed material showed that on the territory of Moldavia, between

the Siret and Prut rivers, in the period 1967 - 1998, there were an average of 0.08
days with hail per year tat Mânzaţi and 1.63 days with hail per year at Huruieşti
(Table 1, 2).
The relatively small area of land registers significant regional variations in
the average annual number of days with hail. The solar radiation, the general
atmospheric circulation, characteristic from the western sector area especially in
the first part of the warm semester, in correlation with the local geographic factors
determine the differences in the hail’s distribution manifested on the territory of
Moldavia between the Siret and Prut rivers (Fig. 1).
The high frequency of hail in the areas in the west and center of the
territory is explained by the presence of slopes located in the path of the
advancement of the air masses with a pronounced character of instability, which
causes forced upward movements, resulting in Cumulonimbus clouds of which
precipitations as rain showers and hail fall (Machidon, 2009) [2]. High values of
hail frequency can be locally observed around the major urban centers, where
thermal convection is more active, so that vertical upward currents of dynamic
origin were mostly boosted by diurnal thermal convection currents (Machidon,

48
Fig. 1. Distribution of the average annual number of days with hail in Moldavia
between the Siret and Prut rivers (1967-1998)

49
2006) [1]. No doubt that air pollution significantly contributed to these high values,
by increasing the number of condensation nuclei in the urban atmosphere, with an
important role in the genesis of cumuliform clouds, of rain and hail. The dynamics
of air masses, and especially the local context in which it takes place, causes wind
generation with a föhn character present in the areas of the Moldavian Central
Plateau and Tutovei Hills. These warmer and drier winds are able to contribute to
the recording of averages of less than 0.5 days with hail per year (Fig. 1).

2. TEMPORAL ANALYSIS

If we look at the moving average graphics, calculated on 10-years shifted

Fig. 2. The moving average graphics, calculated on 10-years shifted by one year,
of the hail phenomenon at the climatological weather stations between 1961 – 2010

50
 Fig. 3. The moving average graphics, calculated on 10-years shifted by one year,
of the hail phenomenon at the climatological weather stations between 1961 – 2010

by one year at the weather stations between 1961-2010, we can notice that it is very
difficult to detect trends, as we are dealing with local factors (Fig. 2, 3).

3. CONCLUSIONS
The highest frequency of hail in areas between the Siret and Prut rivers in
the studied period was encountered in high altitude areas. High frequencies were
registered in the western high areas (the interfluve between the hydrograpic basins
51
of the Siret and Prut rivers and of the Bârlad respectively) then on west-east strips
on height strings (Bour-Ibăneşti Hills, Copalău-Cozancea Hills, to a small extent
the Jijia-Bahlui interfluve, the Iaşi Slope, the Racova Slope-Lohan Hills). High
frequencies (1.02-1.09 days) were also found in big urban centers.
The lowest average values of the number of days with hail were registered
in the western sheltered areas, with a föhn character also in the Prut meadow and in
the Stânca-Ştefăneşti Lake area (due to descending air currents, especially in spring
and at the beginning os summer).
On the whole, in the area between the Siret and Prut rivers a low frequency
of hail is registered compared to the rest of the country’s territory. The lowest
values are similar to those of the area of the minimum values in Romania, the
Danube Delta.
Between 1967 - 1998, the hail phenomenon occurred frequently especially
during the hot season, in May, June and July when a maximum number of days
with hail was recorded. When we analyze the frequency of days with hail we
discover that most days with hail are possible in the months of May, June and July.
From the moving average graphic, calculated on 10-years shifted by
one year of hail phenomenon at the climatological weather stations between 1961
– 2010, it results that the trend line is descending at more than half of the
climatological weather stations.
Usually, regularities are observed and that means that the number of days
with hail increases with altitude and absolute humidity of air. Often this
phenomenon is difficult to explain, the occurrence of hail depending on the
particular individual characteristics of atmospheric fronts in relation to landscape
morphology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

O. Machidon is supported by a POSDRU grant /89/1.5/S/49944,

“Developing the innovation capacity and improving the impact of research through
post-doctoral programs”, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iasi.

REFERENCES

1. Machidon, O. (2006), The necessity and opportunity of the protection from

hailstorms in the departments of Vrancea and Galati, Present Environment and
Sustainable Development, vol. III, Editura Univ. „Al. I. Cuza”Iaşi, 2007.
2. Machidon, O. (2009), Fenomenul de grindină în bazinul hudrografic Bârlad, Teză
de doctorat, Fac. de Geografie-Geologie, Univ. “Al. I. Cuza”, Iaşi.
3. *** (2008), Clima României, Editura Academiei Române
4. *** (1961-2010), Meteorological Tables TM 1, TM 2, TM 11,TM 12, National
Meteorological Administration of Romania.

52
 CONTAMINATION OF SURFACE AND GROUND WATERS
BY RUNOFF WATER FROM A CATTLE FARM AT FALENTY,
POLAND

S.RUSSEL1, L.ROSSA2

ABSTRACT. – Contamination of surface and ground waters by runoff water

from a cattle farm at Falenty, Poland. The paper presents the results of the
analysis of runoff water from a cattle farm at Falenty near Warsaw, Poland. The
water samples came from two wells collecting the outflow, the nearest draining
ditch and the nearest stream. The sampling frequency was higher in the rain
periods. The reaction, conductivity, COD, concentration of ammonia, nitrite, and
nitrate nitrogen, as well as phosphates was determined. Additionally, the total
quantity of psychrophilic and mesophilic bacteria, fungi, Proteus sp., sulphide
reducing bacteria and the coliform index was also counted. Results showed an
increased level of COD and higher concentration of phosphate ions in the
rainwater in the area of the farmyard. Relatively high microbiological indexes
were also observed. During periods with rain, the values of the biochemical
demand for oxygen (COD) and concentration of phosphate ions exceeded the
thresholds for flowing waters.

Keywords: water contamination, runoff water, cattle farm

1. INTRODUCTION

Inflow of pollutants from farmlands is one of the causes of the

deterioration of surface waters. Sources of runoff pollutants commonly occur in
rural settlements. Studies carried out by the Institute of Technology and Life
Science in Falenty between 1999-2001 indicated a significant inflow of organic
pollutants from villages where cattle was reared (Rossa, Sikorski 2006). Significant
concentration of different sources of organic, biogenic and also toxic pollutants
occurs in areas of cattle farms (Doruchowski, Hołownicki 2003; Sapek, Sapek,
Pietrzak 2000). In various types of rearing farms, increased pollution of soil and
groundwater was noted near livestock buildings and storage places of natural
fertilizers (Rossa 2003; Sapek 2002).
The presented studies were focused on determining the actual
concentrations of pollutants in rainwater runoff from two cattle farms differing in
the size of cattle herds and its influence on the quality of surface and groundwater.
The study included collecting samples and their analysis from wells and storm-
water drainage collectors, from streams acting as runoff receivers and two
piezometers.

53
 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The studies were carried out on rainwater sewage samples from the
experimental farm of the Institute of Technology and Life Science in Falenty.
The farm (Fig. 1) is located in the Mazovian voivodship, in the Pruszków
county, Raszyn district. It lies within the Mazovian Lowland in the Raszynka
drainage basin in the Utrata and Bzura catchment area. The surface of the area is
flat, with the medium elevation at 112 m a.s.l. The groundwater level occurs at 1 to
3 m below surface level. Soils of the area are developed from loam and loamy sand
and gravel. They are represented by podzols and combisols.
The study object was a 1100 m2 fragment of the yard, adjacent to a shed
with 10 tractors. To the south of the yard is located a cow-shed with 130 cows. The
cow-shed does not have a manure settling tank. The manure is directed through a
manure channel using a collecting well into a covered reservoir. After storage and
fermentation in the basin, manure is transported by a waste removal truck onto
pastures and occasionally also onto fields. The manure is removed every day from
the cow-shed.
For experimental purposes, a system of farmyard drainage was constructed
in 2009. Rainwater is directed on the surface to a 47-m long and  160 mm in
diameter PVC collecting channel built underground along the communication
route. The channel with a gradient of 1% and with inlets for rainwater, is connected
with a measuring reservoir comprising two wells made of reinforced concrete, of a
diameter 1.2 m each, distributed in series at the level of the well bottom. A
depression was made in the bottom of the second well facilitating removal of the
total volume of rainwater sewage from the measuring reservoir. In the case when
volume of the inflowing rainwater exceeds the working volume of both wells, the
water excess is directed through a  160 mm spillway into a retention-infiltration
reservoir with a working volume of 8. 0 m3, total depth of 1.20 m, working depth
of 0.60 m, 3 x 10 m in size and embankment gradient at 1:1. From this reservoir the
rainwater sewage is pumped out directly onto the neighbouring pastures.
A piezometer with a filter installed at the depth of 1. 70 m was located
beyond the rainwater reservoir towards the groundwater runoff in order to collect
groundwater samples.
Two effluent wells with a filter located above the groundwater level were
installed in 2007 for study purposes in the farm at Falenty. The wells were intended
to intake water from the aeration zone. The first was localized near the
communication route and the second – beyond the dewatered area in a depression
along the cattle route.

54
 14
13
3 2
12 11

4
5

10
5

6 7

8 9

0 100
Fig. 1. Scheme of sampling sites in the Experimental Farm at Falenty 1 – hardened
surface, 2 – cow-shed, 3 – umbrella roof for cattle, 4 – machine repair stand, 5 –
garages, 6 – workshop, 7 – umbrella roof for agricultural machinery, 8 – calf shed, 9 –
warehouse, 10 – office building, 11 – storm water channel, 12 – measurement wells, 13 –
rainwater tank, 14 – piezometer, 15 – well with filter placed above groundwater level

Samples for physical, chemical and bacteriological analysis were collected

according to the requirements of polish norm PN-EN 25667-2 with increased
frequency during the rain periods, as well as for comparison in the rainless periods
from seven control points:
 effluent well located in the farmyard near the communication route,
 effluent well located in the depression near the cattle route,
 the nearest ditch that at heavy rainfall incidentally dewaters the area of the
farm,
 an eastern stream flowing from Laszczki, capturing runoff water,
 well of the measuring point in 2009,
 piezometer located beyond the measuring point in 2009.

55
 The following physical and chemical indexes were determined in the
collected samples of rainfall sewage, surface and groundwater: conductivity,
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), concentration of phosphates and ammonium,
nitrite and nitrate nitrogen. The chemical analysis included also measurement of
concentration of heavy metals, higher aromatic hydrocarbons and the sum of
chloroorganic pesticides. Moreover, total number of psychrophilic and mesophilic
bacteria, number of fungi, MPN(Most Probably Number) of sulphate reducing
bacteria, number of representatives of genera Proteus sp. and Coli index were
determined.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The analysis comprised fourteen series of samples collected in 2009-2010. Table 1

shows the minimal, maximal and average values of the physical and chemical
indexes determined in the rainwater runoff and in the surface and groundwater of
the farm.
Table 1. Average, minimal and maximal values of conductivity (µS·cm-2), chemical
oxygen demand (COD) (mgO2·dm-3) and concentrations of nitrate, ammonia, and nitrite
nitrogen, and phosphorus in phosphates (mg·dm-3). Increased values are in the II class
quality threshold according to polish Regulation of the Ministry of Environmental
Protection from 2008.

Measurement point
mgN-NO3·dm3

mgN-NH4·dm3

mgN-NO2·dm3
Conductivity

mgPO4·dm3
mgO2·dm-3
µS·cm-2

N-NO3

N-NH4

N-NO2
COD

PO4
pH

Xmin 6.00 125.00 0.22 0.08 0.19 0.02 1.21

Well located in farmyard Xmax 7.50 1287.00 339.27 26.70 2.69 0.75 16.60
Xav 6.75 483.87 132.78 3.99 0.91 0.18 7.27
Xmin 6.22 258.00 0.22 0.00 0.18 0.00 1.75
Well located near cattle
route Xmax 7.04 1960.00 228.55 4.70 5.25 0.44 18.60
Xav 6.74 1043.38 80.05 2.04 1.18 0.10 6.48
Xmin 6.00 125.00 0.20 0.00 0.20 0.00 1.80
Nearest draining channel Xmax 7.46 1918.00 208.60 3.80 5.30 0.40 18.60
Xav 6.96 775.47 80.59 1.72 1.61 0.08 6.93
Xmin 6.50 226.00 0.22 0.00 0.16 0.01 2.45
Nearest stream Xmax 7.88 1940.00 261.44 6.80 4.30 0.86 20.10
Xav 6.99 915.24 87.12 2.07 1.73 0.11 8.98
Xmin 6.10 193.00 16.70 0.20 1.10 0.08 0.97
Well on measuring point Xmax 7.60 692.00 317.90 1.35 5.80 0.35 10.90
Xav 6.90 373.00 135.77 0.81 2.40 0.18 5.88
Xmin 6.56 320.00 0.22 1.15 0.35 0.02 1.84
Piezometer Xmax 7.10 1454.00 194.15 8.10 0.64 0.24 3.90
Xav 6.72 849.25 74.75 4.81 0.45 0.08 2.44

Most indexes reached the highest values in the water collected from the
well located in the farmyard and from the well on the measuring point – i.e. in the
rainwater runoff. Water from the ditch had the highest conductivity values, which

56
points to the presence of mineral compounds, and water from the sewage well had
the highest COD values, indicating organic pollution. Decrease of COD values in
the ditch water may be linked with the influence of vegetation and soil.
The distribution of the concentrations of ammonia nitrogen and phosphates
was different; the highest values were noted in surface waters.
The lowest values of the indexes were noted in the water from the
piezometer. However, due to the average phosphate concentration, the water did
not meet the thresholds of class II of groundwater according to the polish
Regulation of the Ministry of Environmental Protection from 23.07.2008, Dz.U.
2008.143.896.
Exceeded values were noted for the average COD level and average
concentrations of phosphates meeting the thresholds for class II of groundwater
(Order MOŚ/143). The regulation does not state the threshold values for the
remaining classes of surface water quality. Comparison with the threshold values
stated for the last class of water with permissible quality in the previously valid
regulation gives similar values (Order MOŚ/143).
The average COD values in rainwater sewage collected from the sewage
well exceed the levels permissible for sewage discharged to water and soil (Order
MOŚ/137).
A seasonal variability has been observed in the values of conductivity,
COD and concentrations of nitrate and ammonia nitrogen. COD and ammonia
nitrogen concentration values were higher in spring and autumn. The highest
concentrations of nitrate nitrogen were noted in spring and summer.
The total pollution of water reflected in the conductivity values
significantly increased during spring thaws.
Table 2 shows the minimal, maximal and average values of
microbiological indexes determined in the studied samples of surface and
groundwater in Falenty.
The highest content of mesophilic bacteria was noted in water from the
effluent wells. In turn, rainwater sewage indicated the highest total content of fungi
and the highest probable content of sulphate reducing bacteria and bacteria
representing Proteus sp.
The average vales of the Coli index are maintained at the level of 10-
2 -3
-10 , but the highest values of the Coli index in water samples collected
during several years from the dewatering ditches reached 10-4. There was a
significant dispersion of the results of microbiological indexes, but seasonal
changes were not observed. The highest sanitary pollution of the studied
water samples was observed during the rainless season, which can be
explained by the lack of groundwater exchange and a low state of surface
waters.

57
 Table 2. Average, minimal and maximal values of the total number of psychrophilic
bacteria in 1 cm3, total number of mesophilic bacteria in 1 cm3, total number of fungi
in 1 cm3, sulphate reducing bacteria (MPN), Proteus and Coli index.

MPN content of sulphate

Total content of fungi in
philic bacteria in 1 cm3
psychrophillic bacteria

Total content of meso-

reducing bacteria
Total content of
Measurement point

Proteus index

Coli index
in 1 cm3

1 cm3
Xmin 3.00x104 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00x10-4 0.00
Well located in
Xmax 9.75x107 1.80x106 6.70x103 140.00 1.00x10-2 1.00x10-2
farmyard
Xav 1.02x107 7.51x105 1.79x103 56.67 1.00x10-3 1.00x10-3
Xmin 6.00x104 5.00x105 2x102 25.00 1.00x10-4 1.00x10-4
Well located near
Xmax 6.70x105 1.76x106 1.60x103 140.00 1.00x10-3 1.00x10-2
cattle route
Xav 3.50x105 1.15x106 7.75x102 80.00 1.00x10-4 1.00x10-3
Xmin 1.10x105 0.00 3.00x102 0.00 1.00x10-5 1.00x10-3
Nearest draining
Xmax 2.83x107 2.59x107 8.45x106 140.00 1.00x10-1 1.00x10-2
channel
Xav 2.99x106 2.96x106 7.69x105 61.25 1.00x10-2 2.00x10-3
Xmin 1.00x104 8.00x105 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nearest stream Xmax 7.50x105 6.90x106 1.90x104 110.00 1.00x10-2 1.00x10-2
Xav 1.00x105 7.68x105 6.33x102 47.23 1.00x10-3 1.00x10-3
Well on measuring
1.04x104 9.5x105 0.00 321 1.5x10-6 1.00x10-3
point
4 4 -3
Piezometer 4.15x10 0.00 2.95x10 1.00x10 0.00

The values of the analyzed microbiological indicators were also higher in

water samples collected in autumn during continuous rainfall; particularly high was
the total content of psychrophilic bacteria. Water samples from effluent wells in the
farmyard of the Institute of Technology and Life Science in Falenty fulfil the
sanitary conditions of sewage discharged to water and soil, because bacteria of the
Salmonella group were not noted in them.
The first series of determinations of toxic and hazardous substances was
carried out; the results are presented in Table 3.
The content of higher aromatic hydrocarbons and oil-derived substances in
rainfall sewage from the farmyard in Falenty was shown to exceed the permissible
norms. Likewise were noted exceeded concentrations of zinc in the stream
capturing the runoff in Falenty.
A higher pollution of samples of rainfall sewage collected from systems of the
storm-water drainage was noted in relation to the samples collected from the
streams. At present, polish legal acts supply norms for only two parameters of
rainfall sewage: suspension up to 100 mg·dm-3 and oil-derived substances up to 15
mg·dm-3.The remaining parameters were therefore compared with the requirements
for purified communal sewage, which, however, does not reflect the actual
pollution of rainfall sewage.
The results of the first series of analysis of toxic and hazardous substances
may suggest exceeded pollution of the runoff from the Falenty farms. The values of
concentrations of some higher aromatic hydrocarbons exceed ten times the norms
permissible for surface waters (Order MOŚ/162).

58
 Table 3. Concentration of chlorine-organic pesticides (µg·dm3), heavy metals (µg·dm3),
oil-derived substances (mg·dm3) and higher aromatic hydrocarbons in water samples
collected from the farm.
Well on measuring point in
Measurement point Stream from Laszczki in Falenty
Falenty
1 2 3
Sum of chlorine-organic pesticides <0.01 <0.01
Oil-derived substances 0.6 0.5
Mercury Hg <0.01 <0.01
Lead Pb 0.06 <0.02
Cadmium Cd <0.001 <0.001
Nickel Ni <0.02 <0.02
Zinc Zn 0.32 0.02
Copper Cu 0.05 <0.005
Chromium Cr <0.02 <0.02
Fluorene 0.0319 0.0146
Fenantrene 0.2996 0.0308
Antracene 0.0695 0.0025
Fluoroantene 0.8007 0.0233
Pirene 0.6409 0.0182
Benzo(a)antracene 0.2548 0.0048
chryzene 0.0620 0.0010
Benzo(b)fluorontene 0.4979 0.0085
Benzo(k)fluorontene 0.2294 0.0037
Benzo(a)pirene 0.4861 0.0082
Dibenzo(a,h)antracene 0.1707 <0.0004
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene 0.3184 0.0052
Indeno(1,2,3cd)pirene 0.3778 0.0078
Sum 4.2397 0.1286

4. CONCLUSIONS
Analysis of the studies carried out in 2007-2009 allows formulating
the following conclusions:
• Rainwater from the farmyards of the cattle farms in Falenty
discharges large quantities of organic compounds, nitrate nitrogen
and phosphates. However, the average concentrations of these
compounds and COD values do not exceed the values permissible
for sewage discharged to water and soil, but are higher than the
recently determined threshold values for the quality classes of
flowing water.
• COD values and phosphate concentrations in the ditch and stream
receiving rainwater runoff from the area of the Institute of
Technology and Life Science in Falenty exceed the recently
determined threshold values for the quality classes of flowing water.
59
• Chemical pollution of groundwater from the first aquifer horizon
does not exceed the permissible norms.
• Increased values of some microbiological indexes may suggest
sanitary hazard posed on the water environment by the inflow of
rainfall sewage due to the presence of pathogenic microorganisms.

REFERENCES

1. Doruchowski G., Hołownicki R. (2003), Przyczyny i zapobieganie skażeniom wód

i gleby wynikającym ze stosowania środków ochrony roślin. Zesz. Eduk. z. 9, s.
96-115, IMUZ – Falenty.
2. Rossa L. (2003), Zanieczyszczenia wody gruntowej w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie
obiektów hodowlanych Zakładu doświadczalnego w Falentach. Woda Środ. Obsz.
Wiej. t. 3 z. spec. (6) s. 149-157, IMUZ-Falenty.
3. Rossa L., Sikorski M. (2006), Ocena stopnia zanieczyszczenia wód deszczowych
odprowadzanych z zabudowanych obszarów wiejskich. Ochrona Środowiska nr. 2
s. 47-52 PZiTS Wrocław.
4. Sapek B.: (2002), Jakość gleby i wody w gospodarstwach demonstracyjnych. Zesz.
Eduk. z. 7 s. 57-71. IMUZ-Falenty.
5. Sapek A., Sapek B., Pietrzak S. (2005), Rola produkcji zwierzęcej w rozpraszaniu
składników nawozowych z rolnictwa do środowiska. Dobre Praktyki w rolnictwie,
sposoby ograniczania zanieczyszczeń wód. S. 5-31. RCDRRiOW Przysiek.
6. ***(2006), Rozporządzenie Ministra Ochrony Środowiska z dnia 24 lipca 2006 r.
w sprawie warunków, jakie należy spełnić przy wprowadzaniu ścieków do wód lub
do ziemi, oraz w sprawie substancji szczególnie szkodliwych dla środowiska
wodnego Dz. U. 137 p. 984 z 2006 r.
7. ***(2008), Rozporządzenie Ministra Ochrony Środowiska z 23.07.2008 w sprawie
kryteriów i sposobów oceny stanu wód podziemnych Dz. U. 143 p. 896 z 2008 r.
8. ***(2008), Rozporządzenie Ministra Ochrony Środowiska z dnia 20 sierpnia 2008
r. w sprawie sposobu klasyfikacji stanu jednolitych części wód powierzchniowych
Dz. U. 162 p. 1008 z 2008 r.

The paper was supported by grant nr NN 305036934 KBN (Committee of Scientific

Research)

60
 ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS ON ENERGY
ALTERNATIVES FOR A CLEAN AIR – WIND FARMS

PAUL CALANTER1, OCTAVIAN SERBAN1, ANCA DRAGOMIR2

ABSTRACT. - Economic and environmental aspects on energy alternatives

for a clean air – wind farms. Wind energy represents an increasingly more
attractive alternative in Romania. Regulations concern investment and operation
of installations, but also energy recovery and environmental protection. Wind
farms development, sustained by landscape, wind speed distribution and investors
financial promotion, competes with the prudence imposed by the potential
environmental impact (biodiversity, microclimate, etc), and the lack of historical
data and information structuring. Adequate organization and dissemination of
relevant information might be valuable for investors and sustainable development
strategies.

Keywords: “atmosphere protection“, “wind energy”, “environmental data”, and

“impact”

1. INTRODUCTION

Fossil fuels combustion in energy sector has a major contribution to the

generation of greenhouse gases emissions (GHG) - mainly carbon dioxide.
Emissions reduction represents an important mean to protect the environment and
to improve the health status of the population - the major requirement in the
context of a sustainable development strategy – knowing the association of the
greenhouse effect with climate change.
On the other hand, fossil fuels are limited and expensive resources.
According to the Romanian National Agency for Mineral Resources (2009), under
the current extraction level the national oil and gas resources are industrial
exploitable for 15 years, while coal would be available for about 30 years.
At present, the alternative of renewable energy – solar, wind, geothermal,
hydro, and biomass - becomes more and more attractive at global scale. The use of
renewable energy offers a "clean" alternative for energy production, which allows
considerable reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases and also fossil fuel
savings.
By ratifying the Kyoto Protocol, Romania has undertaken to reduce in
2008-2012 the GHG emission levels by 8% compared to the level of 1989, its
reference year. By the Decision No 406/2009/EC of the European Parliament on
the effort of Member States to reduce GHG emissions so as to comply with the
1
The Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies – Doctoral School, 11, Take Ionescu Street, Sector 1,
Bucharest
2
SC CEPSTRA GRUP SRL, 15 Anibal Teohari, Sector 5, Bucharest

61
commitments of the Community for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases until
2020, Romania has a limit for greenhouse gas emissions of +19% compared to the
GHG emission levels in 2005.
According with the provisions of 2009/28/EC Directive on the promotion
of the use of energy from renewable sources, Romania as Member State has a
target allocation, at the level of the year 2020 of 24% share of energy from
renewable sources in the gross final consumption, representing a growth of 6.2%
compared to the year of reference 2005 (the reference value for 2005 was 17.8%).

2. WIND ENERGY POTENTIAL IN ROMANIA IN TERMS OF RE-

NEWABLE ENERGY USE AND GHG EMISSIONS REDUCTION

2.1 Wind Energy Potential in Romania

Romania's energy strategy has been developed for 2007-2020. The general
objective of the strategy for the energy sector is to satisfy the requirements of
energy – in the present and for the medium and long term - at a suitable price, for a
modern economy and a civilized standard of life, in terms of quality, safety, while
complying to the principles of a sustainable development.
One of the priority objectives of Romanian policy for the energy sector is
promoting the valorization of renewable energy sources (RES), Romania having a
total potential of energy renewable sources evaluated and published since 2003.

Table 1. The national technical potential of renewable sources of energy in Romania

Annual Equivalent energy
Source potential economy Application
(Thousand toe)
60 x 106 GJ 1433 Thermal energy
Solar energy
1200 GWh 103.2 Electric power
Energy from wind
23 x 103 GWh 1978 Electric power
(theoretic potential)
3
Hydro energy 40 x 10 GWh 3440 Electric power
Thermal energy
Biomass and biogas 318 x 106 GJ 7591
Electric power
6
Geothermal energy 7 x 10 GJ 167 Thermal energy
Source: GD no. 1535/2003 - “Strategy for the Promotion of Renewable Sources
of Energy”

It can be noticed the wind energy potential in energy power generation

from renewable sources could reach a theoretical maximum of 13.4 %.

62
 Table 2. The objectives, forecasts and achievements at national level for the use of rene-
wable energy sources
Unit 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2010 2015 2020
The evolution of final consumption of energy
Final
Thousand
consumptio 25498 24768 24768 24022 25303 23056 25537 28507
toe
n of energy
Gross final
Thousand
consumption 27970 27041 27246 26486 27673 25246 27966 31212
toe
of energy
Energy Thousand
4479 4921 4635 4658 5279 4807 5758 7491
from RES toe
Proportion
of energy
% 16.01 18.2 17.01 17.59 19.08 19.04 20.59 24
from RES
in total
Source: Provisional document in the field of Energy from renewable sources, 2010 & GD
no. 1535/2003 - “Strategy for the Promotion of Renewable Sources of Energy”
According to the Provisional document in the field of Energy from
renewable sources, 2010, to properly fulfill the objective for the year 2020,
Romania will have to use 63.5% of the total available potential of renewable
energy sources. *** (2010)
Wind energy use is relatively recent in Romania. The trend and forecast for
the installed capacity and electric power production is presented in table 3.
Table 3. Evolution on installed capacity and electric power production using wind energy
2005 2008 2010 2015 2020
Installed power capacity (MW) 1.320 5.222 560 3200 4000
Electricity Production (GWh) 0.227 4.978 460 6614 8400
Source: Provisional document in the field of Energy from renewable sources, 2010 & GD
no. 1535/2003 - “Strategy for the Promotion of Renewable Sources of Energy”
2.2. Estimated GHG Emissions Reduction
Energy represents the most important sector in Romania in terms of GHG
emissions. The Energy sector accounted for 66.7% of the total national GHG
emissions in 2008 (without LULUCF).
Table 4. Greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector
Category ID Category name Base year (1989) 2008
1 1. Energy 188410.3 101991.4
1.A.1 1.A.1. Energy industries 106310.3 47584.8
1.A.2 1.A.2. Man. industries and construction 37551.0 18157.4
1.A.3 1.A.3. Transport 5815.1 14683.6
1.A.4 1.A.4. Other sectors 10540.8 10921.9
1.A.5 1.A.5. Other NA. NE NA. NE
1.B 1.B. Fugitive emissions 28193.1 10643.7
Source: UNFCCC Database

63
 The GHG emissions from the energy sector decreased in 2008 with 45.87%
compared with the base year.
To estimate the GHG emissions reduction in Romania as a result of the use
of wind energy, there were calculated the emissions resulting from the combustion
of equivalent quantities of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, fuel oil), to obtain the
same quantity of energy. The calculation of the significant GHG emissions (CO2,
CH4 and N2O), strictly for the fuels combustion process was developed based on
2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.

Table 5. Evaluation of GHG emissions reduction by using Romania’s potential of wind energy
Thousand tones of CO2 equiv
Energy production
Sector replaced annually
Wind energy
Thousand Liquid
(GW h) Lignite Natural gas
toe fuels
Annual theoretical
Electric
potential of wind 23000 1978 8332 4626 6059
power
energy
2008 Electricity Electric
4.978 0.428 1.8 1.00 1.31
production power
Electric
2010 Forecast 460 39.56 166.44 93 121
power
Electric
2015 Forecast 6614 568.8 2396 1330 1742
power
Electric
2020 Forecast 8400 722.4 3043 1689 2213
power
TOTAL GHG emissions reduction by using whole
61717 34389 44930
national energy potential of RES
TOTAL GHG emissions reduction by energy from RES
22110 12337 16102
achieved in 2008

These calculated values could be actually corrected in the sense of an

additional reduction as a result of GHG emissions “saved” from the fossil fuels
extraction, preparation and distribution.
It can be seen that the GHG emissions in 2008 where actually smaller with
about 12 to 20% due to the use of SRE, but the share of wind energy was quite
insignificant.
Even though the use of the entire national wind energy potential could
determine a significant GHG emissions reduction, the technology, infrastructure
and environmental restrictions limits wind energy valorization.

64
 3. WIND FARM
INVESTMENS
Because of its geographical
position, Romania has a
temperate to continental
climate, also influenced by
its varied topography.
Accordingly, there have
been delimited 5 wind
areas, taking into account
the wind energy potential
50 meters above ground and
higher.
The wind maps
presented in figure 1, show
a generally high energy Source: ICEMENERG
potential, especially along
the Black Sea Coast (on-
shore and off-shore) where
the climate is mild, and in
the alpine area where the
climate is severe.
Despite this general
favorable picture, the area
available for wind farms
location is actually smaller
due to various limitations,
imposed by environmental
factors, especially the
biodiversity concern and
severe climate conditions.
Figure 2 illustrates
the defined exclusion areas
obtained by overlapping the Source: http://www.unesco.pub.ro
thematic layers representing Figure 1. Maps of wind potential in Romania
birds Special Protection
Areas (SPA), Sites of Community Interest (SCI), national reservations, parks and the
Carpathians Protection Convention limit, but also the bioregions and major rivers.
The alpine area was defined as an exclusion area due to its rough climate,
with long periods of low temperature and icy conditions, and also difficult to reach.
Also, the on-shore pontic bioregion is entirely covered by the SPA and SCI
delimited by the environmental authority, as it offers favorable living conditions
for wild flora and fauna. The banks of the major rivers are also proposed as
exclusion areas as they are both wild life supporting and provide bird’s orientation
guidance and resting places during migrations.

65
 Source of thematic layers: NEPA Biodiversity
Figure 2. Biogeographically exclusion areas

Beyond the fact that the investments in wind farms seems to be financially
attractive, the overview of the available locations is not updated with general
exclusion areas related to military, aviation and communications buffered zone(s),
and due to other existing or under authorization projects.
Also, the allowable/available options for the connection to the national
electric network should be made available.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Romania has significant wind energy potential. Valorization of this
potential would “save” the fossil fuels limited resources and would considerably
reduce GHG emissions, contributing to the climate change mitigation efforts.
Assuming the simplifying hypothesis that the wind potential energy would
substitute an equivalent amount of energy generated by burning fossil fuels, there
were calculated the potential savings of GES emissions based on the IPCC 2006
methodology.
From the environmental point of view, there are not clear provisions
concerning the wind-farms allowable locations. A map of exclusion areas was
drawn by overlapping the layers corresponding to Natura 2000 areas, parks and
reservations, but also taking into account the major river courses as wild life
supporting. Additional exclusion areas are needed to draw the overall available
locations. Systemising and updating the information on environmental constraints
and changes occurring in the infrastructure can improve investors’ guidance on the
overview of available locating zones.

66
 REFERENCES LIST

1. *** (2003) Hotărâre privind aprobarea Strategiei de valorificare a surselor

regenerabile de energie, HG nr. 1535 din 18/12/2003, publicat in Monitorul
Oficial, Partea I nr. 8 din 07/01/2004
2. IPCC, Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (2006) Guidelines for
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
3. *** (2010) DOCUMENT PREVIZIONAL(in conformitate cu articolul 4 (3) al
Directivei 2009/28/CE)
4. http://www.scienceline.ro, accessed on January, 31, 2011
5. http://solarsales.ro/potential-eolian-romania accessed on February, 1, 2011
6. http://www.nestarconstruct.ro/harta-vanturilor-din-romania accessed on February,
2, 2011
7. http://www.mmediu.ro/protectia_naturii/protectia_naturii.htm accessed on February,
3, 2011
8. http://www.romaniadigitala.ro/ro/paduri.php, accessed on February,3, 2011
9. http://www.showcaves.com/english/ro/region/Karst.html accessed on February, 3,
2011
10. http://www.aircraft-charter-world.com/airports/europe/romania.htm accessed on
February, 3, 2011

Acknowledgments
This work was co-financed from the European Social Fund through
Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
Project number POSDRU/107/1.5/S/77213 „Ph.D. for a career in interdisciplinary
economic research at the European standards” (DOCCENT).

67
 ASSESSMENT OF WATER DEMANDS IN THE RURAL
SETTLEMENTS OF THE SOMEŞEAN PLATEAU

V. SOROCOVSCHI 1, HORVÁTH Cs.2

ABSTRACT. –Assessment of water demands in the rural settlements of the

Someşan Plateau. Through this paper we have evaluated four different water
demand calculations, which would allow the development of water supply
strategies on a short, medium and long term. Judging by the second variant of
calculation the total water needs of the localities, from the Someşean Plateau,
ranges from 40,9 l/s, for the first variant, to 199,4 l/s, in case of the second variant.
Water demand was estimated at administrative level (district, commune and
localities), for the main river basins and their related sub-basins, and also on a
geographical sub-units level. Regardless of the variant we used when calculating
the weight of units or analyzed subunits, this remains the same. For example, the
Cluj County holds 66.5% of the necessary water in the Someşean Plateau,
followed by the counties of Sălaj and Maramureş with 28.8% and 5.7%. The river
basins of Someş and Someşul Mic represent approximately equal weights (48.3%
and 48.6%), while the basin of Lăpuş is defined by a very small percentage. The
share that defines different administrative subunits, either geographical or
hydrographical, depends on the area, density and size of the related localities. The
share of water that belongs to each geographic subunit from the Someşean Plateau
ranges between 33.8% (in the Cluj Hills) and 6.3% (in the Sălătruc Hills). The
water volumes required annually by the Someşean Plateau localities oscillates
between 1288 m3, in the first case scenario and 6281 m3 in the fourth case. So, the
evaluated water volumes should be decreased, on average, by about 30%,
depending on the specific circumstances of the territories studied by taking into
account the unfavorable position of some towns to the main hydrographical
course, the size of settlements, as well as the opportunities of their future
development.

Key words: water necessity, specific water consumption, Someşean Plateau, rural
settlements

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Integrant part of the Transylvanian Depression, the Someşean Plateau

represents the North – North-Western compartment of it, the most extended unit
from the three subdivisions of the Transylvanian Plateau. The geographic
individuality of the Someşean Plateau is imposed not only by the river network but

1
Babes-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Geography, 5-7 Clinicilor Street,
400006. Cluj-Napoca, Romania. E-mail: sorocovschi@yahoo.com
2
Babes-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Geography, 5-7 Clinicilor Street,
400006. Cluj-Napoca, Romania. E-mail: hcsaba@gmail.com

68
also by the relatively wet and cool climate, determined by the predominance of the
higher relief and the relatively easy advection of the western and north western air
masses through the “Poarta Someşană”.
Adding to these, the particularities of the bio-pedo-geographic cover,
manifested in the predominance of the forestry – predominantly maintained in the
high hills- and the luvisoils at different grades of argil-lluviation. Another
particularity of the region is the lack of cities, which are grouped in the Someşul
Mic Valley, and at the
confluence of the two Someş
Rivers, the Someşul Mic and
the Someşul Mare rivers.
The small and mid
sized rural settlements are
situated, in most cases, in the
major river valleys, in the
tributaries or at the inflow
basinets of these. According to
the particularities of the
geographic features, in the
Someşean Plateau, we can
delimitate more subdivisions
(Fig. 1).
The key elements
which were taken into
consideration at the assessment
of the present water needs were
the population numbers, the
number of small and large
animals, the economical
specifics and the social facilities
– utilities of the settlements.
In the assessment for
the population water needs
Fig. 1. Someşean Plateau main subdivisions (public and household needs)
there were considered the following four specific variants represented by four
contingency consumptions: 40 l/resident·day, 65 l/resident·day, 110 l/resident·day
and 195 l/resident·day.
In assessing the water need for the animals, there were considered the
following specific consumptions: 50 l / day for large animals and 8 l / day for small
animals. The total water requirement values, calculated for the four variants, in the
Someşean Plateau ranges between 40.9 l/s and 199.4 l/s.

69
 2. WATER DEMAND AT COUNTY LEVEL

For the four mentioned alternatives, the water demand was computed at the
level of settlement, communes and the Someşean Plateau related counties.
The assessed water needs for the Someş Plateau in the four variants of
calculation varies between 40.9 l / s ( in the 1st variant) and 199.4 l / s (in the 4th
variant) (Table 1).

Tabel 1. Corresponding water demand variants

in the Someşean Plateau related counties
Water needs variants (l/s)
County
I II III IV
Cluj 26.796 43.543 73.689 130.630
Sălaj 11.755 19.101 32.325 57.304
Maramureş 2.344 3.808 6.445 11.425
Total 40.895 66.452 112.459 199.359

Regardless the computation variant, the percentage on the three counties

from the total water demand remains the same. Thus, Cluj County ranks first with
66.5% of the necessary water of the Someş Plateau, followed by the counties of
Salaj by 28.8% and Maramures with 5.7% (Fig. 2).

Mara- l/s
mureş 140
5.7%
120
100
80
Sălaj
28.8% 60
40
20 Cluj
0 Sălaj
Cluj
V1 Maramureş
65.5% V2 V3
V4

Fig. 2. Comparison of water needs Fig. 3. Water demand on county level assessed
on counties related to the with the four computation variants
Someşean Plateau

The differences between corresponding values for the extreme water needs
variants calculations, at the county level, are very large and can be provided in
stages. In Cluj County the difference between the mentioned computed variants is
103.8 l / s, and for the settlements related to Salaj county is 45.6 l / s (fig 3).

70
 Analyzing the water demand measured at the parish level by the second
variant of calculation, it is noted that of all communes (39), only in two (Aghiresu
and Baciu) the water necessity is included in the range between 5 and 6 l / s.

In the water demand

interval of 3 and 4 l/s only one
5.1% commune (Căşeiu) is included, and
2.6% 12.8% between 2 and 3 l/s nine
communes, which represent 23.1 %
23.1% of the total demand. The most
communes are included in the water
39 demand interval of 1 and 2 l/s
(56.4%) and those included in the
interval of 0 and 1 l/s represent a
56.4% much smaller percent (fig. 4).
The weight of water
demand on different communes has
0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 5-6 been assessed also on the three
counties related to the Someşan
Fig.4. Communes weight assessed on the Plateau. This depends on two para-
water demand intervals meters which are closely correlated:
the area owned by the county in the
study area and the number of the involved communes. Of course, there are also
other parameters which intervene, included such as the number of population in the
commune center and villages, the morpho-logical features of the landscape etc. So,
the communes related to Cluj County are included in the five defined water
requirement intervals, but in area related to Salaj and Maramures counties there
were no communes in which the water demand exceeded 3 l / s or 2 l / s.
Whichever variant of calculation we use, the weight held from the water
demand, by communes in the Cluj County, is maintained between 0.02% (Apahida
represented by a single town) and 13.4% (Baciu). From the Cluj County water
necessity a large weight is assigned to Aghiresu (12.5%), Căşeiu (7.7%) and
Chinteni (5.3%) communes. Smaller percentages of 4 and 5 % have Chiueşti,
Gârbău, Sânpaul and Câţcău, also between 3 and 4 % the communes Vad, Bobâlna
and Aşchileu.
From the Salaj county water necessity, the communes of Gârbou, Gâlgău
and Ileanda each hold between 11 and 12%, and the percentages in the communes
Surduc (10.9%), Letca (10.6%) and Băbeni (9.3% ) are close to these. Lower
percentages, between 5 and 7%, occur in the communes of Cristolţ, Şimişna,
Poiana Blenchii, Zalha, Rus and Lozna (fig.5).
The communes of Maramures County, which are related to the Someşean
Plateau, are few and have weights ranging from 8,8% (Valea Chioarului) and
36.2% (Coroieni) from the total water demand. In the other two other communes
the weight is between 26 and 30%, Boiu Mare (28.7%) and Vima Mică (26.2%).

71
 Lozna Zalha
Gârbou Rus
5.0% 5.8%
11.6% 5.3%
Gâlgău Poiana
11.2% Blenchii
5.9%

Ileanda Şimişna
11.2% 6.4%
Cristolţ
Surduc Băbeni 7.0%
10.9% Letca 9.3%
10.6%

Fig.5. Weight of communes, from the water demand,

assessed at the Sălaj County level.

Calculation of water demands at local level reveals a number of other

spatial and quantitative features, which are useful in determining the water supply
systems in the Someş Plateau. So, out of the total 215 localities, in nearly one
quarter (22.3%) the assessed water demand has values below 0.100 l/s and this may
be ensured in most cases from their own. The settlements included in this category
do not require their involvement in water supply systems. Exceptions are only
those that are in advantageous situation regarding the main supply network.
If we take into account that, localities with water demand between 0,100
and 0,200 l/s (24.2% of total) are located unfavorably regarding the water supply
network, the required water demand of the Someş Plateau rural areas are far
reduced from the first stage of evaluation.
The number of localities with water requirements greater than 0.200 l/s,
represent a little more than half of rural settlements of the Someşan Plateau
(53.5%).

3. WATER DEMAND COMPUTED AT WATERSHEDS LEVEL

The water demand for the four calculated variants was computed at the
level of the first-order watersheds of the major collectors (Someş, Smeşu Mic and
Lăpuş).
From the analysis of the total water requirement at the level of the three
major watersheds stands out the fact, that from the entire 66.391 l/s (2nd variant),
which represents the Someşean Plateau total water necessity, the Someş and
Someşului Mic watersheds have approximately equal weights (48,3 % and 48,6 %)
while the Lapus catchment represents only a very small percentage (3,1 %).
Whichever variant of calculation, the weights remain the same, only the total water
requirement values range between 40 856 l / s (variant I) and 199,175 l / s (variant
IV).

72
 Codor Intefluviu
3.2% 5.8%
Mărului
3.8%

Lujerdiu
6.2% Fig. 6. Assessed water
demand related to the
Nadăş Someşul Mic River
Lonea 48.6%
11.4% catchment

Borşa
14.8%

Feiurdeni Valea
0.8% Caldă Chinteni
0.3% 5.1%

The assessed water needs in the Someşul Mic watershed (computed with
whichever variant), almost half is represented by the Nadăs basin (48.6%). This is
followed by the Borşa and Lone rivers, which hold between 10% and 15% of the
total water demand (Fig. 6). And lastly, with insignificant water demand appears
Valea Caldă and Feiurdeni (less than 1%).
Olpret
5.2%
Sălătruc
Interfluviu 15.0%
30.1%

Vad
3.4%

Fig. 7. Water demand

Poiana assessed in the
9.8% catchments related to
the Someş River
Brâglez
11.2% Şimişna
8.8%
Iapa
Cristolţel 2.7%
Lozna Ileanda
6.4%
2.3% 5.1%

From the assessed water demand in the Someş Basin, the most significant
percentage, between 9% and 15%, have the following sub-basins: Sălătruc,
Brâglez, Poiana and Şimişna; and the rest, represent a much smaller percentage,
between 3% and 6% (Fig. 7).

73
 4. WATER DEMAND COMPUTED AT GEOGRAPHICAL
SUBUNIT LEVEL

The knowledge of the water demand required by the rural areas, at

geographical subunit level, is useful in the research conducted by specialists
dealing with the regional sustainable development studies. Like in case of the water
demand assessment at catchment level, the required water volume depends on the
area, the density and size of rural settlements. Thus, the localities of Cluj Hills,
which cover the largest surface from the Someşean Plateau, regardless of the
variant of calculation, require the largest quantities of water from 13,8 l/s (1st
variant) to 67,4 l/s (2nd variant).
The Someş Corridor ranks second in the amount of water demand,
however occupies a smaller area than the other subunits (Şimişna-Garbou Hills Dej
Hills, Purcăret Boiu-Mare Plateau), but it has a much higher density of rural
settlements. So, the water requested by the rural settlements in the Someş Corridor
has been evaluated at values between 7.9 l/s in case of the 1st variant and 38,6 l/s in
the 2nd variant.
The smallest quantities of water are needed by the settlements of the
Sălătrucului hills, between 2.6 l/s and 12.6 l/s (Table 3).

Tabel 2. Computed water demands in the main geographical subunits

of the Someşean Plateau
Geographical Water demand variant (l/s)
subunit name I II III IV
Clujului Hills 13.8 22.5 38.0 67.4
Dejului Hills 7.0 11.4 19.3 34.3
Şimişna-Gârbou Hills 5.5 8.9 15.1 26.7
Someşului Corridor 7.9 12.9 21.8 38.6
Purăreţ-Boiu Mare Plateau 4.1 6.6 11.2 19.8
Sălătrucului Hills 2.6 4.2 7.1 12.6
Total 40.9 66.5 112.5 199.4

The weight held, from the total water demand, evaluated at the entire
Someş Plateau by the settlements of Dej Hills (17.2%) and the Someş Corridor
(19,4%) are close in magnitude. These are followed in sequence by the Şimişna -
Garbou Hills with 13,4%.
Also the Purcaret Boiu-Mare Plateau’s settlements water demand is
relatively small, representing only 9,9% of the total water necessity in the Someş
Plateau. The explanation is that however the Purcaret Boiu-Mare Plateau occupies
a very important area, though the density and the population of the rural
settlements are reduced.

74
 5. CONCLUSIONS

The annual water volumes required by the settlements of the Someşean

Plateau oscillate between 1288 m3, 1st variant, and 6281 m3 in the fourth variant
(Table 3).

Tabel 3. Water volumes required by settlements

at the major watersheds level
Water demand variant (m3)
Watersheds
I II III IV
Someşu Mic 627 1019 1724 3056
Someş 621 1010 1710 3031
Lăpuş 40 65 109 194
Total 1288 2094 3543 6281

The assessment of water demand in several variants enables decision

makers to develop strategic plans for the rural settlements water supply, for short,
medium and long terms.
Knowing the water demand at watersheds, administrative units and
geographic subunits level is necessary for long time planning and integrated
management of water resources. It is also important in the knowledge of water
necessity at the level of counties, communes and villages to eliminate existing
faults or others that may occur in the water supply of settlements. The geographic
subunits water demand assessment provides useful data in regional studies
conducted by experts in various fields (geography, environment, agriculture, etc.).

REFERENCES

1. Băcănaru, I., Cândea, V.(1977), Aspecte geografice în alimentarea cu apă a

localitaţilor rurale şi urbane din România, SCGGG, geogr. XXIV, 2,
Bucureşti.
2. Buta, I., Sorocovschi, V.(1975), Aspecte privind alimentările cu apă potabilă
şi industrială din bazinul Someşului Mic, SUBB, Geol.-Geogr., Cluj.
3. Mănescu, Al., Sandu, M., Ianculescu, O.(1994), Alimentări cu apă, Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti.
4. Maier, Q., Mocrei, I.(1996), Utilizarea terenurilor şi rezervele de apă
subterană din Podişul Someşan, Analele Universităţii “Ştefan cel Mare”
Suceava, An V, Edit. Universitate, Suceava.
5. Sorocosvchi, V.(1999), Alimentarea cu apă a Câmpiei Transilvaniei (partea a
III-a), SUBB, Geogr., XLIV, 1, Cluj-Napoca.
6. Sorocovschi, V.(1999), Disfuncţionalităţi în alimentarea cu apă în zone de
contact interjudeţene, SUBB,Geogr., XLIV, 2,Cluj-Napoca.
7. Sorocovschi, V., Pop, R. (2001), Aspecte privind alimentarea cu apă a
oraşelor din Judeţul Cluj, SUBB,Geogr.2, XLVI, Cluj-Napoca.

75
 SAP FLOW RESPONSE OF CHERRY TREES
TO WEATHER CONDITION

Á. JUHÁSZ1, K. HROTKÓ2, L. TŐKEI1

ABSTRACT. – Sap flow response of cherry trees to weather condition. The

main goal of our study is to measure water-demand of cherry trees budded onto
different rootstocks by sapflow equipment and to study the sap flow response to the
meteorological factors. The investigations are carried out in Soroksár in Hungary at
‘Rita’ sweet cherry orchard. The pattern of sapflow was analyzed in relation of
solar radiation, vapour pressure deficit and air temperature. Between solar radiation
and sap flow was found a parabolic relation, daily pattern of sapflow is in close
relation (cubic) also to vapour pressure deficit. No significant relationship existed
between sapflow and air temperature. The sapflow performance of sweet cherry
trees on different rootstocks showed typical daily characters.

Keywords: meteorological factors, water uptake, sap flow, Prunus Mahaleb

1. INTRODUCTION

Sap flow (SF) measurement system is well known tool to estimate the
water consumption of the trees, apart from it following the sap flow parallel the
current weather circumstances the soil-plant-air interaction can be understood.
Systematic attention has been intended to the study of transpiration in many
scientific disciplines: in the physiology of plants, hydrology, ecology, and
meteorology (Prazák et al., 1994; Granier et al., 2000; Lagergren and Lindroth,
2002; Daudet et al., 1999; Montero et al., 2001).
The capacity of carrying water from the soil to the leaves is regarded as a
limiting factor, and the plant is considered to be capable of regulating the water
output by transpiration depending on the water content in the plant body (Prazák et
al., 1994). Estimation of stand transpiration requires analysis of among-tree
variation of sap flow (Köstner et al., 1996), which is commonly scaled up to stand
level and considered as representing transpiration (Lagergren and Lindroth, 2002).
Recent findings suggested that sapflow or transpiration of trees may be closely
linked to plant hydraulic variables and environmental factors (Du and Yang, 1995;
Cienciala et al., 1997; Lagergren and Lindroth, 2002). There is increasing evidence
of higher frequency of climatic extremes as a result of global climatic change (Karl
et al., 1995). The annual variability of precipitation may be high and distribution of
rainfall during the growing season very uneven (Mika, 2011; Bartholy et al., 2010).

1
Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Sciences Department of Soil Science and
Water Management (H-1118, Budapest, Villányi u. 29-43.) e-mail: agota.juhasz @uni-corvinus.hu
2
Corvinus University of Budapest, Faculty of Horticultural Sciences, Department of Floriculture and
Dendrology (H-1118, Budapest, Villányi u. 29-43.)

76
This may affect uncertainty in the fruit production. There has been increasing proof
on the impact of climatic factors on water fluxes (Oltchev et al., 2002; Devitt et al.,
1997; Calder et al., 1997; Welander and Ottosson, 2000). If the environmental
factors vary, sap flow can fluctuate widely. It is therefore important to study the
sap flow and associated mechanisms under different wheater conditions.
Sweet cherry is important commercial plantation and one of the pioneer
species used successful in Hungarian fruit market (Hrotkó et al., 2009). In spite of
it there is not any exact information on water use of high density sweet cherry
orchards.
SF of ‘Rita’ sweet cherry trees on sandy soil in Soroksár was monitored by
the heat balance Dynamax packaged SF measuring system in the vegetation period
of 2009. Furthermore global radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, precipi-
tation and soil moisture were measured synchronously. The SF measurements are
carried out using Dynamax Flow 32 equipment with Dynagage SF gauges
(Dynamax Inc., Houston, TX, USA) developed from the designs published by
Sakuratini (1981,1984), Baker and Van Bavel (1987) and Steinberg et al.
(1989,1990b). In our study we analyzed the sap flow rate of the trees on four
different rootstocks as a function with meteorological parameters.

2. MATERIAL AND METHOD

The investigations were carried out in Soroksár (47°22’N,19°09E, 103 m

above sea level) at the Experimental Farm of Corvinus University of Budapest on
four selected trees in sixth leaf. The cultivar is ‘Rita’, ripening early, between 22 -28
May. The selected trees were budded onto Prunus mahaleb ’Érdi V’ seedlings, on
’Korponay’ seedlings, on Prunus canescens x Prunus cerasus GiSeLA 6, and on
Mazzard (Prunus Avium). As the growth vigor of rootstocks concerns, based on the
tree size in average of 9 trees the ’Érdi V’ is considered as vigorous, while ‘Kor-
ponay’ as moderate vigorous, according to investigations of Gyeviki et al. (2009).
The experimental orchard is planted to 4 x 2 m spacing with 1250 treesha-1
density in spring 2004. Trees are trained to Hungarian spindle (Hrotkó et al., 2007).
The applied heat balance method for measuring SF rates is practical and capable of
great precision. In general, installation of the gauges followed procedures
recommended by the manufacturer (Dynamax, 1990). Measurements were made by
gauges SGA50-ws (trunk diameter: 45-65 mm), SGA70-ws (trunk diameter: 65-90
mm). The measurements were carried out by sensors set on the trunk at 40-50 cm
height from the soil surface under the leaf canopy.
Sap flow was measured between May and August of 2009, on 45 sample
days. Air temperature, precipitation, air humidity, soil moisture at two different
depth were also measured parallel with sap flow direct in the canopy (Fig 1.). The
daily observation was round the clock, outputs from the gauges were monitored
every 15 sec and signals were recorded as 15 min averages apart from some error.
Global radiation was registered by the Hungarian Meteorological Service, in
Pestszentlőrinc 10 km far from our field.

77
 Fig 1. Precipitation, irrigation and soil moisture on the research field

In the investigated period at the experimental area was 204.1 mm

precipitation and the area was irrigated by dropping system with 80.25 mm water.
During May and August fell circa half of the average precipitation of the flavoured
in this months. In June rained 117.4 mm which is twice of the revealing mean. In
July the area is come in for 80% of average rain amount. Based on the soil
moisture content monitored at 30 and 60 cm depth can be said that the fisrt period
of the investigation when there was adequate amount of precipitation and
irrigation, the soil moisture was higher in the upper (30cm) zone while in the first
dry decade of July, the water loss of the soil surface increased by evaporation that
why the deeper soil layer (60cm) was more wet temporally.

3. RESULTS

We have made dimensionless profiles for the 45 measured day for each
rootstocks to show the correlation between the sap flow and the meteorological
elements. First we searched for the highest global radiation value. At the time of
the highest radiation rate, we checked the sap flow, vapor pressure deficit, and
temperature data, and have done with that values the dimensionless profiles. As the
figures show there is positive nonlinear correlation between daily SF and vapor
pressure deficit (VPD), with the increasing VPD sap flow rises cubic (Fig 2.). SF
of trees is very intensive by the decreasing air humidity. Between SF and global
radiation there is parabolic relation (Fig 3.). High level of global radiation might
limit water use. In this case stomas are going to close to avoid more water loss by
the transpiration. The relation between the SF and temperature is not so obvious.

78
 Fig 2. Non-linear regression between the sap flow related
to the vapor pressure deficit f(x)=ax3+bx2+cx+d

Fig 3. Non-linear regression between the sap flows related to the global radiation
f(x)=a(x-b)2+c

Typical diurnal sap flow (SF) course are shown on Fig 4. and Fig 5. In the
morning around 6:00 a.m. started the increasing sap flow which became quite
quick and reached the first daily maximum (1.7 lh-1) around 8:00, between 10:00
and 14:00 there is not so high variability in the transpiration, the curves can be

79
marked by plateau. On the two selected days the second highest level is shown
between 14:00-16:00. Comparing to the very intensive morning sap-flow after
18:00 p.m. the water flow slowly reached the minimal level. Daily SF curves of
trees with different rootstocks run near to each other and SF reach the peaks almost
at the same period. On the13th of May there was 3.5 mm irrigation and the day
before 7.5 mm, in the previous 10 days there was not any rainfall, and the soil
moisture set ~0.15VV%. At the 80% of the day sap flow did not exceed 1lh-1. On
the 3th of July between 8:00 and 16:00 the SF passed 1lh-1. In the previous 10 days
fell 61.4 mm precipitation.

Fig 4. The daily sap flow trend on the selected day

4. CONCLUSION
The sap flow course is determined by the current weather conditions. The
most important factor which has an effect for the water uptake is the global
radiation and vapor pressure deficit. It can be written by parabolic and cubic
functions.
Many reports exist about studying the influence of light, drought, temperature and
soil fertilization on transpiration (Welander and Ottosson, 2000; Montero et al.,
2001), controlled under some special experimental conditions. The data we report
was obtained under field conditions. Our results suggested that air VPD and global
radiation were the major factors determining SF, while air temperature were only
minor factors, which accorded with the studies of Daudet et al.(1999) on Juglans
regia L. Strong positive correlation between daily transpiration rate and daytime
mean VPD for E. grandis and P. radianta was also found by Myers et al.(1998).
Considerable differences are found between trees on different rootstocks in the
daily sap flow course. On the selected days the sap flow of the tree budded on
dwarfing rootstock starts the most intensive.

80
 Fig 5. The daily sap flow trend on the selected day

REFERENCES

1. Baker, J. M., and C.H.M. van Bavel, (1987), Measurement of mass flow of water
in the stems of herbaceous plants, Plant Cell Envir. 10:777-782.
2. Bartholy J., Pongracz R. (2010), Analysis of precipitation conditions for the
Carpathian Basin based on extreme indices in the 20th century and climate
simulations for the 21st century, Physics and Chemistry of Earth, 35: 43-51.
doi:10.1016/j.pce.2010.03.011 (IF: 0.975)
3. Calder, I.R., Rosier, P.T.W., Prasanna, K.T., Parameswarappa, S., (1997),
Eucalyptus water use greater than rainfall input a possible explanation from
southern India, Hydrol. Earth System Sci., 1:246-256.
4. Cienciala, E., Kucera, J., Lindroth, A., Čermák, J., Grelle, A., Halldin, S., (1997),
Canopy transpiration from a boreal forest in Sweden during a dry year, Agr. For.
Meteorol., 86:157-167.
5. Daudet, F.A., Le, X.R., Sinoquet, H., Adam, B., (1999), Wind speed and leaf
boundary layer conductance variation within tree crown−Consequences on leaf-
to-atmosphere coupling and tree functions, Agr. For. Meteorol., 97:171-185.
6. Devitt, D.A., Piorkowski, J.M., Smith, S.D., Cleverly, J.R., Sala, A., (1997), Plant
water relations of Tamarix ramosissima in response to the imposition and
alleviation of the soil moisture stress J. Arid Environ., 36: 527-540.
7. Du, Z.C., Yang, Z.G., (1995), Comparative study on the characteristics of
photosynthesis and transpiration in Aneurolepidium chinensis of different soil
types Acta Bot. Sin., 37(1):66-73.
8. Dynamax, 1990. Dynagage TM Installation and Operation Manual, Dynamax,
Houston, TX, USA. P. 80.

81
 9. Granier, A., Biron, P., Lenoine, D., (2000), Water balance, transpiration and
canopy conductance in two beech stand Agr. For. Meteorol., 100:291-308.
10. Gyeviki, M., Magyar, L., Bujdosó, G., Szügyi, S. and Hrotkó, K. (2009),
Evaluation of Hungarian Mahaleb rootstocks with new sweet cherry cultivars, 6th
ISHS International Cherry Symposium, Renaca Vina del Mar, Chile Book of
Abstracts, 149.
11. Hrotkó, K., Magyar, L., Simon, G. and Gyeviki, M., (2007), Development in
intensive orchard systems of cherries in Hungary, Int. Journal of Horticultural
Science, 13.(3) 79-86.
12. Hrotkó Károly, Magyar Lajos, Hoffmann Sarolta, Gyeviki Márta (2009),
Rootstock evaluation in intensive sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) orchard.
International Journal of Horticultural Science 3, 7-12.
13. Karl, T.R., Knight, R.W., Plummer, N., (1995), Trends in high frequency climatic
variability in the twentieth century Nature, 377:217-220.
14. Köstner, B., Biron, P., Siegwolf, R., Granier, A., (1996), Estimates of water vapor
flux and canopy conductance of Scots pine at the tree level utilizing different xylem
sap flow methods Theor. Appl. Climat., 53:105-113.
15. Lagergren, F., Lindroth, A., (2002), Transpiration response to soil moisture in
pine and spruce trees in Sweden Agr. For. Meteorol., 112:67-85.
16. Mika János (2011), 2010 szélsőségei, félidőben két IPCC Jelentés között, plenáris
előadás, 2011.január 19. Szentendre, III. Magyarországi Klímacsúcs
17. Montero, J.I., Antón, A., Lorenzo, P., (2001), Transpiration from geranium grown
under high temperatures and low humidities in greenhouses Agr. For. Meteorol.,
107: 323-332.
18. Myers, B.J., Benyon, R.G., Theiveyanathan, S., Criddle, R.S., Smith, C.J.,
Falkiner, R.A., (1998), Response of effluent-irritated Eucalyptus grandis and
Pinum radiata to salinity and vapor pressure deficits,Tree Physiol., 18:565-573.
19. Oltchev, A., Cermak, J., Gurtz, J., Tishenko, A., Kiely, G., Nadezhdina, N., Zappa,
M., Lebedeva, N., Vitvar, T., Albertso, J.D., Tatarinov, F., Tishenko, D.,
Nadezhdin, V., Kozlov, B., Ibrom, A., Vygodskaya, N., Gravenhorst, G., (2002),
The response of the water fluxes of the boreal forest region at the Volga.s source
area to climatic and land-use changes. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth,
27:675-690.
20. Prazák, J., .ír, M., Tesař, M., (1994), Estimation of plant transpiration from
meteorological data under conditions of sufficient soil moisture J Hydrol., 162:
409-427.
21. Sakuratini, T., (1981), A heat balance method for measuring water flux in the stem
of intact plants, J. Agric. Meteor.37:9-17.
22. Sakuratini, T., (1984), Improvement of the probe for measuring water flow rate in
intect plants with the stem heat balance method, J. Agric. Meteor. 40:273-277.
23. Steinberg, S.L., C.H.M. van Bavel, and M.J. McFarland (1989), A gauge to
measure mass flow of sap in stems and trunks of woody plants, J. Am. Soc.
Hort.Sci.114:466-472.
24. Steinberg, S.L., C.H.M. van Bavel, and M.J. McFarland (1990), Improved sap
flow gauge for woody and herbaceous plants, Agron. J. 82:851-854.
25. Welander, N.T, Ottosson, B. (2000), The influence of low light, drought and
fertilization on transpiration and growth in young seedlings of Quercus robur L.
For. Ecol. Manage., 127:139-151.

82
 LEGAL ASPECTS REGARDING THE COOPERATION
UNDER THE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT
OF ROMANIA AND THE GOVERNMENT OF HUNGARIAN REPUBLIC
ON THE COOPERATION FOR THE TRANSBOUNDARY
WATERCOURSES PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE USE
CASE STUDY: BARCĂU RIVER BASIN

A.E. PETTER1, L. B8=2

Abstract: - Legal aspects regarding the cooperation under the Agreement

between the Government of Romania and the Government of Hungarian
Republic on the cooperation for the transboundary watercourses protection and
sustainable use. Case study: Barcau River Basin. By presenting the legal
aspects of the Agreement between the Government of Romania and the
Government of Hungarian Republic on the cooperation for the transboundary
watercourses protection and sustainable use implemented through the joint
Regulations, the collaboration details between the two countries are established,
underlining the most important objectives of it.
The case study shows the implementation of the general aspects in the
Barcău/Berettyó River Basin, namely: the meteorology and hydrology data and
information mutual transmission, water quality common assessment by the
evaluation of the physical-chemical and biological results of the analyses
performed on water samples commonly, the presentation of the water sampling
and flow rate measurement sections, of the intervention sections in case of oil
products accidental pollution and the hydrometric stations, their placement on the
watercourses, the flood protection elevations and the transmission frequency of the
elevations during special situations and the flood common assessment.
The concept of river basin water management according to the Water Framework
Directive (2000/60/CE) is better illustrated within the transboundary areas, when
two or more countries have to jointly manage the same water resource without
prejudices on any party. The idea of “river basin solidarity” must have the
precedence, when the dialog and the communication have an important role.

Key words: transboundary water sustainable development, water quality common

assessment, meteorology and hydrology data and information mutual transmission,
Water Framework Directive.

1. Introduction: Background of the Romanian - Hungarian hydrotech-

nical cooperation
The first water agreement between the two countries was signed at
Bucharest, on April 14th, 1924, being in force until 1945. Collaboration periods
followed, namely 1945-1961, 1962-1965, 1965-1970, 1970-1986 and the

1
Ministry of Environment and Forest, 12 Libertăţii Blvd., sector. 5 Bucharest, anna.peter@mmediu.ro
2
Crisuri River Basin Directorate, 35 Ion Bogdan Str., Oradea, Bihor County,
loredana.buz@dac.rowater.ro

83
agreement was revised four times. On June 25th, 1986 in Bucharest, the Convention
between the Government of Romania and the Government of Hungarian Republic
regarding the regulation of the hydro-technical issues of the boundary and
transboundary watercourses was signed. The Convention came into force on
November 20th, 1986.
Based on the experience and the good results reached by the
implementation of the Convention and aiming to develop their cooperation for
boundary and transboundary water protection and sustainable use, transboundary
ground water and ecosystems protection, the Romanian Government and the
Hungarian Government started the negotiation of a new agreement in line with the
provisions of the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/CE (WFD) that came into
effect on December 22nd, 2000. Within the EU accession process, both states
harmonized their national legislation with the EU WFD.
The Agreement between the Government of Romania and the Government of
Hungarian Republic on the cooperation for the transboundary watercourses
protection and sustainable use has been signed on September 15th, 2003 and has
been approved by the Romanian Government through the Governmental Decision
no. 577/2004, being published in the Official Journal no.400 dated May 5th, 2004.

2. Legal aspects regarding the Romanian-Hungarian hydrotechnical

cooperation

The Agreement covers the following Rivers: Tur, Someş, Crasna, Barcău,
Ier, Crişul Repede, Crişul Negru, Crişul Alb and Mureş.
The most important objectives are: reaching a good water status, water
status damage prevention and pollution control, prevention, limitation and control
of the extreme events effects on the transboundary watercourses, (floods, droughts,
accidental pollution) development of the water quality monitoring and assessment
systems, water resources sustainable development, promotion of common
technological research and development within the Agreement areas.
The Agreement includes provisions regarding the ongoing and future
actions that might change the status of water, aquatic environment and biotope,
when these actions have effects on the transboundary water, mainly: water intakes
and discharges, wastewater discharges and leakages from point and diffuse
pollution sources, dangerous accidental water pollution that cannot be avoided and
removal of their effects, hydraulic works, flood control works and defense
measures against flooding from rivers and inland waters and against ice and water
courses regulation activities.
The Agreement provisions are implemented according to the Regulations
that establish the details of the Parties’ cooperation. The Romanian – Hungarian
hydrotechnical Commission has the authority to develop new regulations and to
revise the existing ones. Now the following Regulations are in force:
1. The Regulation regarding the organization and operation of the
Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission (Annex no.1 to the Protocol of

84
the 17th Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission, signed
in Oradea, on February 2nd, 2006);
2. The Regulation on border crossing and contact between water bodies of
Romania and the Republic of Hungary (Annex no.5 to the Protocol of the 18th
Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission, signed in
Nyiregyhaza, on March 30th, 2007);
3. The Regulation on information exchange and performance on a reciprocal
basis of the visual observation flights by the water management bodies from
Romania and the Republic of Hungary in cases of flooding extraordinary danger
from rivers and inland waters, and in case of accidental pollution with transboundary
effect (Annex no.5 to the Protocol of the 17th Session of the Romanian – Hungarian
hydrotechnical Commission, signed in Oradea, on February 2nd, 2006);
4. The Regulation on the procedure to follow in order to prevent, combat,
limit and control the adverse effects of the dangerous accidental pollution on rivers
that form or cross the Romanian – Hungarian border (Annex no.4 to the Protocol of
the 21st Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission, signed
in Tg. Mures, on April 16th, 2010);
5. The Regulation on the water courses flood control (Annex no.3 to the
Protocol of the 6th Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical
Commission, signed in Hajduszoboszlo, on June 11th, 1993);
6. The Regulation on the inland water courses flood control (Annex no.2 to
the Protocol of the 8th Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical
Commission, signed in Nyiregyhaza, on June 30th, 1995);
7. The Regulation on the expenditure reimbursement for water transfer and
internal water pumping (Annex no.2 to the Protocol of the 17th Session of the
Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission, signed in Oradea, on February
2nd, 2006);
8. The Regulation regarding the water quality monitoring on the rivers that
form or cross the Romanian – Hungarian border (Annex no.3 to the Protocol of the
17th Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission, signed in
Oradea, on February 2nd, 2006);
9. The Regulation on the meteorology and hydrology data and information
mutual transmission between Romania and the Republic of Hungary (Annex no.4
to the Protocol of the 17th Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical
Commission, signed in Oradea, on February 2nd, 2006);
10. The Regulation on the operation of Bekes dam at + 510 cm high on the
Hungarian territory correlated with Ant pumping station operation on the
Romanian territory (Annex no.4 to the Protocol of the 18th Session of the
Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission, signed in Nyiregyhaza, on
March 30th, 2007);
11. The Regulation on the systematic hydrometric observations and
common determination of the water resources of the border waters (Annex no.6 to
the Protocol of the 18th Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical
Commission, signed in Nyiregyhaza, on March 30th, 2007);

85
 12. The Regulation on the procedure to follow in case of examination of
the actions with possible transboundary effects (Annex no.7 to the Protocol of the
17th Session of the Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission, signed in
Oradea, on February 2nd, 2006);
13. The Regulation on the procedure applicable to projects likely to cause
transboundary impact (Annex no.6 to the Protocol of the 17th Session of the
Romanian – Hungarian hydrotechnical Commission, signed in Oradea, on February
2nd, 2006);
14. The Regulation regarding the collaboration between the territorial
bodies in case of low water levels (extraordinary) on the rivers within the
hydrographical subunits that form or cross the Romanian - Hungarian border
(Annex no.3 to the Protocol of the 21st Session of the Romanian – Hungarian
hydrotechnical Commission, signed in Tg. Mures, on April 16th, 2010);
The present collaboration refers to:
 the meteorology and hydrology data and information mutual transmission
between both Parties special units, aimed at detailed and operational
information on meteorological and hydrological phenomena ongoing or likely
to take place on the territories of the two countries in order to effectively serve
the national economies and to prevent or limit the damages caused by
hazardous weather and hydrological phenomena;
 joint assessment of the transboundary rivers water quality by evaluating the
results of the physical - chemical and biological samples from water samples
taken in common. In this context there is an annual intercalibration activity of
the laboratories of the two Parties, nominated for this activity;
 ensuring all the conditions agreed for the water management works within the
scope of the Agreement, namely: dams, sluices, dikes, pumping stations, etc.;
 regulatory and approval activities of all the works from both territories
according to the scope of the Agreement;
 monitoring of the Agreement and into force Regulations implementation by
organizing sessions of the Committees, subcommittees, examinations carried
out on both territories, etc.

Case study: Barcău/Berettyó River Basin

The Barcău/ Berettyó River Basin is located in the northern part of the
Crisuri River Basin, at the contact of the Plopisului Mountains and Silvaniei Hills.
Crossing the Romanian-Hungarian border, the length of this watercourse is of
195.6 km, of which 134 km in Romania and 61.6 km in Hungary, draining an area
of 6095 km2. From the spring to the junction with Crisul Repede River, in
Hungary, near Szeghalom, the river runs through various landforms - mountains,
hills, plains - highlighting, in physical - geographical terms, the of complexity of its
basin.

86
 The analyze of the flood occurred during June 16th, 1997 - June 21st, 1997
The joint Regulation on the water courses flood control stipulates the
measures that need to be taken and the necessary works that have to be performed
so that the flood and ice defense activity to be conducted in a coordinated and
operational manner before and not during high water and ice periods on the sectors
of the watercourses mentioned in the Regulation.
The defense measures during high floods are carried on in three phases:
Phase I of defense (defense preparedness), Phase II of defense (effective defense)
and Phase III of defense (intensive defense, extraordinary situation).
During Phase I of flood defense, the responsible local water management
authorities take the following measures, each on its own territory: put into service
the information, surveillance and security system, verification of the defense
constructions, installations, materials and means, eventually completing them,
monitoring the flow conditions, closing the sluices of the dikes according to the
sluices operation norms, keeping opened the dam locks; reading and registering the
water levels measured by the leveling rods is performed at 07 and 19 hours on the
Romanian territory and at 06 and 18 hours on the Hungarian territory and shall be
communicated to the competent local water management authorities of the other
Party at 08 and 20 hours, respectively at 07 and 19 hours.
Simultaneously with the transmission of the water levels, the data on the highest
elevations at the determinant leveling rods shall be transmitted.
During Phase II of flood defense, the responsible local water management
authorities take the following measures, each on its own territory: intensification of
the information, surveillance and security system activity, day and night
surveillance and security of the defense constructions and installations, tracking of
the flow conditions, performance, according to the necessities of the defense
works. The dam locks shall be kept opened and the dikes sluices shall be kept
closed. The reading and registering of the water elevations shall be done at every
six hours namely on the Romanian territory at 01, 07, 13 and 19 hours and on
Hungarian territory at 00, 06, 12, 18 hours. The critical levels shall be
communicated four times a day to the competent local water management bodies of
the other Party, in one and a half hour from the reading.
When the levels are transmitted, the most important events related to the flow
conditions and the status of the flood defense works are also communicated to the
other Party. There are also mutually transmitted data on the highest level of the
flood no later then three hours from its notice. During this phase, the Romanian
local water management authorities shall communicate the hydrological forecast
prepared for the determinant leveling rods.
During Phase III of flood defense, the responsible local water
management authorities take the following measures, each on its own territory:
further intensification of the information, surveillance and security system activity,
day and night surveillance and security of the defense constructions and
installations in the damaged areas, tracking of the flow conditions, performance,
according to the necessities of the defense works in order to limit the flood effects.

87
The dam locks shall be kept opened and the dikes sluices and pipes shall be kept
closed. The reading and registering of the water elevations shall be done
continuously at every two hours namely on the Romanian territory at odd hours
and on the Hungarian territory at even hours. The critical levels shall be
communicated six times a day to the competent local water management bodies of
the other Party, around 05, 09, 13, 17, 21 and 01 hours on the Romanian territory
and around 08, 12, 16, 20 and 24 hours on the Hungarian territory. In case of
extraordinary situations, by request, the levels may be transmitted at every two
hours.
In 1997 on Barcău/Berettyó River Basin territory a flood occurred for
which a Romanian-Hungarian evaluation was performed, in order to observe all the
unexpected phenomena that appear during floods, so that in the future the
necessary measures for the reduction of the catastrophic effects to be known.
The Romanian Party’s evaluation:
The peak at Sălard was due to the heavy rains from the middle and north-
east parts of the river basin and also to the large relief differences from the region.
Although the Ciutelec reservoir on Bistra River was put into service because of the
precipitation of 120 - 130 mm fallen on Bistra uncontrolled river basin, its
contribution was considerable, helping to increase the peak flow of Barcău River at
Salard hydrometric station, where the highest flow rate so far with a probability of
1 - 2% was recorded. In addition, flood flows have increased significantly from the
earlier rains of 30 - 40 mm, and in approx. 3 - 4 days they have caused the flood.
The Hungarian Party’s evaluation:
Due to the rainfall from the Barcău river basin on Romanian territory
during June 14th – 15th that reached in many locations even 100 mm (Marghita,
Chiribiş, Marca, Săcuieni and Suplacu de Barcău), a flood exceeding the Phase III
level formed (Table no.1, Figure no.1). The flood was due to the heavy rain of
great intensity fallen in short time, which discharge was not even delayed by the
influence of Crisuri afflux. Thus, the intensity of the flood increased on the upper
sectors, while on the lower sector at Szeghalom it was already decreased. The river
reached the peak of 521 cm at Kismarjá remaining to 21 cm below the maximum
water level recorded by then. The flood was not important from the dike pressure
point of view, but the intensity of the increase on the upper sector (Kismarja: 30
cm/hour) exceeded any value until then. The elevations reached peaks during two
days on Barcău River.

Table no. 1 The flow rates recorded during June 16th – 21st, 1997
Date MARCA SĂLARD POCSAJ BERETTYOUJFALU
15.06.1997 06:00 8.01
15.06.1997 12:00 34.4 41.6
15.06.1997 15:00 44.7 38
15.06.1997 18:00 36 89 24.5
15.06.1997 24:00 23.3 244 44
16.06.1997 06:00 13.2 310 101 24.3

88
 Date MARCA SĂLARD POCSAJ BERETTYOUJFALU
16.06.1997 12:00 12.8 284 148 41
16.06.1997 15:00 12.4 262 153 56
16.06.1997 18:00 8.01 244 152 181
17.06.1997 06:00 186 117 169
17.06.1997 12:00 160 106 162
17.06.1997 18.00 135 97.8 150
18.06.1997 06.00 106 82.4 124
18.06.1997 07:00 103 81.3 121
18.06.1997 18:00 73.4 69.4 103
19.06.1997 06:00 57.3 60 84.6
19.06.1997 18:00 42.4 52.5 72.8
20.06.1997 06:00 32.9 48.3 64.8
21.06.1997 06:00 24.2 42 51.5

Figure 1. The hydrograph of the flood from June 16th – 21st, 1997

CONCLUSIONS:
1. There is a very good collaboration related to the emergency situations
between the water management authorities of the two Parties.
2. The high elevations and the afflux influence on the Crişuri Rivers
represent a flood risk on the Barcău River junction sector also in the situation when
from the river upper sector there is no flood occurring.
3. Due to the narrow dike bank area of the Barcău River, a further
narrowing of this area or the afforestation is not allowed because these activities
would worsen the conditions of drainage.
4. The floods formed on the Ier upper river basin are mitigated in Andrid
reservoir.

89
 5. The reservoirs on Barcău and Ier tributaries from the Romanian territory
have a positive influence in flood mitigation.
6. The flood occurred on the basin depend of the rainfall repartition on the
basin area and of their quantity and intensity and can not offset the endemic areas,
where floods appear more frequently.
7. The floods occurred in the upper areas may have more peaks or a
singular character, but in the downstream area due to the propagation and river bed
storage, although composed, the floods generally have two peaks split by a bridge
of flow rates, having high values similar to these peaks.
8. The efficiency of Ciutelec reservoir on Bistra River is noticeable in
flood mitigation on this tributary, excepting the cases when heavy rainfalls occur
on the rest of the Bistra River Basin up to the discharge in Barcău River.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Măhăra, Gh. (1977), Crişurilor Plain. Physical-geographical study, from the

volume „ Crişurilor Plain, Crişul Repede, Ţara Beiuşului. Research of Romania’s
geography”, Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing, Bucharest;
2. Posea, Gr. (1997), Western Plain of Romania (Banato-Crişana Plain), „România
de Mâine” Foundation Publishing, Bucharest;
3. Ujvari, I. (1972), The geography of Romania’s watercourses, Bucharest Scientific
Publishing House;
4. *** (1992),The Geography of Romania, vol. IV, Bucharest Academy Publishing;
5. The Governmental Decision no. 577/2004, published in the Official Journal
no.400 dated May 5th, 2004 for the approval of the Agreement between the
Government of Romania and the Government of Hungarian Republic on the
cooperation for the transboundary watercourses protection and sustainable use,
signed on September 15th, 2003, in Budapest.
6. Study: The hydrography and floods of Barcău River – Crişuri River Basin
Directorate and TIKÖVIZIG Debrecen;
7. ***, The Archive of the Crişuri River Basin Directorate, from Oradea;
8. ***, The Archive of the Water and Environment Protection Directorate
(Tikövizig), from Debrecen.

90
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HEAVY RAINFALL PARAMETERS
IN THE NORTH-WESTERN ROMANIA

T. TUDOSE1, F. MOLDOVAN2

ABSTRACT. - Characteristics of heavy rainfall parameters in the north-

western Romania. The paper analyzes the frequency, duration, intensity and
quantity of heavy rains in north-western Romania, based on data from 14
meteorological stations in that area, located in different terrain conditions, using
1975-2009 period. Identification of the torrential rains was made on Hellmann’s
criteria. In the review period were identified 271 torrential rainfall events,
representing only 0.89% of all precipitation cases with significant intensity in
generating liquid surface flow. During the year, the highest frequency of
occurrence is from June to August (between 61.5 and 90% of cases), with a slight
predominance of June. In terms of duration, the highest shares of torrential rains
have 3-6 hours (37.3%), followed by those of 1 to 2 hours (25.1%), this structure
revealing different genetic conditions. Diurnal variation shows maximum
occurrence of heavy rains in the afternoon and evening (between 13 and 20
Romanian Summer Time - RST), the phenomena starting earlier in mountainous
areas (11-12 RST) and later in the lowlands (16-17 RST). Water amounts varies
quite large, with values ranging between 1.2 and 82.7 mm, and their average
intensity is between 0.12 and 1.80 mm/min, being noticed a strong correlation
between average duration and intensity of rainfall, it ultimately reducing the growing period.

Keywords: heavy rain, diurnal variation, intensity, Northwestern Romania

1. INTRODUCTION

Taking into account the spatial and temporal manifestations of heavy rains
characteristics, these are extreme precipitation events, whose analysis is important
because of their effects (floods, spills on the slopes and intense training material,
etc.). In order to improve the knowledge of the event, there were made a series of
studies aimed at the phenomenon as a whole or its particularities. Gorbatchev
(1923), studying the relationship between the duration, intensity and frequency of
rains, showed that each region had a maximum potential for precipitation of a rain
event, which depends on the system that generates it and the landscape features.
Predescu (1937), in a study of the rain events over 20 mm per hour fell to
Cluj in the summer months (April-October) during 1929-1936, analyzed the
statistical characteristics of rainfalls, observing a series of correlations between
their duration, frequency and intensity.
1
National Meteorological Administration, Northen Transylvania Regional Meteorological Centre,
Romania, e-mail: t_traiant@yahoo.com
2
„Babeş-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, email:
moldovan@geografie.ubbcluj.ro

91
 Popovici et al. (1998), studying torrential rains from Oradea, based on
Wussow criteria, concluded that the highest frequencies of heavy rains with the
average intensity between 0.32 and 0.40 mm/min. (equivalent to an amount of
19.2-24.0 mm/hour) belong to the 50.2-79.5 min. class period.
Bogdan and Niculescu (1999), studied the torrential rains in Romania in
the 1933-1975 period, using the Hellmann’s criteria, pointing out that the longest
and quantitatively more significant events are frontal torrential rainfalls (over 4
hours), and that the frequency of rains has "a great non-periodic variability" (p. 101).
Dragotă (2006), used Hellmann’s adapted criteria in order to extract heavy
rain events from 130 Romanian weather stations, located up to 1500 m high, in the
1961-1996 period, emphasizing the same uneven territorial distribution.

2. DATA AND METHODS

This study approaches some statistical characteristics of heavy rains in

north-western Romania, using data on rainfall intensity during the warm season
(April-October), for the mountain stations warm season was considered June to
September, due to the dominant solid precipitations in the other months. The
analyzed period is 1975-2009, during which it were identified based on Hellmann’s
criteria a total of 271 torrential events, representing only 0.89% of total rainfall
cases being able to generate sheet flood. There were used data from 14
meteorological stations, their location and altitudinal scale being as follows: Satu
Mare (123 m) and Supuru de Jos (159 m) in the lowlands, Baia Mare (216 m),
Sighetu Marmaţiei (275 m) and Ocna Şugatag (503 m) situated in Maramureş
Depression and Baia Mare Depression, Cluj-Napoca (410 m) and Dej (232 m),
located along the Someşului Mic Valley; Huedin (560 m) located in Huedin
Depression, Turda (424 m), located in the Alba Iulia-Turda Corridor, Zalău (295
m), and Bistriţa (366 m) located in the hilly area; Băişoara (1384 m, Muntele Mare
Mountains), Vlădeasa 1800 (1836 m, Vlădeasa Massif) and Iezer (1785 m, Rodnei Mountains).
In order to perform the analysis, the statistical facilities offered by
Microsoft Excel program were used. On this basis, sums, averages, hourly,
monthly and multi-monthly frequencies were calculated. On some data sets a series
of nonparametric tests were applied to identify their homogeneity and the presence
of the temporal trend. In this respect, it has been used tests offered by the XLSTAT
trial version program: Mann-Kendall and Homogeneity test, which were applied to
the following heavy rains parameters: amount of water during the rain event,
average and maximum intensity, duration of maximum intensity. The analysis
concluded that processed data sets did not show a trend or temporal jumps, which
could influence the outcome of the research.

3. RESULTS
Torrential rains structure reveals their highest frequency in Maramureş and
Baia Mare Depression (between 6.6 and 9.6%), followed by mountain area (6.3-
10.3%), hilly and valley regions (4.4-8.5%). The highest percentage values are

92
specific to summer’s months, reaching up to 87.1% cumulative frequency, with the
highest values in June (30.3%) and July (29.9%). The regional structure is
relatively uniform, standing out the mountain area (23.2%), followed by the
Maramureş and Baia Mare Depression (20.7%) and some isolated places in the
hilly area. An important aspect of structure is the low monthly frequencies of
torrential rainfalls in late spring (April, 0.7%) and autumn (October, 1.1%).
Regarding the duration, the predominant heavy rains are those of 3 to 6
hours (37.3%), followed by those less than one hour (25.1%) and 1 to 2 hours
(20.3%). The spatial distribution shows that, in the case of heavy rains with
duration of 3-6 hours, the highest frequencies are strictly in the mountain area
(11.1%), followed by those from Maramureş and Baia Mare Depression (9.2%) and
by the eastern valley corridors of Apuseni Mountains (7.0%). Torrential rains
lasting less than an hour have the highest percentage values isolated in the analyzed
area: Baia Mare Depression (Baia Mare, 4.4%), the depression and valley areas
situated north-east and east of the Apuseni Mountains (Turda, 2.6%, Cluj-Napoca,
2.2%, Huedin 2.2%) and mountain area (Iezer, 2.6%).

3.1. Diurnal variation

The diurnal variation structure of torrential rains beginning moment shows
the highest percentage values in the afternoon and in the evening, their timing
being differentiated as follows: the earliest heavy rains start in the mountain area of
Apuseni (11 to 12 RST), where the maximum frequency is recorded in the
afternoon (14-15 RST); the rest of the studied area has the highest frequencies of
the beginning of the heavy rain events between 16-19 RST, standing out some
isolated depression and valley areas from north-east and east part of the Apuseni
Mountains (Huedin, Cluj-Napoca, Turda), hilly area (Zalău) and Baia Mare
Depression. There is a second maximum occurrence of high torrential rain
frequencies, between 22-24 RST, more prominent in the lowlands.
In relation to the duration of rainfalls, it is remarkable that in the case of
those under one hour the frequency of occurrence is higher in the afternoon and
evening, but the spatial distribution is uneven, standing out the plain area and some
depression areas (Baia Mare, between 16-18 RST), the mountain area of Apuseni
and some valley areas next to it. A similar situation was recorded in the case of rain
events that lasted 1 to 2 hours and of those longer than 3 hours, the highest
recorded frequencies being during daytime.

3.2. Rainfall intensity

As torrential rains have been selected by a principle that establishes the
relationship between duration and average rain intensity their structure class is
directly influenced by the selection criteria, therefore, the average intensity class
<0.17 mm/min has no cases of heavy rains less than 3 hours (Table 1). On the other
hand, it is observed an inverse correlation between duration and intensity of rains;
the events with high average intensities have reduced durations.

93
 Table 1. The frequency of heavy rains intensity classes, according to their duration (%)
Duration Average intensity (mm/min) Maximum intensity (mm/min)
<0.17 0.17-0.41 >0.41 <0.5 0.5 – 1.0 >1.0
< 1 hour - 0.7 24.5 - 1.5 23.6
1-2 hours - 14.0 6.3 - 1.5 18.8
2-3 hours - 14.8 0.7 - 1.5 14.0
3-6 hours 26.9 10.3 - 0.4 9.2 27.7
> 6 hours 1.8 - - - 0.7 1.1
Total 28.7 39.8 31.5 0.4 14.4 85.2

Analysis of average intensity torrential rains variation depending on their

duration notes that this decreases with the increase in duration, heavy rains with
high average intensity (more than 1 mm/min) have, generally, less than 20 min
duration. Using the Curve Expert program, it was determined the nature and value
of regression coefficient (r) between duration and average intensity of heavy rains,
standing out that it is statistically significant, with it’s values between 0.86 and
0.98 (Table 2). The correlation type is logarithmic or power.

Table 2. Regression equations and coefficient values of time-average intensity of heavy rains
Weather Regression Coefficient values Weather Regression Coefficient values
station equation a b r station equation a b r
Satu Mare y = axb 69.37 -1.16 0.86 Dej y = a + blnx 1.26 -0.20 0.95
Supuru y = a + blnx 1.72 -0.29 0.93 Cluj-N. y = axb 7.75 -0.68 0.87
Baia Mare y = axb 5.03 -0.60 0.96 Turda y = a + blnx 1.45 -0.22 0.88
Sighetu M. y = axb 11.20 -0.80 0.98 Huedin y = a + blnx 1.31 -0.20 0.88
Ocna Ş. y = axb 11.41 -0.76 0.88 Băişoara y = axb 6.56 -0.66 0.87
Zalău y = a + blnx 1.69 -0.29 0.94 Vlădeasa y = a + blnx 1.27 -0.20 0.92
Bistriţa y = axb 5.48 -0.62 0.97 Iezer y = a + blnx 1.45 -0.23 0.94

Maximum intensity of heavy rainfall has the highest percentage values of the
occurrence time in the afternoon and in the evening, with an occurring peak between
17-20 RST in the low area, respectively between 14-19 RST in the mountain area
(Fig. 1).
Diurnal variability of maximum intensity time occurrence varies depending
on the rainfall length: those with time length to an hour have the highest
frequencies in the afternoon and in the evening throughout the unit (between 13-22
RST), with higher values in the mountain area, in the Maramureş and Baia Mare
Depression, hilly and valley areas; a similar structure presents rains whose duration
is between 1 and 2 hours, except that the highest frequencies occur in the
mountains, in the hilly and valley areas. The rainfall events lasting more than 2
hours have one maximum of occurrence in the afternoon and another one in the
night, whose length grows with increasing time duration of the rainfall.
Maximum intensity torrential rains class structure reveals the
predominance of the >1.0 mm/min class (85.2%) followed by the 0.5-1.0 mm/min,
respectively the <0.5 mm/min class (Table 2). Data show the growth of the
maximum intensity at the same rate as their frequency.

94
 Iezer
Vlădeasa
Băişoara
Huedin
T urda
Cluj-N.
Dej
Bistriţa
Zalău
Ocna Ş.
Sighetu
Baia M.
Supuru
Satu M.
0_1

2_3

4_5

6_7

8_9

10_11

12_13

14_15

16_17

18_19

20_21

22_23
RST

0.00-0.25 0.25-0.50 0.50-0.75 0.75-1.00

1.00-1.25 1.25-1.50 1.50-1.75 1.75-2.00
1.75-2.00

Fig. 1. Diurnal variation in the frequency of occurrence time of maximum intensity (%)

Analysis of the intensity classes according to the duration of the rainfall

shows that, regardless of the class, the highest frequency of rainfall is when
duration exceeds 3 hours for the class 0.5-1.0 mm/min (9.9%), while those of more
than 1.0 mm/min have 28.8% (the frequency decreasing with the duration’s growth)
(Table 2).
Diurnal variation of maximum intensity occurrence moment regarding the
analyzed intensity class reveals that in the case of 0.5-1.0 mm/min class, the time
of its occurrence is relatively random, not having a well individualized structure,
the only exception being in the mountain area, where it occurs mainly in the
afternoon (13-17 RST). In the case of heavy rainfalls with the maximum intensity
higher than 1.0 mm/min, the highest frequencies appear only in the afternoon and
evening, especially in marginal east and north-east areas of the Apuseni Mountains
(Huedin, Cluj-Napoca and Turda), between 14 and 20 RST, respectively in the
Maramureş and Baia Mare Depression, and in some hilly areas (Zalău), where
they occur between 17 and 20 RST.
Torrential rainfalls have maximum intensity structure with the highest
percentage values belonging to 2-5 min class (55.4%), followed by the 1 min
(24.0%) and 6-10 min (18.1%), while over 30 min class is missing. The spatial
distribution shows that the highest frequencies of 2-5 min appear isolated in some
depression areas (Baia Mare, 5.5%) and on a larger scale in the mountain area of
Apuseni and in its marginal east and north-east areas (Huedin, Cluj-Napoca, Turda,
with values ranging between 4.4 and 5.9%).
The time of occurrence of maximum intensity from the beginning of the
torrential rain event (in minutes), is an important element in both the dynamics of
its activity and prognosis. It is characterized by a relatively heterogeneous
structure, the highest frequencies belonging to the 11-20 min time class (19.2%),
followed by 21-30 min (12.6%) and 1-5 min (11.1%). The spatial distribution

95
shows the highest values in the lowlands, hilly and valley areas, for the 11-20 min
class, respectively in the depression area of Maramureş and in the valley one, for the
1 to 5 min class.
The distribution according to the duration of the heavy rainfall shows that
events lasting under an hour have the largest percentage in the case of 11-20 min
class (7.3%), followed by the one of 0 min; for 1 to 2 hours duration, the highest
ratio belong to the 11-20 and 21-30 min classes, totaling 8.5%, and in case of 2-3
hours, rates are relatively evenly distributed (Fig. 2).
>6 hrs.

3_6 hrs.

2_3 hrs.

1_2 hrs.

<1 hrs.
0

1_5

6_10

11_20

21_30

31_40

41_50

51_60

61_90

91_120

121_180

181_360

>360
min

0.0-0.8 0.8-1.6 1.6-2.4 2.4-3.2 3.2-4.0

4.0-4.8 4.8-5.6 5.6-6.4 6.4-7.2 7.2-8.0
7.2-8.0

Fig. 2. The time appearance frequency (%) of torrential rain’s maximum intensity (min),
according to rainfall duration (hours)

Rains of 3-6 hours duration have the highest percentage values for the 11-
20 and 21-30 min classes, totaling 10.3%, respectively for those of 61-90 min
(5.9%) and for 121-180 min class (4.8%), while events lasting more than 6 hours
have an uneven distribution, the starting point moment of the rain being random
(Fig. 2).

3.3. The torrential rainfall amounts

The average hourly water amount varies quite widely (between 1.1 and
28.4 mm/event), with the highest values in the afternoon and during the night.
Diurnal variation of hourly average amounts/torrential rain event notes values
higher than 9.0 mm between 12 to 23 RST in the valley and depression areas of the
region; between 14 and 23 RST in the mountains, the Maramureş and Baia Mare
Depression and in the hilly areas, and between 15 and 23 RST in the plain area. A
second less contoured maximum is present in the nighttime (from 23 to 05 RST),
especially, in the hilly area, partly in the valley and mountains area, and between
00 and 04 RST in the plains and in Maramureş and Baia Mare Depression. The
structure shows a series of higher isolated values (above 18.0 mm/hour) in Baia
Mare Depression (between 15-17 RST), in the hilly and valley area (17-19 RST,
Bistriţa and Dej), in mountainous area (22-03 RST, Iezer, Vlădeasa 1800) and in
the plains (19 to 21 RST, Satu Mare), as a result of extreme torrential events, which
led to significant amounts of water.

96
 The average hourly maximum intensity varies between 1 and 18 min, the
temporal distribution of their maximum values being random, standing out,
however, higher values during the afternoon and night. Compared to spatial and
temporal structure of the duration of maximum intensity, the average hourly
maximum quantities of water determined by the intensity of these rains is more
homogeneous, the mean values being between 0.8 and 12.0 mm/hour.
The highest amounts of water are registered in the afternoon and the
beginning of the night, particularly in the Maramureş and Baia Mare Depression,
hilly area, the valley and the depression area located in north-east of the Apuseni
Mountains (Fig. 3).
Iezer
Vlădeasa
Băişoara
Huedin
T urda
Cluj-N.
Dej
Bistriţa
Zalău
Ocna Ş.
Sighetu M.
Baia M.
Supuru
Satu M.
0_1

2_3

4_5

6_7

8_9

10_11

12_13

14_15

16_17

18_19

20_21

22_23
RST

0.5-2.0 2.0-3.5 3.5-5.0 5.0-6.5

6.5-8.0 8.0-9.5 9.5-11.0 11.0-12.5
11.0-12.5

Fig. 3. Hourly average amounts of water (mm/hour) of maximum intensity heavy rains

Hourly significant amounts of water (between 5.0 and 11.0 mm) are
recorded during the night too, especially in the Maramureş and Baia Mare
Depression, and partially in the hilly and mountainous area (Fig. 3).

4. CONCLUSIONS

Torrential rains’ structure notes the highest frequency in the Maramureş

and Baia Mare Depression and in the mountains area (more than 6.6% for each
analyzed station). Rains have this feature less frequent in the lowlands. Throughout
the year, their highest share belongs to the summer season (87.1%), with the
highest frequency in the mountain area. Considering duration, rainfall of 3 to 6
hours are dominant (37.3%). The occurrence of rainfall is more frequent in the
afternoon and evening, up to 3-4 hours earlier in the mountain areas than the plains
and depression. The second maximum occurs at midnight, in Maramureş and Baia
Mare Depression, the hilly and valley areas.
Regarding the average intensity, the ruling classes are those with mean and
high values (above 0.17 mm/min), due to the principles of selection used.

97
 Maximum rainfall intensity occurs most often in the afternoon and in the
evening. The highest values of the frequency are delayed in the plain area. The
intensity class structure shows that those over 1.0 mm/min are dominant (85.2%).
Diurnal variation shows the highest frequencies in the afternoon and in the evening,
with a slightly uneven spatial structure, regardless of the category class. Duration
of maximum intensity ranges between 2 and 5 min (55.4%) followed by the 1 min
class (24.0%). Maximum intensity duration up to 5 min holds up almost 80% of the events.
The beginning moment of maximum intensity from the torrential rain’s
time start totals almost half of the events in the first 30 min, the 11-20 min time
class being dominant. It is noted that there are two secondary maximum (61-90 and
181-360 min), which belong to the torrential events that last over 2 hours.
Heavy rains average hourly water amounts ranges quite widely. The
diurnal variation has the highest values in the afternoon and evening, due to short
rain events, higher in number and intensity. For maximum intensity, the hourly
average water amounts are recorded throughout the afternoon and evening, but the
spatial distribution is uneven, as torrential rain are precipitation events with a large
territorial discontinuity.

REFERENCES

1. Bogdan, Octavia, Niculescu, Elena (1999), Riscurile climatice din România,

Compania Saga-Internaţional, Bucureşti.
2. Dragotă, Carmen-Sofia (2006), Precipitaţiile excedentare în România, Editura
Academiei Române, Bucureşti.
3. Gorbatchev, P. P. (1923), Concerning the relation between the duration, intensity,
and the periodicity of rainfall. Mon. Wea. Rev., 51, p. 305–308.
4. Haidu, I. (1997), Analiza seriilor de timp: aplicaţii în hidrologie, H.G.A.,
Bucureşti.
5. Haidu, I. (2002), Analiza de frecvenţă şi evaluarea cantitativă a riscurilor, în vol.
Riscuri şi Catastrofe, Editor V. Sorocovschi, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-
Napoca, p. 180-207.
6. Popovici, Ana, Dragotă, Carmen-Sofia, Măhăra, Gh. (1998), Evaluarea
climatologică a ploilor din Câmpia Crişurilor prin parametrii de durată, cantitate
şi intensitate, Analele Universităţii din Oradea, seria Geografie, VIII, p. 75-81.
7. Predescu, C. (1937), Studiul averselor la Cluj, Extras din Buletinul Observatorului
Meteorologic dela Academia de Agricultură din Cluj, no. 5/1937, Cluj.
8. Tudose, T., Moldovan, F. (2009), The intensity of significant rainfalls in the warm
season, in the north-western part of Romania, Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai,
Geographia, LIV, 3, Cluj-Napoca, p. 56-63.
9. *** (1975-2009), Arhiva Administraţiei Naţionale de Meteorologie, Bucureşti.
10. http://www.xlstat.com/en/products/xlstat-time accessed on January, 5, 2011.
11. http://www.curveexpert.net/download/ accessed on January, 17, 2011.

98
 FINANCIAL CRISIS, SUBSIDIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE
IN THE EQUATION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

FLORINA BRAN1, ILDIKO IOAN2, CRISTINA POPA3

ABSTRACT. – Financial crisis, subsidies and climate change in the equation of

sustainable development. An irreducible situation such as the contemporary financial
crisis creates the premises of major overthrow in decision criteria. Meanwhile,
significant progresses in overcoming the ecological crisis, fueled mainly by the climate
change are also in relation with such changes. This convergence is easy to be observed
due to logical connections. If its existence was noticed at decisional levels is the
overarching question that structure the paper. Since the answer is positive, there are
explored the visions and plans of measures developed within this confrontation. There
is applied a global approach and that is why each discussion considers also the
implications of economic globalization and of global environmental action as influence
factors on the path and direction of change.

Keywords: financial crisis, climate change, fossil fuels, subsidies, sustainable

development.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sustainable development is a continuous challenge that animates the

debates in science, in policy making and creates an intense information flow within
the science-policy dialogue. Its accomplishment necessitates significant changes
for which the momentum is quite rare.
The third millennium is foreseen as a consequence of basic mutations in
the deployment of economic activities, geopolitical relations, human interactions,
but above all in the architecture of values against which we measure ourselves in
the constant effort of filling with significance the human existence. As it expected
these changes are the results of irreducible situations that have impact on the global
population at such a rate that policy-corporate decision makers feel threatened their
interests.
The first part of the paper refreshes the debate of sustainable development
by bringing in discussion its main challenges. The interface that connect financial
crisis, subsidies, and climate change in the equation of sustainable development is
energy. Therefore the next section there is granted with a generous space for
analyzing the energy perspectives and the global vision on changes that will occur

1
Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Faculty of Agro-Food and Environmental Economics,
Bucharest, 010961 Mihail Moxa 7, Romania, e-mail: florinabran@yahoo.com
2
Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Faculty of Agro-Food and Environmental Economics,
Bucharest, 010961 Mihail Moxa 7, Romania, e-mail: ioanildiko@yahoo.com
3
Minsitry of Environment and Forests, e-mail: cris20072002@yahoo.com

99
in the structure of sources used by humankind starting with the position recently
launched by the International Energy Agency. As long as the architecture of
incentives that will determine profound changes in global energy economy is
regarded it is noticed that most of the documentations are converging toward
cutting subsidies for fossil fuels. This measure is discussed in order to highlight its
impact against the triple bottom line of sustainable development: economic, social,
and environmental.

2. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In the first decade of the new millennium sustainable development is

assumed in most developed countries as a strategic vision for the only possible
future. Despite this wide consensus the path toward sustainable development could
be quite different from one country to another. The main challenges to be
addressed are: substitutability, equity, uncertainty and irreversibility.
The capital model which gained a widespread application in contemporary
economy states that stock of capital should be preserved and all the expenses
should be covered from the interest brought in by the capital. In neoclassical
economics capital is considered as a single entity, regardless to the patterns of its
components. This view is challenged by ecological economics that recognizes
more capital types (natural, human, social, manufactured, financial etc.) and
interprets the capital model according to these new condition. Thus, the stock of
each capital type should be maintained. Thus, substitutability is not infinite, the
loss of one type of capital, e.g. natural, could not be compensated by using more
from another type of capital, e.g. manufactured. Sustainable development
necessitates the adoption of the ecological economics’ capital model.
Equity refers to the share of benefits coming from the exploitation of
resources among its users. According to its first and most frequently cited
definition, sustainable development is the development that allow to satisfy the
needs of present generation without compromising the chance of future generations
to satisfy their owns (Bruntland, 1987). That means an equitable share of benefits
among generations as users. Although complying with such a requirement could be
difficult because there are countless future generations, there is little knowledge
about the real needs of current generation and how technological progress will
reshape the chances, it is addressed mainly by stressing the need of increased
efficiency and of correlating the path of extraction with the path of renewal (Bran
and Ioan, 2002).
The infatuation of complete knowledge on the world brought humanity
very close to catastrophic transformations of the world. This was possible since the
positivist approach, emerging some hundreds years and being responsible for most
of the scientific progresses, assumes that the anything could be explained in an
analytical manner, departing from the behavior and characteristics of components.
Since many things were decomposed and their behavior and/or functioning was
and understood and verified it was created the illusion that we, humans, have an

100
exhaustive knowledge and that all that could count for us could be foreseen,
allowing time and resources for preparation and adaptation. Environmental
degradation, among others, taught us a different lesson: our knowledge on human-
nature interaction is limited and even the existing one is not valued entirely, there
are processes that cannot be understood by using the analytical approach, and
changes that escape our understanding could undermine human existence and
wellbeing. Thus, in order to go forward to sustainable development it is necessary
to recognize that there are uncertainties and that they could trigger irreversible
changes.

3. ENERGY OUTLOOK

The world energy system faces, according to IEA (2008), two major challen-
ges: securing continuity in energy providing and reform of energy supplying system
in such a way that a significant carbon dioxide emission reduction to be obtained.
Securing continuity in energy supply represent a major challenge because,
at world level, it is foreseen a continuous and strong increase of energy demand
(EIA, 2005). This trend is explained trough economic growth, correlated with
population growth and productivity increase, especially in developing countries.
Table 1. Population level and growth until 2030
Region Population (millions) Population growth

2005 2030 Millions %

North America 441 542 100 0.8
Western Europe 534 548 45 0.1
OECD Pacific 200 194 -6 -0.1
OECD 1 175 1 284 110 0.4
Latin America 423 535 112 0.9
Middle East and Africa 779 1 265 486 2.0
South Asia 1 482 2 023 541 1.3
South-East Asia 395 500 104 0.9
China 1 322 1 481 159 0.5
OPEC 560 803 242 1.4
Developing countries 4 961 6 606 1 645 1.2
Transition economies 341 338 -3 0.0
World 6 477 8 228 1 751 1.0
Source: OPEC (2007), World Oil Outlook 2007, pg.31, www.opec.org, 20.11.2008

According to the most recent scenarios made by different international

organizations (OPEC, IEA, EIA), at global level the population will increase with
an annual rate of 1%, reaching more than 8 billion inhabitants in 2030. From the
total population growth 94% will be due to the demographic evolutions of
developing countries and North America (table 1). Productivity increase is due to
capital increase, international trade intensification within globalization, and the
impact of economic reforms.

101
 In these conditions it is estimated a world economic growth of more than
3% at the purchasing power parity. Regional contribution to this growth is
differentiated as it is resulting from data presented in table 2. Thus, China could be
considered an engine of global economic growth. In addition, in 2004, 2005, and
2006 China recorded two digit economic growth rates. A very dynamic growth is
to be expected in India also where to a large population has to be added the results
of economic reforms that will improve productivity and will enhance capital
endowment.

Table 2. Annual average GDP growth rates (purchasing power parity)

Region 2006- 2011- 2016- 2021- 2026- 2006-
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2030
North America 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.5
Western Europe 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.9
OECD Pacific 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.8
OECD 2.5 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 2.1
Latin America 3.8 3.2 3.0 2.9 2.7 3.1
Middle East and 4.3 3.5 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.5
Africa
South Asia 6.5 5.3 4.8 4.4 4.1 5.0
South-East Asia 4.5 3.9 3.6 3.2 3.2 3.7
China 8.3 6.1 5.7 5.5 5.3 6.2
OPEC 4.8 3.6 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.7
Developing 6.3 5.0 4.7 4.5 4.4 5.0
countries
Transition 5.2 3.2 2.7 2.5 2.5 3.2
economies
World 4.2 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.5
Source: OPEC (2007), World Oil Outlook 2007, pg.33, www.opec.org, 20.11.2008

In the last decades the cumulated energy consumption of China and India
represented an increasing proportion of the world consumption. Thus, in 1980,
their cumulated consumption represented 8% of the world total, while in 2005 this
proportion was double, being estimated to reach one quarter of world consumption
in 2030 (EIA, 2005). USA’s participation to world consumption is expected to drop
from 22% (2005) to 17% in 2030.
World energy consumption is expected to increase continuously until 2030,
with 1.6% annual rates, reaching 17 010 Mtoe. Securing continuity in energy
supply is conditioned by massive investments in energy infrastructure. The current
financial crisis is not expected to affect long term investments but could lead to
delays in the accomplishment of ongoing projects. More than half of the
investments will be necessary for maintaining the current level of supply. In oil and
natural gas industry investments are also needed for the exploration of new
reserves and for increasing processing capacities. Thus, in the 2006-2020 period
the refining capacity will need to be expanded with 13 Mbarrels per day.

102
 The energy supply system reform in order to reduce carbon dioxide
emissions or in other terms the diminishing of energy’s carbon intensity is needed
for protecting the global climate system. Climate change is considered one of the
most important environmental problems to be faced by humankind.
1400

1200 Indirect emissions

grams carbon dioxide equivalent per k

Direct emissions
1000

800

600

400

200

0
Coal Natural gase Hydro Solar Wind Nuclear
Source: IAEA, 2000

Fig.1. Carbon dioxide emissions in electric power production

It is interesting to notice that for obtaining energy from other primary

sources necessitates also the use of fossil fuels and implies carbon dioxide
emissions. Fig.1 illustrates the carbon dioxide emissions per energy unit resulting
directly, through burning, or indirectly, through the life cycle.
Energy sector has a key role in greenhouse gas emission reduction, the
main changes being increased energy efficiency, modification of primary energy
sources structure, and the development of new carbon storage technologies.

M id 21st century
animals
Late 20th century biomass
coal
Early 20th century oil
natural gase
M id 19th century nuclear
hydrogen
15th Century

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Source: Bruzzi, L., The dual role of energy: driving force for development and threat for
environment, Uniadrion Summer School on International Cooperation and Sustainable
Development Policies, Bologna, 2004

Fig.2. Structure of primary energy sources in different historical stages

The accomplishment of such changes is possible if governments will

succeed in applying a combination of policy instruments (regulations, financial
incentives, communication, and information) that secure continuity of energy
supply and emission reduction in an integrated manner. IEA (2008) considers that
the elimination of subsidies in non-OECD countries could bring a major demand
reduction and thus important emission reductions too.

103
 Climate and energy policy created pressures will not lead to significant
changes in energy sources structure in the fore coming decades (fig.2).
According to IEA (2008), fossil fuels will have an important contribution
in satisfying the energy needs. This is estimated to be 80% in 2030, and 60% in
2050. Further, oil will be the dominant fuel although the coal demand is increasing
in absolute terms due to its use for power generation and China and India (85% of
the global consumption growth). Oil will have a 30% quota of world energy
consumption in 2030.

4. FINANCIAL CRISIS’ IMPACT ON INVESTMENTS

The recent financial crisis generated a powerful global action, outstanding

by its intensity and global coordination. Nevertheless, the mitigation actions should
be replaced by regular actions that should be constructed by considering both the
causes of the crisis and the vision on the next growth model.
According to OECD (2009), the growth model has to rely more on medium
and long term approaches that will result in being: i. stronger, ii. cleaner; and iii.
fairer. Stronger means that better regulation of financial markets, a healthy balance
between markets and government, and policies to promote more innovative long-
term growth in a more balanced global economy. Cleaner refers to a low carbon
growth path, in line with ongoing efforts to mitigate climate change. Supporting
economy should not be an excuse for environmentally harmful investments. Fairer
signifies more effective trade, investment, and development policies, stronger
social frameworks and a common global governance structure based on
cooperation between developed and developing countries. In this respect, open
markets remain a fundamental principle of well-functioning economies.
In the equation of sustainable development, financial crisis play a role by
creating momentum to change criteria for investments, by the cleaner component
of the growth model. This is also linked to climate change, since cleaner
investment means going away from conventional fuels to other types of energy,
such as renewable energy sources (RES). This “move” is also necessary since these
cleaner energy sources cannot compete with fossil fuels since investments made in
their exploitation are already recovered and were made using huge subsidies.
Another supportive reason is that exploitation of RES necessitates large
investments with efficiency indicators becoming attractive only on a medium and
long term perspective.
The win-win opportunities are represented by:
- green tax reform – moving away from labor and capital towards
pollutants or polluting activities and using auctioned pollution permits
that generate revenues;
- reforming and removing inefficient policies, especially subsidies to
fossil fuel production and consumption;
- removing barriers to widespread practice in energy and transport
efficiency.

104
 Other opportunities for green growth are related to public investments in
energy efficiency of buildings, public transport, renewable energy networks, more
efficient water treatment supply and sanitation, as well as infrastructure to prevent
flooding, and other environmental risks and degradation.

5. POTENTIAL OF REMOVING SUBSIDIES FOR FOSSIL FUELS

TO CONTRIBUTE TO GHG EMISSION REDUCTIONS
In a long-term perspective removing subsidies has an important
environmental contribution through what is called by OECD (2009) as double or
triple “dividend”. This will arise from:
- removing inefficiency in resource allocation in the economy;
- pushing the green agenda; and
- saving governments and tax payers money.
According to Stern (2007), the trading scheme of GHG emissions
implemented through the Kyoto Protocol has the potential to reduce the amount of
emissions to the level required to not exceed the 2 Celsius degree increase of global
average temperature.
5

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Fig.3. The effects on GHG emissions of removing fossil fuel subsidies in emerging
and developing countries combined with caps on emissions in developed countries
(horizon 2050)
However, there are voices that point on the difficulties of meeting the
emission goals even in countries with high commitments in this respect, such as the
European Union. Further, the recent high level climate meetings (Copenhagen
2009, Cancun 2010) are evidence for the resistance to change toward a low carbon
future. Thus, other means of reducing emissions should be considered. OECD sees
subsidy removal for fossil fuels as one of these.
Fossil fuel and electricity subsidies accounts for more than a half of total
subsidies around the world being of 310 billion USD in 2007. Combining the
effects of emission caps for developed countries and removing subsidies for fossil
fuels will produce by 2050 a 10% reduction of GHG emissions at global level, with
the largest reduction in Oil-exporting countries, Russia, and non-EU eastern
countries (fig.3).

105
 Removing subsidies to fossil fuels production and consumption is a
difficult decision to make given its harsh social impact. Another consequence that
arrive via demand drop is income loss in oil exporting countries. Such impact will
hit especially Russia and non-EU eastern countries. Meanwhile, the impact on
GDP, calculated as percentage deviation in 2050 from the 2005 level is negative
for the same country groups, being comprised between -1.8% and -4.7%.

6. CONCLUSIONS

The challenges of sustainable development remains after more than two

decades of converging efforts at high decision levels. Its environmental dimension
is a great contributor in this respect with climate change on the top o priority list.
The paper examined two means to contribute in this area: changes in investment
patterns due to the new growth model emerging in the aftermath of the financial
crisis and the removal of subsidies for fossil fuel production and consumption.
In the first case we found that the new growth model has a “green”
component stemming in green-tax reform, reforming and removing inefficient
policy measures, and removing barriers of energy and transport efficiency. As long
as the second component is regarded, the triple “dividend” that could be obtained
includes pushing the green agenda. However there are important barriers to
overcome, such as social impact and income loss for oil exporting countries.
Further research should consider what are the economic and social
implications of this global picture in Romania and if there are measures to be
applied in order to prevent revenue and GDP loss due to subsidies removal.

REFERENCES

1. Bran, F., Ioan, I. (2002), Ecosferă şi politici ecologice, Bucharest: ASE

Publishing.
2. International Energy Agency (2008), World Energy Outlook 2008 – Executive
Summary.
3. OECD (2010), Synthesis report on the strategic response, Meeting of the OECD
Council at Ministerial Level, 24-25 June 2009.
4. OECD (2010), Preliminary results on key elements of the green growth toolkit,
Meeting of the OECD Council at Ministerial Level, 27-28 May 2010.
5. OPEC (2007), World Oil Outlook 2007.
6. Stern, N. (2007), The Economics of Climate Change. The Stern Review,
Cambridge University Press.

106
THE HYDROLOGICAL RISK IN THE MOLDOVITA RIVER BASIN
AND THE NECESSARY MEASURES FOR THE ATTENUATION
OF HIGH FLOOD WAVES

ROMANESCU ANA MARIA1, ROMANESCU GHEORGHE1

ABSTRACT. – The Moldoviţa river basin is situated in the northern part of

Eastern Carpathians. It is a main right side tributary of Moldova river. The average
multi-annual flow recorded in Lunguleţ and Dragoşa hydrometric stations has the
value of 1.638 m3/s, and 5.099 m3/s, respectively. The last catastrophic floods in
Moldovita river basin occurred on 26th July 2008, with the high flood wave at
17:00. A maximum flow of 539 m3/s was recorded and a water level rise to 400m.
The high flood was devastating, damaging many houses and household
attachments, social and economic buildings. Over 20 ha of agricultural land were
affected in Vatra Moldoviţei. The waters flooded over 7 households in Valea
Stânei village and in Ciumârna, four gabions on the left river bank and 2 little
bridges were destroyed. In Vatra Moldoviţei village, 180 m of dam as well as a
footbridge were destroyed, and a wood deposit was flooded. In Paltinu village, the
commune road was 70% damaged, two bridges were severely affected, and the
bridge defence collapsed over a distance of 50 m. As a result of the anthropical
intervention, the catastrophic floods are more and more frequent.

Key words: floods, hydro technical works, deforestation, management.

1. INTRODUCTION

The aggressiveness and frequency of the torrential rains, especially of

those exceeding 100 mm in 24 hours cause increased flows in most of the
Romanian rivers. In the last 10 years the floods in eastern Romania have had an
almost regular frequency of 2 years. In this time interval, the Siret, Suceava,
Trotuş, Prut rivers etc. recorded historical flows (Romanescu, Nistor, 2010;
Romanescu et al., 2011).
Moldoviţa river basin, in the northern part of Eastern Carpathians, is
affected greatly by massive deforestation and tree fell. For this reason floods are
very frequent, with significant material and even human losses. As this region is a
very important tourist area, it is imperative that the damages are diminished and the
necessary measures are taken immediately.
Although floods became repeated and usual phenomena in the eastern part
of Romania, detailed studies have been done sporadically, and most of the time
they did not have a practical finality. The most important contributions to the study
of floods in the east of Romania or to the research of the general principles causing
                                                            
1
University „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” of Iaşi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Department of Geography,
Bd.Carol I, 20A, 700505, Iaşi. E-mail: anaromanescu@yahoo.com; geluromanescu@yahoo.com.

107
their recording belong to the following authors: Apostol, 1985; Diaconu, 1999;
Mustăţea, 2005; Podani, Zăvoianu, 1992; Romanescu, 2003, 2006, 2009;
Romanescu et al., 2009, 2011; Smith, Ward, 1998; Sorocovschi, 2003, 2007, etc.

2. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

Moldoviţa river basin is situated in the north of Romania, in the northern

part of Eastern Carpathians, in Obcinele Bucovinei Mountains. The river has its
source at the altitude of 1200 m, a length of 51.6 km and the area of the river basin
covers 563 km2. After draining the mountain territory, the river flows into the
Moldova River, a tributary of the Siret River (Fig. 1).
The river basin stretches on NW-SE direction and its shape is symmetrical.
Moldoviţa river basin gets narrower next to Vama, at the confluence with Moldova
River. The mathematical limits are: 47030' and 47050' north latitude and 25036' and
25046' eastern longitude.

Fig. 1. Geographical location of Moldoviţa River on the territory of Romania

3. METHODOLOGY
The statistical data were obtained from Siret Basin Administration in
Bacău, Moldova Meteorological Centre in Iaşi and Romanian Waters National
Administration in Bucharest. The data were processed within the Geo-archaeology
Laboratory, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Iaşi.
Field observations and measurements were done in 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009
and 2010, along the flood plain of Moldoviţa River. Daily water levels were
monitored in the three stations and topographical measurements were done
upstream and downstream these stations.
All the analysed data were collected from 2 Hydrological Stations
(Dragoşa and Lunguleţ) and they refer to the maximum flows recorded in the
period 2006-2010.

108
 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The factors generating the floods are connected to the landforms

(morphology, slope, and cross section), climate (precipitations and temperatures),
vegetation, human activity etc.
Moldoviţa Valley reflects the typical features of the valleys developed in
mountain regions. The alternation of narrow valley sectors with wider sectors, the
asymmetry of the transversal profile, the altitude differences, the variation of the
slopes etc give a clear personality to this landform unit.
In Lunguleţ and Dragoşa hydrometric stations the multi-annual average
flows are 1.638 m3/s and 5.099 m3/s, respectively. In Dragoşa hydrometric station
the highest flows were recorded in 1950, 1969, 1970, 1072, 1973, 1978, 1979,
1981, 1991, 2002 and 2008, with Q exceeding 6.500 m3/s.
The maximum flow is the cause of the most destructive slope processes
and of the floods in the flood plain. Therefore, a quantitative evaluation (spatial
and temporal) has not only a scientific importance, connected to the accelerated
landform modelling (denudation, erosion, siltage), but also a significant practical
importance, for designing all the hydro technical and hydro-ameliorative works.
High waters and high floods, as phases of the periods with high flow, occur
in the warm period of the year (May - November) and they are produced by the
combined effect of snow melting and spring torrential rains (mixed high floods), by
the summer rains, and sometimes by autumn rains (simple high floods). Very
seldom, floods can occur in winter as well (in December 1995, when liquid
precipitations increased from 0.7 to 6.3 l/m2 in 24 hours (25.XII), reaching a
maximum of 35 l/m2 on 27.XII.1995).
The maximum flow and the catastrophic high floods are generated by the
summer rains, when the maximum flow of the rivers can be 2-3 times higher than
the maximum spring values. As a consequence of the torrential summer rains, high
floods with very high amplitudes can occur: July 1991, 27-28 June 1995; 2 July
1998; 5 June 1999; June 2006; July 2008.
The number of high floods varies according to the season, most of them
occurring during spring, but also summer, and very few in autumn or winter. For
the analysed period, the highest number of high floods was recorded in 1972, 1988,
1996, and the lowest number in 1985 and 1987.
The catastrophic high flood recorded in May 1970 was caused by a
complex of factors simultaneously interfering in a long time interval. The releaser
factor was represented by the intense liquid precipitation over large areas. Under
such conditions, in Dragoşa station, the maximum flow had the value of 176 m3/s
(13.V.1970, 1415hours). The spring high waters usually have two waves, very
rarely only one. In this case, the first increase was less significant (85 m3/s),
generated by snow melting, and the latter increase was richer (176 m3/s), with

109
nivopluvial supply. A high flood of high intensity occurred in June, the same year,
with a maximum flow of 231 m3/s in Dragoşa.
In the case of the high flood recorded in July 1981, the first peak was
higher than the latter. The main cause generating this high flood was represented
by the high amount of precipitations. Under such conditions, the maximum flow of
245 m3/s was recorded on 17th July, 1500 hours. The flow coefficient reached the
value of 0.86. The intensity of the maximum flow was slightly higher than that of
the high flood recorded in May 1970. The phenomenon can be explained by the
higher intensity and duration of the rains in July 1981, when precipitations
exceeded 35 l/m2/1h.

Fig. 2. Flow hydrograph in Dragoşa hydrometric station in 2006 – high flood 1

At the station in Dragoşa, the total duration of the high floods varies
between 80 and 322 hours, and the increase duration has values between 9 and 77
hours. The shape coefficients of the high floods have values between 0.10 and
0.32.
In 2006, the average flow of Dragoşa River was 6.300 m3/s. The rain lasted
from 30.05.2006, 07:00 hours to 13.06.2006, 17:00 hours. The peak of the high
flood occurred on 02.06.2006, 21:00 hours, with a maximum flow of 130.0 m3/s,
and the height of the flow of 297 m (Fig.2).
On 14.06.2006, 07 :00 hours, the rains started, and they lasted until
22.06.2006, 17 :00 hours. The peak of the high flow was recorded on 15.06 2006,
21:00 hours, with a maximum flow of 134 m3/s, and the height of the river of 300 m
(Fig.3).

110
 Fig. 3. Flow hydrograph in Dragoşa hydrometric station in 2006 – high flood 2

At the station in Lunguleţ an annual average flow of 2.03 m3/s was

recorded in 2006. On 01.06.2006, 07:00 hours, the rains started and the lasted until
09.06.2006, 17:00 hours. The peak of the high flood was recorded on 02.06.2006,
21:00 hours, with a maximum flow of 41.3 m3/s, and a water level of 218 cm. Five
days later, a second high flood recorded, on 14.06.2006, 07:00 hours, which lasted
until 22.06.2006, 17:00 hours. The peak of this high flood reached 40.7 m3/s and
the height of the river was 217 cm.
In 2008, at the station in Dragoşa, an average flow of 6.55 m3/s was
registered. The rains started on 23.07.2008, 06:00 hours, and they lasted until
08.08.2008, 06:00 hours. The peak of the high flood was recorded on 26.07.2008,
between 17:00-18:00 hours. With the flows of 539 m3/s, and 509 m3/s respectively,
and the level of 400 cm, and 390 cm respectively, this high flood was devastating,
with immense losses in the flooded areas (Fig.4).
The latest floods in Moldoviţa river basin were recorded in the summer of
2008, more precisely at the end of June, 2008.
During the high floods in the summer of 2008, immense quantities of logs
were transported and deposited in the flood plain. As a result, plugs were formed
at the foot of the undersized bridges. The river basin is severely deforested and the
flood plain hosts many houses, frame saws etc. The majority of the rural
settlements in Moldoviţa river basin are situated in the flood plain.

111
 Fig. 4. Flow hydrograph in Dragoşa hydrometric station in 2008

The simulations with GIS program demonstrate the high flooding degree of
the settlements. The simulations were done for Paltinu and Râşca–Dărmăneşti Putna.
The localities of Râşca–Dărmăneşti Putna are crossed by Moldoviţa River
and Săcrieş. When a 4-5 m high plug is formed, the water with the level of 4 m
would flood entirely the inhabited area (Fig.5).
In the areas where the height of waters reached 1 m, the intra-village
affected surfaces are as large as 5 ha, and the affected road network can be as long
as 1.18 km. In the area flooded by the waters reaching the level of 4 m, the affected
intra-village area would be as large as 45 ha, and affected the road network as long
as 6.3 km. For a height of 5 m, 62.48 ha would be destroyed in the intra-village and
the length of destroyed roads would be 9.09 km. Under such conditions, this area
would be entirely destroyed by the high flood wave.
Paltinu village belongs to Vatra Moldoviţei commune and it is situated on
the valley of Boului stream. For a level of 1 m, the effects are minor: about 0.41
km of roads destroyed. For a water height of 2 m, an area of 3.16 ha in the intra-
village would be affected, as well as 0.92 km of roads. If waters reach a level of 4
m, the affected intra-village area would be significant, covering approximately
16.40 ha, and the length of affected roads would be 2.22 km.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Like any dynamic geographic system, the rivers in Moldoviţa river basin
have reflected the connection with the climatic factors while recording such flow
decrease or exaggerated level increase.
Located in a mountain area of the Eastern Carpathians, in the periods with
precipitations exceeding the average, the flows of the rivers in Moldoviţa river
basin increase, overflowing the banks. The high flood waves cause devastating

112
floods in the settlements situated in the flood plains. Many years were recorded
when high floods produced important material loss, affecting households, bridges,
small bridges, commune roads, roads, railways, dams etc. The latest catastrophic
floods in Moldoviţa river basin occurred on 26 July 2008, with the high flood wave
recorded at 17:00 hours.

Fig. 5. Flood simulation in Râşca – Dărmăneşti Putna

The high flood affected many households, social and economic buildings.
Over 20 ha of agricultural land were severely affected in Vatra Moldoviţei. In the
same village, the list with the loss can continue: 180 m of dams, footbridges, and a
deposit for wood material. In Paltinu, the commune road was 70% damaged, two
bridges were severely destroyed and the bridge defence collapsed over a distance
of 50 m.
In order to defend the settlements, hydro technical works for regulating the
flood plain were done and dams were built: works for defending and consolidating
the banks, embankment works, water courses regularization and canalling works,
works, works for fighting against depth and surface erosion, building up of bridges
etc. Unfortunately, some of these works were undersized or they have a support
pillar in the thalweg. This is why the plugs are formed so frequently, contributing
to the formation of a barrage.

Acknowledgements

The hydrological data and the GIS data were processed and analysed in the
Geo-archaeology Laboratory of the Faculty of Geography and Geology of Iaşi.

113
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Apostol, L. (1985), Contribuţii la cunoaşterea regimului precipitaţiilor

atmosferice în obcinele Bucovinei. Lucrările Staţiunii de Cercetări „Stejarul”,
Seria Geografie, Piatra Neamţ 8, 15-25.
2. Diaconu, S. (1999), Cursuri de apă. Amenajare, Impact, Reabilitare. Editura
HGA, Bucureşti.
3. Mustăţea, A. (2005), Viituri excepţionale pe teritoriul României. Geneză şi efecte.
Editura Institutului Naţional de Hidrologie şi Gospodărire a Apelor, Bucureşti.
4. Podani, M., Zăvoianu, I. (1992), Cauzele şi efectele inundaţiilor produse în luna
iulie 1991 în Moldova. Studii şi cercetări de Geografice, Bucureşti 39, 45-54.
5. Romanescu, G. (2003), Inundaţiile – între natural şi accidental. In: Riscuri şi
catastrofe, Editor Victor Sorocovschi, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca
2, 130-138.
6. Romanescu, G. (2006), Inundaţiile ca factor de risc. Studiu de caz pentru viiturile
Siretului din iulie 2005. Editura Terra Nostra, Iaşi.
7. Romanescu, G. (2009), Evaluarea riscurilor hidrologice. Editura Terra Nostra,
Iaşi.
8. Romanescu, G., Lupaşcu, A., Stoleriu, C., Răduianu, D., Lesenciuc, D.,
Vasiliniuc, I., Romanescu, Gabriela (2009), Inventarierea şi topologia zonelor
umede şi apelor adânci din grupa centrală a Carpaţilor Orientali. Editura
Universităţii „Alexandru I. Cuza” Iaşi.
9. Romanescu, G., Nistor, I. (2010), The effect of the July 2005 catastrophic
inundations in the Siret River’s Lower Watershed, Romania. Natural Hazards,
Springer (in press). DOI: 10.1007/s11069-010-9617-3.
10. Romanescu, G., Jora, I., Stoleriu, C. (2011), The most important high floods in
Vaslui river basin – causes and consequences. Carpathian Journal of Earth and
Environmental Sciences 6(1), 119-132.
11. Smith, K., Ward, R. (1998), Floods. Physical Processes and Human Impacts. John
Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
12. Sorocovschi, V. (2003), Complexitatea teritorială a riscurilor şi catastrofelor. In:
Riscuri şi catastrofe, Editor Victor Sorocovschi, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă,
Cluj-Napoca 2, 39-48.
13. Sorocovschi, V. (2007), Vulnerabilitatea componentă a riscului. Concept,
variabile de control, tipuri şi modele de evaluare. In: Riscuri şi catastrofe, Editor
Victor Sorocovschi, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca 6(4), 58-69.

114
 WATER CONDITIONING FOR FOOD INDUSTRY USES

RAISA NASTAS1, V.RUSU1, T.LUPASCU1

LUDMILA STARIS1, MARIA SANDU2

ABSTRACT. – Water conditioning for food industry uses. Tap (drinking)

water from many localities of Moldova doesn’t always correspond to the “Sanitary
standards for drinking water quality” or to the requirements of the “Regulation for
non-alcoholic beverages”, requiring the need for additional purification/
conditioning. This paper presents research regarding the removal/adsorption of the
main pollutants in tap water (iron, manganese, aluminum, humic substances,
trihalomethanes) on supports of local carbon adsorbents made from vegetable
products (stones of peach and plum, walnut shells). Experiments were performed
in dynamic conditions in columns of carbon adsorbents. As work solutions was
used tap water where pollutants have been introduced in amounts equivalent to 3
maximum allowable concentrations. Carbonaceous adsorbents used for
removal/adsorption of pollutants in dynamic conditions, reveal a capacity of up to
1:400 volumes adsorbent: solution before breakthrough. Combined filter, utilizing
active carbons, was constructed and tested for conditioning of tap water for
beverage and food production. The results demonstrated efficient remove of
organic substances and heavy metals by filtering of about 700 volumes of water
per volume of filter.

Keywords: drinking water quality, active carbons, absorption, organic substances,

heavy metals.

1. INTRODUCTION

Analysis of the available data indicates the unsatisfactory situation

concerning quality of potable water in many settlements in Moldova, as well as
feed water for food and beverage production. The raw water for beverage and food
production has to meet special toxicological, medical, and technological
requirements and has to be of satisfactory taste and odor [1]. Usually, the water
treatment and conditioning technologies in this area incorporate several methods
that are characterized by the raw water composition and the requirements of the
subsequent water use.
Chemical analysis of tap water in different zones of Republic of Moldova
demonstrated that tap water from surface sources contains small amounts of
organic substances and aluminum, but tap water from underground sources
contains high level of iron [2].
1
Institute of Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, 3, Academiei str., MD-2028, Chisinau,
Republic of Moldova, e-mail: nastasraisa@yahoo.com
2
Institute of Ecology and Geografy, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, 3, Academiei str., MD-2028,
Chisinau, Republic of Moldova

115
 The conditioning of raw water for the use as feed for beverage and food
production requires the correction of the concentrations of several constituents in water.
The purpose of this work was to test vegetal carbonaceous adsorbents, with
a broad spectrum of physical-chemical characteristics, for removal of humic
substances (HS), trihalomethanes (THM), aluminum, iron (III), and manganese (II)
from water.

2. EXPERIMENTAL

A broad spectrum of vegetal carbonaceous adsorbents have been tested on

adsorption of humic substances (HS), chloroform (THM) and metals (under static
condition), to chose the more efficient adsorbents.
Structural parameters (obtained from sorption isotherms of nitrogen at 77 K)
of active carbons and surface chemistry are presented in tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Structural parameters of activated carbons obtained [3]

SBET, Sme, Smicro, Vs, Vmicro, D,

Sample Characteristics 2 2 2 3 3
m /g m /g m /g cm /g cm /g Å
CAP23 Obtained from 957 110 846 0,57 0,42 23,8
peach stones
Obtained from
plum stones,
CAPrO36 1199 128 1071 0,68 0,51 22,7
oxidized with nitric
acid
SBET – BET surface area; Smicro, Sme – micropore and mesopore surface area,
respectivelly; Vs – total pore volume; Vmicro – micropore volume; D – average
pore diameter.

Sorption processes for the more efficient adsorbents were performed also
in dynamic conditions. The length of column was of 60 cm and diameter 1,5 cm,
the speed of filtration was about 10 m3/m2h.

Table 2. Surface chemistry of activated carbons characterized by modified Boehm method [4]

Quantity of the functional groups. Character of the functional groups.

Amount, meq/g Amount, meq/g

Sample Titrant Carboxylic Phenolic Basic

0,05 N 0,1 N 0,05 N 0,1 N Strong Weak
NaHCO3 Na2CO3 NaOH HCl acidic acidic
CAP23 0,10 0,29 0,58 0,59 0,10 0,19 0,29 0,59
CAPrO36 0,99 1,47 2,48 0,43 0,99 0,48 1,01 0,43

116
 For simultaneous removal of HS, THM and heavy metals water samples
were passed through two consecutive columns (with total working volume about
66 cm3) with active carbon (CAP23) and oxidized active carbon (CAPrO36). In the
effluents there has been determined the concentration of ingredients and pH values,
chemical oxygen demand (COD), permanganate oxygen demand (MnOD), organic
matter (OM) and hardness (HD).
The concentration of humic substances and chloroform have been
determined by two procedures, wet-oxidation method and ultraviolet absorptin
method (λ=254 nm and λ=280 nm) [5,6]. Metals ions have been determined by
fotocolorimetric methods [6,7].
Working solutions, which consist of amounts equivalent to 2-3 maximum
allowable concentration, have been modeled on natural waters of Republic
Moldova (tap water from Chisinau, surface water from Ungheni, and from
underground sources, Singerei).
The combined filter utilizing active carbon CAP23 (obtained from peach
stones) and active carbon CAPrO36 (obtained from plum stones, oxidized with
nitric acid) was constructed and tested for conditioning of tap water for beverage
and food production.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chemical composition of tap water obtained from surface and underground

sources in different zones of Moldova was determined. Parameters of quality for
water samples are presented in table 3. Results demonstrated that tap water from
surface sources contains appreciable amounts of organic substances, and tap water
from underground sources contains high level of iron.
Previously results demonstrated that active carbon CAP23 (obtained from
peach stones) posses highest sorption capacity for humic substances (HS) and
chloroform (THM), and oxidized activated carbon CAPrO36 (obtained from plum
stones, oxidized with nitric acid) – for metals (aluminum, iron, manganese) [8]. On this
basis, the removal of Al3+, Fe3+ and Mn2+ from individual solutions was performed in
dynamic frontal method utilizing oxidized active carbon CAPrO36, obtained from
plum stones. In this case, oxidized active carbon CAPrO36 works as an ion-exchanger
(Fig. 1). The removal of humic substances (HS) and chloroform (THM) from
individual solutions was performed using columns with carbonaceous adsorbent
obtained from peach stones CAP23 (Fig. 2).
Removal efficiency of HS, THM and heavy metals from their mixture have
been studied using two consecutive columns with active carbon (CAP23) and
oxidized active carbon (CAPrO36). The output curves of adsorption of Al3+ ions
from mixture and pH values of effluents (using the dynamic frontal method) are
presented in figures 3A and 3B. Carbonaceous adsorbents used for removal of
pollutants in dynamic conditions reveal a capacity of up to 1:400 volumes
adsorbent: solution before breakthrough (Fig. 3A).

117
 Table 3. Water quality for different locations of the Republic of Moldova

Parameters of quality Locations

Chisinau, Ungheni Singerei
r. Nistru r. Prut Ground water
pH 7,2 7,3 7,2
Turbidity, mg/l 0,9 0,5 0,3
TDS, mg/l 330 277 964
Alcalinity,mgE/l 2,88 2,54 9,8
Oxidability, mgO/l 2,1 2,1 2,1
DOC, mgC/l 3,06 2,98 3,48
CDOC, mgC/l 2,28 2,33 2,48
Iron, mg/l 0,27 0,20 1,1
Mangan, mg/l <0,01 <0,01 <0,01
Aluminium, mg/l 0,28 0,29 0,01

Adsorption (integral on effluents) of Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+ ions and chloroform

CHCl3, and humic substances HS are presented in figures 4A and 4B.

a, mg/g a, mg/g
1,0
0,6
1 1
0,5 0,8

0,4
0,6
2
0,3
2
0,4
0,2 3

0,2
0,1

0,0 0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Vel, L Vel, L

Fig. 1. Adsorption (integral on effluents) Fig. 2. Adsorption (integral on effluents)

of Fe3+ ions (curve 1), Al3+ ions (curve of humic substances (curve 1) and
2) and Mn2+ ions (curve 3) on oxidized chloroform (curve 2) on active carbon
active carbon (CAPrO-36) in dynamic (CAP-23) in dynamic conditions.
conditions.

Sorption processes of humic substances (HS), chloroform (THM) and

metals (aluminum, iron and manganese), studied under dynamic conditions from
solutions modeled on tap water, demonstrated that obtained adsorbents possess
high sorption properties for organic and inorganic pollutants and may be utilized
for tap water treatment.

118
 A B
Ce/C0 pH
8
1,0

0,8 6

0,6
4

0,4

2
0,2

0,0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Vel, L Vel, L

Fig. 3. The output curve of adsorption of Al3+ ions in dynamic conditions (A), and pH
values of effluents (B). Model solution, containing Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+ ions, chloroform
CHCl3 and humic substances HS.

A B
a, mg/g
a, mg/g
0,10
1 12
1
0,08
10
2
0,06 8

6
0,04
3 4

0,02
2
2
0,00 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Vel, L Vel, L

Fig. 4. Adsorption (integral on effluents) of Fe3+ ions (curve 1A), Al3+ ions (curve 2A)
and Mn2+ ions (curve 3A), humic substances (curve 1B) and chloroform (curve 2B) in
dynamic conditions from mixture.

The combined filter utilizing active carbon CAP23 (obtained from peach
stones) and active carbon CAPrO36 (obtained from plum stones) was constructed.
This combined filter was tested under dynamic conditions for remove from tap
water at high flow velocities of the impurities.
The results demonstrated efficient remove of organic substances and
heavy metals by filtering of about 700 volumes of water per volume of filter
(Tab. 4, Fig. 5).

119
 Table 4. Quality characteristics* of water passed thorough combined filter with active
carbon CAP23 (obtained from peach stones) and active carbon CAPrO36
(obtained from plum stones)

Vl/Vs HD HCO3- Cl- SO42- pH MnOD Corg OM

0 3,7 226 48,6 84 7,70 1,93 2,94 5,89
200 1,5 110 44,2 55 6,45 0 0,08 0,16
300 2,2 104 43,8 68 6,50 0,08 0,05 0,10
400 2,5 122 44,8 63 6,55 0,28 0,13 0,26
500 3,3 134 43,7 68 6,55 0,30 0,15 0,30
600 3,5 163 44,7 63 6,95 0,90 0,35 0,70
700 3,4 177 41,8 65 7,05 1,00 0,36 0,72
800 3,7 183 41,8 66 7,10 1,60 0,74 1,48
900 3,7 169 43,7 72 7,15 1,70 1,32 2,64
1000 3,7 188 41,9 71 7,15 1,60 2,15 4,30
1100 3,7 183 42,4 78 7,20 1,90 2,60 5,20
*
MnOD – permanganate oxygen demand, mg O2/L, Corg, mg/L, Organic matter OM, mg/L, Hardness
HD, meq/L, content of ions, mg/L. Filter volume 0,595 L, Vl/Vs is the water volumes: sorbent volume
ratio passed thorough filter. Dynamic velocity of filtering 15 L/h. Initial water Vl/Vs = 0.

COD, mg O2/L
8

6
Fig. 5 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
5
of water passed thorough combined
4 filter with active carbon CAP23 and
3 oxidized active carbon CAPrO36.
2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
V1/Vs,

4. CONCLUSIONS

Sorption processes of humic substances (HS), chloroform (THM) and

metals (aluminum, iron, manganese) were studied under dynamic conditions from
solutions modeled on tap water. It was demonstrated that obtained adsorbents
possess high sorption properties for organic and inorganic pollutants and may be
utilized for tap water treatment.
Carbonaceous adsorbents used for removal of pollutants in dynamic
conditions reveal a capacity of up to 1:400 volumes adsorbent: solution before
breakthrough.

120
 The combined filter utilizing active carbon CAP23 (obtained from peach
stones) and active carbon CAPrO36 (obtained from plum stones) was constructed
and tested for conditioning of tap water for beverage and food production. The
results demonstrated efficient remove of organic substances and heavy metals by
filtering 700 volumes of water per volume of filter.

REFERENCES

1. Official Monitor of Republic of Moldova, (2007), Nr. 131-135, art. Nr : 970 (rom).
2. Lupascu T., Nastas R., Rusu V., Sandu M., Staris L. The improving of drinking
water quality through proceedings on activated carbons. Proceedings of the Second
International Conference on Ecological Chemistry, Chisinau 2005, pp. 89-92.
3. Maroto-Valer M. Mercedes, Dranca I., Lupascu T., Nastas R. Effect of adsorbate
polarity on thermodesorption profiles from oxidized and metal-impregnated
activated carbons. Carbon, (2004), 42, pp. 2655-2659.
4. Nastas R., Rusu V., Giurginca M., Meghea A., Lupascu T. Chemical structure
modification of vegetal active carbons surface. Rev. Chim. (Bucharest). 2008,
Vol. 59, Nr. 2, pp. 159-164 (rom).
5. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Pub.: American
Public Health Association; American Water Works Association; Water
Environment Federation, USA, 19th Edition 1995.
6. Lurie Iu. Iu., Analiticeskaya himia promyshlennyh stocnyh vod. Moskow: Himia,
1984, 448 p.
7. Lurie Iu. Iu., Unifitirovannye metody analiza vod. Moskow: Himia, 1971, 375 p.
8. Lupascu T., Nastas R., Ciobanu M., Arapu T., Rusu V. New vegetal carbonaceous
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Conference of INECO-15 years, Chisinau, 2006, p. 218 (rom).

121
 SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS FOR EDUCATION
OF CLIMATE CHANGE

ILONA PAJTÓK-TARI1, JÁNOS MIKA1,2, ZOLTÁN UTASI1

ABSTRACT. – This paper surveys the key statements of the IPCC (2007) Report
based mainly on the satellite-borne observations to support teaching climate
change and geography by using the potential of this technology. In the
Introduction we briefly specify the potential and the constraints of remote sensing.
Next the key climate variables for indicating the changes are surveyed. Snow and
sea-ice changes are displayed as examples for these applications. Testing the
climate models is a two-sided task involving satellites, as well. Validation of the
ability of reconstructing the present climate is the one side of the coin, whereas
sensitivity of the climate system is another key task, leading to consequences on
the reality of the projected changes. Finally some concluding remarks are
compiled, including a few ideas on the ways how these approaches can be applied
for education of climate change.

Keywords: climate change, climate models, satellite remote sensing, climate

sensitivity

1. INTRODUCTION

The future teacher of geography has to know about everything which is

related to his or her profession in the real life. This is especially true for the devices
where either the factual knowledge or the interdisciplinary relations can well be
emphasized. From both points of view the satellite imagery and processing is such
a tool. Since this device reveals figuratively the tiny details of the surface to us.
Faculty of Natural Sciences of Eszterházy Károly College uses the satellite images
of EUMETSAT during 3 years for educational and scientific purposes starting in
autumn of 2010. Running a little bit ahead in time let us be playing about with the
thought that this imaginary right is available as physical reality for us already. How
we would be able to make use of it merely our basis topic in the interest of the
education of the climate change?
The satellites support the climate change in four ways: Firstly the
modification of the climate, the so called external forcing factors are worth
mentioning, especially the atmospheric aerosol particles, exhibiting large spatial
variability which demands the use of the satellite technology.

1
Department of Geography, Eszterházy Károly College, Eger, Hungary. E-mail: utasiz@ektf.hu,
pajtokil@ektf.hu,
2
Hungarian Meteorological Service, Budapest, Hungary. E-mail: mika.j@met.hu

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 Secondly, we emphasize the role that helps to justify the changes in such a
global covering that would not be possible in any other way especially in the
uninhabited regions and the oceans, not allowing the ground-based observations.
Testing climate models forms the third group of climatic applications, if these
models are able to give back the present value of single variables or its past
changes. Finally, testing the model sensitivity is a fourth application. It asks, if the
atmospheric short-, and long wave radiation feedbacks, shaping its balance, are
equal to their real intensity.
This question is really important, because the feedbacks influence the
climatic sensitivity. In any case, the balance of these feedbacks in the models
sensitivity causes as big uncertainty, as the variability of the greenhouse gas
emissions scenarios.

2. SPECIFICS OF REMOTE SENSING

Satellite technology is based on electromagnetic radiation observations.

The use of remote sensing techniques from space is advantageous, since this is the
only way to observe a wide range of geophysical parameters on a global scale to
acceptable accuracy in a consistent and repeatable manner (Silvestrin, 2010). The
satellite images have fairly high spatial resolution and high (though, costly)
temporal resolution already achievable over vast areas. This technology allows us
to measure locations of the Earth system impossible or difficult to access, mainly
by the all-weather day-and-night capability for microwave sensing. This
technology is able to measure several parameters at same time and it can be highly
automatic, from acquisition to exploitation. One may even state that on a per-
measurement basis, usually far less expensive than any other means of geophysical
observations (Silvestrin, 2010).
However, the technology has some caveats too (Silvestrin, 2010). One
must always consider that remote sensing data are results of indirect measurements
where the observed signal is always affected by more factors than just the one,
targeted by the observation. Therefore, further assumptions and models are needed
to interpret the measurements, e.g. to calibrate sensor, to remove perturbing effects,
etc. The area of the measurement target is often relatively large, raising the
representativity issue, considering surface heterogeneities. Due to these problems,
validation of remote sensing measurements is often not possible in an optimal way
and the estimation of the errors of the data products can be difficult.
Satellite remote sensing is based on primary and combined electromagnetic
quantities, e.g. absolute intensities in specific wavelength intervals, intensities
relative to the intensity of a reference source at the same wavelength, ratios of
intensities at different wavelengths, etc. These quantities are observed in two
characteristic groups according to the wavelengths. These are the microwave and
the optical (infrared) parts of the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Optical sensing of the surface takes place in visible and near-infrared (ca.
0.3-1.3 µm), middle-infrared (ca. 1.5-1.8, 2.0-2.6, 3.0-3.6, 4.2-5 µm) and thermal

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infrared (7.0-15 µm) parts of the spectrum, constrained by the atmospheric
windows. The microwave sounding can use a rather large window between 10
MHz – ca. 100 GHz.
The wavelengths in the two regions differ by around 5 orders of
magnitude: features observed are very different and usually highly complementary.
The two groups exhibit very different spatial resolutions: only tens of km for the
microwave, whereas 1 km is easily achieved for the optical measurements. On the
other hand, microwave sensing is little affected by atmosphere and clouds (but
rainfall may be a problem), and they can even penetrate vegetation, dry soil and
snow. For the visible wavelengths clouds are obstacles, and daylight is also a
condition. In the optical part of the spectrum various atmospheric corrections are
needed to clear the targeted signal from other effects. In this respect, wide and
partly unknown radiation parameters of the aerosol components are the problem.
For microwaves the surfaces appear smoother than in the optical region,
hence larger occurrence of mirror-like reflections is available. This can be utilized in
case of both passive and active remote sensing. Active sensing offers more control on
incident energy, enabling new sensing capacities. However, legal and technological
constraints also occur with the microwave spectrum allocation (interference with
other sources), lidar (laser-radar) safety issues, etc. (Silvestrin, 2010).

3. CHANGES OF CLIMATE

Detection of changes in the climate system is a rather difficult and long-term

task of the satellite based remote sensing. The key problems are the limited accuracy of
the observations, i.e. the non-random, systematic error, or bias, that defines the offset
between the measured value and the true one. There is also the limited precision of each
observation, i.e. its random errors. Suitable averaging of the random errors can improve
the precision of the measurement, so this problem is not a strict obstacle of the long-term
observations. But, the limited stability, i.e. the time varying accuracy, when no absolute
standard is available can lead to systematic error as a function of time. Finally, the
representativity might also be a constraint though a good sampling strategy can mitigate
this problem (Doherty, 2010).
There is a very large number of variables in the climate system. The most
straightforward, and also realistic ones to observe by remote sensing, are listed in Table
6.4, according the present and future activity of the “ESA Climate Change Initiative”
(Liebig, 2010). It is not possible to overemphasize how important it is to have multi-
variable objective data on recent climate changes. Any national or larger scale policy
decision on the mitigation of the changes or on the adaptation to them should be based on
the detection of the changes. (Attribution of them is another task, with substantial
synergies with the detection, as well.).
Common sense, physical considerations and also the technical possibilities and
constraints lead the decision on the priorities among these variables. The first two drivers
are needed to have the maximum set of fairly independent physical state variables, as
soon as possible. The first 11 variables of the ESA mission are bold set in Table 1.

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Table 1. Essential climate variables, as considered by the ESA Climate Change Initiative.
Observation of the 11 bold-set variables is already in process (Liebig, 2010).
Atmosphere Surface Air temperature, precipitation, air pressure, water
vapour, surface radiation budget, wind speed &
direction.
Upper air Cloud properties, wind speed & direction, Earth
radiation budget, upper air temperature, water vapor
Composition Carbon dioxide, methane & other GHGs, ozone, aerosol
properties
Ocean Surface Sea-surface temperature. Sea-level, sea-ice, ocean color,
sea state, sea-surface salinity, carbon dioxide partial
pressure
Sub-surface Temperature, salinity, current, nutrients, carbon, ocean
tracers, phytoplankton
Terrestrial Glaciers & ice caps, land cover, fire disturbance, fraction of absorbed
photo-synthetically active radiation, leaf-area index (LAI), albedo,
biomass, lake levels, snow cover, soil moisture, water use, ground water,
river discharge, permafrost and seasonally frozen ground

Among the variables in Table 1, the most frequently used one is the near
surface air temperature, which increased 0.8°C in the last 100 years (Copenhagen
Diagnosis, 2009). The temperature of the second part of 20th century on average
was very likely above all 50 years in last 500 year’s, and likely even in the last
1300 years.
An example of satellite remote sensing for climate change detection is the
microwave remote sensing. By this methodology it was possible to detect same
warming in the lower and middle layers of the troposphere together with the surface
changes during the newer examination. (See IPCC 2007: Fig. 3.16 for the methodo-
logy and Fig. 3.17 for the long-term changes, not showing here for the lack of space.)
The warming (caused by anything) could be proven beside the air
temperature with the change of other geophysical characters. Such variables are the
area of snow cover and sea ice which could be detected well only in the era of
satellites. Fig. 1 shows the changes of these components of the cryosphere in the
last decades. As it is shown in Fig. 1 both the snow cover and the sea ice area have
decreased in the last decade parallel to the global warming over the Northern
Hemisphere. Both changes are apparent and statistically significant.
On other hand, around Antarctica the sea ice has been increasing, despite
the near-surface warming over the majority of the continent (Steig et al., 2009).
This pattern has been attributed to intensification of circumpolar westerlies, in
response to changes in stratospheric ozone, letting less warm air masses into the
centre of the island. This, in turn, leads to colder centre of Antarctica and
southward shift of the Polar front. In Fig. 1, the linear trend of ice cover decreasing
is 33±7 thousand km2 per decade. Its magnitude is -2.7 %, and it is significant.
Simultaneously, the ice-cover expansion, as much as 6±9 thousand km2 per
decade, is not significant in the Southern Hemisphere.

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 Fig. 1. The extension of snow cover on the continents of Northern Hemisphere in two
following satellite observation interval during the thawing period, between 1967 and
1987, and 1988 and 2004 respectively (a). The modification of snow cover represented by
color squares showing almost on every place 5-15 or 15-25% shortening in time. The
continuous lines are 0 and 5 °C mean isotherms of air temperature for total 1967-2004
periods in March-April. The biggest area decreasing is nearly parallel with the isotherms.
The next two figures show the extension of oceanic ice cover on the Northern (b) and
Southern Hemispheres (c) between 1979 and 2005. The dots show the yearly mean ice
extension, with decadal smoothing. (IPCC 2007: Fig. 4.3, 4.8 and 4.9).

4. TESTING OF CLIMATE REPRODUCED BY MODELS

The climate system, the atmosphere, the lands, the oceans, the biosphere
and solid water (the cryosphere) is one of the most complicated non-linear systems.
The spatial scales of the system start from the millimeter magnitude of cloud-
physical processes until the length of the Equator.
The temporal scales of the system changes between the few minute long
micro turbulence to the many hundred year long ocean circulation. No model is
able to take everything into consideration. Besides the lack of computer capacity,
we have to consider the lack of knowledge derived form the limitations of the
observation network.
For this reason, testing climate models is very important. The simpler part
of testing is to check whether the fields in the models, simulated with present
external circumstances, fit reality. A positive example of this validation is shown in
Fig. 2. It demonstrates that the water content of atmosphere and its changes was
estimated relatively well by the model and was fitted to the reality via sea surface
temperature as lower boundary condition. We can state that the dynamical
processes of the atmosphere can handle the atmospheric water content.

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 It is also worth mentioning, that the increasing trend of water content
during this two decades, with global warming behind, points at the positive inter-
relatedness of temperature and water content at global scales: Warming climate
initiates increased water vapor content, leading to further warming, as is also
mentioned in the next Section.

Fig. 2. The anomaly of vertically integrated water vapor content above the ocean,
expressed in percent of 1987-2000 period average. The values are simulated by the
general circulation model of Geophysical Fluid Laboratory, Princeton and observed by
the SSM/I satellite. The model was driven by observed sea-surface temperature, as lower
boundary condition, otherwise by external climate forcing. The model well reproduces
the slow increase of water vapor content in connection with warming, and the inter-
annual fluctuation in relation to the El Nino/La Nina oscillation (IPCC 2007: Fig. 9.17).

5. TESTING CLIMATE MODEL SENSITIVITY

The final aim of climate modeling is to project the future climate in response
to reasonable changes in the external forcing factors. These external factors and their
uncertainty are influenced by many circumstances. Among others, they are the world
population, the structure of energy industry, development difference between the
regions, etc. The other uncertainty factor is how correctly we simulate the sensitivity
of climate system, namely the expected temperature in response to given changes of
the external factors. We are not really able to estimate the first uncertainty source,
due to its complexity, but we can validate the climate sensitivity simulations through
testing certain particular processes. These particular processes are the climate
feedback mechanisms, including variables and processes, that change due to climate
changes, but which re-direct the measure of climate change, as well.
The expected changes in the global average could be determined from Fig.
3. The expected changes are shown using the three scenarios of the IPCC Report
(IPCC 2007) assuming constant atmospheric composition as it was in 2000. The
right side of Fig. 3 shows the absolute uncertainty of three basic scenarios in
addition to three more popular alternatives given in the Report 2001.

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 If we compare the uncertainty originated from different emission scenarios
from sensitivity differences of the models, we have to assess both uncertainty
sources to be similar. Hence, decreasing the difference of climate models,
reflecting better knowledge of the real sensitivity, would be equally useful from the
point of view of the prediction as reduction of the uncertainty of future emissions.

Fig. 3. Global mean temperature scenarios. The solid lines show the changes of global
mean temperature. The lines before 2000 show the observed values and their ±1 standard
deviation. Later they are the results of all available model simulations as deviation from
the 1980-1999 average, according to the A2, A1B, and B1 scenarios. The lower, almost
constant line is for the experiment with constant concentrations after 2000. The right
hand columns show the uncertainty, characterized by 60% higher and 40% lower values
(IPCC 2007: Fig. 10.29).

Above it was shown that the sensitivity of climate models differs form each
other. It is important to test simulated feedbacks in the models, in which the satellite
observation will have important role. The most frequently referred to figure of the IPCC
(2007) Report shows how the mean Earth’s temperature can change according to the
possible scenarios and climate sensitivity values.
In Fig. 4 two tests of such feedback are shown. The long-wave radiation emitted
from the surface is influenced only by water vapor content of atmosphere under clear
sky. The more water vapor is in the atmosphere, the bigger part of the surface long-wave
radiation can be absorbed. It means that a smaller part of the energy could leave into the
space. The water vapor is a greenhouse gas itself causing more than the a half of the
natural greenhouse effect. But, since water vapor content of the atmosphere is changing
mainly due to internal processes of the climate system, from environmental point of view
we do not consider it as a greenhouse gas.

128
 Fig. 4. Model estimation of most important elements of (cloudless) long wave (a) (Allan
et al., 2004: Fig. 2) and shortwave balance (b) (IPCC, 2007: Fig. 8.16). In first figure the
HadAM3 climate model of British Hadley Centre, calculated for tropical area, under
clear sky, shows that the long-wave component decreases too fast with increasing water
vapor content of upper stratosphere. It means that the model simulates a bigger value for
the irradiance than it was measured by ERBS and HIRS satellites. This error means too
strong negative feedback in the model. We can also see how the short-wave balance
depends on surface albedo in case of 17 different models in the lower part of the figure.
The vertical axis shows the albedo decrease depending on unit global warming as one
difference between 20th and 22nd Century simulated climates. The horizontal axis shows
the ratio of satellite observed April-May albedo and temperature values for the Northern
Hemisphere. The seasonal albedo sensitivity is estimated using data fields of ISCCP
cloud climatology and ERA-40 atmosphere analysis projects. The models produce large
deviations from this value, and in majority they exhibit weaker feedback than the
empirical estimation. Both errors lead to smaller climate sensitivity than in reality.

The upper part of Fig. 4 demonstrates that the mentioned model overesti-
mates the influence of water vapor on the irradiance. It means that the model
simulates the most important stabilizing negative feedback of the climate system to
be weaker than in the reality. Contrary to this, the positive feedback has got the
biggest influence on short wave balance connected with the changes of snow and ice
cover. The stronger the warming is, the larger area of the elements of cryosphere will
thaw, and the albedo of a large area will be darker instead of snow and ice with high
reflectivity. Since the snow-free surface is able to absorb more energy and use it for
warming of the atmosphere, it will amplify the warming as well.

6. CONCLUSION
The use of remote sensing from space is advantageous, since it allows us to
observe a wide range of climate parameters on a global scale in a consistent and
repeatable manner. There are several parameters that can practically be observed
only this way.
Though there are some constraints in accuracy and in precision, as well,
the moderate space and time resolution, which is enough for climate science
applications, mean that they are not especially limiting. Detection of climate

129
change is important since ground-based detection has many local influences and
other practical constraints, especially concerning the cryosphere and the strongly
related sea-level.
The third group, the validation of the present climate model simulations
could have been more detailed, but the results of the comparison are rather model-
dependent with some uncertainties in the indirect observations. More attention was
paid to the validation of the feedback mechanisms, determining the radiation
balance of the atmosphere largely influencing the sensitivity of our climate to the
external forcing factors. Undoubtedly, this is the most policy-related aspect of
climate science.
For teaching climate change in any school subject, satellite images always
bear the advantage of undoubted fidelity. Both the primary products and
composites are straightforward tools to understand weather. Though the above
illustrated possibilities required far more elaborations than that in case if a single
image or a moving series of them, the satellite images are of high confidence
among the public (students or pupils). Hence, the above indicators of climate
change and its research by climate modelling can effectively be applied to illustrate
the statements of contemporary climate science.

REFERENCES

1. Allan R.P., 2004. Water Vapour Feedback Observations and Climate Sensitivity.
In: IPCC WG-I Workshop on Climate Sensitivity, Paris, France, 26–29 July, 2004,
63-65 (http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/meeting/CSW/product/CSW_Report.pdf)
2. The Copenhagen Diagnosis (2009): Updating the World on the Latest Climate
Science. I. Allison, N.L. Bindoff, R.A. Bindschadler, P.M. Cox, N. de Noblet,
M.H. England, J.E. Francis, N. Gruber, A.M. Haywood, D.J. Karoly, G. Kaser, C.
Le Quéré, T.M. Lenton, M.E. Mann, B.I. McNeil, A.J. Pitman, S. Rahmstorf, E.
Rignot, H.J. Schellnhuber, S.H. Schneider, S.C. Sherwood, R.C.J. Somerville, K.
Steffen, E.J. Steig, M. Visbeck, A.J. Weaver. The University of New South Wales,
Climate Change Research Centre, Sydney, Australia. 60pp.
3. Doherty M., 2010. Systematic Observation Requirements for Climate GCOS and
ESA’s approach. “New Space Missions for Understanding Climate Change”
Summer School Alpbach 2010, 27 July-August 5, Alpbach, Austria. See:
www.summerschoolalpbach.at.
4. IPCC (2007): Climate Change (2007): The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change, 2007 (Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M.
Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor, H.L. Miller, eds.) Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge UK & New York NY, USA.
5. Liebig V. (2010): Satellite Missions for Climate Observations. “New Space
Missions for Understanding Climate Change” Summer School Alpbach 2010, 27
July-August 5, Alpbach, Austria. See: www.summerschoolalpbach.at
6. Silvestrin P., 2010. On Observation Techniques from space in support of climate
change studies. “New Space Missions for Understanding Climate Change”
Summer School Alpbach 2010, 27 July-August 5, Alpbach, Austria. See:
www.summerschoolalpbach.at

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 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE SURFACE WATER QUALITY
CONDITION IN THE SIRET HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN

C. (CAS. AXINTE) DOLTU1, D.A. (CAS.TIMOFTI) DONCIU2

ABSTRACT. – Considerations on the surface water quality condition in the

Siret hydrographic basin. The surface water resources in the Siret river basin are
about 17% of total water resources of the country and consist mainly of the Siret
River, its tributaries and in a very small extent, from lakes and ponds. The study of
the water quality variation of Siret River is done according to the organoleptic,
physical, chemical, biological and bacteriological characteristics which are
determined by analysis of groups of qualitative and quantitative indicators that
vary with specific environmental conditions. Thus, the authors follow, through stu-
dies on the evolution of state parameters of the Siret river water quality in different
sections of monitoring,to assess the degree of pollution and its impact on river.

Keywords: water quality, monitoring, specific indicators, Siret river, degree of

pollution.

1. INTRODUCTION

The water quality is a major objective in water management, where the

monitoring activity plays a decisive role, representing the instrument in water
policy development. The assessment of water quality is performed using quality
indicators which are variable sizes, the number of items within each category of
indicators was determined according to specific conditions, the intended purpose
and nature of pollution sources.
In Romania, the water quality is monitored according to the structure and
methodological principles of Integrated Monitoring System in Romania,
restructured in accordance with the requirements of European Directives.
The elaboration of water quality synthesis is based on processing a large
volume of information obtained through knowledge work out by local units of the
Romanian Waters National Administration.
The rivers water quality is variable from one sector to another and is
influenced by natural and the anthropogenic factors. The characterization of
ecological status and ecological potential of the surface water consist in monitoring
of biological, physical-chemical and hydromorphological parameters and is based
on a classification system into five classes, thus: class I – “very good”, class II –
“good”, class III – “moderate condition”, class IV – “poor”, class V – “bad”.

1
„Gheorghe Asachi” Tehnical University, Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Geodesic and Environmental
Engineering, Iasi, e-mail: cristinadoltu@yahoo.com
2
„Gheorghe Asachi” Tehnical University, Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Geodesic and Environmental
Engineering, Iasi, e-mail: diana_timofti@yahoo.com@yahoo.com

131
 In this paper the authors follow, through studies on the evolution of state
parameters of water quality Siret River, to evaluate the degree of pollution and its
impact on river.

2. RISK FACTORS ON THE SURFACE WATER OF SIRET

HYDROGRAPHIC BASIN

Since 2007, over a length of 26,506 km, was organized the supervision of
water quality on middle courses and lower courses of rivers from Romania as a
result of apparition the human activities impact on water quality.
For the evaluation, from physico-chemical point of view, the overall
water quality, in each section of the surveillance, were calculated separately for
each indicator, with insurance values of 90% and 10% for dissolved oxygen and
they were compared with the limit values of quality classes stipulated by the
normative with five quality classes. The biological quality of watercourses has
been carried out based on monitoring of the following elements: macroinver-
tebrates, microfitobentos, phytoplankton, aquatic macrophytes and fish.
The surface water resources in the Siret catchment are about 17% of total
water resources of the country and consist mainly of the Siret River, its tributaries
and in a very small extent, from lakes and ponds. After the evaluation of water
quality from the hydrographic basin have been identified 43 significant pollution
sources, the most important categories of pressures being: punctiform pressure,
diffuse and hydromorphological.
The punctiform sources of significant pollution are domestic, industrial and
agricultural and the diffuse sources of pollution are represented mainly by chemical
fertilizers used in agriculture (which vary between 1.61 kg P / ha and 10.01 kg N /
ha), pesticides used to control pests (0.9 kg / ha), domestic animals, rural
agglomerations and urban areas. Regarding the significant hidromorfolgice
pressures from Siret River area, they consist of hydrotechnical and management
works realized in cascade.
The evaluation of the risk on water bodies, take into account the criteria for
identifying pressures and the criteria for evaluating their impact. Thus, in the study
has been taken into account of the pollutions by organic matter, nutrients pollution,
pollution from priority substances / dangerous and hydro-morphological
alterations.
The status of surface water body in the hydrographic basin, in terms of
risk, is as follows:
- From a point of view of organic substances, 20 (5.88%) of water bodies
are subject to risk, 10 (2.94%) possible risk and 310 (91.18%) without risk;
- From a nutrient point of view of 16 (4.7%) water bodies are subject to risk,
12 (3.53%) possible risk and 312 (91.77%) without risk;
- From a point of view of priority hazardous substances, 0 water bodies are
subject to risk, 4 (1.17%) possible risk, 336 (98.83%) without risk;

132
 - From a point of view of hydromorphological alterations, 34 (10%) water
bodies are subject to risk, 29 (8.53%) possible risk and 277 (81.47%)
without risk.

3. THE WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS IN THE SIRET RIVER IN

THE 2006-2008

The Siret River is analyzed of water quality by recorded values in the

different control sections positioned along the River (Siret, Hutani and Lespezi)
and main tributaries (Suceava, Bistrita, Moldova, Şomuzului Mare, etc.) in the
period 2006-2008.
The samples were collected once a month for three years. Among the main
monitorized indicators with the impact on the Siret river water quality, emphasize:
Ca2+, Chlorides, Fe, Detergent, Na, 0 phosphates, Phosphorus, Mg, N-NO2-, N-
NO3-, sulfate and residue (Fig.1).

a. Ca (mg/l) b. Chlorides (mg/l)

c. Fe (mg/l) d. Detergent (mg/l)

e. Na (mg/l) f. o Phosphates (mg /l)

133
 g. Phosphorus (mg P/l)
h. Mg (mg/l)

i.N-NO2- (mg N/l) j.N-NO3- (mg N/l)

k.Residue (mg/l) l.Sulfate (mg/l)

Fig. 1. The leading indicators monitored in the period 2006-2008,with the impact
on Siret river water quality.

After analyzing these indicators the Siret river water quality, in 2006, in
Siret section, in terms of annual averages is "very good", except the Ca2 + indicator
that induces the quality of "good".
It noted the "very good" quality water in terms of indicators of dissolved
oxygen and sulfate, esexceeding , during the 12 months monitoring, the values
above normal. At the same register at the "very good" state is included and the
filterable residue indicator , for which was recorded an exit of this class only in a
single month (January 2006). In terms of indicators of ammonium ion N-NH4 + and
nitrite N-NO2-only in July were recorded values of the “good” status.
In Hutani section, the water of Siret River loses of quality, three indicators
of lowering at the “good” state: : N-NO2-, Ca 2+ and Magnesium Mg2+ and in
Lespezi section the water quality to descend at "good" status under the influence of
five indicators (nitriti N-NO2-, nitrogen N-NO3-, sulfates, Ca 2+ and magnesium
Mg2+).

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 During 2007 and 2008, Siret River water quality is better than that
recorded in 2006. Were recorded only two indicators that induce water quality, the
"good" status (N-NH4+ and Ca2+ ), against three indicators registered in 2006 in
section Hutani. In the Siret section the N-NO2- indicator lead to good quality status,
the others demonstrating the “very good” status, and in the Lespezi section all of
indicators fit the water quality in “very good” status.
The water quality of the tributaries will influence both negative and
positive the water quality of Siret receiver. Table 1 presents the water quality
evolution of the Siret River tributaries in 2006. It can be seen as the main indicators
that change the status of water quality in this region are: N-NO2-, Ca 2+ , N-NO3-, N-
NH4+, Mg2+, phosphates and Sulfaţi.
The Bistrita River has a beneficial influence on the Siret river water quality
due to its water quality "very good" in terms of all indicators.

Table 1. The water quality evolution of the Siret River tributaries in 2006

During 2007 and 2008, the Suceava river status is improved maintaining
the “very good” quality in most monitored sections (Brodina, Milisauti, Itcani,
Liteni and Dragomirna ) and in the Mihoveni and Tisa sections only the N-NO2-
indicator induce the status of “good”.

135
 The Bistrita river suffer a slight degradation of the water quality in 2007,
due to the fact that the chloride and Mg2+ indicators, lead to lower quality from
“very good” to “good”. In 2008 he returns to "very good" status quality.
The Moldova River in 2007 has improved water quality compared to 2006
as having a status of "very good" in the Fundu Moldovei control section and as
"good" in the av.Gura Humorului control section due to the Mg2+ indicator and in
the Baia control section due to the N-NO2-, N-NO3- and Ca2+ indicators . In 2008,
this tributary recorded a positive evolution in terms of water quality over the
previous year.
The Water quality of the other tributaries have the same regim in 2008, as
in previous years. The poor state are recorded in Pozen where the water quality
drops to the level of “bad”.
The status of the rivers water quality in the biologically point of view in
the Siret river basin was evaluated based on analysis phytobenthos,ichthyofauna
and macrozoobenthic . In table 2 is shown the situation of the lengths (2809 km)
of river assessed, cumulate on the quality classes, depending on the ecological
status.

Table 2. Total lengths of river analyzed which dependent on the ecological status
according to the Siret River Basin.

As a conclusion we find that in the Siret River Basin, during 2006-2008,

the surface water quality, assessed over a length of 4228 km, according to data
from devices made by the University "Stefan cel Mare" Suceava, was distributed as
follows: 1499 km of river (35.5%) - class I, 1658 km of river (39.2 %) - class II,
681 km of river (16.1 %) - class III, 172 km of river (4.1 %) - class IV-, 218 km
of river (5.2%) - class V (Fig.2).

Fig. 2. The water quality along the rivers in the Siret River Basin

136
 4. THE PROTECTION AND RESTORATION MEASURES OF THE
SURFACE WATER QUALITY.

One of the important measures for maintaining quality of water resources

is the activity of prevention and control of accidental pollution. In accordance with
the Water Law no.107/1996, modified and supplemented by OUG No. 3 of 5
February 2010, the prevention and control of accidental pollution is organized by
the National Administration "Romanian Waters" through its Watershed,based on
by:
- the plans developed for each river basin organization for to
approve of the organization and operating rules of the alarm
system in case of accidental pollution of waters in Romania;
- the own plans for water users wich are potential polluters;
- the units that use water,will develop a program to combat the
accidental pollution effects produced by units located in the
upstream;
- monthly is prepared the Bulletin of Water Quality, which presents
the status surface water quality, groundwater, surface water
intended for abstraction for drinking water production and the
situation of the main sources of pollution etc.
The increasing and maintaining a river water quality is achieved through
structural techniques( stop the pollution, changes in legislation and water quality
standards, education, machining regime change in hydropower plants, preventing
the discharge of toxic substances, wetland restoration) and structural techniques
(fences, security, handling of vegetation and organic substances etc.).
The prevention of water pollution is safer than treatment. In the case when
preventive measures were applied too late or have not had the desired effect is
made to treatment which is extremely costly, complicated and always with the risks
and unwanted side effects.
The water protection is not only by avoiding certain pollutants reaching the
waters, but also by maintaining a more natural and healthy form with an intact
capacity of natural purification.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The paper aims the monitoring, for a period of three years, of the
evolution of surface water quality in the Siret hydrographic basin and determining
the degree of pollution at the water.
The study of the water quality variation of Siret River is done according to
the organoleptic, physical, chemical, biological and bacteriological characteristics
which are determined by analysis of groups of qualitative and quantitative
indicators that vary with specific environmental conditions.
The Siret River is analyzed of water quality by recorded values in the
different control sections positioned along the River (Siret, Hutani and Lespezi)

137
and main tributaries (Suceava, Bistrita, Moldova, Şomuzului Mare, etc.) in the
period 2006-2008.
Using the samples collected it was determined that the main indicators
with the impact in water quality, during the period analyzed (2006-2008), were:
Ca2 +, Chlorides, Fe, Detergents, Na, 0 phosphate, Phosphorus, Mg, N-NO2-, N-
NO3-, sulfate and residues.
S-a constatat ca in bazinul hidrografic Siret calitatea apelor de suprafata,
evaluate pe o lungime de 4228 km, a fost distribuita pe urmatoarele clase de
calitate: 1499 km (35.5%) - class I, 1658 km (39.2 %) - class II, 681 km (16.1 %) -
class III, 172 km (4.1 %) - class IV, 218 km (5.2%) - class V.
The water protection is not only by avoiding certain pollutants reaching the
waters, but also by maintaining a more natural and healthy form with an intact
capacity of natural purification.

REFERENCES

1. Aristica Balaban (2008) „ Studii fizico-chimice şi biologice referitoare la poluarea

apelor Dunării”, Teză de doctorat, Bucureşti.
2. Irina Elena Florea (2010) „Geochimia mediului în aria de prelucrare a petrolului
din Bazinul Trotuşului”, Ţeză de doctorat, Iaşi.
3. Marilena Diaconu (2008) „Calitatea apei din bazinul superior al râului Argeş-
Amonte de Goleşti”, IWM Conferences.
4. *** Legea apelor nr.107/1996 modificată şi completată prin OUG nr.3 din 5
Februarie 2010.
5. http://www.apesiret.usv.ro
6. http://www.mmediu.ro/gospodarirea_apelor/calitatea_apelor/raport_2009.pdf
7. http://www.scribd.com/doc/19475537/Probleme-Generale-Privind-Poluarea-
Apelor.

138
 THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND THE QUANTITATIVE
ASSESSMENT OF ANNUAL MAXIMUM FLOWS RECORDED
IN THE HYDROGRAPHICAL BASIN OF TIMIŞ RIVER

ANDREEA MIHAELA DOMĂŞNEANU1

ABSTRACT. – The statistical analysis and the quantitative assessment of

annual maximum flows recorded in the hydrographical basin of Timiş river.
We should calculate the frequency of flooding in this part of the country and
determine the flow values or maximum levels with certain probabilities of
exceedance in order to study the statistical analysis and the quantitative assessment
of the annual maximum flows, based on the values related to the annual maximum
flows recorded in the hydrometric stations from the basin. The setting of these
indicators represents only an early stage in the analytical approach to flood risk of
this basin, which should be followed by other complementary stages that include
the setting of parameters related to the receptors sensitivity to the action of this
risk type, to the exposure of the receiving elements, to the value of the receivers
and, finally, to the setting of the flood risk value.

Keywords: hydrographical basin, hydrometric stations, maximum flows, flood

risk, statistical analysis, frequency, overflow probability, return period.

1. INTRODUCTION
Recently, the achievement of a deeper analysis of the flood risk in areas of
the country that have been severely affected by this type of risk in recent years has
proved to be necessary.
These regions include the Timiş river basin, especially its low plains area,
which has been hit by the occurrence of major floods for years. We can mention
especially the most recent floods from 2000 and 2005, which led to the flooding of
several areas of land, to the record of many unfortunate damages and in most cases
even loss of life.
Because the flood risk is the combination of the likelihood of flooding and
potential adverse effects to human health, environment, cultural heritage and
economic activity associated with the occurrence of a flood, a flood risk study for
the river basin concept should not be treated separated from the concepts of
frequency, probability and time (or period) to return or comeback of this
hydrological extreme events (Haidu, 2002).
This study aims to be a comprehensive overview of the mathematical
statistics applied in the quantitative analysis and assessment of maximum flows
recorded on the basin of Timiş river by applying the calculation methodology of

1
West University from Timişoara, Faculty of Chemistry, Biology and Geography, Department of
Geography, Timişoara, Romania, e-mail: domasneanu_andreea@yahoo.com

139
frequency and probability of exceeding the maximum flow, important and
indispensable steps in the analytical approach of the flood risk.

2. THE WORKING METHODOLOGY

Data referring to the annual largest flow values collected from 13

hydrometric stations, which are very well distributed in the territory, because they
are located in different parts of the basin, with a wide variety of physical and
geographical conditions (fig. 1), have been used in view of the statistical analysis
and quantitative assessment of maximum flows recorded in the basin of Timiş
river. The study period is considered long enough and representative, because
during those 35 years, from 1975 until 2009, the annual peak flow values present
significant variation, including the absolute maximum flow values recorded for the
floods from 2000 and 2005 (fig. 2).

Fig. 1. Hydrometric stations and hydrotechnical works in the basin of Timiş river

In addition to the annual maximum flow values, the records of the largest
floods during a year have been taken into account, which have been found at
hydrometric stations, containing the extraordinary measurements of flows and
levels of the largest flash floods taking place each year.

140
 1400

1200

1000

800
Q (mc/s)

600

400

200

0
1975
1976

1977
1978

1979
1980
1981
1982
1983

1984
1985

1986
1987
1988

1989
1990

1991
1992
1993

1994
1995

1996
1997
1998

1999
2000

2001
2002
2003
2004
2005

2006
2007

2008
2009
Anul

Teregova Sadova Caransebeş Lugoj Brod Şag

Fig. 2. Annual maximum flows (1975-2009) at the main hydrometric stations on Timiş

Thus, based on the values of the annual maximum flows, the relative and
absolute frequencies were calculated primarily for two hydrometric stations located
on Timiş river. The frequency analysis is important within the flood risk study
because it is a statistical method of prediction, consisting of the study of these
events that happened in the past in order to define the probability of occurrence of
values in the future (Haidu, 2002).
The absolute frequency (n x) represents the number of cases in each flow
interval, and the relative frequency is determined by the ratio of absolute frequency
and total number of cases, a ratio that multiplied by 100 helps us find the respective
relative frequency percentage (%) (Teodorescu, 2003). Thus, the relative frequency
can be determined by the equation:
f ( x )  nnx
where: nx - the absolute frequency
n – the total number of cases

The empirical distribution of curve parameters have been calculated by the

method of moments (Arghiuş, 2006) using the formulas for calculating the most
important statistical characteristics of a range of data, namely the arithmetic mean
(QMmed), the coefficient of variation (Cv) and the asymmetry coefficient (Cs). These
features of the range of data consisting of the annual values of maximum flow rates
have been calculated using the following formulas:

141
 Q
Q   Mi
Mmed n

2
 (k - 1) Q
C  i , where k  Mi
v n i Q
Mmed
3
 ( k  1)
i 3
C  C
s n v
where:
QMmed – the arithmetic mean of the maximum flow;
QMi – the maximum flow corresponding to the number from the range of
terms;
n – the number of terms in the range of data;
Cv – the coefficient of variation;
ki – the module coefficient;
Cs – the coefficient of asymmetry (Arghiuş, 2006).

A very useful method of hydrometric and hydrological data processing is

the calculation of the probability of occurrence of certain maximum flow rates
(Teodorescu, 2003). Thus, the empirical exceedance probabilities can be calculated
using the formula:
m  0,3
p  100%
n  0,4
where:
m – the number of the maximum flow from the range of terms in
decreasing sequence;
n – the number of terms in the range.

The classical method of determining the probability of exceedance, i.e. the

distribution range with three parameters (Pearson III), has been used for the
statistical analysis of the range of maximum flows from the 13 hydrometric
stations, and the maximum flow values with different probabilities of exceedance
have been obtained using the following formula (Arghiuş, 2006):

QMp=QMmed (Cv*øi +1)

The values of the øi coefficient, which vary depending on the value of the
coefficient of asymmetry (C s) and the value of the probability of exceedance, have
been extracted from page 14 of document: http://teaching.ust.hk/~civl253/lecture
%20notes. files/frequency%20analysis%202.ppt. Based on these values, on the
values of the coefficient of variation and on the average values of the maximum

142
flows from each hydrometric station, the peak flow values with different
probabilities of exceedance (Q MP) have been obtained and are presented in table 2.

3. THE INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

The absolute frequency values and relative frequency values for the two
hydrometric stations studied, namely Teregova, close to the springs of Timiş, and
Şag located on the lower course of Timiş river, where the flood risk is high, are
shown in Fig. 3. By analyzing the frequency of the two hydrometric stations, one
can note that, as we move away from the source of Timiş river, the frequency curve
of annual maximum flows changes greatly increasing the flow rate range with the
highest values of flows, within which the rates recorded for the catastrophic floods
of 2000 and 2005 are also found.
Teregova Şag
70 25 40 14
60 35 12
20
30
Frecvenţa (%)

Frecvenţa (%)

50
Nr. de cazuri

Nr. de cazuri
10
40 15 25
8
20
30 10 6
15
20 10 4
5
10 5 2
0 0 0 0
0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 >100 100-250 250-400 400-550 550-700 700-850 >850
Intervalul de debit (mc/s) Intervalul de debit (mc/s)

Fig. 3. The histogram of frequencies for the hydrometric stations of Teregova and Şag

The results obtained by calculating the empirical distribution curves

parameters and the corresponding maximum flows with different probabilities of
exceedance or return period are shown in tables 1 and 2. By analyzing these results,
we notice that the values of the coefficient of variation (Cv) vary from a
hydrometric station to another, recording the minimum value (0.52) for the
hydrometric station located in Şag on Timiş river and the maximum value (1.03)
for the hydrometric station located in Nădrag, on Nădrag river, a tributary of Timiş.
The high values of the coefficient of variation, characteristic of the hydro-
metric station from Nădrag, are due to the range of data referring to peak flows, to some
exceptional values, such as the maximum flow recorded in 2000, approximately six
times higher than the annual average of maximum flows during 1975-2009.
The lower values of the coefficient of variation are due to the adjustment
of the runoff, whether it is a natural adjustment (the high coefficient of forest
coverage within the basin and the high value of average altitude of the
hydrographical basin) or it is an anthropogenic adjustment (through hydrotechnical
works in the basin).
We may include among the hydrotechnical works carried out within the
basin the completion of the permanent accumulation of Trei Ape, which strongly
modifies the water flow regime in Timiş river, starting with its springs. The
influence of this accumulation, as well as the influence of the Semenic Canal,
through which water is transferred from Timiş to Bârzava, is felt in the minimum,

143
 average and maximum of the water flow on Timiş river throughout its upper and
middle course.
Table 1. Hydrological characteristics of the hydrometric stations in the basin
Multian. Absolute Average
Hydrom. Year of Hmed average Q maxim. Q maxim. Q
Stream station constit. F (km2)* (m)* (m3/s) (m3/s) Year (m3/s) Cv Cs
Timiş Teregova 1907 167 901 2,5 108 1975 23,93 0,95 1,79
Rece Rusca 1957 163 1184 4,6 180 1999 43,35 0,73 0,37
Feneş Feneş 1964 125 973 2,8 156 1999 37,78 0,75 0,38
Timiş Sadova 1951 560 936 10,5 328 2000 108,2 0,70 0,17
Timiş Caransebeş 1966 1072 765 18,4 441 2000 183,2 0,56 0,03
Voislova-
Bistra Bucova 1958 232 892 3,9 280 2000 51,75 0,85 1,52
Poiana
Şucu Mărului 1958 77 1430 3,0 176 2000 32,16 0,9 1,94
Bistra Poiana
Mărului Mărului 1958 79 1442 2,7 96 2000 27,92 0,73 0,29
Nădrag Nădrag 1963 36 742 0,7 63,5 2000 10,91 1,03 3,77
Timiş Lugoj 1950 2706 666 37,9 1247 2000 418,9 0,59 0,07
Şurgani Chevereş 1964 138 141 0,4 40,3 2005 15,35 0,72 0,06
Timiş Brod 1971 3682 569 31,1 1290 2005 415,6 0,62 0,1
Timiş Şag 1961 4493 477 35,4 1084 2000 424,7 0,52 0,03
* Source: (Munteanu Rodica, 1998)

We notice that the maximum flow values with the probability of

exceedance of 1% vary quite sharply from one station to another. As we move
further away from sources of Timiş, these values increase, except for the last
hydrometric station (Şag), where a decrease is recorded.
Table 2. Maximum flow rates with different probabilities of exceedance / return period
Maximum flow rates with different probabilities of
exceedance / return period
Hydrometric
No. Stream station 0,5 1 2 4 10 20
200 100 50 25 10 5
1 Timiş Teregova 118,2 103,5 88,7 73,8 53,9 38,6
2 Rece Rusca 136,7 126,1 114,9 102,8 85,0 69,2
3 Feneş Feneş 121,3 111,9 101,9 91,1 75,1 60,9
4 Timiş Sadova 317,4 295,4 271,7 245,9 206,7 171,1
5 Timiş Caransebeş 447,5 421,9 394,0 362,9 314,8 269,6
6 Bistra Voislova-Bucova 223,7 198,2 172,4 146,2 110,4 82,1
7 Şucu Poiana Mărului 154,4 135,0 115,6 96,0 70,1 50,3
8 Bistra Mărului Poiana Mărului 86,1 79,8 73,0 65,6 54,6 44,7
9 Nădrag Nădrag 72,8 58,0 47,9 36,6 22,8 13,8
10 Timiş Lugoj 1078,8 1012,0 939,6 860,0 738,2 625,5
11 Şurgani Chevereş 44,9 41,9 38,6 35,1 29,6 24,6
12 Timiş Brod 1103,7 1034,1 958,6 875,6 748,6 631,1
13 Timiş Şag 993,6 938,4 878,3 811,4 707,8 610,7

144
 This reduction in the hydrometric station from Şag of the maximum flow
values with the probability of exceedance of 1% is due to the maximum flow
values recorded during the floods in 2000 and 2005 which were significantly
reduced due to the impermanent accumulation from Pădureni, located between the
two hydrometric stations, which stored a volume of flood wave attenuation of 20
million m³. However, at least in 2005, the maximum flow value recorded at the
hydrometric station in Şag was an exceptional value in terms of its classification
within the statistics, and the probability of exceedance corresponding to this flow
rate was 4%.
The peak flows have been influenced by the breaking of dams and the
retention of significant volumes of water in the permanent and impermanent
reservoirs upstream from it (Fig. 1) for all hydrometric floods recorded at this
station from 1975 to 2009.
During the last flash floods, the carrying capacity of the major river beds
was exceeded downstream from the hydrometric station from Şag, because the
defense dams have been designed to resist a flood with the probability of
occurrence once every 20 years (Report on the flood from April 2005 in the
hydrographical basin of Banat , INHGA).
Fig. 4 and 5 display the charts referring to the theoretical curves with
different probabilities of exceedance from the basin’s hydrometric stations, which
allow the setting of small intervals of the probability of exceedance, so needed in
practice.
Teregova Sadova

160 400
140 350
120 300
100 250
Q (mc/s)

Q (mc/s)

80 200
60 150
40 100
20 50
0 0
0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100 0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100
P (%) P (%)

Caransebeş Lugoj

600 1400
1200
500
1000
400
Q (mc/s)
Q (mc/s)

800
300
600
200
400
100 200
0 0
0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100 0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100
P (%) P (%)

Brod Şag
1400 1200
1200 1000
1000
800
Q (mc/s)

Q (mc/s)

800
600
600
400
400
200 200

0 0
0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100 0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100
P (%) P (%)

Fig. 4. The charts referring to the distribution curves from the hydrometric stations located on Timiş

145
 Rusca Feneş

180 160
160 140
140 120
120 100

Q (mc/s)
Q (mc/s)

100
80
80
60
60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100 0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100
P (%) P (%)

Poiana Mărului - Şucu Voislova-Bucova

200 300

250
150
200
Q (mc/s)

Q (mc/s)
100 150

100
50
50
0 0
0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100 0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100
P (%) P (%)

Nădrag Chevereş

90 60
80 50
70
60 40
Q (mc/s)
Q (mc/s)

50 30
40
30 20
20
10
10
0 0
0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100 0,1 0,5 1 2 4 10 20 100
P (%) P (%)

Fig. 5. The charts referring to the distribution curves from the hydrometric stations
located on the tributaries of Timiş river

4. CONCLUSIONS
This study of statistical analysis and quantitative assessment of annual maximum
flows represents an earlier stage in the analysis of the flood risk in the hydrographical
basin of Timiş river. The stage in which we have determined the frequency, the
probability and the return period of such extreme events should be followed by other
additional stages, which complete the flood risk analysis and which should be rendered
clearly on the flood risk map of the hydrographical basin of Timiş river.

REFERENCES
1. Arghiuş, V. (2006), Analiza statistică a debitelor maxime anuale în bazinul hidrografic montan
al Arieşului, Riscuri şi catastrofe, an V, nr. 3, Editor Victor Sorocovschi, Editura Casa Cărţii de
Ştiinţă, Cluj Napoca, 232-238;
2. Haidu, I. (2002), Analiza de frecvenţă şi evaluarea cantitativă a riscurilor, Riscuri şi catastrofe,
Editor Victor Sorocovschi, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj Napoca, 180-207;
3. Munteanu, Rodica (1998), Bazinul hidrografic al râului Timiş - studiu hidrologic, Editura
Mirton, Timişoara;
4. Teodorescu, N., I. (2003), Hidrologie generală în 19 teme, Editura Mirton, Timişoara;
5. *** (2005) Raport privind viitura din anul 2005 în spaţiul hidrografic Banat, constituit de
I.N.H.G.A şi Administraţia Naţională de Meteorologie, Bucureşti, 2005.
6. http://teaching.ust.hk/~civl253/lecture%20notes.files/frequency%20analysis%202.ppt accese
don February, 1, 2011.

146
 CONSIDERATIONS ON STREAMFLOW DROUGHT
IN CENTRAL ROMANIAN PLAIN

ADINA-ELIZA CROITORU1, FLORENTINA MARIANA TOMA1

ABSTRACT. – Considerations on Streamflow Drought In Central Romanian

Plain. As one of the most important hydrological phenomenon in the area,
streamflow drought was identified using daily discharge flow data series for 30
years (1980-2009). The data were recorded in seven observation points located on
six rivers, in the central part of the Romanian Plain (between Olt and Argeş
rivers). Some aspects of duration and severity of the hydrological drought events
were calculated: number, average and maximum duration, daily average discharge
flow and streamflow deficit volume of hydrological drought events. Mann-
Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimation for trends detection were applied in order
to analyze trends of those features in the studied region. As main conclusions:
most part of the considered rivers show similar behavior with general increasing
trends of the most analyzed drought parameters; the only exception is Glavacioc
river, with decreasing slopes for the great majority of the parameters. For the
mean daily discharge flows, insignificant slopes were calculated.

Keywords: hydrological drought, duration, severity, Mann-Kendall test and Sen’s

slope, Central Romanian Plain.

1. INTRODUCTION

Drought phenomenon is affecting nowadays, very large areas all over the
world. E. Bryant (1992), based on the multicriterial hierarchy, considered it as the
most important hazardous phenomenon in the world. Many scientific papers and
projects had as their main goal to study the phenomenon in different regions of the
globe (Assessment of the Regional Impact of Droughts in Europe, 2001, Sectoral
Impacts of Drought and Climate Change, 2008, Evaluation of Arizona Drought
Watch: The State's Drought Impacts Reporting System, 2009, State Drought
Planning in the Western U.S.: A Multi-RISA-Agency-NIDIS Collaboration, 2010).
Southern and Eastern regions of Romania are considered more and more
vulnerable to different kinds of drought: meteorological, hydrological or
pedological. The implications become more important because they are considered
as main agricultural areas of the country (Croitoru and Toma, 2010). That’ why
many authors studied the drought from meteorological (Bogdan and Niculescu,
1999, Stângă, 2009) or hydrological perspectives (Ştefan et al., 2004, Ghioca, 2008,
Holobâcă, 2010, Sorocovschi, 2010).

1
"Babeş-Bolyai" University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
croitoru@geografie.ubbcluj.ro, florentinatoma01@yahoo.com

147
 Some of the hydrological analysis of wider regions or for the entire country
considered rivers from Central Romanian Plain too (Ujvari, 1972, Zaharia, 1993,
2004, Ştefan, 2004), but no consideration on hydrological drought were made.
Because the drought is considered the most important natural hazard affectig the
Central Romanian Plain, the main purpose of this paper is to study some issues on
the hydrological drought.

2. METHODS AND DATA

2.1. Methods
Hydrological drought in terms of streamflow drought is defined when
the flow decreases below a given values. It defines a threshold, q0, below which
the river flow is considered as a drought (Yevjevich, 1967). This approach allows
simultaneous characterisation of streamflow droughts in terms of duration (di),
severity (or deficit volme, si) and time of occurrence (Hisdal et al., 2001).
Among other types of thresholds (a well-defined flow quantity, a
percentage of the mean flow), we decided to use a percentile from the flow
duration curve because expressing flows as exceedance values allows flow
conditions in different rivers to be compared.
According to European Union Project ARIDE (Demuth and Stahl, 2001),
the threshlod may vary from 70% to 90% exceedance probability. Usually, the
lower level thresholds (90%) are recommended when short data series are used and
higher threshold (70%) are to be used for region where inter-annual droughts are
specific (droughts lasting longer than a year). For this study, the 80% excedeence
probability of seasonal flow was used for many reasons. The same percentile was
successfully used by Holobaca (2010) when studied drought in Transilvania
Tableland. In the case of a longer than one season drought event, the threshold
changes according the specific flow. High flow season was considered from
November till March, while low flow season was from April till October.
A special soft was used to identify drought events. The soft performs finds
the intervals with running days with discharge flow under a specified value. Thus,
the hydrological drought event begins when the discharge goes under the 80%
excedance probability value and ends when the discharge increases over that
threshold, depending on the season of the day.
The soft identifies the beginning date, calculates the length (in running
days) and the total volume of discharged water in the drought period (and thus
permits the calculation of the discharge deficit volume). At the same time, it
associates a drought event to that year to which the beginning date belongs. That’s
why, sometimes, during the same year, one or more drought events with a total
number of days higher than 365 are found. As an example, during 1993, there were
four events identified at one station: 35 days long (February, 8), one day long
(March 23), three days long (April, 12), 15 days (May, 9) and 409 days (May, 29).
In that situaton, the last event ended in July 11, 1994.

148
 To detect and estimate trends in the hydrological drought parameters time
series, the Excel template MAKESENS (Mann-Kendall test for trend and Sen’s
slope estimates), developed by researchers of the Finnish Meteorological Institute
(Salmi et al., 2002), was used. In Romania, the same method and software have
also been used with good results to identify trends in different data series
(temperature, precipitations, fog) (Holobaca et al., 2008, Muresan and Croitoru,
2009, Croitoru and Toma, 2010).
The procedure is based on the nonparametric Mann-Kendall test for the
trend and Sen’s nonparametric method for the magnitude of the trend (Mann, 1945,
Kendall, 1975). Sen’s method uses a linear model to estimate the slope of the trend,
and the variance of the residuals should be constant in time.
The MAKESENS software performs two types of statistical analyses: first,
the presence of a monotonic increasing or decreasing trend is tested with the
nonparametric Mann-Kendall test, and then, the slope of a linear trend estimated with
Sen’s nonparametric method is computed (Gilbert, 1987). In MAKESENS, the tested
significance levels are 0.001, 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1.
Both methods are used here in their basic forms.

2.2. Data
For hydrological drought, daily data of the discharge flows recorded in
seven hydrometric stations were employed (fig. 1). Five of the hydrological data
sets covered 30 years, from 1980 until 2009. Only two hydrological data series are
available for a period of 22 years long (those recorded on Glavacioc and Neajlov).

Fig. 2. Hydro-meteorological network in Central Romanian Plain

149
 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Hydrological drought parameters

To analyse the hydrological drought, first few basic parameters as mean
multiannual discharge flow and excedeence probability thresholds were calculated.
The values were computed both for the entire year and for different seasons (low
water season from April till October and high water season from November till
March).
Then, five specific parameters of the hydrological drought (HD) have been
analysed: mean multiannual number of the hydrological drought events (HDE),
mean multiannual duration of the HDEs, maximum duration of HDEs both in their
average and absolute values, mean annual cumulated duration of HDEs, average
daily discharge during HDEs and the mean discharge deficit volume (Table 1).
Finally, trends in the specific parameters of HD were identified.
In the Central Romanian Plain (sector between Olt and Argeş rivers),
annual discharge flows have their maximum values, for all the rivers considered, in
late winter or early spring (February and March), while the minimum values are
specific to August and/or September. The multiannual discharge flows varies very
much inside the region, depending on the rivers (Table 1). Thus, the highest values
were recorded on the main rivers of the region, Vedea and Neajlov (over 5 m3/s
and respectively, 4 m3/s), while the lowest flows were recorded on tributaries Valea
Câinelui and Glavacioc (less than 1 m3/s).
The hydrological drought parameters also show different values depanding
on the rivers size. Thus, the mean annual number of HDEs varies, generally,
between three and nine, while the maximum number of events was between 10, in
the eastern part of the region, and 25, in central area. Otherwise, the analysis
revealed for Teleorman river the highest values both for average and for maximum
number of HDEs, for the two hydrometric stations considered. It worth mention
that there are two rivers that experienced years without any HDE (Călmăţui and
Neajlov) at the end of ‘80s and at the beginning of the ‘90s.
The longest HDEs as average values were recorded on the lowest rivers in
terms of discharge flow, Câinelui and Galvacioc, while the lowest values were
specific to southern stations: Teleormanu and Crîngu on Teleorman and Călmăţui rivers.
Cumulated duration of HDEs analysis show that dry periods are more
longer in Vedea Hydrographic basin than in the others, with more than 140
days/year as average and more than 300 days/year as maximum values.
If the absolute maximum duration of a single HDE is considered, the
variation in the area is very large, from less than 200 days, on the most important
river, Vedea, up to almost 500 days, on the little Câinelui River.
About the longest HDEs on Câinelui River (492 days), it has to be
emphasized that the dry period began on 8 of August 2008 and did not finished
until the analyzed period ended (31st of December 2009). This means that it may be
even longer, if the considered dataseries would be extended. Otherwise, this river is
the only one analysed that dries during summer and autumn. Thus, it experienced 8

150
dryness events with a cumulated period of 431 days, which the longest was in 1993
and lasted 123 days (from 1st of July till 31st of October).

Table 1. The hydrological drought parameters in Central Romanian Plain

(1980-2009)
Cal-
Hydrographic basin Vedea ma- Argeş
tui

(Tatarasti HS1)

Valea Câinelui
River

(Teleormanu

Glavacioc2
Teleorman

Teleorman

Călmăţui

Neajlov2
Vedea

HS)
Paramenter

Basic (reference) parameteres

Q3 (cm/s) 5.20 1.29 2.42 0.242 1.26 4.16 0.834
Q3 for unfreezing season (m3/s) 6.10 1.06 2.60 0.211 1.25 3.83 0.666
Q3 for freezing season (m3/s) 9.41 1.62 4.03 0.577 1.77 4.49 1.07
80% - EPT4 (m3/s) 2.94 0.683 1.77 0.050 0.809 3.01 0.482
80%-EPT4 for unfreezing season
2.27 0.511 1.48 0.055 0.720 2.52 0.295
(m3/s)
80%-EPT4 for freezing season(m3/s) 2.39 0.719 2.07 0.099 1.22 2.58 0.399
Hyrological drought parameteres
m6 1 3 3 1 0 0 1
5
Annual number of HDE A7 6.8 8.14 11.1 4.3 4.2 3.32 5.82
M8 15 25 18 12 12 12 10
m 3.0 4 1.7 2.5 0 0 3.6
Annual mean HDEs duration
A 25.8 25.9 15.5 47.7 14.9 18.4 29.6
(days)
M 108 106 40.7 149 53.7 122.5 190
Average cumulated HDEs A 141.6 161.6 158.2 184.6 87.5 77.3 118.5
duration M 324 365 300 567 322 252 246
Absolute maximum duration of
M 198 306 164 492 278 244 190
one HDE (days)
m 1.44 0.373 1.21 0.017 0 0 0.114
Multiannual average daily
3 A 1.85 0.5 1.43 0.048 0.6 1.4 0.206
discharge during HDE (m /s)
M 2.31 0.705 1.85 0.093 1.78 2.47 0.391
m 1.85 0.9 1.6 0.2 0 0 1.1
Multiannual mean streamflow
3 A 67.1 11.4 25.1 6.61 5.5 12.7 5.97
deficit (mil. m )
M 175.5 29.5 51.3 39.6 18.2 50.2 13.4
1
Note: – Hydrographic Station; 2 – Data available for 1988-2009; 3 –Mean multiannual
discharge flow 4 – Exceedance probability threshold; 5 – Hydrological drought event; 6 –
minimum value; 7 – mean value; 8 – maximum value; 9 - Hydrological drought.

Actually, considering both mean and absolute maximum values of HDEs,

no rule seems to be identified in the area between multiannual discharge flows
values and the length of HDEs. Thus, we consider that rather meteorological
factors, such as temperature and the intensity of the evaporation, may play the main
role in the occurrence of the HDE than hydrological parameters values of the
analysed rivers.
151
 As expected, the mean multiannual daily discharge during HDEs, has the
highest values on Vedea River and the lowest on Câinelui River.
The highest values of the multiannual streamflow deficit volume were
found on the main rivers (Vedea and Neajlov), but the lowest value was not on the
less important river in terms of mean multiannual discharge flow (Câinelui river).
Streamflow deficit volume analyses shows the lowest value specific to
Galvacioc and not to Câinelui River. Mean multiannual deficit value recorded on
Câinelui River ranges this river as the fifth in decreasing order, before Călmăţui
and Glavacioc while, if maximum annual values of the deficit volume are
considered, the same river can be placed also before upper Teleorman river
(Tătărăştii de Sus hydrographic station).

3.2. Trends of hydrological drought parameters

For the same parameters, trends were identified and mean slopes were
calculated for the 30 years period considered (table 2).
Mean annual number of HDEs, has different behavior in the area. There are
four rivers with decreasing trends, and only one river to which increasing trend is
specific (Călmăţui). For Câinelui River and Neajlov, stationary trends was identified.

Table 2. The hydrological drought parameters trend in Central Romanian Plain

(average slope/decade)
Cal-
Hydrographic basin Vedea Argeş
matui
Valea Câinelui
(Tatarasti HS)

River
(Teleormanu

Glavacioc2
Teleorman

Teleorman

Călmăţui

Neajlov2
Vedea

HS)

Paramenter

Q -0.250 -0.085 -0.231 0.000 0.235 0.000 -0.125

Mean annual number of HDE
 * * **
Mean annual HDE length Q 0.914 0.722 0.528 1.363 0.731 1.229 0.297
(days)  ** * ** + ** +
Mean annual number of HD Q 3.235 4.165 2.091 4.933 5.100 4.000 -3.235
days  + *** *
Absolute maximum HDE Q 1.905 1.477 1.533 2.636 2.813 2.500 -1.500
length  + + + *** +
Mean daily discharge during Q -0.002 0.000 0.004 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.004
HDE (m3/s)  +
Mean annual stream-flow Q 1.484 0.298 0.512 0.110 0.307 0.696 -0.161
deficit (mil. m3)  + *** *
Note: 1 – Statistically significance: = 0.1; * - =0.05; ** - =0.01; *** - =0.001.

For mean annual HDEs lenghs, the positive slopes are generalized in the
area and on six of the seven rivers, values show statistically significance. Also,
mean annual cumulated duration of HD is increasing with slopes from 2

152
days/decade to more than 5 days/decade. There is one exception in the area
(Glavacioc river), where a negative slope was calculated.
General increasing is also specific to absolute maximum duration of an
HDE, with 5 statistically significant situations. The slopes vary between
1-3 days/decade. On Glavacioc rivers, a decreasing trend was found (1.5
days/decade).
Considering mean daily discharge during HDEs, no significant changes
seem to be. Only a very slow negative slope was identified on Glavacioc river
(0.004 m3/s/decade).
Mean annual streamflow deficit volume trend indicate positive values for
all the rivers, excepting Glavacioc. The slopes are between 0.1 and 1.5 mil.
m3/decade, with highest values for Vedea and Neajlov while the lowest were
identified for Câinelui River.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Analysing the hydrological drought parameters there are few main conclu-
sions we reached at.
Thus, there is no direct or reverse correlation between mean multiannual
discharge flows and the parameters of the hydrological drought events in the area.
Generally, there is an increasing trend of hydrological drought
phenomenon in the area characterized by less events, but which are longer. The
most important duration of drought was specific to central area, on Câinelui river,
both in terms of mean multiannual value and absolute maximum values of the
1980-2009 period. The most important intensity (given by the streamflow deficit
volume) was specific to the main rivers of the area (Vedea and Neajlov). Dryness
phenomena were recorded only on one river (Câinelui river).

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Detecting trends of annual values of atmospheric pollutants by the Mann-Kendall
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ştiinţifice ale Universităţii „Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi, tom LV, s. II-c, Geografie, pp. 31-46.
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Meteorological and Hydrological Drought in Southern Romania from
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Universităţii Bucureşti, Geografie.
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drought-impacts-reporting-system. Accessed 18 January 2011.
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154
 THE EUTROPHICATION PHENOMENON IN GOLEŞTI LAKE -
ROMANIA

GABRIELA ELENA DUMITRAN1, LIANA IOANA VUTĂ2,

ABSTRACT. – Eutrophication on worldwide scale, as an effect of the anthropic

impact, is one of the most serious problems that affect the quality of the water.
Existence of a large percentage of lakes with eutrophication problems, demands a
predictive tool for the quality of these ecosystems.
This study present the qualitative analysis of such an ecosystem, based on ecological
modelling. This paper proposes an ecological model (nutrient-phytoplankton) that
describes the biochemical behaviour of a eutrophic reservoir. The 1D model
developed allows the estimation of nutrients concentration and algae biomass and
nutrient limited evidence on algal growth rate. The model was calibrated and
validated with data from 2008 and 2009 in Goleşti Lake. The model reproduces
spatial and temporal concentration distribution of water quality constituents.

Keywords: lake, eutrophication, ecological model, nutrients, water quality.

1. INTRODUCTION

The study of water quality in lake or reservoirs is important in controlling

the eutrophication phenomenon. Eutrophication of lakes is caused by the inflow of
nutrients, in particular nitrogen and phosphorus that are released especially from
human activities. A number of physicochemical and biological changes may occur
as a result of eutrophication. Thus, the concentration of nutrients increase so the
primary production of organic matter rise and thus the amount of organic material
in a state of decomposition in water increase, all those processes having major
effects on lake water quality. Typical symptoms of eutrophication are the increase
of water turbidity and sedimentation rates, which will reduce the amount of light
reaching submerged plants, appearance of flowering water, lush development of
higher aquatic plants, formation of a film of floating algae, unpleasant smell of
water, reduced transparency, oxygen deficiency in bottom layer of water, followed
by formation of hydrogen sulphide and massive death of fish (Dumitran& Vuţă,
2010). So, accumulation of predisposing factors conditions can generate excessive
biological productivity growth, leading to imbalances in the matter and energy
flows (Bryhn, & Håkanson, 2009).

1
University "Politehnica" of Bucharest, Power Engineering Faculty; Hydraulic, Hydraulics
Machinery and Envirnmental Engineering Department, 060042 Bucharest, Romania, e-mail:
dumitran@hydrop.pub.ro.
2
University "Politehnica" of Bucharest, Power Engineering Faculty; Hydraulic, Hydraulics
Machinery and Envirnmental Engineering Department, 060042 Bucharest, Romania, e-mail:
l_vuta@yahoo.com.

155
 The quality of the main lakes in Romania in terms of trophicity degree
reveals the following aspects regarding nutrients concentrations in 92 monitored
lakes: 6.32 % corresponded to ultra and oligotrophic category, 23.16 % -
mesotrophic category, 36.24 % - eutrophic and 34.28 % - hypereutrophic.
Concerning the phytoplankton biomass, 38.95 % of Romanian lakes corresponded
to ultra and oligotrophic category, 23.16 % - mesotrophic, 15.79 % - eutrophic and
22.1 % - hypereutrophic (Iliescu, 2009 ).
The purpose of this study was to develop a model for Goleşti Lake that
could simulate water quality, help develop an understanding of the processes
affecting water quality, and predict changes in water quality. In recent years some
water quality problems in the Goleşti Lake were found and the concentration of
eutrophication indicators placed the water lake in the eutrophic category. Having
the evolution of quality indicators from the lake as a starting point, a theoretical
study will be carried out, that will refer to the elaboration of a model, which refers
to the way a lake ecosystem works.

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL

Aquatic trophic chains are complex system which can be schematized by

matter and energy transfer processes. The lakes dynamic is characterized by energy
and mass exchange processes. Dominant flow of energy comes from the kinetic
energy of wind and thermal energy produced by solar radiation. The vertical profile
of temperature/density established in a lake results by superposing these two
energy contributions.
The energy transfer over the different trophic chains starts with solar
energy intake by primary producers and its absorption at the chlorophyll level. A
part of the gross primary production is loss by respiration, but the net primary
production is used by the next trophic level for alimentation. Thus, the primary
consumers absorb this energy. The part of primary production which is not used is
consumed by bacteria. Assimilated fractions correspond to secondary production
and represent the energy flux which crosses the primary consumers trophic level.
The energy leaving the food chain goes directly to decomposition, due to
dissipative processes (Popa, 1998).
The most important problem in developing high quality models is to
identify the adequate mathematical formulae to describe the transformation
processes for the considered level of trophic chain (Jorgensen ş.a. 1986). This
paper presents an ecological model which describe the annual cycle of nutrients,
phytoplankton and zooplankton for an aquatic ecosystem. The model presented in
this paper is dealing only with the biochemical part of the process. For this model,
four state variables are taking into account: two nutrients, phytoplankton and
zooplankton biomass.

156
 3. STUDY CASE

The study case concerns the Goleşti Lake, which is an accumulation lake
on the interior waters of Romania. It was created after the completion of a dam
built on the Argeş River and it has a complex use allowing the flood attenuation,
generation of hydroelectricity, household and industrial water supply, and
irrigation. The lake has a volume of 55 million m³ and a maximum depth of 32 m.
This reservoir is a heavily modified water body. Its physical characteristics have
been substantially changed and to achieve good surface water status it is necessary
to changes its hydromorphological characteristics which would have a significant
adverse impact on the water environment.
Experimental physicochemical and biological data for a period of two
years, from 2008 to 2009, were available for the Golesti Lake. The measurement
frequency of these indicators, according to European norms, is four times per year.
Thus, it is observed that the mean water temperature varies between 2°C and 23°C
and the values of dissolved oxygen concentrations between 6.91 and 13.3 mg/l
(Fig. 1).
1,6 25

1. Dam - photic layer

2. Middle
3. Tail

20

Temperature (°C), Disolved oxygen (mg/l)

Phytoplankton density (100*ex/m3)

1,2

15

0,8

10

0,4
5

0,0 0
Staţia
1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
II III IV V VI VII VIII X XI XII II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Time(mounth)
Phytoplankton density (100*ex/m3) Disolved oxygen (mg/l) Temperature (°C)

Figure 1. Experimental values of water temperature, dissolved oxygen and biomass

concentrations.

Concerning the time evolution of nutrients content, it is observed that the

total mineral nitrogen concentration takes values between 0.2 and 1.18 mg/l, while
the total phosphorus concentration changes from 0.044 to 1.43 mg/l. Also, in the
Golesti Lake, the phytoplankton which is dominated by diatom and chlorophyta
varies between 1.78 and 5.3 mg/l (Fig. 2).
One way to characterize the health of lake is by using phosphorus,
chlorophyll a, and Secchi depth transparency data to calculate the Trophic State
Index-TSI (Carlson 1977). This index provides a way to rate and compare lakes
according to their level of biological activity on a scale from 0 to 100. This scale

157
goes from 0 – 100, with 0 being the least trophic state (corresponding to an
oligotrophic lake) and 100 being the most trophic (corresponding to a
hypereutrophic lake).
45 1,4
1. Dam - photic layer
2. Middle
40 3. Tail
1,2
Biomasa (mg/l), Clorofilla a (µg/l), Total phosphorus

35

Total inorganic nitrogen(mg/l)

1
30

0,8
25
(10*mg/l)

20
0,6

15
0,4

10

0,2
5

0 0
1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Staţia
II III IV V VI VII VIII X XI II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Time (mounth)
Biomass (mg/l) Chlorofilla a (µg/l) Fosfor total (mgP/l) Total inorganic nitrogen (mg/l)

Figure 2. Experimental time variations of concentration values of phosphorus, nitrogen,

chlorophyll a and phytoplankton biomass.

The TSI values obtained for Goleşti Lake (Fig. 3) indicate that the
lake is in large proportion in eutrophic status.
100

90

80

Hipereutrophic lake

70
TSI

60
Eutrophic lake

50

40 Mesotrophic lake

30
2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
II III IV V VI VII VIII X XI II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Staţia

Time (mounth)
TSI Chl TSI TN TSI TP

Figure 3. TSI values for Stanca Costesti Lake

Thus, the resulting TSI values show that in the large majority of the study
period the Goleşti Lake is placed in the eutrophic category. But also exist some
exception; like in early summer 2008 the lake can be placed in the hypertrophic
category if considering the phosphorus values and in 2009 the lake became
mesotrophic for a short period regarding at the nitrogen and chlorophyll content.

158
 4. MODELLING APPROACH

The most common modelling approaches of lake eutrophication are based

mostly on steady-state input-output equations (Chapra, 1997). For the mass-
balance, generally, the nutrient concentration is calculated from inputs, and
chlorophyll a concentration or another indicator of phytoplankton biomass
(Jorgensen, 1981) is predicted by correlation with the limiting nutrient.
The ecological model presented in this paper allows the simulating of four
constituents: total inorganic nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), phytoplankton
(A) and herbivore zooplankton (Z). Phytoplankton is considered as a pool of
primary producers and is driven by the nutrient concentration and by the dynamics
of grazers. It is described (eq. 1 Table 1), by the growth term, production, the loss
by respiration and mortality terms, and by the grazing. In production term the
optimal growth, growthmax, is multiplied by a dimensionless factor, which
simulates limitation to growth due to sub-optimal levels of light intensity,
temperature, and nutrient concentration. The limiting factors are computed
following the standard formulations: the Michaelis Menten –Monod for nutrient
limitation, the Steele formulation for the limitation due to light intensity, and an
exponential relation for temperature. The evolution of the zooplankton (eq. 2 Table
1) is described by the grazing term –using the Holling type II relationship between
phytoplankton and zooplankton concentration- and by the mortality term, which is
described by a first order kinetic (Malmaeusa, 2004). Phosphorus and nitrogen are
the main nutrients considered by the model (eq.3 and eq.4 Table 1).

Table 1. Differential equations for the state variables in ecological model

A
 PP  loss   A  c za  A  Z (eq.1)
t
Z
 aca    c za  A  Z  k dz  Z (eq.2)
t
TP
 a pa  1     cza  A  Z  a pc  kdz  Z  a pa  Pp  A  S P (eq.3)
t
TN
 ana  1     cza  A  Z  anc  kdz  Z  ana  Pp  A  S N (eq.4)
t
The parameter values found to give the best fit between simulated data
and the lake’s mean annual patterns are reported in table 2.
Table 2. The kinetics coefficients and value used in the model
Parameter Assigned value Parameter Assigned value
growmax 0.85 day-1 aca 40 mg C/mg Chla
ksp P 5 mg/l  0.6
ksp N 15 mg/l apa 1 mg P/mg Chla
cza 5 mg/l ana 0.18 mg N/mg Chla

159
 5. RESULTS AND DISCUTION

The model was calibrated and validated based on 2008 and 2009 data. The
calibration procedure required a balance between phytoplankton growth and loss of
available nutrients from the water column. Particular attention was placed on the
dynamics of phosphate as this nutrient was the main one limiting phytoplankton
biomass in Goleşti Lake. The ecological model was calibrated by tuning the model
parameters within their observed literature ranges, as derived and used in the model
sensitivity analysis.
The comparison between simulated and observed nutrient concentration
values for the study lake is shown in figure 4.

Figure 4. Comparison between observed and simulated data for the nutrients

The predicted total phosphorus and total inorganic concentrations are in

good agreement with empirical values for lake raported in scientifical literature.
In close correlation with lake ecosystem functioning, the model consider
that algae flowering begins at the end of the spring mixing (75th day of the year).
The nutrients concentration is in indirect correlation with the algal production. Due
to algae bloom, the nutrients concentration starts to decrease, and, when the
phytoplankton peak is reach, the decomposition processes, along with the
resuspension ones, generate a growth of the nutrients concentration (especially on
the phosphorous).
In Goleşti lake there are spring peaks in TP and chlorophill concetration,
which are reproduced by our model. These peak concetration are explained by the
mobilization of phosphorus from sediments due to spring turover and rapid growth
of phytoplankton with concurrent zooplankton growth inhibited by the low water
temperature. In the summer period the reactive soluble phosphorus is strongly
assimilated by plants in the epilimnion layer and the primary production is the
result of decreasing the amount of nutrients available.
Since just the herbivorous zooplankton is considered a delay between
zooplankton peak and phytoplankton peak is natural to appear, as in fig.5.

160
Fig. 5. Numerical spatial distribution of TP, TN, A and Z concentration in Golesti Lake

It can be seen that the model provides reasonable results for phytoplankton
and zooplankton biomass, soluble reactive phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations.
In order to quantitatively verify the model performance, the root mean square error
(RMSE) was computed. The ideal value for RMSE is 0 and from the results, it was
found that algae and phosphorus simulation had the largest error (1.61 respectively
1.59). For the nitrogen the RMSE was 0.52.

6. CONCLUSION

Water quality models are important tools to support the optimization of

aquatic ecosystem rehabilitation programs and assess their efficiency. Management
models for aquatic systems can be used to determine which measures in the
watershed or in the water body have been effective and which one should be used
in the future.
An ecological model was configured for the Golesti Lake from Romania
and it was calibrated and validated with data from 2008 and 2009. The model
simulates a simple food chain with only 3 levels (nutrients, primary producers and
consumers). The choice of those state variables for the model represents a
compromise between available data and the need to simulate the biochemical
behaviour of the lake.
The results obtained agree well with the experimental data for the water
quality constituents such as TP, TN, A and Z biomass. The values of the kinetic
coefficients obtained from model calibration and validation analyses are consistent
with the values reported in the literature. However, little discrepancies exist
between the observed and simulated data.
From the verification, it was concluded that the developed model was
capable to simulate the water quality dynamics of the studied area with a
reasonable accuracy.

161
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work has been co-funded by the Sectoral Operational Programme

Human Resources Development 2007-2013 of the Romanian Ministry of Labor,
Family and Social Protection through the Financial Agreement POSDRU/89/1.5/
S/62557.

REFERENCES

1. Dumitran G.E., Vuta L.I., (2010). Study on Lake Izvorul Muntelui Rehabilitation,
Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, doi: 10.1016/j.simpat. 2010.05.008.
2. Bryhn, A,C. and Håkanson, L., (2009). Eutrophication: model before action.
Science, Vol. 324, 723-723.
3. Iliescu S., Sinteza Calitaţii Apelor din Romania - 2009, (2009), Administratia
Nationala „Apele Romane”.
4. Popa R., (1998), Modelarea calităţii apei din râuri, H*G*A* Bucureşti.
5. Jorgensen S.E., Kamp-Nielsen L., Jorgensen L.A., Examination of the generality
of eutrophication models, Ecological Modelling, Vol. 32, pp.251-266.
6. Chapra S.C., (1997) Surface Water –Quality Modeling, McGraw-Hill, New York.
7. S.E. Jorgensen, L.A. Jorgensen, L. Kamp-Nielsen., (1981), Parameter estimation
in eutrophication modelling, Ecological Modelling, vol. 13, 111-129.
8. Carlson, R.E., (1977). A trophic state index for lakes. Limnololy and
Oceanography, 22: 361-369.
9. Malmaeusa J.M., Håkanson, L., (2004), Development of Lake Eutrophication
model, Ecolological Modelling 171, 35–63

162
 INTEGRATED MECHANISMS FOR APROACHING PRIORITY
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AT GLOBAL LEVEL

ILDIKO IOAN1
CARMEN VALENTINA RĂDULESCU2

ABSTRACT. – Integrated mechanisms for approaching priority environmen-

tal issues at global level. At global level, there are considered priority
environmental issues two interdependent processes that are essential for the
support the processes that provide living conditions and wellbeing for the entire
humankind: climate change and loss of biodiversity. Payments of ecosystem
services became already well-known and applied economic instruments, although
there are still many uncertainties in the knowledge of eco-economic interdepen-
dencies. The paper discusses these aspects in the first part highlighting advantages
and disadvantages, while in the second part there is analyzed an integrated
program of the United Nations, which was designed for making progress toward
both climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The REDD program – Reduction of
Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation – is addressed to developing
countries and it started in 2008. Based on assessment reports we will try to
formulate a number of conclusions regarding the program’s effectiveness.

Keywords: climate change, biodiversity loss, market based instruments, REDD.

1. INTRODUCTION

Deterioration of subtle mechanisms that support the ecological balance and

meanwhile the human wellbeing is a recognized fact by the scientific community
and it also better and better acknowledged by the society. At global level are
considered as priority environmental issues two interdependent processes that
undermine these mechanisms: climate change and loss of biodiversity.
As long as climate change is regarded, although the results are still modest,
it could be discussed numerous governmental measures that indicate the
implication of high decisional levels in climate change mitigation: restrictive
regulations on emissions, carbon markets, green certificate markets, carbon taxes,
the European emission trading scheme (ETS) etc. These mechanisms are based on
the assumption that marketization could not be avoided and that market is the most
efficient means to make the equilibrium between demand and supply to correspond
with the social optimum, although the “invisible hand” of the market is quite
contested in situations that are less problematic in terms of information availability
than climate change.

1
Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Faculty of Agro-Food and Environmental Economics,
Bucharest, 010961 Mihail Moxa 7, Romania, e-mail: ioanildiko@yahoo.com
2
Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Faculty of Agro-Food and Environmental Economics,
Bucharest, 010961 Mihail Moxa 7, Romania, e-mail: cv_radulescu@yahoo.com

163
 On the other hand, slowing down the loss of biodiversity is foreseen also as
a result of market relations’ expansion. Thus, payments for ecosystem services
became already well known and applied economic instruments, despite the many
knowledge gaps regarding the eco-economic interdependencies.
The paper discusses these aspects in its first parte, while in the second one
we analyze an integrated program of the United Nations, which was designed for
fostering progress in both climate change mitigation and halting biodiversity loss.
The REDD program – Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and forest
Degradation – is addressed to developing countries, being started in 2008. Based
on the available assessment report we formulate a number of conclusions regarding
the effectiveness of this program.

2. MARKET BASED INSTRUMENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION

Since the initial recognition of the positive correlation between economic

growth and environmental degradation at the beginning of the 1970s a lot of
progress was made in addressing the most challenging issues such as climate
change, pollution, ozone depletion, deforestation, water scarcity, waste
management, to name only the most prominent ones.
Environmental degradation was interpreted in economic terms as an
expression of market failure. This means that free market is unable to provide an
allocation of resources that secure a proper quality of environmental factors or a
proper level of ecosystem services. Therefore, there is needed a correction that will
allow externalities to be included in market prices resulting in a decoupling of the
economic growth from environmental degradation. The correction could come in
many shapes and these means are known as policy instruments. A widespread
classification system (Bran, 2002; Bran and Ioan, 2002; Rojanschi and Bran, 2002;
Rojanschi et al., 1997) group these instruments in three categories:
- regulation and standards, also known as command and control
instruments;
- taxes and subsidies or market based instruments; and
- social-communicative instruments.
Each category has its advantages and drawbacks. In fact, environmental
policy is implemented by using a combination of these instruments the challenging
question being the receipt of blending or how to establish the most appropriated
instrument to address a certain environmental issue. In this respect, Rojanschi and
Bran (2002) provide some guidance. Thus, they stress that the only type that cannot
be avoided is the first one: regulations and standards. For instance, these are
needed for establishing emission ceilings for trading schemes (market based) or the
framework for voluntary agreements (social-communicative). According to Bran
and Ioan (2002) command and control instruments are featured by some serious
disadvantages: are very time-consuming; could give the wrong impression that
something is done; cannot cover all situations in an equitable and flexible manner.

164
 The last decades gave a lot of focus for market based instruments. The
main reason for supporting them is efficiency. Regulation must provide only a
framework for the emergence of new markets. IPCC (2007) recognizes that the
global emission trading scheme established by the Kyoto Protocol has the potential
the reduce emissions to a level that will allow humankind to avoid the catastrophic
effects of climate change. In case of dangerous substances, such as pesticides or
other chemicals, these instruments could not guarantee for the sudden withdrawal
even if there is plenty of evidence about their toxic effects.
The price-correction could be shaped as a tax or subsidy sized in
accordance with the size of the externality, or as a new market for the rights to
pollute or impact in other ways on the environment’s quality. The mechanism of
action for these two types is presented in fig.1.

Pollution Pollution
price price
Demand for
pollution rightss Supply of pollution Demand for
permits pollution rights

Pigouvian tax
P P

0 0
Q Pollution Q Pollution
quantity quantity
Source: Bran, F. (2006), The efficiency of using pollution permits in fulfilling environmental
protection goals, Bucharest: ASE Publishing, pp. 64-74.
Fig.1. The mechanism of action for pollution permits and for „green” taxes

Climate change is recognized as the most important environmental issue

today. Fighting this problem could be effective only by a global approach seconded
with energetic national programs which are convergent in their goals with the
objectives.

2500

2000
million USD

1500

1000

500

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Source: Carbon Finance Unit, World Bank

Fig.2. Evolution of carbon funds at the World Bank

165
 Most of the strategies for climate change mitigation use market based
mechanisms. This is implemented at global level by the Kyoto Protocol by the
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). For example, he World Bank’s Carbon
Finance Unit uses money contributed by governments and companies in OECD
countries to purchase project-based greenhouse gas emission reductions in
developing countries and countries with economies in transition. The so called
carbon funds increased steeply in the last years (fig.2).
The European Union, which is recognized for its environmental leadership,
also chose these instruments in order to meet Kyoto commitments. In fact, there are
two market based instruments that are enforced for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions: the emission trading scheme (ETS) and green certificates. Plumb and
Zamfir (2009) conclude that the later proved to be quite effective in the promotion
of the use of renewable energy sources for electricity production.

3. REDD – REDUCTION OF EMISSIONS FROM

DEFORASTATION AND FOREST DEGRADATION

The recent emphasis on the economic dimension of environmental issues is

most easily to be noticed in case of nature conservation or fight against biodiversity
loss. In this area, in no more than a decade a concept was advanced, checked,
debated, and up taken in policy framework. This concept is ecosystem service (for
definitions see box 1). Although it was proposed in the very early age of
environmentalism, it becomes a subject of intensive research only in the late 1990s.

Box 1. Ecosystem services - definitions

Ecosystem services are material, energy, and information flows from the natural capital
stocks which combine with the services of the manufactured and human capital for
producing human wellbeing (Constantza et al., 1997).
Ecosystem services are benefits obtained by humans from ecosystems. These include
providing, regulation, support, and cultural services (MEA, 2003).
Ecosystem services are components of nature consumed or used directly for producing
human wellbeing (Boyd and Banzhaf, 2006).

Today, ecosystem service is a common place in the policy documents.

Projects like Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, TEEB (The Economics of
Ecosystems and Biodiversity), and GEM-CON-BIO (Governance and ecosystems
management for the conservation of biodiversity) had an important contribution in
this respect.
The concept reflects a quite obsolete anthropocentric nature-human mind
map (fig.3), which is based on the perception that the value of nature reflects only
its utility.

166
 Formative influences

Nature Individual and social Human society

services

Products

Source: Ioan, I., Bran, F., Rădulescu, C.V. (2010), Dimensiunea managerială a conservării naturii,
Bucharest: Universitară Publishing.
Fig.3. Nature for humankind

Despite the theoretical basis, there are already great expectations to create
markets for the ecosystem services. Among the first initiatives of this kind there is
REDD – Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation which
is the first payment for ecosystem services (PES).
REDD is a program proposed by the United Nations that aims to fight
climate change, but along with this broad goal there are also pursued biodiversity
and poverty reduction targets in developing countries. The program is underpinned
by the fact that in these countries deforestation is the main source of greenhouse
gas emissions. It intends to use funds from the developed nations for avoiding
deforestation in developing ones by using complex financial mechanisms.
The collaborative program will have two components: (i) assisting
developing countries prepare and implement national REDD strategies and
mechanisms; (ii) supporting the development of normative solutions and
standardized approaches based on sound science for a REDD instrument linked
with the UNFCCC. The program will help empower countries to manage their
REDD processes and will facilitate access to financial and technical assistance
tailored to the specific needs of the countries.

Source: UN-REDD Program.

Fig.4. REDD partner countries

The partnership comprises 29 countries to be supported with financial

resources. These are divided according to the way of how the support is made
available (fig.4). Thus, there are 12 countries which receive direct support and

167
other 17 countries participating as observers to the Programme's Policy Board, and
through participation in regional workshops and knowledge sharing.
The donor countries supposed to be the developed ones. Till date there are
not many to be found on this list. In fact, there are only three: Norway, Denmark,
and Spain. The first and largest contributor is Norway with almost 150 million
USD contribution, which represent almost 93% of the total contributions. Less than
half (76 million USD) of the total contribution is allocated for supporting projects
in developing countries as approved budgets. Nevertheless, not all this amount is
transferred yet, and only around 7 million is the expenditure recorded to date.
Countries that have approved budgets, ordered by the size of this budget
(fig.5), are: Democratic Republic Congo, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Panama,
Paraguay, Bolivia, Zambia, Viet Nam, Tanzania, Cambodia, Solomon Island, and
Philippines. Until now only in two of the countries were recorded expenditures and
these are Congo and Viet Nam.

Congo

Papua New Guinea

Indonesia
Panama

Bolivia
Paraguay

Zambia
Viet Nam

Tanzania
Cambodia
Solomon Island

Philippines

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Million USD

Source: UN-REDD Programme.

Fig.5. REDD countries by their budgets

Since its implementation, REDD was carefully watched by the scientific

community which made reports on its implementation progress, potential to bring
in benefits, barriers to be overcame, and outcomes. Kanowski et al. (2010)
reviewed the literature on the subject and made an inventory on the potential
benefits and dis-benefits (Box.2).
Box 2. Potential benefits and dis-benefits of REDD
Potential benefits
The prospective immediacy of its benefits.
Cost-effectiveness, relative to other mitigation options.
Support of biodiversity conservation and delivery of other environmental services.
Contribution to poverty reduction and improved rural livelihoods.
Potential dis-benefits
Implementation arrangements could deny the rights of indigenous and forest-dependent
peoples over their territories and resources and prejudice progress towards more

168
decentralised, locally-empowering modes of forest governance. For example, indigenous
peoples’ agency in REDD+ negotiations remains problematic (Schroeder, 2010), and there
is continued disagreement on what constitutes a REDD+ eligible “forest”.
A focus solely on forest carbon will override concerns about biodiversity conservation,
particularly if the definition of ‘‘forests’’ eligible for REDD+ credits does not distinguish
between natural forests and plantations and encourages replacement of the former by the
latter.
The additionality, leakage, and permanence of forest-based emissions reductions compared
to those of other sectors.
Source: Kanowski, P.J, McDermott, C.L., Cashore, B.W. (2010), Implementing REDD+:
lessons from analysis of forest governance, Environmental Science and Policy, article in
press, 859, pp.2.

The most powerful reason to support REDD is that storing carbon in forest,
in addition to its co-benefits in terms of biodiversity preservation and poverty
alleviation, could “buy time” to prepare a more comprehensive climate strategy.
Such action is needed considering the difficulty in making progress in climate
negotiation, case that is illustrated by the happening of the Copenhagen
Conference.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Climate change is the most challenging environmental concern due to its

global scale that involve difficult international negotiations, strong relation with
one of the most important resource on which human kind depends – fossil fuels,
and catastrophic outcomes in case that no changes are made.
As any other environmental issue, climate change was addressed using a
wide area of policy instruments. For the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, the
international agreement for climate change mitigation, prevalence was given to
market based instruments, at least for Annex I countries. This means to create a
new market for carbon dioxide emissions that allow states and companies to trade
emission permits. The potential of this mechanism to reduce emissions to a safe
level is accredited climate change economics. Nevertheless, the Kyoto Protocol is
about to end in 2012. the Copenhagen Conference in 2009 revealed huge
difficulties in negotiation emission targets toward a new and more comprehensive
global climate agreement. Thus a new problem raised: from where could by bought
time for preparation.
Based on a quite obsolete human-relation mind map (“Nature for
humanity”) the concept of ecosystem service brought in nature conservation
projects the flexibility of market approaches. Designing an ecosystem service
payment scheme at global level seemed very attractive in increasing efficiency.
From here to the potential of such project to sequestrate carbon (one of the
regulating services of ecosystems) was only one step, which was made by
designing the REDD program.

169
 The program comprises twelve developing countries in which forests are
already assessed to be included in ecosystem payment schemes. The payers are
represented by the program itself, managed by the United Nations, and some donor
countries. Since 2008 then the program started, three such countries were involved:
Norway, Denmark, and Spain. The largest donor is, by far, Norway, accounting for
93% of the total contributions. Democratic Republic of Congo is the country that
received to date the largest financial support (almost 8 million dollars), while
Philippines accounts for the smallest budget (0.5 million dollars).
Although controversies still persist, we found that there is a solid argument
to support this program at least because it is able to buy the time needed for the
preparation of a more comprehensive climate agreement.

REFERENCES

1. Bran, F. (2002), Componenta ecologică a deciziilor de dezvoltare economică,

Bucharest: ASE Publishing.
2. Bran, F., Ioan, I. (2002), Ecosferă şi politici ecologice, Bucharest: ASE
Publishing.
3. Bran, F. (2006), The efficiency of using pollution permits in fulfilling environmental
protection goals, Bucharest: ASE Publishing, pp. 64-74.
4. Boyd, J., Banzhaf, S. (2006), What are ecosystem services. The need for
standardized environmental accounting units, Discussion paper, Resources for the
future, Washington, DC.
5. Constantza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B.,
Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O’Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P., van
den Belt, M. (1997), The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural
capital, Nature, nr.387, pg.253-260.
6. Ioan, I., Bran, F., Rădulescu, C.V. (2010), Dimensiunea managerială a
conservării naturii, Bucharest: Universitară Publishing.
7. Kanowski, P.J, McDermott, C.L., Cashore, B.W. (2010), Implementing REDD+:
lessons from analysis of forest governance, Environmental Science and Policy,
article in press, 859, pp.1-7.
8. MEA (2003), Ecosystems and human well-being. Current state and trends, volume
1, Island Press.
9. Plumb, I., Zamfir, A.I. (2009), A comparative analysis of green certificates
markets in the European Union, Management of Environmental Quality: An
International Journal, volume 20, no.6, pp.684-695.
10. Rojanschi, V., Bran, F., Diaconu, G., Iosif, G.N., Toderoiu, F. (1997), Economia şi
protecţia mediului, Bucharest: Tribună economică Publishing.
11. Rojanschi, V., Bran, F. (2002), Politici şi strategii de mediu, Bucharest:
Economică Publishing.

170
 SURFACE WATER QUALITY IN THE RIVER PRUT
1
MIHAELA DUMITRAN

ABSTRACT: Water is an increasingly important and why it is important to surface

water quality, which is given by the analysis of physical - chemical, biological and
observing the investigation of water, biota, environments investigation. Analysis of
the Prut river in terms of biological and physical elements - chemical. Evaluation
of ecological and chemical status of water was done according to order of approval
of the standard classification nr.161/2006 surface water to determine the ecological
status of water bodies.

Keywords: Prut, surface water, water body;

1. INTRODUCTION

National water monitoring system includes two types of monitoring, as

required by the Law 310/2004 amending and supplementing the Water Law
107/1996 which took over the provisions in the Water Framework Directive
60/2000/CE and other EU Directives. Carry out a role with supervisory monitoring
to assess the status of all water bodies within river basins, and an operational
monitoring (integrated surveillance monitoring) for bodies of water are not likely
to meet objectives for water protection. Depending on the quality characteristics of
water bodies have made different types of monitoring programs for each section:
monitoring program (S), operational Program (O), the investigation (I), the
reference (R) Program “best available section” (CBSD), the intercalibration (IC),
Monitoring Program for vulnerable zones (ZV), the monitoring of the ichthyofauna
(HI), Habitats and Species Protection Program (HS), International Convention
Programme (CI) and Programme CAPM. These programs are consistent with the
requirements of the Framework Directive and other European water policy.

2. METHODS AND MATERIALS

Monitoring surface water quality of Prut river basin catchment area is

achieved by tracking in surveillance monitoring (monthly and quarterly campaigns)
and fast flow (daily and weekly campaigns) physical - chemical indicators,
biological and bacteriological. Were monitored 11 streams, totaling 1608 km.
Pollution indicators for monitoring the supervision and monitoring were conducted
sampling at the control section 33. The fast flow water quality monitoring was
conducted at a daily frequency monitoring section and a section with a weekly
frequency: Prut - Darabani (flow weekly) and Prut - Ungheni (daily flow).

                                                            
1
“Ghe Asachi “Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Hydrotechnical, Geodesy and Environmental En-
gineering, Bd. Dimitrie Mangeron, nr.67, 700050 Iaşi, România, E-mail: MihaelaDumitran@yahoo.com

171
 The best sections available are: Prut - Darabani, Prut - Ungheni Prut -
Şiviţa and Elan - Dimitrie Cantemir. To establish the natural conditions of
reference and background concentrations in 2009 to monitor a single reference
section (Bahlui – Vama cu Tabla). Investigation media were reviewed in 2009:
Water Biota Suspended solids
The overall quality of the river basin Prut in 2009, has undergone major
changes over the previous year, showing a trend of preserving it. Framing the water
quality is as follows (Fig. 1- 3 ).
- the biologically: 1282 km were classified as class II quality, 311 km in
class – III- a and 15 km in quality class.
- the physical - chemical point of view: 88 km of river were located in
first class quality, 767 km of river were located in class II quality, 545
km class III, 197 km in class IV and 11 km in the a V-a class.
Prut River ranged as follows: 88 km in the first grade quality and 654 km
of class II quality.

Fig. 1. Monitoring sections with quality classes

Source :Prut Barlad River Basin Water Administration

Fig. 2. Distribution Fig. 3. Evolution of quality classes

of river with quality class between 2003 / 2009
Source :Prut Barlad River Basin Water Administration

172
 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis and interpretation of results obtained in the fast flow

For operational knowledge of the situation Prut River Basin water quality
were established observation points to the transmission of information daily and
weekly flow established in critical areas with regard to the criterion of point
sources of pollution, transboundary criterion, the criterion for drinking water
abstraction.
In 2009, two sections are set in the fast flow that characterizes the border
rivers: Prut - Darabani (flow weekly) and Prut - Ungheni (daily flow).

Table 1. Arithmetic average values of the indicators in 2009

Parameter analyzed U.M. Prut Darabani Prut Ungheni / Tutora
Frequent S Z
0
Water temp C 10,8 14,17
pH unit.pH 8,0 8,05
Oxygen regime
Dissolved Oxygen mg/l 8,59 9,83
CCOMn mg/l 2,81 3,02
Nutrient
N-NH4+ mg/l 0,076 0,066
N-NO2- mg/l 0,031 0,008
N-NO3- mg/l 0,918 1,225
Total Phosphorus mg/l 0,062 0,073
Salinity
Fixed Residue mg/l 349,7 351,9
Metals (total concentration)
Copper µg/l 8,65 3,13
Zinc µg/l 10,76 8,25
Chromium µg/l 2,1 1,16
Iron mg/l 0,41 0,63
Other relevant chemical indicators
Phenol µg/l 1 2,88
Cyanide µg/l 1 0,21

Note: Z - daily, S – weekly

Source :Prut Barlad River Basin Water Administration

- Daily fast flow

- Section Ungheni the Prut river is considered as the daily flow downstream
outlet is powered Tutora where drinking water treatment plant to the city. Water
from this section fall into class II quality indicator as phenols.
- Weekly fast flow
- Section Darabani the Prut river flow is analyzed weekly. Water from this
section fall into class II of quality indicators by specific nutrient regime

173
 RECORDED IN THE GLOBAL WATER QUALITY MONITORING
SECTION
Evaluation of ecological and chemical status of water was done according
to order of approval of the standard classification nr.161/2006 surface water to
determine the ecological status of water bodies, correlating the results of chemical
and biological assessment.
Ecological status is expressed as state structure and functioning of aquatic
ecosystems and surface waters is represented by the parameters obtained as a result
of physical-chemical monitoring, biological and hydro-morphological characte-
ristic of each monitoring program.
The general principle of classification of ecological status has been on for
five groups of indicators - the regime of oxygen, nutrients, mineralization, specific
toxic pollutants of natural origin and other relevant chemical indicators, weighted
by evaluating the effect of all indicators, based on the arithmetic average.
Characterization of overall quality, level section, is the outcome of the group with
the worst situation, not taking into account situations where natural background
significantly exceeded the permissible limits, assessed on the basis of analytical
data in the sections "controls."

River stretch characteristic length in the year 2009

Table 2. Registered quality in relation to physical and chemical indicator
Length (km)
River
The section of river Quality class
Total I II III IV V
Oroftiana - Stanca Costesti - - 115 - - -
Prut Stanca Costesti -Baseu river - 88 - - - -
Baseu river –Dunare - - 539 - - -
742 88 654 - - -
Source: Prut Barlad River Basin Water Administration
Table 3. River stretch characteristic length in the year 2009 registered quality
in relation to biological indicators

Length (km) din care

River The section of river Quality class
Total I II III IV V
Prut Entry county Vaslui - exit countyVaslui 167
TOTAL 167 167
Elan Source Murgeni 16
locality Murgeni - cfl. r. Prut 57
TOTAL 73 16 57

TOTAL Prut (km) 240 183 57 0

TOTAL Prut (%) 100 76,25 23,75 0,0

Source: Prut Barlad River Basin Water Administration

174
 4. CONCLUSIONS
After detailed analysis of the quality of surface water flowing Prut river
basin following results:
In 2009, the surveillance monitoring network to track the status of bodies of
water quality. The qualitative analysis resulted:
 Surface water quality has been greatly influenced by wastewater discharges
and uses of the main cities located in the river Prut.
 Water quality was affected by drought period that took place this year, from
June to September, which resulted in the concentration of pollutants in water.
Also, in terms of hydrological year 2009 was characterized by a steady
decrease until below the average flow values in most multi-gauging stations
in Prut river.
 Water quality in most sections has not undergone major changes over the
previous year, showing the trend of preservation.
 Prut river basin indicators of iron, manganese, copper and selenium is a
natural background loading, resulting in high values of these indicators in the
control analysis.
Quality surface water
Prut River presents a framed pure water quality class I and class II 12% to
88% quality of its length. In the river was classified as class II as the entry to the
needle. Stanca Costesti (115 km), and leg action. Stanca Costeşti - Başeu (88 km)
river falls in first class quality. After the confluence with Başeu river , water falls
Prut river class II quality due to the influence Başeu river, Jijia river and diffuse
sources in the area.
On the lower Prut River, tributaries direct : Elan and Chineja, showing class
III-IV quality Prut river not affect quality.
In 2007 the Prut river water quality is Prut river presents a pure water placed
in class II as per 98% of its length. Thus, the river was classified as class II as the
entry to the confluence with the river Jijia a length of 358 km. Hence, a length of
13 km downstream from the confluence with Jijia its main tributary, he goes into
grade III quality class back then in section II of the section downstream Prisecani –
confluence with Danube over a length of 371 km.
In 2008 the Prut river water quality:
- Prut River presents a framed pure water quality class I and class II 39% to
61% quality of its length. Thus, the river was within the first class quality at entry to
the confluence with the river Başeu (203km) and the junction section Moşna river -
Pruteţ river confluence (Bumbata) - 83 km. On a length of 237 km section
confluence with Başeu river – confluence Moşna river, water falls Prut river grade II
quality due to the influence Başeu river, Jijia river and diffuse sources in the area.
Across the state water quality basin including from the distribution of river
sections on categories of quality according to different order no. 161/2006
Flowing surface water quality Prut river basin in the monitoring sections, the
class framed in quality results in the following sections dividing along the main
rivers of Prut river basin:

175
 - Prut river
Oroftiana – downstream Stanca Costesti section
From the point of entering the river Prut Romania (Oroftiana) and to the
accumulation Stanca - Costesti a length of 115 km, the overall quality of water was
placed in quality class II, imposed by monitoring sections Prut - Oroftiana, Prut –
Radauti Prut and the Prut - Darabani.
Stanca - Costesti – confl. Baseu river section .
In this section (88 km) Prut water falls in first class quality, feeling the
influence Başeu river and diffuse pollution sources.
Confluence Baseu river - confluence Danube section
The distance of 539 km, passing the Prut quality class II, this type of
quality is maintained up to the confluence with the Danube, which is apparent
from the analysis of control sections on the lower Prut River: Dranceni,
Bumbăta, Oancea, Şiviţa şi Giurgiuleşti. This class is due to the influence of
diffuse sources in the area.  

Table 4. Sections graded supervision – Prut river basin – 2009

Ecological status Physical – Chemical indicators that determine quality

R
Monitoring

i
Section
No

(S)

v
e Fizical
r Other Chemical Sapro-
R Sali-
Nutrient indicator indicators bic
O nity
s that determine index
quality
1 Oroftiana I II I II II I
NO2, N
2 Darabani I I II II I Total chlorides, II
sulfates
Radauti CBO5,
3 S II I I - CCO-Cr
II
Prut
CBO5, CCO-Cr,
4 Stanca - II I I I Chlorides, II
sulfates
5 Ungheni S I I I I - II
CBO5, CCO-Cr,
6 Prisecani S II I II II Chlorides, II
sulfates

CBO5, CCO- Cr,

Prut

7 Dranceni S II II II II NO2,NO3, P, II
chlorides, sulfates

CBO5, CCO-Cr,
8 Bumbata S I II II I NO2, NO3, P, II
Chlorides, sulfates

NO2, NO3,Ptotal,
9 Oancea - I II II II chlorides, sulfates
II

CBO5, CCO- Cr,

10 Sivita - II I II II chlorides, sulfates
II

CBO5, CCO-Cr,
11 Giurgiulesti S II I II II chlorides, sulfates
II

Source :Prut Barlad River Basin Water Administration 2007

176
 Sections graded supervision – Prut river basin – 2007
R
i
Ecological staus

Monitoring(S)
v
Physical – chemical indicators that determine quality

Section
e
No

r
Fizical – chemical
Other Saprobic
RO Nutrient Salinity indicators that
indicators index
determine quality
1 Oroftiana I I I I-II I-II II
2 Darbani S I I I I-II I-II II
3 P Radauti – Prut I I I I-II I-II II
4 r Stanca S I I I I-II I-II II
5 u Ungheni S II II I II II II
6 t Prisecani S II II II III III II
7 Dranceni S I I I I-II I-II II
8 Bumbata II I I I-II II II
9 Oancea II I I I II II
10 Sivita S II I II I II II
11 Giurgiulesti S I I II I II II

Protection water quality:

- Modernization of urban waste water treatment plants Botosani Dorohoi
Săveni, Darabani, Flamanzi, Iasi, Harlau, Tg. Frumos, Husi, Beresti and Tg. Bujor;
- Execution of a new treatment plants for the Botosani area south of the
city - Tulbureni - water or waste transport in the area (about 300 l / sec) at existing
wastewater treatment plant;
- Improved operating efficiencies, one of Urban wastewater treatment
plants through an appropriate operating according to regulations, operation,
maintenance and operation;
- Improving the Investment principles of rehabilitation and upgrading an
operating efficiencies, a pre-treatment station uses water from a Prut river;
- Evacuation-replacement technology systems HYDRAULICS a tip from
livestock manure dry;
- Provide user-level laboratories and surveillance requirements for Water
Quality Control, version accordance with the European directives and legal.

REFERENCES

1. Giurma I.,(2000) Water management systems, Ed. Ceres, Bucuresti.

2. Prut - Barlad river Basin Water Administration - Methodological Guidelines
for delineation of surface water bodies - rivers and lakes
3. Prut - Barlad river Basin Water Administration (2007 ..2009)- Water Quality
Summary.
4. Prut - Barlad river Basin Water Administration - Detailed instructions on
setting exceptions to the environmental objectives of the Water Framework
Directive (2000/60/EC)

177
 ESTIMATING THE TENDENCY AND THE VARIABILITY
OF THE RAINFALL AMOUNT IN IALOMITA RIVER BASIN
AND THEIR INFLUENCE UPON THE LIQUID RUN-OFF

M. RETEGAN1, M. BORCAN1

ABSTRACT: Estimating the tendency and the variability of the rainfall

amount in Ialomita river basin and their influence upon the liquid run-off.
The paper focuses on an analysis of the spatial and temporal variability of rainfall
amounts (meteorological parameter ) from Ialomita River Basin and also the
influence that rainfall has upon the liquid run-off, expressed by the mean monthly
discharges (hydrologic parameter) in a common period of time (1961-2007).
The study of the evolution of the above mentioned parameters has been based
upon the data recorded from 6 weather and river stations which we considered to
be representative for the studied area.
For these weather stations we have used, calculated and statistically interpreted
the chronological data series of the mean monthly and annually rainfall amounts
while for the river stations we have taken into account the mean monthly and
yearly liquid discharges.
We have also tried to establish inter-connections between the two parameters,
in order to demonstrate the tight link that is between them on both a time-space
scale and in a regional context.
Any alteration of the liquid drainage is caused by alterations in the climatic
system, mainly the rainfall patterns.
In order to identify the tendencies in the dynamics of the rainfall amounts and
the mean liquid run-off and also to establish their statistic significance we have
used the Mann-Kendall test (with the help of MAKENSIS programme).

Keywords: hydrological and climatic parameters, spatial and time tendencies,

inter-connectivity, Ialomita river basin.

1. OBJECTIVES
In this paper we have tried to identify the supposed tendencies in the
variability of the mean monthly rainfall (the climatic parameter) as well as the
tendencies in the evolution of the mean monthly and annual liquid discharges (the
hydrologic parameter) on basis of the Mann-Kendall statistical test. The run-off
volume of the hydrographical surface network is always inter-connected with the
climatic parameter. Rainfall always represents the genetic key factor in the
constitution of the liquid run-off both on slopes and in river beds. The highest
water discharges are usually triggered by heavy prolonged rainfall, while the lack
of rainfall or scarce rainfall determines a poor liquid run-off.

1
Institutul Naţional de Hidrologie şi Gospodărire a Apelor, Bucuresti, mihai_rete@yahoo.com,
bmihaela1978@yahoo.com

178
 In order to study and identify the interdependence between these two
parameters (climatic and hydrological) we have chosen a vast area of land,
represented by the Ialomita river basin, which encompasses a large variety of
landforms and climatic conditions, but overall acts unitary from a hydrological
point of view.

2. MORPHOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF IALOMITA RIVER

BASIN

The Ialomita River Basin gathers very different geographical conditions,

especially when talking about landforms. These tend to descent gradually in
altitude from north to south, from a maximum altitude of 2505 m (Omu Peak,
Bucegi Mountains) to a minimum level of 6-10 m, close to the confluence with the
Danube.
Thus, the mountain region represents 14.31% of the total area of the basin,
the hills and plateaus region takes about 23.6% of the total area while the rest of
55.8% is represented by plains and lowland territories.
The Ialomita River Basin is covered by mountains in its northern extremity
(Bucegi Mts, Clabucetelor Mts), then its central territories are covered by a
transition sub-Carpathian step (The Prahova and Buzau Sub Carpathians), while
the south and east of the basin are occupied mainly by low land territories, which
include primarily plains of different types that extent to its confluence with the
Danube River, south from the village of Giurgeni.

3. THE DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY USED

3.1 The data base

Ialomita River Basin offers ideal conditions for performing hydrological
studies (it has a very well developed hydrometric network, with a total number of
21 stations) but less favorable for climatic analysis, since only 6 weather stations
activate on its territory.
In order to perform such an analysis we have used:
 series of pluviometric data: monthly and yearly rainfall for the 1961-
2007 period for six weather stations (fig.1) and also the maximum
amount of rainfall recorded over a 24 hours period for the same time
lapse and the same locations
 series of hydrological data: mean monthly and yearly liquid
discharges for the same period of time 1961-2007 at six corres-
ponding hydrometric stations.

179
 Fig.1. The map of the hydro-meteorological network in Ialomita River Basin.

The analyzed weather and river stations are presented in tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Data regarding the hydrometric stations in Ialomita River Basin

Mean Maximum
Nr. F
River River Station liquid liquid
crt (Km2)
discharge discharge
1 Azuga Azuga 83 1,91 94
2 Prahova Busteni 136 2,85 123
3 Doftana Tesila 288 4,52 311
4 Ialomiţa Targoviste 686 8,35 691
5 Teleajen Moara Domnească 1398 9.11 850
6 Ialomiţa Slobozia 9154 45.5 818
*According to NIHWM data
Table 2. Data regarding the weather stations that we have used in our analysis
Nr. The altitude The maximum amount
River Multiannual average
crt of the station of rainfall in 24 hours)
1 Predeal 947 1090 122.1
2 Sinaia 1034 1510 106
3 Campina 770 461 118.4
4 Targoviste 679 293 137.6
5 Ploiesti 635 164 102.4
6 Slobozia 468 40 62.6
*According to NAM data

180
 3.2. Methodology
The statistical analysis of the weather and hydrological data series
consisted by adopting the Mann Kendall test. The Mann Kendall test (a test used
for identifying the tendencies) takes into account the analysis of two types of
statistic analysis: for data series with less than 10 cases the S test is used, while for
data series consisting of more than 10 cases one must apply the Z test, which
displays a normal distribution pattern. In order to identify the correct tendency of
the analyzed parameters, we use four levels of significance, table 3.

Table 3. The meaning of the symbols corresponding to the four levels

of significance of the Mann Kendall test
*** α = 0.001
** α= 0.01
* α = 0.0 5
+ α= 0.1

This means that the level of significance 0.001 corresponds to a 0.1%

probability of being wrong in the estimation of the correct tendency, which in turn
shows that the estimation performed by the test has a very high degree of accuracy.
Using the inter correlation functions we have tried to determine a
correspondence between rainfall and liquid run-off, while for the maps and spatial
analysis we have used GIS methods (extensions of the ArcGis 9.2. soft).

4. OUTCOMES

Our performing of the Mann Kendall test upon the series of rainfall data
suggested that the weather stations of Predeal, Campina, Targoviste and Slobozia
exhibit an increase tendency especially for the month of September (a significance
level of 0.05 to 0.1). We have also identified increase tendencies for the months of
March and October at Slobozia weather station (significance level of 0.05).
The only weather station showing decrease tendency is Campina (with a
significance level between 0.05 and 0.01) in the months of February (significance
level = 0.01) and may (significance level = 0.05). Regarding the Mann Kendall test
performed upon series of annual rainfall data we can observe decrease tendencies
only for Sinaia 1500 weather station.
Ploiesti weather station, even if it is located in a transition area between the
mountainous region to the north and the plain region to the south and east, does not
show any decrease or increase tendencies regarding the monthly or yearly rainfall.

181
 Table 4. The monthly and yearly tendencies of rainfall
for several weather stations in the Ialomita River Basin

Mean rainfall
Time Predeal Sinaia 1500 Campina Targoviste Ploiesti Slobozia
I
II **(-)
III *(+)
IV * (-)
V *(-) *(-)
VI
VII
VIII
IX + (+) +(+) *(+) *(+)
X +(+)
XI
XII
AN *(-)
(-) decrease tendency
(+) – increase/rise tendency

Our performing of the Mann Kendall test upon the series of hydrological
data pointed out the following aspects: for most of the river stations we have
identified decrease tendencies of the mean monthly and annual discharges.
For the majority of the hydrometrical stations we have observed decrease
tendencies of the mean monthly and annual discharges. Only Busteni river station
exhibited increase tendencies of the mean monthly and yearly liquid discharges.
These decrease tendencies are situated between the significance level 0.01 in May
for Azuga river station and 0.1 in January (Azuga, Targoviste), february (Azuga,
Moara Domneasca), may (Moara Domneasca and Slobozia) and june (Slobozia).
Regarding the entire area of the Ialomita River Basin for the period 1961-
2007 we can identify a general decrease tendency of the mean monthly liquid
discharges concerning 75% of the river stations that we have focused upon.
Increase tendencies of these monthly and yearly liquid discharges are
easily observed at 25% of the river stations located in Ialomita River Basin, mostly
in Prahova River Basin.

Table 5. The monthly and yearly general tendencies of the mean liquid discharges
in Ialomita River Basin, calculated with Mann Kendall statistics test (river stations)
Stations
Moara
Azuga Buşteni Teşila Târgovişte Slobozia
Domnească
Months
I +(-) +(-)
II +(-) *(-) +(-) +(-)
III +(+) *(-) *(-)

182
 Stations
Moara
Azuga Buşteni Teşila Târgovişte Slobozia
Domnească
Months
IV *(-)
V **(-) *(-) *(-) +(-) +(-)
VI *(-) *(-) +(-)
VII *(-) *(-) +(-)
VIII
IX
X +(+)
XI
XII
Annual **(-) *(-)
(+) decrease tendency
(-) increase tendency

Even if the period 1961-2007 shows a general trend of increase regarding

the surface liquid run-off, this has not reflected completely in the run-off regime.
Besides Prahova River Basin, the other sub-basins that together form the Ialomita
River Basin exhibited a decrease tendency, with significance levels of 0.1 which
means a 10% possibility of us being wrong in our estimations.

5. THE INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN RAINFALL AND

LIQUID DISCHARGES

We have calculated for the period 1961-2007 the variation of the rainfall
amounts for each month and year. Since in most of the cases the variability is
common for the majority of the stations (80%) we have defined as an index of the
average the series of monthly data that exhibit under average liquid run-off.
Similarly we have calculated the rainfall index by averaging the data series for the
weather stations that we have taken into consideration.
The interdependence function between the indexes of rainfall and run-off,
when considering all the months of the year, shows that the rainfall fluctuations
usually stand 2-3 months ahead the run-off fluctuations. These represent the
difference between the moment in which the rainfall occurs and the subsequent
liquid run-off that it triggers. Positive values demonstrate that an increase in the
amount of rainfall usually produces an increase in the liquid run-off (for the cold
season). We have analyzed the variation of the correlation coefficient between
rainfall amounts for each month of the year and the liquid run-off for the next 3
months. Thus the rainfall that falls in January and February influences the liquid
run-off in March or April, which corresponds to a significance level of 95%. This
is because the snow that accumulates in winter months melts gradually and
transforms into liquid discharges over the first one or two spring months. This time
lapse decreases to 0 during summer months.

183
 6. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

The statistic interpretation of hydrological and meteorological data series

in Ialomita River Basin allowed us to identify certain tendencies regarding the
variability of the analyzed parameters (mean monthly and yearly rainfall amounts
and discharges).
Tendencies are less obvious when discussing about rainfall amounts, yet an
increase can be observed, especially for September (significance levels of 0.1 and
0.05). Regarding the surface run-off, the tendencies are more obvious and are
representative for all the river stations that we have analyzed, especially for the
winter months (february) and spring (may) with different levels of significance
(most of them being situated between 0.1 and 0.01).
As a consequence we intend to analyze these modifications in order to
understand the role they play in the drainage processes.
Also, the analysis of the correlations between the liquid run off and rainfall
show that there is usually a 2-3 months delay in winter time period between the
moment of the specific rainfall or snowfall and the moment in which the highest
discharges are recorded and no difference in summer. We have identified dry
periods in 1973-1975, 1986-1995 and 2000-2004.

REFERENCES

1. Borcan, M., Bujor, M., Retegan M, (2010) The Analysis of the Hydro-Climatic
Risk Phenomena in the Ialomita-Buzau Area. Structural and Unstructural
Measures for Prevention and Intervention, Ohrid, Macedonia
2. SALMI T., MÄÄTTÄ A., ANTTILA Pia., RUOHO-AIROLA Tuija.,
AMNELL Toni, (2002) Detecting trends of annual values of atmospheric
pollutants by the mann-kendall test and sen’s slope estimates -the excel
template application makesens; Editura Oyj, Helsinki.
3. UJVARI, I. (1972), Geografia apelor României, Edit. Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti.
4. *** (1971), Râurile României. Monografie hidrologică, IMH, Bucureşti.
5. *** (1966) Monografia hidrologică a bazinului Ialomiţa, Comitetul de Stat al
Apelor, Institutul de Studii şi Cercetări Hidrotehnice, Bucureşti

*Institutul Naţional de Hidrologie şi Gospodǎrire a Apelor

184
 THE CHLOROSODIUM MINERAL WATERS IN CLUJ COUNTY,
LASTING TOURISTIC PROTECTION AND CAPITALIZATION

N.CIANGA1, D.COSTEA

ABSTRACT. – The chlorosodium mineral waters in Cluj County, lasting

touristic protection and capitalization. This study represents a continuation of
the research and assessment of the resources of chlorosodium mineral waters on
the territory of Transylvania Depression, especially regarding the appearance of
salt springs, which are still not to be found in the literature of specialty.
The first step was made by the researcher Chintăuan Ioan, Doctor in Geology
for Bistriţa-Năsăud County in 2002, and it was continued by the authors of this
study, in the first volume dedicated to the Air & Water conference from 2010, for
Sibiu County.
Therefore, Cluj County will be analysed this time, a county to which certain
researches have been done before. Field research could be also added to these,
representing the only possibility to update the data regarding the existent salt springs.
The first examples already known are the clorosodium mineral waters billeted in
lakes situated in Turda, Cojocna, Sic and Ocna Dejului. As locations with
chlorosodium mineral waters which appear at the surface under the form of salt
springs with a salinity exceeding 1 g/l, as compared to the 4 ones specified, firstly
the old, abandoned resorts from Someşeni are to be remembered and the lake with
salt water formed in the place of a spring from Pata that is found near the garbage
pit of Cluj-Napoca Municipality and many other spots with salt springs found on
the map of Cluj County, such as those located from north towards south: Mica,
Gherla, Gădălin, Geaca, Miceşti, Valea Florilor, etc.
As far as the protection of these resources is concerned, the main debated
problems are related to phenomena such as their clogging and sweetening, which
determines many springs of chlorosodium mineral waters to become ephemeral.
As regards the touristic exploitation of these touristic localtions, the only
arranged are the one situated in Turda, which is declared to be a touristic balneal
resort, Cojocna, Ocna Dejului, and with an incipient character Gherla-Silivaş and
Sic. The other locations are simply appearances of salt waters, some used in the
households of the natives.

Keywords: spring of salt waters, salt lakes, clogging, sweetening.

1. THE TERITORIAL REPARTITION OF THE CHLOROSODIUM

MINERAL WATERS IN CLUJ COUNTY

As a direct consequence of the anterior resource of bibliographical, from

some anterior articles of salt waters resources from Cluj county, but also of the
realization of some field research in order to analyze on spot, it result that in this

1
"Babeş-Bolyai" University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
cianga@geografie.ubbcluj.ro

185
county the salt waters sources are quite numerous and concentrated especially in
the east part of the Transylvanian Basin.
According to the geographical literature it has been insisted, only on those
famous touristical arrangements, of a touristical importance as Ocna Dejului, Sic,
Someşeni, Cojocna and Turda.
The rest of the location with salt waters will be analyzed to evaluated the
current situation, even if they aren’t t as such a great interest, being less famous.

Table 1. The current situation of chlorosodic mineral spring in Cluj County

Nr. location administrative-teritory no of springs current situation
1. Ocna Dejului DEJ 1 existed
2. Sic SIC 4 arranged
3. Someşeni CLUJ-NAPOCA 16 abandoned
4. Cojocna COJOCNA 5 arranged
5. Turda TURDA - only lakes
6. Sânmarghita MICA 1 abandoned
7. Nireş MICA 1 arranged
8. Unguraş UNGURAŞ 1 salt massive
9. Buneşti MINTIU GHERLII 1 abandoned
10. Silivaş GHERLA 1 existed
11. Sărata PĂNTICEU - disappeared
12. Sântejude ŢAGA 1 abandoned
13. Lacu GEACA 1 abandoned
14. Gădălin JUCU 1 arranged
15. Pata APAHIDA 4 arranged
16. Valea Florilor PLOSCOŞ 2 existed
17. Lobodaş PLOSCOŞ 1 existed
18. Miceşti TURENI 1 arranged

1.1. Ocna Dejului

The area with chlorosodium mineral waters is situated on 2 sectors, first in
Codorului Valley in the north, where were the first roman’s exploitation, now gather
and the second in the south east where there is a current salt mine exploitation.
The latter sector is called Sărata Valley, the transformation connected to the
antrophical influence which let disappearance of the former lakes Ştefan and Iosif,
but also the transformation connected to the Codor sector have let to the disappe-
arance to the many lakes, and the number of the lake from 14 in 1969 to only 2 in the
present: Cabdic lake in Codor sector and Minei Mari lake in Sărate Valley sector.
If the first called ,,La Toroc” is arranged for balneation, due to the therape-
utically quality of the water and it is geographical position far away from the mine
exploitation and to with access to the road with Dej. The second could be declared
nation reservation and including for the area visit together with the salt mine and the
surrounding area where other exploitation in belt system have been made.

186
 1.2. Sic
The chlorosodical mineral water resources are to be found in the east of the
area in Sărata Valley, in the form of the waterside, wide and swampy surrounded
which make up of typical salt relief, the complex contains 3 antroposalin lakes 2 on
the right of Sărata Valley Băilor lake and Nirţului lake, and one of the left side of
Cipan hill (Albastru lake).
All the 3 lakes are formed from on the top of former mines type bell, if the
first 2 once remain salty the blue lakes is in a continues sweetening process
because of the lack of water connect with the salt wall.
Due to the current situation of the lakes in Sic only one the lakes has
touristic potential namely Băilor lake which has already function as a pool in the
past. After some changes have been made and can be including the balnear touristic
circuit, especially due to it s access being located in the village, but more for it s
therapeutically qualities. The salt spring are arranged in the form of four wells
located in the south part of the village within the reservation.
1.3. Someşeni
Here we can find the most numerous spring with chlorosodical mineral
waters of hyposalt type. Someseni is situated the outskirts of Cluj-Napoca, which
increases its value.
Although the former balnear arrangement is totally abandoned, we can
distinguish a number of 16 hypo salt spring, unfortunately more than half of the
spring are silting only the springs no 1 and no2 have the greatest debit of 300 liter
per day, the same situation we can at spring 13,14,15, and 16.
The springs have the following characteristic , the value of the salt is
between 2,3 and 10 g|l, with high radioactivity, mineralization and other properties
in case of some treatments, also in these area near the springs a series of basins
have been arranged of series of polls, some of the were use for balneation in the
past. According to the reality on the field only 7 out of 10 can be distinguished.

1.4. Cojocna
In the past the number of exploitation summed 6, and after their
abandoning, it resulted an area with more lakes, placed in the east of the village.
Cojocna is crossed by Sarat river which formed a basin with, steep slopes and an
inferior flat wide part. Where the salt lakes can be found a part of the village.
The only salt lakes left are Băilor and Durgău extensively use for
balneation, even for the beginning of the last century, especially in the present.
Except these lakes there a series of former smaller lakes, like some swamps.
The salt springs waters are numerous and are spread around the village in
four different areas. The first would be Murătoarea Mare in the east of the former salt
lakes, where 2 unarranged spring can be found, the second in the south of the former
salt lakes, in the area called La Cadardeau , where an arranged well with the salt
waters can be found , third in the direction of Cara village in the area of the railways
and fourth on the DC76, which leads to Boju village. In the last 2 areas the sources of
salt waters are arranged are expose to the risk of silting and sweetening.

187
 1.5. Turda
The analyze territory is situated in the north east of the most important
town with salt waters, from the Transilvanian Basin. Here in 2 different areas 2 salt
missives in the form of some bows have been formed, lately spoiled by some
external agents.In the north of the Sarata Valley and in the south the Microbasin
Turda Băi formed by the erosion of Arieş river.
In the north, the eroded salt massive from Sărata Valley has a surface of
approximately 25.000 mp in which existed seven exploitation in bell type, from
which we have only 5 lakes today, because Caroline lake has been covered, by
gound sliding, and the former lake, has been completed silted.
Now there are only 5 lakes left: Durgău, Ocnei Mici, Sulfuros, Ocnei şi
Rotund, from which only the letter can be use in a balneary purpose, being already.
In the south area which is the wider and flatter area, we can find the micro
basin Turda Bai formed by gradual erosion, due the elimination of the sedimentary
strata by Arieşul river leading of a erosion surface 94.000 mp (T. Pânzaru,1986).
The salt lakes are important from a touristical point of view are situated in
the easth of the micro basin and totalize 4. All of them are antroposalin the 3 lakes
area carstosalin, of some dimension being silted.The antroposalin lakes: Roman,
Tarzan, Cichi and Privighetorii have been formed in medieval times in an area
where salt was closer to the surface.
1.6. The Areas with Salt Springs
We talk in consideration with chlorosodical mineral springs which have
different salt degrees and which have a punctiform character.
Starting from the north side on the territory of Mica village 2 spring with
chlorosodical near the villages Sânmarghita and Nireş. If in the first location the
spring si arranged and exploited by its inhabitants in the second area is not exploited
at all and is in danger of silted. In the near by is a small salt massive, which appear to
the surface at the limed with Unguraş with small spring can be formed.
Near Gherla in the south part small , have been discovered in the past near
the village Silivaş, where a small pool was arranged. Now this small waters is
used to carry water to some covered pools arranged in Gherla.
Another area in the north of Gherla is Buneşti village, to administrative
territory of Mintiu Gherlii.
In Sărata from the administrative territory of Panticeu, the current
resources have reveal the fact that although, these taxonomy related to salt exist in
this location there is no clue that here had been a salt spring, although in been
motion in some bibliographical sources.
In the area of hydrographical basin of Fizeş river there are 2 location with
chlorosodium mineral water, the first at Sântejude which appear after an
excavation and a another one in the center of Lacu village from Geaca adminis-
trative territory an arranged but use by the inhabitants.
On the territory of the Jucu Comune in the near by Gădălin village was a
spring with the chlorosodium mineral water which has recently, use by the
inhabitants and arranged like a pool for balneary purpose in the summer.

188
 There are many spring with chlorododium mineral waters on the territory
of the commune Ploscoş due to the existence of salt closed to the surface. The
spring can be found in the nearby the villages Valea Florilor and Lobodaş.
The last location with chlorosodium mineral waters springs is in the south
of village Miceşti. Where the inhabitants succeeded in arranging the existing
springs and this was to become a good salt water supply source.

Fig.1. The Cluj County. The map of the chlorosodium

mineral waters resources

189
 2. POSIBILITIES OF TURISTIC EXPLOITATION OF THE
CHLOROSODIUM MINEREL WATERS IN CLUJ COUNTY.
CASE OF STUDY: OCNA DEJULUI AND COJOCNA

The touristic potential of the chlorosodium mineral water resources is very

high in the main location in Cluj County and now the two touristic arranging with
salt waters are a great importance. This haven t declared balnear resort yet.
Ocna Dejului and Cojocna where recently investments with the greater pro-
ject, which has been recently finalized. The project started in 2008 and finished 2010.
Once this project has been made for location with salt waters Ocna Dejului
and Cojocna from Cluj county and Figa from Bistriţa-Năsăud already finalized.
The chlorosodium mineral waters resources from the existent lakes have a
great touristic potential, due to the quality arrangement which have been made
lately at Ocna Dejului. Investments have been around Cabdic lake and two 2,1 mil.
euro have been spent, through this lake has been arranged and ecologies and the
surrounding area an exterior pool was built, an interior pool with warm water, a
modern beach, access alley and more sport grounds.
At Cojocna the investments was done around the lakes Bailor and Durgau,
both lake has been arranged with wooden platforms around, sandy beaches, access
alley, sports ground a small interior spa with warm water pool and sauna, used
more in oversezon.
After the finalization of the project from Cojocna and Ocna Dejului. It has
been realized that they can be resorts of local interest if in the next period
investments will also be made in the accommodations.

3. PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE PROTECTION OF THE EXIS-

TANT CHLOROSODIUM MINERAL WATER RESOURCES.
CASE STUDY THE SALT LAKES FROM TURDA AND THE
EXTINCT SALT SPRING
Related to the quality of the salt waters the current physical phenomena
with a negative impact are which can cause important changes in a very short
period of time such as: silting, the sweetening of the salt lakes and the disappearing
of the spring with chlorosodical mineral water.
The first example could be analyzed in the area the lakes from Sărata
Valley from Turda administrative area. If we analyze each of the 5 lakes we can
observe differences both in their evolution and in the degree of arranging and
anthropic intervention.
Here the evolution is extremely fast if until now a lake disappear because
of the ground silting and the another sweetened because of the silting process due
to the sandy flows from the slopes
Although to of these, Minei Mare lake and Rotund lake have been recently
arranged this was something superficial and the terrace slopes are in continues
evolution, phenomena like sandy flows and ground silting being present, because
these haven t been planted with vegetation.

190
 The high number of the salt springs from Cluj county is in a continues
process of sweetening, silting ad disappearance, This is one of the main problems
of the study, which can not been solve with the intervention of local authorities of
the gropes of local initiative such as GAL or NGO and even of the inhabitants who
use these sources of salt waters.
There sources of clorosodical mineral water can be arranged in the form of
some spring with concrete on the edge, in the form of some covert wooden wells,
of some drilling and in the near by small pools can be built.
The situation of Cluj County regarding the high risk of these sources of
clorosodium mineral waters can be found in all the Transylvanian Basin for the
moment the research and storage in a former faze. Plus the fact that up to present
there is no general project for protection and the arranging of this including their
salvation.

REFERENCES

1. Alexe M., (2010), Studiul lacurilor sărate din Depresiunea Transilvaniei.

Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană. Cluj-Napoca.
2. Ciangă N., (1984), Economia turismului în Depresiunea Transilvaniei, Studia
Univ. Babeş-Bolyai, Seria Geologie-Geografie, Cluj-Napoca.
3. Chintăuan I., (2002), Apele minerale şi staţiunile din judeţul Bistriţa-Năsăud,
Editura Supergraph. Cluj-Napoca.
4. Costea D., (2008), The Evolution of the Touristic Spa Value Enhancement of
Salt Water Resources in the Transylvania Depression, Babeş-Bolyai,
Geographia, 1, Cluj Napoca.
5. Pânzaru, T. (1974), Complexul lacustru „Valea Sărată” (Turda). Aspecte
morfohidrografice, Lucrări Ştiinţifice, seria A, Geografie, Institutul
Pedagogic, Oradea.
6. Pişota I., (1972), Lacurile Sărate din România, Editura Terra, Bucureşti.
7. Pop Gr., (2007), Judeţul Cluj, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti.
8. Sorocovschi, V. (2005), Câmpia Transilvaniei – studiu hidrogeografic, Edit.
Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca.
9. *** Revista Sării (2004 – 2009), Edit. Asociaţia Salinară ,,Carol Crăciun”.
Slănic Prahova.

191
 THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS ASSOCIATED
TO HYDROLOGICAL PHENOMENA OF RISK
IN THE ALMAŞ-AGRIJ DEPRESSION AND CLUJ AND DEJ
HILLS. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FFECTS

ALINA-DACIANA DUMITRA1

ABSTRACT. – The negative effects associated to hydrological phenomena of

risk in the Almaş-Agrij Depression and in the Cluj and Dej Hills. Social and
economic effects. Following activation of run-off slopes, the torrents and rivers
floods in some areas both in Cluj and Dej Hills and in the Depression Almaş-Agrij,
were affected: houses, annexes, socio-economic objectives, communication
networks, bridges / culverts, agricultural land, and technical works; it have been
recorded losses of animals, birds and even human lives.
It also mentions the affecting of the S.G.A.Cluj defence works; were reactivated
erosion of banks, were clogged riverbed of water courses, etc.
Excessive humidity or the opposite phenomenon – hydrological drought affected
in some years considerable areas, with significant socioeconomic implications.
Also, inadequate maintenance of some hydraulic works, or ignoring environmental
protection rules have generated many crisis situations, sometimes overlapping
more risk, and causing substantial damage.

Keywords: hydrological phenomena of risk, social effects, economic effects.

1. INTRODUCTION

The network of settlements in Cluj and Dej Hills comprises 26 basic

administrative territorial units (24 municipalities and 2 cities), which belong to 115
locations, with a density of 17.5 locations / km2 and a population density of 50.3
inhabitants per km2 (excluding the city of Cluj-Napoca and Dej). Of the 26 territorial
administrative units included in Cluj and Dej Hills, only 14 communes spread across
the hills throughout the rest of the relief units occupying contiguous space.
In Depression-Agrij Almas there are 16 administrative units (15
municipalities and one city) with a total of 78 localities, Hida village being
awarded to the highest number of inhabitants of the valley (3148 inhabitants,
according to population and housing census 2002). A number of three communes
and the town of Jibou have only part of the territory extended across Depression-
Agrij Almas, the remaining communes being in entirely therein.
The negative effects associated with hydrological risk phenomena are
manifested in several spheres: social, economic and environmental.

_____________________
1
Romanian Academy, Institute of Geography, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
alina_daciana@yahoo.com

192
 2. THE EFFECTS GENERATED BY THE HYDROLOGICAL PHE-
NOMENA OF RISK

2.1. Social effects

In the social effects stand out as important dead people. Victims are
determined directly by physical action of water, by drowning or fatal injuries, or
more commonly, indirectly, by acquiring certain diseases. In general, slow flash
floods give a lower number of victims directly, but the risk of disease is high, with
effects that can be spread over a longer period of time, sometimes even weeks.
The number of deceased victims of sudden floods may be large.
The causes which led to the death of the victims are:
- slip or fall on culverts, bridges or banks in troubled waters;
- unable to travel due to damage health;
- trying through various means of transportation crossing the waters rising
- shelter destruction from the violent action of waters, etc..
In the areas studied, the number of human victims is not high, most
famous being that of a young man of 36 years in the village of Căpuşu
Mare,victim of a flood caused by Căpuş River flood in 1999.
Hydrological risk phenomena can cause disease among the affected
population, may lead to recurrence of disease, or worsening of general health,
which in some cases can be fatal.
Thus, in some cases (floods, excessive humidity, especially in winter) there
is an increased incidence of respiratory or gastro-intestinal diseases, especially for
those with a lower resistance to pathogens and viruses (zoung children, elderly, etc.).
Hydrological drought by reducing the considerable volumes of natural
water courses or ground water, impaired the proper use of wells may in turn
aggravate the health of the population, especially the inability to ensure necessary
hygiene or dehydration.
Everything falls into the category of social effects: loss and stress
associated with evacuation of the population shares, disruption of educational
activities, cultural and sporting activities (educational process, festivals, contests
etc.). And property damage socio-cultural value by destroying or damaging them
(museums, schools, medical and health, cultural centers, cemeteries, stadiums,
town hall and police buildings, etc.).
Damage to the family farms are produced in large numbers throughout the
flood, followed by leakage of slopes and torrents, by affecting the construction or
agricultural crops. Hydrological drought or excess humidity may seriously affect
their crops decreasing productivity.
An example of serious damage to family farms is that of flooding of the
river Agrij and of the river Almaş in the range 07/08 to 07/11/1999 which caused
the following damage:
- 101 houses (631 mil. lei);
- 1124 ha of agricultural land (6150 mil.lei);
- roads, bridges, culverts, streets (1850 mil.lei);

193
 - dead birds and animals (140 mil.lei);
- affected hydraulic works (3000 mil.lei);
- total damage 11,771 mil. lei.
A simple calculation leads to a value of 6921 mil. lei of damage caused by
these phenomena of risk to family households, in this reported case.
The amount of such damage is even greater as the affected households and
agricultural crops are not insured, which is unfortunately widespread in the areas
studied, and residents are low income, resulting in them a far greater impact than
the actual amount of damage.

2.2. Economic impacts

It refers to damage caused to economic objectives. Among the economic
objectives, the most susceptible to the harmful action of hydrological phenomena is
the roads infrastructure, which is represented in Cluj and Dej Hills and in
Depression Almaş –Agrij by: national roads, county roads, municipal and forestry
roads and railways. They accompany the rivers, sometimes in close proximity
exposing them to the flood. Also rain and runoff from the slopes can sometimes
seriously affect the roads or railways.
Bridges and culverts that cross rivers are very numerous, and thus highly
exposed or destruction or damage by floods. Also the streets are often exposed to
flooding or leakage slopes.
Retaining walls, road and railway embankments, ditches and other specific
works may be degraded or destroyed by erosion and silting, especially where the
energy of phenomena is high, driven by higher slopes of the hilly region (such as
damage to the railway embankment of the Valea Mărului river, village Iclod).
In many situations, especially in major floods, were affected municipal
works including: water supply, sewerage, wastewater treatment plants, telephone,
electricity and natural gas networks and also hydro-technical works (the example
of year 2008 in the villages of Vad and Sânpaul).
In 2005, according to the Somes-Tisa Water Directorate, the hydraulic
works (owned by local councils or DAST) in Cluj and Dej Hills were recorded
losses amounting to 202.000 Ron. (table 1). They accounted for 18.61% of the
amount of 1.085.000 Ron, the total damage caused by floods in the county of Cluj
in 2005.

Table 1. Damage recorded in 2005 to hydrotechnical works in the Cluj and Dej Hills
River Estimated value
Nr. crt. Event Work type Village Effect
(mii Ron)
Local work to
Erosion
1. 23-29.08.2005 defend the water's Aghireş Nadăş 2
L =30m
edge
Local work to
2. 23-29.08.2005 defend the water's Borşa Borşa Local work 200
edge L =4,5 km

194
 Damage caused to the agricultural sector in recent years in the two areas
are not neglected. The main risk factor in that sector of activity still remain floods,
that affected thousands of hectares of cultivated land, both in Cluj and Dej Hills
and in the Depression Almaş-Agrij (Fig. 1.). Also the excess of humidity or
drought are factors of risk in the studied area.
350
300
250
200
(ha)

150 Teren Agrcol (ha)

100
50
0
Bălan

Gâlgău

Sânmihaiu

Hida
Buciumi

Românaşi

Agrij

Almaşului
Cuzaplac

Agrij Almaş

Fig. 1. Distribution of damage to agricultural land during 2000-2005

in the Depression Almaş-Agrij

The total losses of the floods in Cluj and Dej Hills and Depression Almaş-
Agrij values totaled just over 100,000 mil. lei during 1996-2002. Table 2. shows
the total value, in $, of physical damage to the main flood of Cluj and Dej Hills.
The flood that have taken place in 1999 caused major damage to economic
objectives in Cluj and Dej Hills. They have been affected 55 km of roads and 23
economic objectives (Fig. 2).

Table 2. Victims and material damages from major flooding

in Cluj and Dej Hills and their value in $

Attach
Agric. Road Road county Econ.
Victims Animals Houses House Duct Total value
Year land Network communal Objective
(nr.) (nr.) (nr.) hold (nr.) ($)
(ha.) (km.) (km.) (nr.)
(nr.)

1981 - 20 202 9 437 1,5 - 3 - 220422

1989 - - 7 5 1109 - - - - 88806
1999 1 52 55 61 1386 2 55 23 5 441857
2000 - - 1 1 1115 - - - - 194910
Total 1 72 265 76 4047 3,5 55 26 5 945995

195
 450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
($)
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
1981 1989 1999 2000

Fig. 2. The total amounts of flood damage in Cluj and Dej Hills
(years: 1981, 1989,1999,2000)

3. CONCLUSIONS

Derived from other events (example: floods from heavy rains),

hydrological phenomena are obeying to some natural rules, they shows some
regularities, and the size of the characteristic parameters is strongly influenced by
how the combination of the factors involved in their genesis.
The effects (the impact) of hydrological risk phenomena are generally
adverse on the environment, generating a lot of damage. There is absolutely
necessary the management activity of these phenomena and a planned activity to
prevent and combat their negative effects. The negative effects associated with
hydrological phenomena of risk can be classified as social, economic and
environmental.
In the Cluj and Dej Hills and in the Almaş-Agrij Depression the usage of
land and the changes in land structure can create real problems in the management
activity of hydrological phenomena of risk, especially in populated areas, with high
density.

REFERENCES

1. Mustăţea, A., (2005), Viituri Excepţionale pe Teritoriul României. Editura Onesta

Bucureşti.
2. Pandi, G., (2002), Riscul în activitatea de apărare împotriva inundaţiilor, Riscuri
şi catastrofe, Volum I, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca p.131-142.
3. Pandi, G., Moldovan, F. (2003), Importanţa prognozelor în diminuarea riscurilor
meteorologice şi hidrologice, în volumul Riscuri şi catastrofe, Volum II, Editura
Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca p.303-312.

196
 4. Romanescu, Gh., (2003), Inundaţiile între natural şi accidental, în volumul
Riscuri şi catastrofe, II, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca p.130-138.
5. Sorocovschi, V., (2003), Complexitatea teritorială a riscurilor şi catastrofelor, în
volumul Riscuri şi catastrofe, II, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca,
p.39-48.
6. Sorocovschi, V., (2004), Analiza riscurilor induse de inundaţiile de pe râurile
autohtone din nordul Podişului Transilvaniei, în vol. Fenomene şi procese cu risc
major la scară naţională, Ed. Academiei Române.
7. *** (1990-2002), Pagube inundaţii, date Administraţia Naţională "Apele
Române", Direcţia Apelor Someş-Tisa, Departamentul Apărare.
8. *** (2007), Raport de sinteză privind apărarea împotriva inundaţiilor,
fenomenelor meteorologice periculoase, gheţurilor, accidentelor la construcţiie
hidrotehnice şi poluărilor accidentale din judeţul Cluj, Comitetul Judeţean pentru
Situaţii de Urgenţă Cluj, Sistemul de Gospodărire a Apelor Cluj.
9. *** (2002), Recensământul Populaţiei şi Locuinţelor, judeţele Cluj şi Sălaj;
10. *** (2002), Situaţia pagubelor produse de inundaţii şi fenomene meteorologice
periculoase în perioada 2000-2002, Sistemul de Gospodărire a Apelor Cluj;
11. *** (1976-2004), Studii Hidrologice Anuale, Arhiva Direcţiei Apelor Someş-Tisa,
Cluj-Napoca.

197
 RISK FACTORS INFLUENCING SOILS CULTIVATION
IN AREA RĂDUCĂNENI, IAŞI

IULIAN PRICOP1
FLORIAN STĂTESCU

ABSTRACT. - Risk factors influencing soils culivation in area Răducăneni,

Iaşi. Răducăneni land area composed of villages Răducăneni, Isaiia, Bazga,
Bohotin and Roşu, which is 7958.00 ha, agricultural 6539.00 (3863.00 ha of arable
land, pastures 956.00 ha, 298.00 ha of orchards, vii 582.00 ha), forest 1060.00
hectares, the remainder being unproductive land (196.00 ha) and 163.00 ha built.
Răducăneni area is located in the Central Moldavian Plateau Continental
temperate climate. It is dominated by cold winters and hot summers, with irregular
winds, most common in north and north - west and east in winter and south - east,
especially in spring, early summer with enough rain. The index of aridity (Iar),
Martonne is 26.8 and the formula after Koppen climate - Dfbx. The hydrographic
network of the area is dendritic type, with a strong asymmetry, being more
numerous tributaries on the right. Always network density is reduced as a result of
precipitation amount. Fluctuations in temperature, rainfall and other climatic
factors over the years are very different in intensity and duration produces climate
anomalies and risks. Soils in this area has the following limiting factors:
salinization, soil level of load bearing, slope, surface and deep erosion, landslides,
unevenness of land, excess moisture and phreatic surface inundability by
outpouring coarse and fine texture. The interaction of climate risks and limiting
factors of agricultural land requires a specific practice for this area.

Keywords: climatic anomaly, fluctuation, limiting factors, microregions

1. INTRODUCTION

Risk is considered a ”phenomen” that the action of outside normal limits

is a way to get into danger, to have to face trouble or suffered a loss. He is a social
class, economic, political or natural, whose origin is in the uncertainty that may or
may not generate a loss because of hesitations and unconsciousness in the decision.
Study of climate risk analysis is small scale climatic characteristics of a
natural region of limited size in correlation with the likelihood that these features
may cause damage.
This is where local and geomorphological features, able to alter energy
balance and air circulation such as topography, vegetation cover and the nature of
the underlying surface.

1
“Gheorghe Asachi” Tehnical University of Iasi, Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Geodesic and Environ-
mental Engineering, Romania

198
 A climatic anomaly corresponds to the occurrence of deviations from the
average values of air temperature deviations to persist for at least three weeks of
record rainfall and nature of risk (Mihăilescu C).
Climate risk is considered the “phenomenon” that the action of outside
normal limits, according to the bioclimatic requirements of crops, forest species or
farm animal in a certain stage of life, causing violent destruction or progressive,
resulting in final loss “partial or total biological capacity” (Murărescu O).
The study noted his plan to move the probability of climatic risk factor
(floods, torrential rains, early or late frosts, hail and drought) in the Science and
setting Răducăneni-limiting factor in crop production.
That is ultimately to have it conclusions relating to the development of
specific and agriculture by reducing negative effects of these phenomena according
to the laws in force (Order 638/MAI and 420/MMGA) .

2. TEMPORAL ANALYSIS

Climate is the most dynamic of all the components directly involved in the
emergence of risks in the river Răducăneni.
Răducăneni area is located in temperate climates of Central Moldavian
Plateau Continental, cold winters and hot summers, with irregular winds, most
common in north and north - west and east in winter and south - east, especially in
spring, with rain early enough summer (Pricop Iulian).
The index of aridity „Martonne” is 26.8 and the formula after Koppen
climate - Dfbx.
Average annual air temperature decreases with increasing altitude is 9.5°C
in the area with altitudes below 200 m and about 9.0°C at altitudes above 200 m,
particularly in the west and north of the territory.
Depending on the phase during which vegetation acts these risks are
specific to each culture: for trees, vines, perennials and crops sown in autumn - all
year round, annual plants sown in spring - around the period from sowing to
harvesting.

Table 1. Absolute maximum and minimum temperatures (Husi, 1896-2008)

Month I II III X X XII Annual
Absolute maximum 16.0 18.7 27.9 33.5 29.0 18.8 40.2
Absolute minimum -28.4 -29.1 -19.3 -17.6 -26.1 -29.1 -29.1
Amplitude 44.1 47.8 47.2 51.1 55.1 47.9 69.3

Tabelul 2. Temperaturi maxime şi minime absolute ( Huşi, 1896-2008)

Month IV V VI VII VIII IX Annual
Absolute maximum 31.5 35.6 39.2 40.2 39.0 35.5 40.2
Absolute minimum -7.8 -3.4 4.0 6.7 -1.6 -14.5 -29.1
Amplitude 39.3 39.0 35.2 33.5 40.6 50.0 69.3

199
 Absolute average temperatures over the period 1896-1988 is between 16.0°C
(January) and 40.2°C (July), and lows average absolute values of -29.1°C (De-
cember) to 6.7°C (July). Monthly average amplitude varies within 33.5°C (July) -
55.1°C (September) and the annual average of this indicator being 69.3°C (Table 1, 2).
Temperatures below 0°C recorded in September and extends until the last
decade of May. Days of frost, the subsistence minimum temperature less than or
equal to 0°C are the number of 115.4. The days of summer daytime maximum air
temperature greater than or equal to 25°C are on average 70.
Thermal thresholds of sensitivity to vegetation varies so for very large fruit
trees in temperate regions - continental buds can withstand winter temperatures of -
20°C or -30°C when most annual crops temperatures below - 1°C can be
significant losses.
The average annual precipitation is 510.9 mm at Station Huşi (Table 3, 4),
but high land area, with altitudes above 300 m and covered by heavy forest, mean
annual precipitation may exceed 600 mm.

Table 3. Rainfall during the rest of the plant (Huşi resort, 1896-2008)

I II III X XI XII Annual

29.6 30.4 28.2 41.5 38.3 33.4 510.9
Precipitation maximum in 24 hours
30.0 35.4 39.9 69.4 38.9 50.6 97.8
The number of days with precipitation > 1 mm
8.2 8.5 7.9 6.9 8.2 8.6 96.3

Table 3. Rainfall plant during the vegetation period (Huşi resort, 1896-2008)
Monthly mean precipitation
IV V VI VII VIII IX Annual
42.7 54.0 74.7 64.1 47.6 38.5 510.9
Precipitation maximum in 24 hours
53.7 67.4 60.6 97.8 88.2 67.0 97.8
The number of days with precipitation > 1 mm
8.0 9.5 9.8 7.8 7.2 5.7 96.3

During the year, rainfall distribution is highly varied and unevenly

distributed in quantity time, alternating dry and rainy periods.
Meteorological drought is frequent and characteristic area in the lower
altitudes 175-200 m, where average annual rainfall not exceeding 500 mm and
annual average temperature rises above 9°C.
In contrast to this situation, there are days with precipitation and very high
so that one third and half of the amount of monthly rainfall can be recorded in a
single day. The amount of rainfall in 24 hours was 123.6 mm in Huşi.
The hydrographic network of the area is dendritic type, with a strong
asymmetry, being more numerous tributaries on the right. Permanent network
density is reduced as a result of prevailing power pluvio - nival.

200
 Fluctuations in temperature, rainfall and other climatic factors over the
years are very different in intensity and duration produces climate anomalies and
risks.
3. SPATIAL ANALYSIS

Răducăneni Territory is located in temperate climates - the Continental

Central Moldavian Plateau. The village is made up of villages Răducăneni, Isaiia,
Bazga, Bohotin and Roşu, with a land fund for 7958.00 ha, 6539.00 ha of which
agriculture (arable 3863.00 ha, 956.00 ha of pastures, orchards 298.00 ha , vine
582.00 ha), forest 1060.00 hectares, the remainder being unproductive land (196.00
ha) and built - 163.00 ha (Fig. 1).

Fig.1. The land and forestry Răducăneni

From the climatic point of view, the territory belongs to three micro-
regions: soil micro brown and gray clay, cool moist climates, in areas with
moderate relief terrain (high area includes 300 - 400 m absolute altitude from the
west, north and north - eastern territory ); chernozem soil micro drafts, moderately
warm climates, semi-humid, hilly areas with low relief (relief occupies the second
stage located between 250-300 m and the plains of Prut and Jijia) micro alluvial
soils, moderately warm climates, semi-humid in floodplain regions, represented
mainly by broad plains of the river and Jijia.
Răducăneni in 1962 have a total surface area (St) 5211.20 40 ha, to
2133.00 of arable hectares and consisted of the following villages: Răducăneni,
Bazga, Roşu and Trestiana.

201
 Table 5. The evolution of surfaces by use in Răducăneni - Science (OSPA)
Code S [ha] P% +/-
Use Nr. code
CF
categories categorie 1962 1990 1962 1990 ha %
A1 907,90 3896,00 - - - -
A Arable A2+ A3+ A4 1225,50 -
Total A 2133,40 3863,00 40,9 48,5 +1729,6 +7,6
F1 612,80 840,00
F Grassland
Total F 612,80 840,00 11,8 10,6 +227,2 -1,2
p1 699,40 956,00
p Pasture
Total p 699,40 956,00 13,4 12,0 +256,6 -1,4
L1 196,18 298,00 - - - -
L Orchard L2 plantation 28,90 - - - - -
Total L 225,08 298,00 4,3 3,8 +72,92 -0,5
V Vineyard V1 383,22 582,00
Agricultural area Total Sag 4053,90 6539,00 77,8 82,2 +2485,1 +4,4
(Sag)
Sff1 710,96 1060,00 - - - -
Sff Forests Sff2 plantation 105,40 - - - - -
Total plantation 816,36 1060,00 15,7 13,3 +243,64 -2,4
Np1 50,80 85,00 - - - -
Unproductiv
Np water s.a. 6.23 111,00 - - - -
e
Total Np 57,03 196,00 1,1 2,5 +138,97 +1,4
sc1 166,92 62,00 - - - -
I Town sd 117,00 101,00 - - - -
Total I 283,92 163,00 5,4 2,0 -120,09 -3,4
Non-agricultural area
Total Sng 1157,31 1419,00 22,2 17,8 +261,7 -4,4
(Sng)
The area mapped
Total SC 4159,30 6962,00 79,8 87,5 +2802,7 +7,7
(SC)
Total area (St) Total St 5211,21 7958,00 100,0 100,0 +2746,7 +52,7

Increasing land of Răducăneni about 2747 ha (27%) in 1990 compared to

1962 due to administrative territorial policies that occurred during this period
(Table 5).
From the land agricultural area (Sag) of 6539.00 ha is a 82.2% share to
77.8% as it had in 1962, non-agricultural area (NGA) during this period decreased
by 4.4%.
Arable land increased by 7.6% in 1990 to 3863.00 hectares in comparison
with 1962 when it was 2133.40 ha.
Following operations in the field mapping and interpretation of soil physical
and chemical analysis phase of the office, 57 units were determined by soil, soil 6
complex and a form of deep erosion (ravines).

4. THE ANALYSIS OF THE PHENOMENA AND ITS INTENSITY

Approximately 70% of the agricultural area of the village is affected by
one or more factors degenerative soil.
Terrain with high relief energy, especially in the west, determined to
conduct a high intensity slope geomorphic processes, plus a number of other
contributing factors such as: surface lithology, consisting of easily eroded rocks ;
slopes with gradients exceeding 10%, irregular distribution of rainfall, with

202
alternating rainy and dry with a greater frequency of heavy rains, high frequency of
winds from the north and east, carrying moisture, along with the geological
structure and gradient (slope), explains greater intensity of land degradation on the
slopes oriented towards these areas, human intervention through deforestation,
grubbing, agricultural technique.
Table 6. Action on the soil of the risk - Science Răducăneni
Nr. Risk Action Soil Unit S (ha) % din
crt. Category St
Surface erosion poor 5,9, 56,57 371.5 5.34
1. 2562ha (36.82%) moderate 2,3, 10, 14, 18,22, 1498.0 21.53
strong 4, 15, 23, 24, 51 52, 53 692.7 9.95
2. Erosion depth strong on the right side of the 51.0 0.74
valley Bohotin
Landslides stabilized 59, 60, 562.0 8.08
3. 1188 ha(17.06 %) less stabilized 62,61,63 468.0 8.08
active raven and ogaşe 157.0 2.26
4. Compactness moderate 1,6,7, 12,19,20 1937.0 27.84
excess moisture 33,36, 45, 54,59 699.0 10.00
Excess moisture mixed (moisture + 39, 40, 42, 43, 48, 49 1544.0 21.19
2661 ha (37.25%) salty)
5. flood 30, 31, 34, 35 418.0 6.00
alkalinization and 37,38, 29, 26,44, 41, 46, ,50 1170,36 14,71
salinization

The evaluation of characteristics of the soil, and relief and drainage

elements, resulting a number of limiting factors (deficiencies) of land, which
creates a series of restrictions on their agricultural use (Table 6).
Surface erosion occurs on slopes that exceed 5% slope on the
predominantly southern and western slopes. Largest area is occupied by low and
moderate erosion, while strong and excessive erosion associated with landslides.
Deep erosion has the highest density on the right side of the valley
Bohotin, where practically all the tributaries of the ravines are home to hundreds of
feet lengths and depths that can exceed 15 to 20 m (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Erosion area Răducăneni (Pricop Iulian)

203
 Landslides, slumps and soil flowes affects the right side of the valley
Bohotin with lengths of 1.5 - 2.5 km and different levels of 200-300 m. Slips are of
disructiv - insecvent, the product from the top of the slope and gradually moving
rendering materials located at the bottom.
Compactness and fine texture as the limiting factor is present on about
1937 ha (27.84% of land area).
Excess moisture is due to clay-loamy soil texture (50-56% clay) in the first
30 - 40 cm and clay-clay (less than 45% clay) deep.
Excess surface moisture occupies 2661 hectares, representing 37.25% of
the area studied. The permanent exhibit, extended or temporary, such as
groundwater, stagnant or flood. In that area, 699 ha - 10% with excess moisture,
1544 acres - 21.19% are mixed character (excess moisture plus salty), and 418
hectares - 6% are flooded.
Main source of lead to soil salinization and sodization river is Jijia. Jijia
ions dissolved in water from existing salts Sarmatian sedimentary rocks and soil
washing salt from upstream.
The analysis of deep water that they have a slightly alkaline reaction, and
after the content of soluble salts are weakly to strongly brackish to salty water.
The analysis of the limiting factors resulting need for land reclamation
works and modern agro-technical methods.Land improvement: regularization of
rivers and dams, draining the wetlands, drainage areas with high groundwater level,
anti-erosion facilities, amenities and facilities of ravines by landslides.
Work agropedoameliorative: amendment to phosphogyps (lands with high
content of exchangeable sodium and soluble salts); raising the soil tamped deep
(tamping the soil, compact or potential subsidence due to intensive mechanical
ironing fine texture); subsoiling; surface drainage (by unsystematic drainage
ditches and culverts and leveling operation); reed depression destruction (in
areas removed from the influence of excess moisture); agrotechnics erosion
works (plowing the contours, strip crops, cover crops, crop rotation protection);
crops tolerant to excess humidity or salty; cultures protection against soil erosion;
soil structure ameliorative crops; protective afforestation (inaccessible areas or
heavily degraded areas with active landslides stabilized half); grassland.
By applying these measures and seeking work, on the one hand, avoiding
the danger of exploitation of occurrence of damage, and on the other hand, the shift
in the higher classes of suitability and land suitability.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Climate is the most dynamic of all the components directly involved in the
emergence of risks in the river Răducăneni.

204
 In terms of soil conditions, the territory belongs to three small areas: the
area of brown and gray forest soil, chernozem soils and micro area with alluvial
and colluvium soils.
The evaluation of characteristics of the soil, and relief and drainage
elements, resulting a number of limiting factors (deficiencies) of land, which
creates a series of restrictions on their agricultural use.
Climate risk, the network of hydrological and geological deposits
Răducăneni-Iaşi territory phenomena may produce damaging agricultural crops.
The analysis of the limiting factors, the resulting need to improve their
effects facilities and land reclamation works, using modern technological methods
of cultivation of the land.

REFERENCES

1. Mihăilescu C. - Clima şi hazardurile Moldovei. Evoluţia, starea, predicţia. Ed.

“Licorn” SRL., Chişinău, 2004
2. Murărescu O. - Riscuri climatice extreme Curs: Universitatea „Valahia”, Facul-
tatea de ştiinţe umaniste, Târgovişte. Mihăilescu C. - Clima şi hazardurile
Moldovei. Evoluţia, starea, predicţia. Ed. “Licorn” SRL., Chişinău, 2004.
3. Pricop Iulian - Evoluţia solurilor din bazinele hidrografice mici sub influenţa
factorilor antropici şi natural. Referat Univ. Teh. "Ghe Asachi "Iasi, 2010
4. *** - Bonitarea şi caracterizarea tehnologică a terenurilor agricole, scara
1:10.000, de la teritoriul Răducăneni, jud. Iaşi O.S.P.A. 1984
5. *** - Regulamentul privind gestionarea situaţiilor de urgenţă generate de
inundaţii, fenomene meteorologice periculoase, accidente la construcţii
hidrotehnice şi poluări accidentale, Ordin 638/2005 al Ministerului Administraţiei
şi Internelor, respectiv 420/2005 al Ministerului Mediului şi Gospodăririi Apelor,
Monitorul Oficial 455 din 30 mai 2005.

205
 MONITORING OF PHOSPHORUS CONTENT
IN “WATER-PARTICULATE MATERIALS-BOTTOM SEDIMENTS
SYSTEM” FOR RIVER PRUT

VASILE RUSU*, LARISA POSTOLACHI**

ABSTRACT. – Monitoring of phosphorus content in “water-particulate

materials-bottom sediments system” for river Prut. Seasonal and spatial
dynamics of phosphorus forms in water, particulate materials and bottom
sediments of river Prut was elucidated. The scheme for determination of
phosphorus forms in water and particulate materials according to World Health
Organization classification was evaluated. Additionally, this scheme was tested for
estimation of phosphorus content in bottom sediments. The supplemented scheme
allows the analysis of the phosphorus forms for the entirely system “water –
particulate materials – bottom sediments”, extending possibilities for interpretation
of phosphorus dynamics in natural waters.

Keywords: phosphorus forms, particulate materials, bottom sediments.

1. INTRODUCTION

Phosphorus is one of key factor responsible for the eutrophication of

freshwaters. Its concentration in rivers results from both external inputs and
internal loading from the bottom sediments [1]. Phosphorus is introduced into the
aquatic environment in a number of different chemical forms, and has been
described in general as being in the aqueous phase as a small fraction of the total
phosphorus and in the solid phase as a large fraction of the total phosphorus [2].
Each fraction is constituted of a large number of different components, most of
which may change between their dissolved or particulate state. Phosphorus in
bottom sediments as a result of abiotic and biotic processes is released into its
interstitial water, and under certain conditions is mobilized in overlying water
horizons [3]. According to World Health Organization (WHO), phosphorus
compounds occurred in natural waters are classified into 12 phosphorus forms, by
chemical type and by physical state [4]. The objectives of this paper were (i) to
evaluate the scheme for determination of phosphorus forms in water and particulate
materials according to WHO classification, (ii) to test this scheme for estimation of
phosphorus content in bottom sediments, and (iii) to determinate level of quality
and trophicity of water from river Prut.

*
Ecological Chemistry Lab, Institute of Chemistry of Academy of Sciences of Moldova.
**
The author to whom the correspondence should be sent: larisapostolachi@gmail.com

206
 2. CASE STUDY

Samples of water, particulate materials and bottom sediments were

collected during the spring and summer of 2004 and 2009 years along river Prut
(sites Costesti, Cobani, Sculeni, Ungheni, Valea Mare, Stoianovca, Cahul, Caslita-
Prut, Giurgiulesti, Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Geographical map of Republic of Moldova. Sampling sites (Costesti, Cobani,

Sculeni, Ungheni, Valea Mare, Stoianovca, Cahul, Caslita-Prut, Giurgiulesti)
where water, particulate materials and sediments were collected.

Contents of phosphorus forms in water and particulate materials were

determined using methods according to WHO classification [4]. Thus, it was
determinate the total forms of phosphorus forms in filtered and unfiltered samples,
e.g. the total content in water (P1, Fig. 2), the total dissolved (P5) and the total in
particulate materials (P9). In each category the content of orthophosphates (P6 in
filtered water, P10 in particulate materials and P2 in unfiltered water), poly- and
pyrophosphates (P7 in filtered water, P11 in particulate materials and P3 in
unfiltered water) and organic-phosphorus (P8 in filtered water, P12 in particulate
materials and P4 in unfiltered water) were established. Analysis of phosphorus
involves 2 steps: (i) digestion or conversion of the phosphorus to dissolved
orthophosphate; (ii) colorimetric determination of dissolved orthophosphate [5].

207
 Additionally, the scheme was tested for estimation of phosphorus content in
sediments being determined (i) inorganic phosphorus, (ii) organic-phosphorus and
(iii) the total amount of phosphorus [6]. In order to determine the total phosphorus
in sediments (P13, Fig. 2) fresh (wet) samples were used, subjected to persulfate
oxidation. Inorganic phosphorus (P14) was determined by acidic hydrolysis in
moderate severely conditions. The amount of organic phosphorus (P15) was
obtained by subtracting inorganic phosphorus (P14) from the amount of total
phosphorus (P13).

TOTAL IN P1 P13 TOTAL IN

WATER SEDIMENTS

P5 P9
P-PO43-,
Organic-
Poly-, Piro-
Total, Total, in phosphorus
phosphates
dissolved particulate
materials P14 P15
P8 P12
P6 P7 P10 P11

Poly-, Piro- Organic- Poly-, Piro- Organic-

P-PO43- phosphates phosphorus P-PO43- phosphates phosphorus

P-PO43-, Poly-, Piro-, Organic-

dissolved dissolved and phosphorus
and in in particulate dissolved and
particulate materials in particulate
materials materials

P2 P3 P4

Figure 2. Phosphorus forms in natural waters for the entirely system “water-particulate
materials-bottom sediments”. Supplemented scheme for analysis of the phosphorus forms
in water and particulate materials according to World Health Organization classification
(forms 1-12) and in sediments (forms 13-15).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The spatial dynamics of researched phosphorus forms during spring of
2009 year recorded a slight decrease for the most forms of phosphorus, namely the
total phosphorus in water (P1), the total in filtered water (P5) and total in
particulate materials (P9), the organic-phosphorus in water (P8) and in particulate
materials (P12), registered the highest values of their content in the middle sector

208
Prut River (station Sculeni) (Fig. 3). Only for condensed dissolved form of
phosphorus (P7) an increase was founded along the river, its content being greater
in the lower sector of the river (station Caslita-Prut).
The spatial dynamics established in the summer of 2009, in general, has the
same trend, maximal for the content of the total phosphorus in water (P1), of all
forms in filtered water (P6, P7, P8, P5), of particulate orthophosphates-phosphorus
(P10) and those organic in particulate materials (P12), being recorded in the middle
sector (stations Ungheni - Valea Mare). Content of total particulate phosphorus
(P9) didn’t change along river.

 g/l
200
150 P12
100 P11
50
P10
0
150

100 P7
P8
50 P6
0

450 P1
300 P9
P5
150

Figure 3. Spatial dynamics of phosphorus forms for river Prut during spring of 2009.
Dissolved forms P6, P7, P8 –orthophosphate, condensed forms (poly- and
pyrophosphates) and organic-phosphorus, respectively. Phosphorus forms in particulate
materials P10, P11, P12 -orthophosphates, condensed forms and organic-phosphorus,
respectively. Total phosphorus forms P1, P9, and P5 – total phosphorus, total in
particulate materials and total dissolved, respectively.

Dynamics of the content of phosphorus forms is different during the year.

Thus, the content of dissolved orthophosphate-phosphorus (P6, Fig. 2) increases
from spring to summer (mostly in Valea Mare station). For other stations, the
content of this form practically isn’t changed during the research period. Content of
poly- and pyrophosphates dissolved (P7) increases from spring to summer, while
the content of dissolved organic phosphorus decreases during this period (Fig. 3,
4). During the studied period it was established a decrease of phosphorus-
orthophosphate content in particulate materials (P10), as well as content of other

209
phosphorus forms in particulate materials (poly- and pyrophosphates (P11) and
ones organic (P12). In general, this seasonal dynamics during of 2009 is similar
with the dynamics of phosphorus forms established during 2004 [6].
Distribution of phosphorus forms in water was different during 2004 year
(Fig. 5). On the spring the content of total phosphorus in particulate materials (P9)
was higher. During the summer, however, dissolved phosphorus prevails, varying
within limits of 75-80%. The same trend was recorded during of 2009. Thus,
during the spring dissolved phosphorus (P5) percentage varied within 25-45%,
while during the summer being in the limits of 55-75%.

P10
 g /l
15
P12
10

5 P11

P6
30
P7
20
P8
10

0
P1
90
P5
60
P9
30

Figure 4. Spatial dynamics of phosphorus forms for river Prut during summer of 2009.
2004 2009
Spring Summer Spring Summer
100% 100% 100%
100%
P9 P9
50% 50%
50% P5 50%
P5
0% 0% 0%
0%

ca ti
les
e
e

sti
i

i
ul
i

en
st
ti

st

ca v
en

ar
ar

es
ah

no
te

le

ov ule giu
M
ul
M
ul

ul

iu
os

ian iurgi
C

Sc

oia
Sc

ur
a
a

gi

rg
C

le
le

o
St Gi
iu

t
iu
Va
Va

S G
G

Figure 5. Distribution of phosphorus forms in water during 2004 and 2009 years.
The total dissolved (P5) phosphorus and total phosphorus in particulate materials (P9).

Distribution of dissolved organic (P8) and inorganic (P6+P7) phosphorus

forms in water (filtered samples) was similar during 2004 and 2009 years (Fig. 6),
being registered the tendency of increasing of the percentage of inorganic
phosphorus from spring to summer.

210
 Ratio of inorganic: organic phosphorus in particulate materials was not
homogeneous along the Prut River during 2004 and 2009 years (Fig. 7), although
more frequently the percentage of inorganic phosphorus (P10+P11) prevailed over
organic (P12) phosphorus.
The dynamics of phosphorus forms in bottom sediments differs from that
reported for the forms in particulate materials. The content of inorganic phosphorus
(P14, Fig. 2) in sediments decreased and organic phosphorus (P15) increased from
spring to summer during 2009 (Fig. 8). Higher amounts of these forms of
phosphorus were recorded on the Valea Mare - Cahul sector. Both during of 2004
and during of 2009, the inorganic phosphorus (P14) prevailed in sediments and
constituted 65-95% (Fig. 9).

Spring 2004 Summer Spring 2009 Summer

100% 100% 100% 100%

Porg
50% Panorg 50% 50% Porg50%
Panorg

0% 0% 0%
0%

re
ul
ca
ni

ti
sti ti

re
ni

sti
ov a

iules

sti
ule
C ah
les
Scule

a Ma
ian vc

ule

Ma
rgi

ule
ste
Sto i u ano giu

Sc
G i r
Giug

rgi
Co

lea
o u
St Gi
Vale

Gi u
Va
Figure 6. Distribution of dissolved (filtered samples) inorganic (P6+P7) and organic (P8)
phosphorus in water during 2004 and 2009 years.
Spring 2004 Summer Spring 2009 Summer
100% 100% 100% 100%

P o rg Porg
50%
50% 50% 50%
P ano rg Panorg

0%
0% 0% 0%
e

sti
ni

sti
sti
re

ca
l
ni

ti

r
Cahu

ule

Ma
iules

ule
ste

ule
ti
ca

ov
Scule
a Ma
es

i
Sc
ov

n
rgi
Co

lea

g
ul

a
oi iur
Giug
an

Giu
i
rg

St
Va
Vale

G
oi

iu
St

Figure 7. Distribution of inorganic (P10+P11) and organic (P12) phosphorus

in particulate materials during 2004 and 2009 years.
Currently, as quality standards, in Republic of Moldova there are applied
maximum allowable concentrations of pollutants used since the former Soviet
Union period and have not yet been adjusted according to European Union
Directives [7]. The quality of surface waters in Romania is regulated by Order
1146/2002 - The Standard for surface water quality classification, which includes
five-quality classes [8]. Limit values specified for each class in table correspond to
the maximum allowable for respective quality class. On the basis of presented data
in this work, water of Prut River should be attributed to the class I of quality
according to orthophosphate-phosphorus content (P6), and to classes I-II of quality
according to the content of total dissolved phosphorus (P5).

211
 Summer
Spring

450
mg/kg
450 300

300 150

150 0
P13 P14 P15
0
P13 P14 P15

Figure 8. Spatial dynamics of phosphorus forms in the bottom sediments along river Prut
(2009). P13, P14, P15 –total phosphorus in sediments, inorganic phosphorus in sediments
(orthophosphate plus condensed forms) and organic-phosphorus in sediments, respectively.
Spring Summer
100% 100%

80% 80%

60% Po r g 60% Po r g
40% Pan o r g 40% Pan o r g

20% 20%

0% 0%
2004 2009 2004 2009

Figure 9. Distribution of inorganic (P14) and organic (P15) phosphorus in bottom

sediments during 2004 and 2009 years.
Quality grade of phosphorus forms in bottom sediments there isn’t yet
established, consequently at present is questionable to discuss its influence onto
eutrophication level of water bodies.
Table [8]. Quality classification of surface waters by phosphorus content
Limit value for classes Class of quality, mgP/l
I II III IV V
Orthophosphates (P6) 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,5 >0,5
Total phosphorus (P5) 0,1 0,2 0,4 1 >1

The large amounts of phosphorus compounds in aquatic ecosystems have the

fertilizing effect that affects eutrophication degree. The European Community
Directive 91/676/EEC recommends that the level of eutrophication in rivers should
be determined on the basis of quality parameters, such as nitrate, phosphorus
compounds, chlorophyll, oxygen, etc. In accordance with the recommendations [9]
eutrophication level is estimated according to the total phosphorus content (P1),
while according to further recommendations [10] the level of eutrophication in
rivers is estimated on the basis of soluble reactive phosphorus (P6, Fig. 2).
As whole, according to the classification mentioned in [9] and presented data
in this work for total phosphorus content (form P1), the eutrophication level of Prut
River should be attributed to class II-III, namely the oligotrophic-mesotrophic level

212
(P1 0,2 – 0,5 mgP/l). On the basis of the content of soluble reactive phosphorus
(P6), the eutrophication level of Prut River should be attributed to oligotrophic-
mesotrophic level of eutrophication (0,02 – 0,1 mgP/l).

CONCLUSIONS
The scheme for determination of phosphorus forms in water and particulate
materials according to World Health Organization classification was evaluated.
Additionally, this scheme was tested for estimation of phosphorus content in
bottom sediments. The supplemented scheme allows the analysis of the phosphorus
forms for the entirely system “water – particulate materials – bottom sediments”,
and considerably extends possibilities for interpretation of phosphorus dynamics in
natural waters. On the basis of obtained data, water of Prut River should be
attributed to classes I-II of quality according to Romanian standards. The
eutrophication level of Prut River should be attributed to oligotrophic-mesotrophic
level of eutrophication according to UE directives.

REFERENCES

1. Ruban V., Lopez-Sanchez J. F., Pardo P. et al. (1999) /J. Environ. Monit., 1, 51-56.
2. Spivakov B., Maryutina T., Muntau H. (1999) /Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 71, no. 11.
2161-2176.
3. Kowalczewska-Madura K., Dondajewska R., Gołdyn R. /Limnological Review 7,
4: 205-211.
4. Madera V., Allen H.E., Minear R.A., (1982), Non-metallic Constituents, in:
Examination of Water for Pollution Control, A Reference Handbook, M. J. Sues,
World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark
(Eds.), 1st Ed., vol. 2, Pergamon Press, Oxford-New York-Toronto-Sydney-Paris-
Frankfurt, 310-319.
5. Techniques for water analysis Prepared by Elaine Bergmann /Secondary-Tertiary
Interface, 22 August 2009.
6. Rusu V., Postolachi L., Lupascu T. (2006) /Environmental Engineering and
Management Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, p. 591-596.
7. Study of environmental performance - the Republic of Moldova, Study II,
Economic Commission for Europe, Committee on Environmental Policy, United
Nations, New York and Geneva, 2005. -182p. (Rom)
8. Order 1146/2002 of 10 December 2002 on the approval of the Standard for surface
water quality classification (Rom)
9. “Nitrates” Directive 91/676/EEC (2000). Status and trends of aquatic environment
and agricultural practice. Development guide for Member States’ reports, ISBN
92-828-9379-0.
10. Review of 2007-2010 (2009) Action Programme for the Nitrates Directive.
Northern Ireland. Recommendations from the Scientific Working Group 21
December 2009 -89p.

213
 SOME ISSUES RELATED TO DRYNESS AND DROUGHT
PHENOMENA IN THE BUCHAREST METROPOLITAN AREA

INES GRIGORESCU1, CARMEN-SOFIA DRAGOTĂ1

ABSTRACT. – Some issues related to dryness and drought phenomena in the

Bucharest Metropolitan Area. Dryness and drought phenomena are the most
complex climatic hazards occurred in southern Romania. Assessing these
restrictive climatic phenomena is fundamental in explaining their role in
landscape dynamics and vulnerabilities. The paper is willing to point out some
aspects related to climatic conditions of dryness and drought in the Bucharest
Metropolitan Area based on annual, monthly and daily extreme climatic values
from all the meteorological stations of concern (1961…2007).
The authors aim at assessing dryness and drought phenomena by means of the
main related parameters: the frequency of summer days with characteristic
temperatures, heat waves (case-studies: 2000 and 2007) and positive thermal
singularities, relevant climatic indexes (Palfy Aridity Index).

Keywords: dryness and drought, Bucharest Metropolitan Area, heat waves,

thermal singularities.

1. INTRODUCTION

According to the World Meteorological Organization, dryness and drought

are generally described by two main groups of climatic indicators, the pluvial (the
lack of precipitation or deficient amounts) and thermal ones (high values of
temperature), which condition the increase in evapotranspitration, inducing a
reduced air and soil humidity. Since they are complex meteorological phenomena,
genetically conditioned by multiple factors, they define the dryness or draughtiness
of weather characteristic for a certain time frame, usually related to environment’s
exposure to this climatic hazard. According to the UN Convention, drought is
defined as a natural phenomenon that occurs when the fallen rainfall amounts are
less than the multi-annual average, coupled with high temperatures, which leads to
intense ground level evaporation and reduced crop productivity. It is important to
distinguish between aridity and drought, although both are characterized by the
lack of water. Thus, aridity is a permanent feature of climate, while drought is an
extreme feature of a temporaly/spacialy process Maheras et al., (1999), quoted by
Ghioca (2008).
Plafai, Petrasovits and Vermes (1995) make the difference between dryness
and drought phenomena pointing out that dryness represents a certain hydro-
meteorological water deficit while drought is an extended and continuous water

1
Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy, Physical Geography Department, 12 Dimitrie
Racoviţă street, 023993 Sector 2, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: igar@geoinst.ro

214
shortage which affects specific plant species and crops Ghioca (2008). Therefore,
drought is a more complex phenomenon, characterized by insufficient moisture in
the atmosphere and soil (especially affecting the water table and the root system)
resulting in the increase of potential evapotranspiration Păltineanu et al. (2007a).
According to Topor (1964), after 17 to 20 days without rain drought, the thermal
conditions of the May - September timeframe in Romania could provoke
irreversible damages on all crops.
Dryness and drought phenomena must be taken into consideration together
with the complementary genetic climatic factors such as: the frequency of the days
with different characteristic temperatures which are related to heat waves and
positive thermal singularities.
Due to its position in the central part of the Romanian Plain, also known as
Lower Danube Plain Bălteanu et al. (2006), Bucharest Metropolitan Area mirrors
the environmental peculiarities of this relief unit. The study area is situated in a
temperate-continental area, which is specific to the South-East of Romanian Plain,
characterized by a continentalization tendency, from the West to the East, as a
result of the climatic influences of transition in the West and excessive in the East.
The wide range of local climatic factors, typical for the metropolitan area of
Bucharest municipality, overlapping the general climatic features of the Romanian
Plain, renders specific dynamic to dryness and drought phenomena in the study-
area Dragotă and Grigorescu (2010).

2. GENETIC CAUSES OF DRYNESS AND DROUGHT

The causes of dryness and drought phenomena are of a dynamic nature

(the general circulation features of the atmosphere) and thermal nature (which
overlap with the active surface characteristics, those of a dynamic nature). Thus,
lack of rain is determined by the persistence of the anticyclone regime
characterized by high atmospheric pressure, high frequency of clear and stable
time, sunlight and high temperatures especially during the warm season. Increased
dryness and drought phenomena occur because of the predominance of
anticyclonic stationary baric configurations extending largely over Europe covering
Romania: the anticyclones formed over Central Europe, Northeast and Southeast
Europe and the anticyclonic dorsal over the Northern part of the Atlantic Ocean. In
certain circumstances one might add, the baric cyclonic formations consisting of
dry air masses or of uniform pressure fields close to the normal value and without
displaying a cyclonic or anti-cyclonic circulation at ground level. The duration of
the dry regime is directly related to the intensity of the anticyclone, its height, to
the volume of hot air from the column located above its central part and to the
origin of the hot air supply in the upper parts of the troposphere.
To the dynamic factor of the atmosphere and to the parameters of the
meteorological elements - rainfall, air temperature, evapotranspiration – other
factors which define the active surface (terrain, soil, groundwater depth, vegetation
coverage etc.) are added as well as, the physiological features of plants

215
(phenological phase, the degree of resistance to drought, crop type), the water
sources, the agricultural techniques used etc. During the period without
precipitation, the soil absorbs about 44% of direct solar energy that becomes heat
and participates in the overheating of the air in the lower atmosphere. In turn, soil
and air warming increases the evapotranspiration leading to a gradual reduction of
water reserves available for the plants Donciu (1965).
During the growing season, crops and plant associations have different
requirements in terms of water supply, so that a period of drought does not affect
the entire cultivated or natural vegetation cover simultaneously. In addition, the
dryness and drought phenomena display differentiated issues in the context of soil
mosaics, the varied landscape, the numerous crops and plants etc. Lack of rainfall,
inducing dryness and drought phenomena, can occur all throughout the year, with
repercussions mainly on agriculture, but also on population’s health and on the
water supply both for the population and for irrigation, mainly affecting the
southern and eastern part of Romania (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Drought-affected areas in Romania (processed after the Ministry of Waters

and Environmental Protection)

Dryness and drought consist of two distinct stages: the first is a stage prior
to the drought that usually occurs in the air, and plants don’t yet suffer from the
lack of moisture (which is provided by the soil water reserves), and when it
persists, drought comes to be. The dry period is characterized by the absence of
rainfall in five consecutive days, or the totalled rainfall amounts have not exceeded
the daily average. The drought period is characterized by the absence of rainfall in
at least 14 consecutive days during the cold semester of the year (October-March)

216
and in at least 10 consecutive days during the warm semester of the year (April to
September) or when there is no precipitation at all (<0.1 mm) Dragotă and
Grigorescu (2010).
Droughts have different degrees of severity depending on their genetic
factors and area of occurrence: atmospheric drought, soil drought or mixed and
agricultural drought. Like dryness, drought occurs first in the air - atmospheric
drought in periods without rain or reduced rainfall amounts on a background of
high air temperatures and a relative humidity of below 30%. The dryness and
drought phenomena may last from several days to several months, one year or
more consecutive years as defined in relation to the intensity of genetic factors,
while excessively dry years occur in every 5-6 consecutive years.

3. SOME ISSUES RELATED TO DRYNESS AND DROUGHT PHE-

NOMENA
According to the hierarchy of natural hazards conducted by Bryant, 1991 at
global scale and yet adapted by Croitoru and Moldovan, 2005 for the Romanian
territory, dryness and drought phenomena are ranked first, based on their spatial
distribution and extent, the evolution trend as well as human victims and material
losses they cause.
Certain circumstances related to drought genesis and occurrence may
worsen them up to the extreme Bogdan and Niculescu (1999), such as: their
prolongation over several months and the climatic water deficit; the association of
several meteorological factors during drought: high isolation, high temperatures,
high evapotranspiration, low air humidity, strong and dry winds, lack of rain; the
correlation between the soil and atmospheric drought; the lack of the productive
moisture reserve during winter, which delays the vegetative cycle; the beginning of
drought during the hot season and important phenological stages of crops
(sprouting, flowering, binding); droughts occurrence after winter frost or other
winter phenomena that have damaged the plants; inadequate agro-technical
measures (lack of irrigation) etc.
One of the best way to highlight the
drought phenomenon is by means of Palfay
aridity index (1995), which considers an
initial complex of factors (air temperature
and precipitation) corrected by some
meteorological parameters such as the
number of extremely hot days, the number
of days with precipitation amounts ≤ 0.5
Fig. 2. Drought-affected area in the mm and the groundwater contribution
Mostiştea Plain (June, 2007) Ghioca (2008). In the Bucharest Metropo-
litan Area the Palfay aridity index features
indicate three different degrees of vulnerability to drought: strong with annual
Palfay index values ranging between 6-8, for which the frequency of dry years is of
40 - 63% in the south (the floodplain and terraces of the Danube River), southeast

217
(Mostiştea Plain) of the metropolitan area (Fig. 2); moderate with annual Palfay
index values ranging between 4-6, with the frequency of dry years from 5% - 34%
in the South-West, North, North-East of Bucharest Municipality (Bucharest Plain)
and weak with annual Palfay index values between 2-4 in the northwest and east of
the Capital-city (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Areas affected by aridity and drought according to Palfy Aridity Index
Days with different characteristic temperatures come to complete the
summer thermal regime inducing aridity and drought phenomena. Therefore, the
prevalence of maximum temperatures exceeding the critical thresholds of summer
days (T max. ≥ 25 0C), tropical days (T max. ≥ 30 0C), tropical nights (T max. ≥ 20
0
C) as well as extremely hot days (T max. ≥ 35 0C) stresses the conditions of a
temperate climate featuring
Olteniţa excessive continental influen-
Fundulea
ces, much more significant
after 1983 – a landmark year
Bucharest-Afumaţi
when it comes to the
Bucharest-Filaret
highlighting the climate
changes (Fig. 4).
Bucharest-Baneasa
The higher frequency of ma-
no. days 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 ximum temperatures over the
summer days tropical days tropical nights above-mentioned thresholds
Fig. 4. The annual average of summer days with (characteristic summer days)
different characteristic temperatures in the has underlined the excessive
Bucharest Metropolitan Area (1961...2007) climatic aspects of Bucharest
Metropolitan Area.

218
 An important feature when dealing with the extreme daily temperatures in
the Bucharest Metropolitan Area is indicated by the distribution of the mean
monthly and annual values registered during the meteorological observation period
1961...2007. Their variability ecart and spatial-temporal differences points out the
dimension and the influence of the heat island of the Bucharest Municipality on
one hand and the moderator role of the Danube River on the other.
Heat waves and positive thermal singularities are generated by the
advections of warm, usually topical air, and the criteria of their classification entail
(Bogdan and Niculescu, 1999): the monthly medium temperatures of the hottest
months (July, August) ≥ 35 0C; the maximum daily temperatures that exceed 35 0C
(tropical days); the minimum nocturnal temperatures ≥ 20 0C (tropical nights).
Regarding the impact that maximum daily temperatures have on the human
body, the exceeding of the 35 0C thermal threshold is acutely felt and it has a
negative effect people’s health and comfort as well as on the normal development
of the phenophases of different vegetation types. In the Bucharest Metropolitan
Area, absolute maximum values of the air temperature have exceeded 40°C,
reaching even 44°C, which emphasis a maximum vulnerability to this thermal
hazard triggering different environmental effects related to dryness and drought
phenomena (tab. 1).

Table 1. Absolute maximum temperature on value classes

within Bucharest Metropolitan Area (1895…2007)
Value classes
40.0 – 40.9 0C 41.0 – 41.9 0C 42.0 – 42.9 0C 43.0 – 43.9 0C ≥ 44 0C
Bucharest-Afumaţi Valea Argovei
Bucharest-Afumaţi Bucharest-Băneasa
41.1/5.VII.2000; - (Argova Valley)
40.0/5.VIII.1998 42.2/5.VII.2000
24.VII.2007 44.0/10.VIII.1951
Bucharest-Băneasa Fundulea Bucharest-Filaret
- -
40.0/16.VIII.1963 41.3/16.08.1963 42.4/5.VII.2000
Bucharest-Filaret Budeşti Fundulea
- -
40.4/5.VIII.1998 41.4/16.VIII.1963 42.4/5.VII.2000
Bucharest-Filaret Bucharest-Filaret Olteniţa
- -
40.8/7.VIII.1896 41.1/20.VIII.1945 42.7/5.VII.2000
Snagov Bucharest-Băneasa
- - -
40.0/10.VII.1945 41.1/20.VIII.1945
Gurbaneşti Budeşti
- - -
40.5/3.VII.1938 41.5/20.VIII.1945
Dragotă and Grigorescu, 2010

Most of the absolute maximum values have been registered in the month of
July, highlighting as particular situation the massive warming of the summers
2000 (July, 4-5th) and 2007 (July 15-25th), which can be considered as the hottest
in Europe over the last century. In both cases the intensity of the heat coincided
with the year of maximum solar activity for the entire period of meteorological
instrumental observation in Romania whose synoptic configuration highlights two
extreme situations July 5th 2000 and July 24th 2007 (Fig. 5 and 6).
In southern Romania, during the summer of 2007 several thermal records
were registered: the absolute daily maximum temperatures, the days with maximum

219
temperatures equal or higher than 40°C and particularly the consecutive days with
maximum temperatures equal or exceeding 35°C (ex: 10 consecutive days
registered at Bucharest-Filaret meteorological station).

Fig. 5 and 6. The baric configuration in Europe on July 5th 2000 and July 24th 2007,
respectively (www.wetterzentrale.de)

These thermal records overlapped the consecutive days without precipi-

tation, which, in the Bucharest Metropolitan Area have reached in July 2007 a
record number of 19 days at Bucharest-Filaret as compared to only 11 in 2000,
during the same month. During the two heat waves, at all the meteorological
stations within the study area absolute maximum temperatures exceeded 40° C
(tab. 2) were recorded. Subsequently, in both cases, during several consecutive
sequences spreading over the month of August, tropical heat waves came one after
another, completing the massive heating situation. These temperatures associated
with minimum precipitation amounts resulted in droughty weather which made
even worse the extreme heat.

Table 2. Absolute maximum temperatures recorded in the Bucharest Metropolitan Area

in July 2000 and 2007
Absolute maximum temperatures (0 C)
Meteorological Station 2000 2007
Value Data Value Data
Bucharest Afumaţi 41.1 5. VII 41.1 24. VII
Bucharest Băneasa 42.2 5. VII 40.7 22. VII
Bucharest Filaret 42.4 5. VII 41.8 23. VII
Fundulea 42.4 5. VII 40. 7 23. VII
Olteniţa 42.7 5. VII 41.5 23. VII
processed after Dragotă and Grigorescu, 2010

Following the heat wave in the Summer of 2000, the Romanian Govern-
ment has issued the 99/2000 Government Ordinance regarding protection measures
for the population in the case of extreme climatic phenomena. By their duration
and frequency, the heat waves could be framed into the extreme climatic
phenomena through the perturbation of economic activities and the human

220
causalities they produce. Heat waves have a great impact on plants in general and
especially on crops, leading to physiological and phenological changes. On the
human body it leads to an increase in the risk of illness and even to the death of
people exposed.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Over the last period, at international level the preoccupations for assessing
dryness and drought phenomena become of great interest to the global scientific
community. The significance of these complex approaches points at knowing better
their genetic causes, spreading areas, frequency and intensity in order to diminish
their negative impact on the environment. Therefore, the dryness and drought
phenomena occurred in southern Romania, displays an increasing evolution trend
supported by extended periods with consecutive days without precipitations
overlying the highest temperatures registered during the heat waves with long-term
durations and intensities. In urban areas, these climatic features overlapping the
local conditions of built-up ecosystems are even more noticeable. The importance
of evaluating dryness and drought phenomena through forecasting and analysing
their key components would help the improvement of local environmental
conditions (human health, agricultural practices etc.) both in urban and rural areas.

REFERENCES

1. Bălteanu D., Badea L., Buza M., Niculescu Gh., Popescu C., Dumitraşcu M.,
(eds.) (2006), Romania. Space, Society, Environment. The Publishing House of the
Romanian Academy, Bucharest, 384.
2. Bryant E. A., (1991), Natural Hazards, Cambridge University Press, 294.
3. Croitoru Adina-Eliza, Moldovan F., (2005), Vulnerability of Romanian territory
to climatic hazards, Analele Universităţii de Vest din Timişoara, Seria Geografia,
XV/2005, 55-64.
4. Dragotă Carmen-Sofia, Grigorescu Ines (2010), Climatic hazards in the
Bucharest Metropolitan Area. The assessment of the main extreme climatic
phenomena in the Bucharest municipality and its surroundings, LAP Lambert
Academic Publishing, ISBN 978-3-8433-6911-4, paperback, 108 Pages.
5. Donciu C. (1965), Contribuţie la studiul evapotranspirţtiei potenţiale în
R.S.România, Meteorologia, hidrologia si gospodarirea apelor, vol. X, nr.9,
Bucureşti.
6. Ghioca Monica, (2008), Evaluarea fizică a impactului climatic asupra extremelor
hidrologice, Teza de doctorat, Facultatea de Fizică, Universitatea din Bucureşti.
7. Păltineanu Cr., Mihălescu I.F., Seceleanu I., Dragotă Carmen-Sofia,
Vasenciuc Felicia (2007a), Ariditatea, seceta, evapotranspiraţia şi cerinţele de
apă ale culturilor agricole în România, Editura Ovidius University Press, 319 p.,
Constanţa.
8. Topor N., (1964), Anii ploioşi şi sectetoşi, C.S.A., IM, Bucureşti, 304
9. www.wetterzentrale.de

221
 ASPECTS CONCERNING NITRATE AND NITRITE
POLLUTION OF GROUNDWATERS

A. UNGUREANU1, A. UNGURAŞU2

ABSTRACT. – Aspects concerning nitrate and nitrite pollution of ground

waters. Water is a basic natural resource for the good functioning of all the
biological processes in nature. It is very important for life and for the development
of human activities. The quality of the ground water has begun to degrade more
and more, as a result of the physical, chemical and bacteriological changes.
Nitrogen compounds pollution of the underground has increased lately. This has
been caused by the excessive and irrational use of nitrogen derived fertilizers, by
the wrong storage of the dejections resulted from zootechnical processes and by
other chemical substances discharged into water. Samples were collected from
different wells in order to check whether the well water was drinkable. The result
of the test revealed the existence of high concentrations of nitrates as well as
values exceeding normal microbiological parameters. The value recorded in the
town of Segarcea, the county of Dolj, showed extremely high concentrations of
nitrates of the drinking water in the wells. Thus, Segarcea is the town with the
greatest number of contaminated wells in the country.

Keywords: nitrates, pollution with nitrates, groundwaters, methaemoglobinaemie.

1. INTRODUCTION

Drinking water is an essential component of the environment, and it has a

major impact on the quality of life and on the population’s health.
Water pollution consists in the alteration of the natural properties of water,
as a result of external substances interferences, so that it can no longer serve the
purposes it used to. This alteration process can be the consequence of natural
phenomena, but it is generally caused by the industrial, agricultural and urban
activities.
More than 6 milion tons of pollutants are discharged both into water and
on the soil yearly. Among these, the most common are: chlorides, nitrates,
ammonia, phenol, detergents and pesticides. Irrational and excessive use of
chemical fertilizers on the soil leads to its health deterioration. A negative
consequence of the process of abusive chemicalization is that mineral substances
such as nitrates accumulate both in the soil and in the ground waters, reaching
harmful concentrations.

1,2
"Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University, Faculty of Hydrotechnical Engineering, Geodesy and
Environmental Engineering, 700050, Iaşi, România,
e-mail: ana_25_is@yahoo.com, adryanaa_luv@yahoo.com

222
 The most frequent causes of the nitrate contamination of the underground
environment are numerous. Some of the major polluting causes are: the nitrous-
oxide-impregnated soil is continuously washed by rainfalls, by the irrigation water,
as well as by the surface water (rivers, lakes) where nitrate containing water has
been discharged. Apart from these quasi permanent sources, there are also the
random sources, consisting in the use of the fertilizers that are derived from
nitrogen [17].
Nitrates (NO3-) are very harmful when they reach high concentrations, but
such concentrations are rarely met in water. Nevertheless, the maximum limit of
nitrate concentration is often exceeded in the drinking water in Romania.
A higher toxicity is met especially in nitrites (NO2-), which are derived
from nitrates in certain conditions. Once they are absorbed into the body, they
combine with the hemoglobin and result in methaemoglobinaemia, (unable to fix
and transport oxygen), which leads to anoxia manifested by cyanosis, anoxia,
asphyxia, gastric cancer due to the nitrosamines resulted in certain conditions. In
case of concentrations between 3% and 15%, there are changes in the tegument
coloration: pallor, grayish or bluish hues. In case of concentrations between 25%
and 50%, the symptoms are the fallowing: headache, photophobia, weakness,
confusion, dyspnea, palpitations and chest pain. If the concentration is between
50% and 70%, delirium or mental alteration may occur.
Many patients suffering from chronic methaemoglobinaemia show no
symptoms. The patients who are exposed to different medications or toxins that
rapidly produce the same values that metHM has in chronic patients, can show a
severe symptomatology [13].
The consumption of nitrite-contaminated water is harmful especially for
infants because of the low blood volume, but also because of their alkaline pH
which enables the nitrates to turn into nitrites.

2. TEMPORAL ANALYSIS

In our country, there were 2346 cases of methaemoglobinaemia in infants

(less than 1 year old) and 80 deaths; mortality reaching hight values between 1984
and 1995. It is believed that this figure is much underestimated because of the
difficulty to diagnose this condition. The morbidity rate increases mainly because
of the drinking water contaminated by faeces, but also because of the widespread
use of fertilizers in agriculture [12].
In 1994, The Institute of Public Health (Institutul de Sanatate Publica)
initiated a program concerning methaemoglobinaemia caused by well waters.
About 715 cases were recorded in Romania between 1996 and 2000, with a 0.28%
mortality rate.
In 2000, there were 453 cases of acute juvenile methaemoglobinaemia
recorded in children agred between 0-1 years old. The mortality rate was 0.9%. The
average occurred was 0.033% (the number of cases/1000 new-born babies in the
village). The nitrate concentration was between 46-560 mg NO2/l [15].

223
 The following data originate from The Annual Report of the Institute of
Public Health - Bucharest.

Table 1. Water quality between 1997-2000 in the rural settlements

where severe cases of methaemoglobinaemia were recorded
No. of wells No. of wells
No. of wells
No.of where the total where the total
with NO2
County Year tested no. of no. of fecal
concentration
wells coliforms was coliforms was
>100 (mg/l)
exceeded exceeded
1997 39 36 26 22
Botoşani 1998 59 44 27 38
1999 48 33 20 39
Dolj 1997 282 72 226 172
1996 3 1 3 0
Gorj
1997 5 5 5 3
1997 87 45 56 77
Iaşi
1998 81 23 27 49
Ilfov 1997 2 - 0 0
Galaţi 1999 26 15 6 13
Teleorman 1998 5 2 4 2
Vaslui 1999 4 0 4 1
1997 2 2 0 0
Covasna
1998 3 3 2 2
TOTAL 646 213 406 417

The quality of ground water in our country has reached an inappropriate

level, and more than half of Romania’s surface is exposed to nitrate pollution.

3. SPATIAL ANALYSIS

In order to test the quality of the ground water, many samples have been
collected from the wells in the town of Segarcea, county of Dolj, as well as from
the wells in the villages and towns neighbouring the Nicoresti-Tecuci irrigation
system: Podoleni, Salcia and Tecuci.
The samples for the microbiological analyses were collected by pouring.
The techniques of pumping, streaming, inserting the probe into the bucket, or
collecting the samples straight from the bucket of the well were avoided.
The prelevation and the transportation of the samples met the standards SE
EN ISO 19458/2007 – Water Quality. Prelevation for Microbiological Analysis.
There are many wells with contaminated water (substances such as
nitrates, nitrites, chlorides and faeces) not only in the villages, but also in the towns
of the county of Dolj. The physico-chemical analyses conducted in The Water
Microbiology and Chemistry Laboratory within ASP Dolj, as presented in the table
below, showed that the nitrate levels were much over the admitted threshold.

224
 Table 2. Values exceeding water quality thresholds in the wells
of the town wells Segarcea, the county of Dolj
Recorded Thresholds - Law 458/2002;
Units for testing U.M.
values Law 311/2004
Well of D. Viilor Street mg/l 323 50
Well of Rozelor Street mg/l 378 50
Well of Hărniciei Street mg/l 395 50

The pollution of the ground water in Segarcea is much over the admitted
threshold. The water is not suitable for drinking, and it can only be used for
household purposes. The results of the bacteriological analysis also showed the
presence of faeces in water: 20 mg/l in the water of the well of Harniciei Street and
40 mg/l in the water of the well of Transilvania Street.
In the town of Tecuci as well as in communes of Podoleni and Salcia, the
concentration of nitrates and nitrites in the ground water reached a higher value
than during the previous years. The use of nitrogen derivated fertilizers in the
neighbouring agricultural fields may be a possible cause for this. Denitrifying
bacteria reduce the nitrates and the nitrites into ammonia, azotites and sometimes
into molecular nitrogen. The process of denitrification can take place both into
water and on the soil level of the organic substance is high.
The data concerning the level of the azotates and azotites in the wells of
the town of Tecuci and of the communes of Salcia and Podoleni were collected
from the Annual Report of the Environmental Monitoring - stage 2008; this was
accomplished during the project “Reform and Rehabilitation of the Irrigation
Systems”, contract no. 4212/6135/2008, between the Ministery of Agriculture and
Rural Development as a beneficiary and S.C. AQUAPROIECT S.A. as
consultative party in matters regarding the rehabilitation areas within the irrigation
system Terasa Nicoresti – Tecuci and Sadova Corabia. They are shown in table 3.

Table 3. Data concerning the level of the azotates and azotites

in the wells of Tecuci, Salcia and Podoleni
Units for testing U.M. NO3 NO2
Well of Tecuci mg/l 27.52 0.1166
Well of Salcia mg/l 99.20 0.0408
Well of Podoleni mg/l 79.60 0.0550

High levels of azotates were recorded in the well of Salcia: 99.20 mg/l and
in the well of Podoleni: 79.20 mg/l, whereas the maximum admitted limit is 0.50
mg/l. Nitrite indicator, of wells analyzed, remains within acceptable limits with
values less than 0.50 mg/l.

225
Fig. 1. Variation of the azotite concentration for the tested wells

Fig. 2. Variation of the azotate concentration for the tested wells

226
 4. MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

The wells that were tested also showed dense microbiological flora, such as:
Escherichia Coli, enterococci, coliform bacteria and colonies (germs at 370C),
which are potentially dangerous for people’s health because they can alter the
quality of drinking water.
The results fallowing the analysis regarding the physico-chemical and
bacteriological indicators were collected from the Annual Report of the
Environmental Monitoring – stage 2008, conducted by S.C. AQUAPROIECT S.A.,
within the project “Reform and Rehabilitation of the Irrigation System”; they are
presented in table 4.

Table 4. Values exceeding water quality thresholds - microbiological parameters –

in the wells used locally for drinking
Recorded values
Section Total no.of
Escherichia Coliform
Enterococci colonies at
coli bacteria
370C
Tecuci, the well on 122
24 6 33 >300
Ana Ipatescu Street
Salcia, the well on 288
9 4 14 128
Main Street
Podoleni, the well on
400 53 600 >300
103 Main Street
Thresholds - Law
0 0 0 0
311/2004

The highest values of microbiological parameters were found in the well of

Podoleni, where the value for Escherichia Coli was 400/100 ml, for enterococci
was 53/100 ml, for coliform bacteria was 600/100 ml, and more than 300 for
colonies developing at 370C. C ompared to these results, the well of Salcia showed
only 9 escherichia Coli/100 ml, 4 enterococci/100 ml, 14 coliform bacteria/100 ml
and 128 colonies developing at 370C; nevertheless, the water in this well is not
drinkable, either.
Other dangerous microorganisms were also found in the contaminated
water: Giardia, Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella and the hepatitis virus which causes
the disease called leptosirosis.

5. CONCLUSION
The analyzed data show that ground water pollution, especially due to the
discharge both on the soil and into water of various pollutants such as pesticides,
chemical fertilizers derived from nitrogen, detergents, ammonia and chloride, has a

227
negative impact on the quality of the drinking water, on the neighbouring ecosystems
and on people’s lives quality.
If nitrate-contaminated water is consumed, it affects people, especially
infants, because it combines with the hemoglobin and it causes methaemoglobi-
naemia, which, most frequently, leads to death.
According to the results of the analyses regarding the physic-chemical
indicators of the water samples collected from the tested wells, the concentration of
azotates in the drinking water exceeded the maximum admitted limits (the highest
concentrations were found in the wells of the town of Segarcea, county of Dolj); in
additional, the microbiological flora was very dense, indicating the presence of
different types of bacteria, enterococci and other microorganisms which make the
water in the tested wells undrinkable, and which are a great danger for the
population.
In order to reduce the high levels of nitrates in the water, a possible
solution can be finding an alternative to supply the population with water, or
treating the water within a plant where the water quality indices are continually
being monitored; for agricultural activities, it is recommendable that the farmers
should be checked on whether they use the appropriate quantity of fertilizers.

REFERENCES

1. Banu E., Prevenirea intoxicaţiilor cu pesticide în activităţile din agricultură. Sesiunea

de comunicări a USAMV, Bucureşti, 2006.
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terenurile agricole asupra calităţii apelor de suprafaţă, Ovidius Annals of
Constructions, Volume 1, Number 3, May 2000.
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zonele rurale din România, Primul Simpozion şi Expoziţie Internaţională privind
contaminarea mediului în Europa Centrală şi de Est, Ungaria, 1993.
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Chemical Status and Threshold Values, Version no. 1.0, 17 October 2007.
5. Micu D., Proca C., Sonea D., Manea F., Burtică G., Podaru C., Case study of the risk
assessment of nitrates in food in the Vest of Romania, „Politehnica” University of
Timişoara.
6. Scheidleder A., Summary report on groundwater quality monitoring network designs
for groundwater bodies.
7. Rusescu D., Cazuri de methemoglobinemie în unele zone rurale, Pediatria 6, p.21-25,
1956.
8. *** Legea nr. 458/2002 privind calitatea apei potabile modificată şi completată prin
Legea 311/2004.
9. *** Legea nr. 107/1996 a apelor modificată şi completată prin Legea nr. 310/2004.

228
10. *** OUG nr. 195/2005 privind protecţia mediului, publicată în Monitorul Oficial nr.
1196/30.12.2005.
11. *** Ordinul MAPPM nr. 756 din 03/11/1997 pentru aprobarea Reglementării privind
Evaluarea poluării mediului, publicat în Monitorul Oficial, Partea I, nr. 303 bis din
06/11/1997.
12. *** http://www.greenagenda.org/eco-aqua/potabil.html, Apa potabila
13. *** http://www.forumdesprecopii.com - Intoxicaţia acută cu nitriţi, Dr. Paul Şerban,
medic primar MG/MF, comuna Nicşeni, judetul Botoşani.
14. ***http://www.stopco2.ro/2009/10/14/anar-calitatea-apelor-subterane-din-romania-
este-inca-necorespunzatoare/ ANAR - Calitatea apelor subterane din România
15. *** http://www.ara.ro/documentare/RWSSS/Romana/SituatieActuala/Anexa%205.pdf
Studiu privind Alimentarea cu Apă şi Igienizare în Mediul Rural (RFP
4654RO/B.1/3.5/017) - Evaluarea situaţiei actuale. Anexa 5.4
16. ***http://www.umprrsi.ro/Mediu/Faza1/RapMediu08.pdf.Raport Monitorizare Mediu,
2008 Sadova Corabia si Nicoresti - BORDEROU
17. ***www.mmediu.ro/vechi/departament_ape/...apelor/.../Ape_subterane.doc - Starea
calitatii apelor subterane.

229
 DETERMINATION OF ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES
IN DRINKING WATERS SAMPLED
FROM CLUJ AND HUNEDOARA COUNTIES

MARIA-ELISABETA LOVÁSZ1, IRINA DUMITRAŞCU1,

OVIDIU TRAIAN POPA1, ANCA ELENA GURZĂU1

Abstract. – Determination of organochlorine pesticides in drinking waters

sampled from Cluj and Hunedoara counties. Pesticides are found scattered in
different environmental factors (water, air, soil) wherefrom they are drawn off by
vegetal and animal organisms. Water pollution by pesticides results from the plant
protection products industry and also from massive application of these resources
in agriculture and other branches of economy. Pesticides can reach surface water
along with dripping waters and by infiltration may reach the groundwater layers,
organochlorine pesticides are most often found in the water sources (dieldrin,
endrin, DDT, aldrin, lindane, heptachlor, etc.) due to their increased persistence in
the external environment. This study followed up the determination of
organochlorine pesticides in 14 drinking water samples collected from the output
of water treatment plants in Cluj and Hunedoara counties that process surface
water and deep-water sources. For identification of organochlorine pesticides, the
gas chromatographic method after liquid-liquid extraction was used, by a gas
cromatograph Shimadzu GC 2010 with detector ECD (Electron Capture
Detection). There were not detected higher values than the method detection limit
(0.01 µg/l) in the drinking water samples collected and analyzed for both total
organochlorine pesticides and components, which were well below the maximum
concentration admitted by Law 452/2002 regarding drinking water quality. Results
are correlated with the sanitary protection areas for water sources and with the use
of agricultural lands in the area. The solution to reduce risk of pesticides use is
ecological agriculture , which gains increasingly more ground in Romania too.

Keywords: organochlorine pesticides, dinking water, gas cromatograph

1. INTRODUCTION

Pesticide is defined as a substance or mixture of substances, natural or

synthetic, aimed to control and remove any pest that competes with man for food,
destroys property and carries diseases. [13] Most POPs (persistent organic
pollutants) are organochlorine pesticides, namely, aldrin, endrin, clordane, DDT,
heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene and hexachlorobenzene. They have been banned for
agricultural or domestic uses in Europe, North America and many countries of
South America in accordance with the Stockholm Convention (ratified in 2004).
However, some organochlorine pesticides are still used – e.g. DDT is used to

1
Environmental Health Center Cluj Napoca, Romania, www.ehc.ro, tel.+40 264 432979,
(e-mail: maria.lovasz@ehc.ro)

230
control malaria in some developing countries. Monitoring pesticides in surface
waters, drinking water and deep-water is very important in the current period. [8]
Dispersed in the environment, pesticides are found in various factors (air, water,
soil - propagation vectors), wherefrom they are drawn off by vegetal and animal
organisms. Through ingestion of food, water, breathing and other processes,
pollutants (pesticides) reach the human body, where can cause severe disorders. [3]
Exposure to pesticides as a result of their extensive use in agriculture is the most
important route of exposure for the rural population. Among the most serious
diseases caused by pesticide poisoning, the following distinguish: neurological
disorders, internal organs disorders, skin disorders and cancer. [1,2,10] The
ecological effect of any pesticide is intended to protect the population against
certain pests, by reducing their abundance. Pesticides are included in a wide range
of organic micropollutants having ecological impact. Although the terrestrial
impact of pesticides exists, water contaminated by pesticide runoff is the main
route which determines the ecological impact. [4] The chemicals used by farmers
for pest removal are drawn off by precipitation and thus the infested water flows
into the streams and rivers. Some of these chemicals are biodegradable and
decompose quickly in harmless or less harmful substances, but the non-degradable
are the most common ones that persist for a long period of time. The rate of
pesticides removal from the water during processing processes for drinking
purpose varies within extremely wide limits, depending on the type of pesticide
and treatment methods. Coagulation with aluminum sulfate and rapid filtration lead
to a decrease of 96-98% of a 10-25 ppb DDT content, while dieldrin is reduced by
55%, eldrin by 33%, parathion by 20% and lindane by less than 10%. Water
treatment with ozone is more active than chlorination for a number of pesticides
such as lindane, dieldrin, DDT and parathion. By oxidation, however, some
pesticides such as parathion generate more toxic compounds. [9]
The purpose of this paper is the drinking water quality assessment, in terms
of contamination with organochlorine pesticides in Cluj and Hunedoara counties at
water treatment plants using different water sources.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Sampling

The drinking water treatment plants monitored in Cluj county are managed
by Compania de apa Somes (Somes Water Company) and in Hunedoara county by
the company SC APA PROD SA Deva. The water treatment plant is designed to
supply drinking water to residents, economic agencies and public institutions in
neighbouring localities. Water treatment for surface water sources consists in
coagulation/settling  filtration  disinfection with chlorine, while in case of
deep-water sources only chlorine disinfection is used for the water treatment.
Table 1 shows the water treatment plants in study and the type of water
source that is processed. Out of the 14 water treatment plants, 4 use surface water

231
and one uses a mixed source. In their case, the treatment system is the conventional
one (coagulation, settling, rapid filtration and disinfection with chlorine) while the
deep-water sources are treated only by chlorination.

Table 1. Water sources used in the 14 drinking water treatment plants

No. Sampling location Water source

(water treatment plants) deep-water surface mixed
1. Aghireşu 
county

2. Bologa 
Cluj

3. Dej 
4. Muntele Băişorii 
5. Bocşa 
6. Certej 

Hunedoara county

7. Cinciş-Cerna
8. Crişcior 
9. Densuş 
10. Folorât-Geoagiu 
11. Hondol 
12. Roşcani 
13. Sânpetru-Hunedoara 
14. Săntămărie Orlea 

Drinking water samples from the water treatment plants in Cluj county
were collected in 2009 and in Hunedoara county in 2010. Figures 1 and 2 show the
sampling locations.

Fig. 1. Sampling locations of drinking waters in Cluj county

232
 Fig. 2. Sampling locations of drinking waters in Hunedoara county

Water sampling is a very important step in the process of pesticides

determination, because collected samples must be representative and must not
cause changes in the water composition and quality due to defective techniques or
improper conditions of material preparation.
Before sampling, the polyethylene recipients are prepared to be clean,
rinsed with distilled water, dried, rinsed with dichloromethane, then dried again.
Drinking water samples were collected from the output pipe of the water treatment
plants, according to SR ISO 5667-5 from June 1998 and transported in insulated
packages at 6ºC-10ºC to protect them against changes of their chemical properties
and deterioration. [11]

2.2. Analysis of collected samples

The analysis method derives from SR EN ISO 6468/2000 - Water Quality.
Determination of organochlorine insecticides, polychlorinated biphenyls and
chlorobenzenes. Gas chromatography method after liquid-liquid extraction [12] and
Method 8081B - Determination of organochlorine pesticides by gas chromatography.
Organochlorine pesticides in drinking water are extracted with dichloro-
methane in a separating funnel and concentrated to a volume of 5 ml. During
concentration the solvent is changed with hexane. The extract is measured by the
gas chromatograph with electron capture detector Shimadzu GC 2010 – with
detector ECD (Electron Capture Detection). Preparation and bringing to working
conditions of the gas chromatograph and column are performed according to the
instructions manual for the device.

233
 For drawing the calibration curve, two sets of standard solution with the
solvent used for extraction are prepared with the following concentrations: 20 μg/l,
40 μg/l, 60 μg/l, 80 μg/l, 100 μg/l in a series of five measuring bottles of 5 ml. The
chromatogram for each standard solution is recorded. The calibration curves are
drawn by the device’s software inserting concentrations on abscissa, in
organochlorine pesticides micrograms per liter solvent, and on ordinate the
corresponding areas. Linear curves are thus obtained. Calibration curve should be
verified at least each 12 months and always when new reagents are used.
For reading the pesticides concentrations in the sample, 1 liter of sample is
transferred quantitatively in a separating funnel. It is extracted in two series of 15
ml each by stirring for 10 minutes. The organic phase is concentrated to 5 ml, the
solvent is changed with hexane and analyzed by gas chromatography. The amount
of organochlorine pesticides corresponding to the respective area is read on the
calibration curve. Results are reported in μg/l sample, with two decimals.

3. RESULTS

Before sampling, the source site and surroundings were inspected. It was
observed that all water sources framed within sanitary protection areas with strict
regime in compliance with the legislation. All sources are located in relatively
isolated areas, surrounded by pasture-type lands, except orchard-type farms.
Sanitary protection area with strict regime secure each water treatment
plant, but not all have also constituted the sanitary protection perimeter with
restriction regime. In neither perimeter of the water treatment plants,
organochlorine pesticides or other biocides have not been used for over 10 years.
Table 2 includes results for the analysis of organochlorine pesticides in the
treated water from water treatment plants in study. Results show that drinking
water at the output of the water treatment plants in the two counties (Cluj and
Hunedoara) have an appropriate quality for the indicator of total organochlorine
pesticides, well below the maximum admitted concentration according to Law
458/2002 regarding drinking water quality. [6] Law no.458/2002, which regulates
drinking water quality in Romania transposes Directive 98/83/EC on drinking
water. The following organochlorine pesticides were analyzed in the water
samples: HCH, DDE, TDE, DDT, Methoxychlor, Dieldrin, Heptachlor,
Heptachlor-epoxide, Endosulfan.

234
 Table 2. Results of drinking water analysis at the output of the water treatment plants
Maximum admitted
Analyzed
concentration according to
parameters Sampling location Analysis results
Law 458/2002 - regarding
(Measuring unit)
drinking water quality
Aghireşu <0,01

county
Bologa <0,01
Cluj
Dej <0,01
Organochlorine Muntele Băişorii <0,01
pesticides Bocşa <0,01
(HCH, DDE, TDE, Certej <0,01
Hunedoara county

DDT, Methoxychlor, Cinciş-Cernă <0,01 0,10 µg/l

Dieldrin, Heptachlor, Crişcior <0,01
Heptachlor-epoxide, Densuş <0,01
Endosulfan) Folorât-Geoagiu <0,01
(µg/l) Hondol <0,01
Roşcani <0,01
Sânpetru-Hunedoara <0,01
Săntămărie Orlea <0,01

Figure 3 shows a chromatogram model in which the only peak is that of

the solvent, unlike the chromatogram of a pesticide mixture of concentration
60μg/l/compound shown in Figure 4, where clearly differentiated peaks
corresponding to each pesticide are observed.

Fig. 3. Chromatogram of drinking water samples with no organochlorine pesticides

235
 Fig. 4: Chromatogram Standard 60 µg

Studies conducted in Mures county detected pesticides in 16 water

samples. Diazinon (20 ng/l), dichlorvos (20 ng/l) and α-HCH (an average of 5.8
ng/l) were measured in Mures, Niraj, Lechinta, Tarnava Mare and Tarnava Mica
rivers. Drinking water samples from fountains and tap-water also contained α-HCH
(6 ng/L) and γ-HCH (4 ng/L). The half-life of HCH isomers is relatively high,
while 2,4-D and atrazine (with concentration of 110 ng/L) have shorter half-life
period, higher water solubility and low adherence to soil particles. In one water
sample, the concentration of 2,4-D was 100% above for the standard criteria for
EU (70 ng/L). [5]
Some pesticides are characterized by being very persistent in the
environment. They may represent long-term dangers as they biomagnify up the
food-chain. Humans, and particularly breastfed babies, are at the top of the food-
chain. There is concern about potential endocrine and developmental effects of the
pesticides, especially in children. [14]

4. CONCLUSIONS

Rural population may be exposed to pesticides in several ways: by

spraying into the air and ingestion of pesticide residues via food and drinking
water. Grazing lands can be dangerous if the animals are washed and disinfested
externally (such as sheep) in the area. It is therefore important to determine
precisely not only the restricted sanitary protection areas but also the activities
permitted within.

236
 Monitoring the drinking water quality at water treatment plants shows
compliance with Law 458/2002, for the parameter organochlorine pesticide, but
they must continue to be monitored as required by legislation. According to the
results obtained in this study, the drinking water quality at the outputs of the water
treatment plants in Cluj and Hunedoara counties does not represent a risk factor for
the population health in terms of exposure to organochlorine pesticides.

REFERENCES

1. Alavanja, M. C., Sandler, D. P., McDonnell, C. J., Lynch, C. F., Pennybacker, M.,
Zahm, S. H., Mage, D. T., Steen, W. C., Wintersteen, W., Blair, A. (1999),
Characteristics of pesticide use in a pesticide applicator cohort: the Agricultural
Health Study, Environ Res, 80(2 Pt 1), 172-179.
2. Alavanja, M. C., Sandler, D. P., McMaster, S. B., Zahm, S. H., McDonnell, C. J.,
Lynch, C. F., Pennybacker, M., Rothman, N., Dosemeci, M., Bond, A. E., Blair,
A. (1996), The Agricultural Health Study, Environ Health Perspect, 104(4), 362-
369.
3. Gurzău, A. E., et al, Pesticides Use in Rural Settings in Romania, PWASET, Vol.
34, octombrie 2008
4. Jose L. Tadeo, Analysis of pesticides in food and environmental samples / editor
5. Kutz FW et al. Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in human
adipose tissue. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol , 1991, 120:1.
6. László F., Adalbert B. (2010) A PESTICIDE SURVEY IN SOIL, WATER AND
FOODSTUFFS FROM CENTRAL ROMANIA, Carpathian Journal of Earth and
Environmental Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 1, 111 - 118
7. M. Isabel Pinto, Gerhard Sontag, R.J. Bernardino, J.P. Noronha, Pesticides in
water and the performance of the liquid-phase microextraction based techniques.
A review
8. M.P. Ormad, N. Miguel, A. Claver, J.M. Matesanz and J.L. Ovelleiro, Pesticides
removal in the process of drinking water production
9. Method 8081B – Determinarea pesticidelor organoclorurate prin gazcromatografie
10. Samanic C, Hoppin JA, Lubin JH, Blair A, Alavanja MCR. (2005), Factor
Analysis of pesticide use patterns among pesticide applicators in the Agricultural
Health Study. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology: 15
(3), 225-233.
11. http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/about/#what_pesticide accesed on January, 10,
2011.
12. ***(1998), SR ISO 5667-5 din iunie 1998 – Calitatea apei. Prelevare. Partea 5:
Ghid pentru prelevarea apei potabile si a apei utilizate în industria alimentară şi
de băuturi.
13. ***(2000), SR EN ISO 6468/2000 – Calitatea apei Determinarea unor insecticide
organolcorurate, bifenili policlorurati si clorbenzeniş.
14. ***(2002), Legea nr. 458/2002, care transpune Directiva 98/83/CEE privind apa
potabilă.

237
 HYDROMETEOROLGICAL ANALISIS OF DOJRAN LAKE

VIOLETA GJESOVSKA 1

ABSTRACT. – Dojran Lake with its hydrological basin is a closed hydrological

system with natural inflow of water to the lake, but no natural outflow. Recharge
of the lake is from direct surface and underground inflow. Within the period 1950-
1960 the lake faced with extremely high water level that was not favorable for the
development of fishing. It was built an artificial channel to regulate the water level
in the lake and control the water use at Greek side of the lake. In the period 1988-
2000, the water level in the lake continuously was declining. Water level
declination caused ecological catastrophe for the flora and fauna in the lake and
lake’s basin that was inconvenience for the basic economy in the region, tourism
and fishing. The reasons for declining the water level in the lake are not clearly
identified, and they are located in unfavorable hydrological conditions expressed
through longer dried period or uncontrolled usage the water from the lake.
In 2002, the Republic of Macedonia finished a project to build a system for
bringing water from Gjavato wells near Vardar River with capacity of 1 m3/s. The
water level in the lake has recently increased. In order to define the causes of
changes in the lake requires detailed hydrological and meteorological analysis.
This paper will present the results of hydrological and meteorological analysis on
the basis of historical data of measured water level, precipitation, and air
temperature from hydrometeorological station New Dojran for the period 1961-
2008. Some comments on impact factors will be presented as well.
Keywords: “hydrometeorology”, “Dojran Lake”, “precipitation”, “temperature”,
“water level”
1. INTRODUCTION

Dojran Lake is the smallest natural lake in Macedonia, but is very

important water resource for population in the region. Main economy in the region
is turism and fishery.
It is located in southeast Europe between 41o9'30" and 41o20'10" north
latitude and between 22o40'30" and 22o47'00" eastern longitude, in the Balkan
Peninsula, in the southeastern part of Macedonia. The lake and its hydrological
basin are located on the border between Republic of Macedonia and Greece.
During the 1950’s the lake has extremely high water level that was not
favorable for the development of fishing. In order to regulate the water level in the
lake and control the water use at Greek side of the lake, it was built an artificial
channel. The controlled outflow of water from the lake imposed regime of
oscillations of the water level in lake in limited level (max. 147.34 m a.s.l. and
min.146.14 m a.s.l.)

1
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius, Faculty of Civil Engineering, 1000, Skopje, Macedonia,
e-mail: violetag@gf.ukim.edu.mk

238
 In 1988 the lake has water level on the altitude 145.82 m a.s.l.,(0.32 cm
under min.) the water surface area was 37.87 km2, and water volume was 220 mil.
m3. The next period water level in the lake was rapid decreasing. In 2002 year
water level was on altitude 141.33 m a.s.l.(4.51 m under min. altitude), water
surface area was only 26.01 km2, and water volume drooped to only 54 mil. m3.
Water level declination caused ecological catastrophe for the flora and fauna in the
lake and lake’s basin that was inconvenience for the basic economy in the region,
tourism and fishing. The reasons for decreasing the water level in the lake are not
clearly identified, and they are located in unfavorable hydrological conditions
expressed through longer dried period or uncontrolled usage the water from the
lake.
In 2002, the Republic of Macedonia finished a project to build a system for
bringing water from Gjavato wells near Vardar River with capacity of 1 m3/s. The
water level in the lake has recently increased. Because the system for bringing
water to the lake works with 30-40% of its capacity, the resons for increasing is not
clear.
To define the causes of changes in the lake, it is need detailed hydrological
and meteorological analysis. Based on the data collected, analysis of the
hydrometerological data was conduted to undestand the reson for fluctuations the
water level in the lake.
In this paper will be present the results of hydrological and meteorological
analysis on the basis of historical data of measured water level, precipitation, and
air temperature from hydrometeorological station New Dojran for the period 1961-
2008.

2. DATASETS USED IN THE STUDY

Hydrometeorological analysis require various types of data from different

sources. Topography data (digital elevation model-DTM), meterological
(precipitation, air temperature, radiation, wind speed, relatic humidity),
hydrological (lake stage) and GIS layers (soils and watershed boundary) were used
to conduct the analysis and study the effect of these variables on fluctuations of
water levels in the lake. Table 1 summarizes description of the types of data used
in the study.
A 30-m DEM was processed using grid GIS tools to determines the
hydrologic parameters (watershed, flow accumulation and stream network),
nessesary for computing upstream runoff inflow.
Meteorological data (precipitation, air temperature, radiation, wind speed,
relative humidity) are observing at few meterological stations in Greece (Muries,
Ahmatovo, Evzoni, Policastro, Kukush, Sterna) and at one meterological station in
Macedonia (Nov Dojran). Because there are no available data from stations in
Greece, are used only data from meteorological station at Nov Dojran.

239
 Table 1. Summery of Data Used in the Study
Type Data Year Format Resolution Station
Topographic Digital elevation model, DEM Raster 30 m
Meteorogical Precipitation 1951-2008 Point data 1 station Nov Dojran
Air temperature 1961-2008 Point data 1 station Nov Dojran
Wind Speed 1961-1990 Point data 1 station Nov Dojran
Relative humidity 1961-1990 Point data 1 station Nov Dojran
Duration 1961-1990 Point data 1 stations Nov Dojran
Hydrological Lake stage 1951-2008 Point data 1 station Nov Dojran

Precipitation and air temperature data observed at the meteorological

station Nov Dojran, were used to analyse the effect of precipitation and air
temperature on fluctuations of water levels in Lake. The precipitation has been
analyzed with data for average monthly sums of rainfall and average annual long-
term rainfall sums. The temperature regime has been analyzed with data for
average monthly and average annual long-term temperature. Wind speed, relative
humidity and radiation data were used to computed the evaporation from water
lake surface.

2. DOJRAN LAKE CHARACTERISTICS

Dojran Lake is smallest natural lake in Macedonia, which was formed in a

karstified basin created by tectonic activity. Dojran Lake with its hydrological
basin is a closed hydrological system with natural inflow of water to the lake, but
no natural outflow. Recharge of the lake is from direct surface and underground
inflow.

Fig. 1. Watershed of the Dojran Lake

240
 By using DTM-Digital Terrain Model, Model of Geographic Information
System-GIS, is given shape and size of the hydrological basin, Figure 1.
Total watershed area of Dojran is 265.59 km2, which belongs to both
countries, 66% of Greece (175.28 km2), and 34% of the Republic of Macedonia
(90.30 km2).
The average altitude on the watershed is 365 m a.s.l. The maximum altitude
of the watershed of Lake Dojran is 1820 m.a.s.l. at the mountain Belasica, and mini-
mum altitude is 148 m.a.s.l., at the water level of the lake (maximum water level).
About 212.23 km2 (80%) of watershed is located between altitude 148 m.a.s.l. and
500 m.a.s.l.. The lower part, 53.36 km2 (20%) is located at altitude greater than 500
m. By morphological analysis can be concluded that most of the watershed is flat.
Lake bottom of Dojran on Macedonian side using ehosonder was recorded
by the official institution of Macedonia (Vodostopanstvo na Makedonija).
Recorded data from Macedonian side together with measured data from the
topographic map (1:5000) of bottom of the lake on Greek side, were digitally
processed and formed curve of lake surface area and curve of volume, (Figure 2).

149,0

148,0

147,0

146,0
Altitude - Z in m a.s.l.

145,0

144,0

143,0

142,0

141,0
1988

140,0
2002

139,0

138,0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Volume -V in mil. m3

Fig. 2. Curve of volume

Water surface of the lake at normal elevation (147.34 m a.s.l.) is 41.66 km2
out of which 35% (14.63 km2) and belongs to Greece, and 65% (27.03 km2) of the
Republic of Macedonia. In 1988 the lake water level was on the altitude 145.82 m
a.s.l.,(0.32 cm under min.) the water surface area was 37.87 km2, and water volume
was 220 mil. m3. In 2002 year water level was on altitude 141.33 m a.s.l.(4.51 m
under min. altitude), water surface area was only 26.01 km2, and water volume
drooped to only 54 mil. m3.

3. HYDROMETEROLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Precipitation. The average annual precipitation sums for the period from
1951 to 2008 (missing data for 1997, 1998 and 2001) are presented in Figure 3.
Minimal average annual precipitation sum for this period is 392 mm in 2000,

241
maximum average annual precipitation sum is 1041 mm in 2002 year. The average
annual precipitation sum for the observed period is 648.6 mm. The minimum
precipitation is in the summer months (July, August), and maximum precipitation
is in the cold months (November, December).
1100

1000

900

800
Pav. annual=648,66 mm
Precipitation - P in mm

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Time-T in year

Fig. 3. Average annual precipitation sums (1951-2008)

Temperature. The average annual air temperatures for the period from
1961 to 2008 are presented in Figure 4. Minimum air temperature is 12.16 oC in
1997, maximum air temperature is 17.06 oC in 2001 year. The trend line indicates
that air temperature has increased by the all period of observed, with the larger
oscillations in the second part of period. The minimum air temperatures are in
December and January and maximum air temperatures appear usually in July and
August, when the precipitation is minimum.

18

17

16
Air temperature-T in C
o

15
trend line:T = 0,0285t - 42,208

14

13

12

11

10
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

Time-t in year

Fig. 4. Average annual air temperature (1961-2008)

Evaporation. Evaporation from the lake surface is very important

component of water balance of the watershed of Dojran Lake. Because it is not
measured in the past, the evaporation from lake water surface has been computed
by the empirical equation (Penman), using the data of air temperature, wind speed,
relative humidity and radiation.

242
 The average annual evaporation sums are 768.29 mm (18% bigger than
average annual precipitation for same period). The trend line indicates that
evaporation has increased by the all period of observed. The maximum evaporation
appear usually in July and August, when the temperature is maximum.
The annual evaporation sums for all periods have bigger values than
annual precipitation, (Figure 5).The trend line of the annual precipitation sums
during all period is slowly decreasing and the oscillations for some periods are
more remarcable. The trend line of the average annual evaporation is increasing for
all period of time.

1100
Precipitation
Evaporation
1000

900

trend line Е = 2,4639t - 4121,2

Precipation -P in mm;
Evaporation-E in mm

800

700

600

trend line P = -0,2886t + 1219,7

500

400

300
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time-t in year

Fig. 5. Annual evaporation sums, annual precipitation sums

Water level analysis. The analysis of water level in Dojran Lake were
made with the observed data at water gage station at Nov Dojran. In this analysis
were used the average monthly and average annual data for the maximum, average
and minimum water levels for the period 1951-2008.

300

200

trend line for 1951-1984

100 H = -1,8477t + 3789,2
Elevation-H in cm

trend line for 1984-2002

0 H = -29,509t + 58703

-100

-200

trend line for 2002-2008

-300
H = 40,798t - 81995

-400
1950

1952

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

Time-t in year

Fig. 6. Average annual water level of lake

The average annual levels of the lake from 1951 to 2008 (Figure 6) showed
a great variation. This variation can be shown by dividing time of record into three
periods. The first period is from 1951 to 1984, when it can be noted that the water

243
level oscillations is regular, and trend line is slowly downward. During 1984 to
2002 a strong downward trend of water level appears in the lake. After 1984 water
level continuously decrease and the level reached the lowest elevation measured in
2002 (-360 cm or 141,05 m a.s.l.)
Since 2002 there is a growing trend of water level. However, it should be
noted that in 2002, the Republic of Macedonia finished a project to build a system
for bringing water from Gjavato wells near Vardar River with capacity of 1 m3/s.
Therefore we can say that natural mode of Dojran Lake has been disturbed. To
understand the oscillations of water level need to be analyzed the condition of the
lake for 1988-2002 with the average monthly levels oscillations (Figure 7).
From the period 1988 to 1995 there were downwards of the level for 395
cm, the period from 1995 to 2002, downwards for 217 cm. From 1988 when the
level has been decreasing until 2002, the total observed decreasing of the level of
lake is 512 cm.
If we analyze the amplitude of average water level oscillations within one
year, we can say that the level of lake increasing in spring and fall, and decreasing
in summer time. During the critical period (1988-2002) when the water level
continuously was decreasing, the level in summer time was decreasing, but in
spring and fall the level was rising little or the level had no changes.

200

100

0
Elevation-H in cm

-100

∆H=395 cm

-200

∆H=217 cm

-300

-400
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Time-t in year

Fig. 7. Average monthly water level in lake (1988-2002)

1200 300
PRECIPITATION
WATER LAVEL

200
1000
Precipitation-P in mm .

100
800
Elevation-H in cm

600

-100

400
-200

200
-300

0 -400
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

Time-T in year

Fig. 8. Average monthly water level in lake and annual sums of precipiation

244
 300 18
WATER LAVEL
TEMPERATURE
16
200

14
100
12

Elevation-H in cm .

Temperature T in oC
0
10

-100 8

6
-200

-300
2

-400 0
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Time-t in year

Fig. 9. Average monthly water level in lake and average annual temperature

Correlation between annual sums of precipitation and water level can be

analysed if compare the changes of precipitation and its trend line for all period and
water level changes (Figure 8). It can be noted that generally the level of the lake is
responding to changes in precipitation, before 1988. The reactions of water level of
the lake are mostly late reactions. The period after 1988, it can be noted the
conecton is disturbed.
Correlation between average annual air temperature and water level is
shown in Figure 9. The analysis of long term air temperature date indicates that the
temperature in Nov Dojran increases by all period, but decreasing of water level for
period 1988-2002, is not responding to changes on air temperature.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The main objective of this paper is to present the results of hydrological

and meteorological analysis and give hydrological explanation for conditions of
Dojran Lake in past.
Hydrometeorological analysis of the available historical data of the study
area shows season variability in the hydrological response.
Dojran Lake is closed hydrological basin with natural inflow of water to
the lake mainly driven by rainfall on its watershed and directly to the lake. The
natural outflow is not existed, and the loss of water from the lake is expressed with
evaporation from water surface and the water which used for melioration at Greece
side. The average annual sum of evaporation from water surface of the lake during
all period is bigger than precipitation.
We can conclude that the reasons for decreasing the water level of the lake
are not only unfavorable hydrological conditions. The manly reason for decreasing
can be located in uncontrolled usage of the water from the lake. To define the total
loss of water from the lake it is necesary to make the water balance of Dojran Lake
with its hydrological basin.

245
 REFERENCES

1. (1999), Clamate and Hydrology of the Republic of Macedonia, Annual Reports,

Hydrometeorogical Institut, Skopje, Macedonia,
2. Popovska, C., Gesovska, V., Donevska, K., (2004), Hydrology, Publisher Faculty
of Civil Engineering, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius, Skopje, Macedonia
3. Popovska, C., Gesovska, V., Ivanoski, D., (2005), Ecological and Hydrological
State of Dojran Lake, Journal Vodoprivreda , No.216-218, pp.175-180, Belgrade,
Serbia and MonteNegro .
4. Assefa M.M., Vijay N., Xixi W, (2006), Hydrology and Water Balance of Devil
Lake Basin: Part 1, Hydrometerological Analysis anad Lake Surface Area
Mapping, Journal of Spatial Hydrology, Vol.6, No.1, pp.120-132
 RADAR CLIMATOLOGY OF HAIL
IN THE APUSENI MOUNTAINS

N. MAIER1 , I. HAIDU2

ABSTRACT. - Radar Climatology of hail in the Apuseni Mountains A new

method for the assessment of large areas with frequent occurrence of hail in a fine
spatial resolution and its application for the Apuseni Mountains and their adjacent
areas is presented. Due to the fine tempo-spatial resolution of the radar detection,
the creation of radar climatology of the areas where the hail production conditions
are determined is imposed. With the help of two Doppler radars at Oradea and
Bobohalma, the area of interest is examined and spatial maps of the relative
frequency of hail contained in the clouds are made. Composite maps are made (by
superimposing the two Doppler radar images from Oradea and Bobohalma) of the
areas in which clouds with hail of different sizes occur.

Keywords: hail, Doppler radar.

1. INTRODUCTION

The creating of radar climatology of the areas where the hail production
conditions are detected is imposed due to the fine tempo-spatial resolution. Local
influences on convective circulations are due to the topographical issues, the
effects of the mountain-plain dynamics, the upwelling effects on the wind exposed
slopes, the convergence areas on the sheltered side of the mountain and the sources
of heat on sunny slopes. The analysis highlights the known outcome that the
dynamic effects of the mountains have a significant impact on the local air flow,
affecting the climate of the adjacent regions.
The diversity and complexity of the Apuseni Mountains is reflected in the
great number of climate processes generated and influenced mainly by the relief,
which determines the size of these changes, namely the orientation of the peaks
towards the general circulation, the exposure of the slopes against the solar
radiation (with the largest contrasts between the northern and southern
respectively, with different shading and sunlight).
Kunz and Puskeiler (2010) a implements new method for the assessment of
the hail hazard in high spatial resolution and its application for Southwest Germany
are presented. Besides the detection of hailstorm tracks between 1997 and 2007,
maximum reflectivity is projected on a 10 km × 10 km grid and analyzed by

1
National Meteorological Administration, Regional Meteorological Center Transilvania Nord, Cluj-
Napoca, Romania, e-mail: mcis73@yahoo.com
2
Babeş-Bolyai University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
ionel_haidu@geografie.ubbcluj.ro

247
extreme value statistics. The results confirm a high spatial variability of both track
density and hail hazard. Severe hailstorms occur most frequently, and consequently
also with highest intensities, in the region south of Stuttgart, whereas hail activity
is lowest over the Rhine valley and the low mountain ranges of the Black Forest
and Swabian Jura.
The relief also acts through altitude and configuration - convex shapes are
continuously exposed to movement, and the concave one by the frequent presence
of calm and thermal contrasts between day and night, winter and summer - thermal
inversions and valley corridors or the depressions are characterized by turbulent
ventilation and increased turbulent mix.
Hail is one of dangerous weather phenomenon that is difficult to predict in
time and space. This study complements the climate data.

2. ANALYZED DATA

Maps of relative frequency with distribution of hail in the area of the

Apuseni Mountains, with grid up to 5 km were made. Thus a network of 190 x 125
km2 = 23,750 km2, consisting of 950 pixels, each of 25 km2 covering the whole
area of the Apuseni Mountains and the adjacent areas is obtained. The data based
that was analyzed includes the summer months (June, July and August) between
the years 2004 and 2009, data supplied by the WSR-98D Doppler radars at Oradea
and Bobohalma. The analysis is similar to the obtained by Maier (2009), for which
the grid step was of 25 km.
Images with the relative frequency of the areas where storm cores are
detected by both radars are made. At the next step, a filtering of the nuclei
according to the degree of severity is done, choosing as a threshold value of
separation of 70% for both severe hail as well as normal.
The study focused mainly on a comparison analysis between areas with
relative high frequency of occurrence of hail, determined by the composite
reflectivity data (Figure 1a and b) supplied by the two radars and the territorial
distribution of the hail image extracted from the Climate of Romania (2008) Figure
3. Thus, common areas where the relative frequencies of the occurrence of storm
cores, which are close as values to the areas with major differences in the
distribution of nuclei, are identified.
Taking into account the place that the Apuseni Mountains occupy, an
"orographic barrier” in the way of dominant atmospheric circulation and
positioning of the two Doppler radars at Oradea and Bobohalma (occultation -
resolution drop behind the mountain massifs), the analysis finally led to the
realization of composite maps. Thus, two composite maps of relative frequency
formed by the maximum values of common pixels are made. A map showing the
general distribution of the hail, the other one showing the distribution of large hail
(> 1.9 cm).

248
 3. SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF HAIL
The analysis of cloud formations containing hail, detected by radar echoes
highlights within the Apuseni Mountains area, various zones of expansion in the
number of cases according to a number of factors such as distance from the radar
location, the altitude of mountain units and the altitude of various cloud formations
as well as their thickness.
Classification was realized on three classes of values: low values (0.03 to
0.09%), average values (0.09 to 0.21%) and high values (above 0.21%). Figure 1 a) and b)
Low values have the largest expansion in the eastern region of the Apuseni
Mountains and the western hills. The same values describe two other areas with
extensions in the Almaş-Agrij-Someşean Plateau to penetrating the Basin of the
Crişul Repede river (eastern side of Vlădeasa peak) and south-eastern part of the
Apuseni mountains and Mureş Valey and the Vinţului Mountains. Low values
outline areas that overlap some depression areas or depression basins such as
Câmpeni-Abrud, Moneasa, Răchiţele, Ciucea, Vârfurile.
The average values were grouped two subclasses: between 0.09% and
between 0.15% and 0.15% and 0.21%. These classes of values are representative as
extension for the whole of the mountains. The first class (0.09 to 0.15%) dominates
in Zărand, Codru Moma, Pădurea Craiului and Plopiş Mountains and the second
subclass (0.15 to 0.21%) has highest extension in the Metaliferi, Trascău, Gilău-
Mare Mountains.
High values (0.21-0,24%) and very high values (above 0.24%) outlines
several small zones in the Codru Moma Mountains (in the Pleşu-Izoiu area), Bihor-
Vlădeasa (Magura Vânăta-Cârligaţi area and the Beiuşele-Poieni peak) and
Muntele Mare Mountain (Belioara - Scărişoara area).

a) WSR-98D Oradea b) WSR-98D Bobohalma

Figure 1. Apuseni Mountains area - map of relative frequency with
the genera distribution of hail using the WSR-98D radar

249
 Figure 2. Apuseni Mountain Area – Figure 3. Territorial distribution of the
composite map of relative frequency with average annual number of days with hail
general repartition of hail (1961-2000) (Romania’s Climate 2008)

4. SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF LARGE HAIL

A separate analysis for the areas with large hail is realized. Figure 4 a) and
b). Cloud formations develope in high mountain areas and a trend towards the
depression, both intra-mountains and adjacent to the Western Mountain.

250
 a) WSR-98D Oradea b) WSR-98D Bobohalma
Figure 4. Apuseni Mountains area - map of relative frequency
the distribution of large hail (> 1.9 cm) using the WSR-98D radar

Figura 5. Apuseni Mountains area – composite map of the relative frequency

of the distribution of large hail (> 1.9 cm)

251
 Making composite map obtain figure 5. The Meseş is distinguish in this
map and the Almaş-Agrij depression, the eastern sector of the Gilău - Muntele
Mare Mountains and depression space Iara-Hăjdate-Săvădisla-Feleac Massif, the
Trascău Mountain and the central-northern sector of the Alba Iulia-Turda
depression corridor; the Vinţului Mountains - the Geoagiu area. Compact areas
were detected in the Ciucea-Troops, Codru Moma - Beiuş Depression zone, areas
in the Metaliferi Mountains such as Strâmbu-Pluton and Detunata-Geamăna.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The results confirm a large spatial variability of both density and frequency
of hail. Consequently, severe hail occurs most frequently in depression regions and
at the contact of the Apuseni Mountains at the west with the Plain of Crişana and at
the east with the Transylvanian Depression, while cloud formations containing hail,
generally of small dimension, are more common in the mountain area on the
western slopes of the mountains, namely the Bihor, Vlădeasa and Zarand
Mountains.
The estimation of hail occurrence is an innovative new task and the
obtained data can be used for many purposes. The information could be used to
identify regions with high frequencies of producing hail, and in these cases the
most effective measures to prevent and diminish can be taken, given the increased
damage created by hail on a large number of buildings, cars or agricultural areas. In
terms of weather forecasts, warnings can be adapted to present the danger of hail
and the regions can be easily identified.

REFERENCES

1. Kunz M. and Puskeiler M. (2010) High-resolution assessment of the hail hazard

over complex terrain from radar and insurance dat Meteorologische Zeitschrift,
Vol. 19, No. 5, 427-439.
2. Maier N., Tataiana M and Denisa L. (2010) Utilizarea statistică a datelor obţinute
de laradarul WSR-98D de la Bobohalma în prognoza grindinei. Romanian Journal
of Meteorology nr.1-2010, ANM, Bucuresti.
3. Maier N., Tataiana M and Denisa L. (2010) Distribuţia grindinei în arealul
acoperit de radarul WSR-98D de la Bobohalma. Rev. Riscuri şi Catastrofe, Edit.
Casa Cărţii de Ştiintă, Cluj-Napoca.

252
 SOME ASPECTS REGARING CHLORINE DECAY IN WATER
DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS

LIANA IOANA VUŢĂ1, GABRIELA ELENA DUMITRAN2

ABSTRACT. – A major objective of drinking water treatment is to provide

microbiologically safe drinking water. The combination of conventional drinking
water treatment and disinfection has proved to be one of the major public health
advances in modern times. The quality of drinking water delivered to the
customer’s tap is influenced by a number of processes; namely water treatment,
disinfection and changes during transport of treated water via the distribution
system. All natural waters and even treated drinking water exerts disinfectant
demand due to the reactions with NOM and other constituents in water. Therefore,
the applied disinfectant dose must be sufficient to meet the inherent demand in the
treated water, to provide sufficient protection against microbial infection. Thus,
controlling free residual chlorine properly is definitely important to ensure meeting
regulatory requirements and satisfying customer needs.
This paper presents the main aspects regarding chlorine decay in drinking-water
distribution networks and, also a free chlorine decay simulation with EPANET2
on Ramnicu Valcea water distribution system.

Keywords: drinking water quality, chlorine decay, distribution system, Epanet.

1. INTRODUCTION

Water distribution system makes water available to the consumer in proper

quantity and pressure. Tap water should not contain microorganisms, parasites or
substances that might represent a potential hazard for human health and it must
meet the minimal requirements stipulated in regulations concerning the quality
parameters of potable water (microbiological and chemical indicators).
The quality of water delivered to the customers depends on its initial
chemical and physical composition, the proper choice of purification technology,
technical condition of water storage tanks and the pipe network as well as
hydraulic conditions and exploitation manner of the water distribution system.
Thus, water distribution systems act as large-scale chemical and biological reactors
and sometimes, due to improper design or operation, can greatly modify the quality
of water (e.g. long retention times which lead to water aging, reduced disinfectant
residual and formation of disinfection by-products, bacterial growth, appearance of
cooper and lead, taste and odor problems and so on).

1
University "Politehnica" of Bucharest, Power Engineering Faculty, 060042 Bucharest, Romania, e-
mail: l_vuta@yahoo.com, tel: 0744535933
2
University "Politehnica" of Bucharest, Power Engineering Faculty, 060042 Bucharest, Romania, e-
mail: dumitran@hydrop.pub.ro, tel: 0741146060

253
 Preserving the water quality throughout the distribution system is, therefore,
one of the most challenging technological issues for suppliers.
Many water utilities use chlorine residual to inactivate potential pathogenic
organisms and preserve water quality during distribution. In 1976, it was
discovered that disinfections by-products (DBPs) were produced during the
disinfection process (Marhaba and Washington 1998). Chlorine reacts with natural
organic compounds found in water (humic and fulvic acids) and form a wide range
of undesired halogenated organic compounds, including trihalomethanes (THMs),
haloacetic acids (HAA), chlorophenols, chloral hydrate and haloacetonitriles
(Gallard and von Gunten 2002). The concern of DBPs formed during disinfection
processes is based on the evidence that they have some adverse health effects:
cancer, reproductive disorders, liver and kidney damage, birth defects and possibly
miscarriage (Arora et al. 1997).
Thus, controlling the residual chlorine concentration in drinking water is a
very important aspect, since the decrease of chlorine concentration below the
minimal level may cause secondary development of microorganisms and excessive
chlorine concentration may cause formation of dangerous disinfection by-products.

2. MECHANISM OF CHLORINE DECAY

Chlorine decay in distribution system is generally considered to consist of

two components. One component is associated with decay in the bulk phase of the
water, and the other with the wall demand.
Chlorine demand and DBPs formation are influenced by treatment
conditions and by the constituents in the raw and treated water. The demand due to
inorganic compounds is smaller than the one associated with the reaction between
chlorine and natural organic matter (NOM).
Among the factors that influence the demand of chlorine and the formation
of DBPs can be mentioned:
- Chlorine dose: high chlorine concentration lead to increased DBPs
leves;
- Reaction time: long reaction times results in high chlorine demand and
increased DBPs leves;
- pH: an increase in the pH lead to increase in THMs formation but to
decrease in HAA; pH modification has a neglijable effects on chlorine
demand;
- Temperature: high temperature lead to greater chlorine demand and
higher levels of DBPs.
In order to be able to estimate correctly the residual concentration in water
distribution systems, all the factors that influence the chlorine demand must be
identified.

254
 3. MODELLING APPROACH

Chlorine propagation inside the water distribution system may be studied

with the use of mathematical models comprehensively describing the variable
hydraulic conditions and reflecting individual factors influencing the disinfectant
decay. Simulation of residual chlorine concentration in selected water supply
network nodes makes gathering the knowledge about transported water quality
possible and helps in considering the network segments/parts in which water
quality deterioration occurs.
One of the available software for water distribution network modelling is
Epanet. Epanet allow the hydraulic studies of water distribution systems and also
the movement and fate of drinking water constituents within distribution systems.
Decay simulation conducted within EPANET takes into consideration the phe-
nomena of chlorine reaction with chemical species at bulk fluid and with pipe walls.
The reactions occurring in the bulk flow can be modelled with n-th order
kinetics, where the instantaneous rate of reaction (R in mass/volume/time) is
assumed to be concentration-dependent according to:
R=Kb·Cn (1)
Where Kb = bulk reaction rate coefficient, C = reactant concentration
(mass/volume), and n = reaction order.
The decay of free residual chlorine because of reaction occurring in the
bulk water is generally assumed in the literature (Munvalli and Kumar, 2006;
Haestad, et al., 2001) to be a first order reaction.
In practice, bulk decay coefficients can be determined by running a bottle
test on the water entering the distribution system.
The contribution of wall reactions is introduced into the software through
another constant Kw , whose meaning is more complex. The rate of water quality
reactions occurring at or near the pipe wall can be considered to be dependent on
the concentration in the bulk flow by using an expression of the form:
R=(A/V)Kw·Cn (2)
Where Kw = wall reaction rate coefficient and (A/V) = the surface area per unit
volume within a pipe (equal to 4 divided by the pipe diameter).
There is currently no established method for directly determining the kinetics of
chlorine decay due to pipe wall reactions and calibration against field data must be
used instead. Still, the literature indicate that pipe diameter and pipe material are
the categories most likely to impact wall coefficient values in a calibration process
(Munvalli and Kumar, 2006; Haestad, et al., 2001; Michael Hudkins, et al., 2010).
To assure the correct use of the water quality simulator, incorporated in the
EPANET, a model calibration process must be done, determining the correct
values to Kb and Kw coefficients. In most cases, model calibration is conducted a
posteriori, altering parameter values in order to obtain, in the model, values that
match real ones. Still, values reported in the literature, for similar condition
regarding the distribution system structure can be used in order to determine the
residual chlorine concentration at the consumers.

255
 4. CASE STUDY: RAMNICU VALCEA WATER DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
The Ramnicu Valcea network is a gravity fed system from 4 reservoirs,
and the distribution to consumers (about 120,000 inhabitants) is provided through
metal pipes network, with sizes ranging from 80 to 600 mm. The network layout is
presented in figure 1, and figure 2 presents the base demands at consumers.
For the daily flow variation, three different regimes are considered:
domestic, commercial and industrial consumers. The flow patterns are presented in
Figures 3. For all pipes, the equivalent pipe roughness is set to 0.2 mm and Darcy
– Weisbach formula is used as a headloss equation.
Under these assumptions, the hydraulic behaviour of the network was
investigated, using Epanet v2. From the hydraulic point of view, the network does
not present any problems: water in sufficient quantity and at adequate pressure is
delivered to all consumers. The minimum available pressure is recorded in junction
5 and is above 9 m.

Figure 1. Ramnicu Valcea water distribution system layout

Regarding the residual chlorine concentration in Ramnicu Valcea network

nodes, previous investigations considered only the bulk flow reaction (Rotaru
2006; Vuta 2008).
In this paper, two hypotheses are considered for modelling chlorine decay:
the first one considering only the chlorine reaction in the bulk flow and the second,
considering also the pipe wall reaction. The values for kb and kw used (-0.1 h-1 and -
0.17 h-1 respectively) have been chosen around the ones reported in the literature
(according with the pipe material, diameters and age/roughness) (Castro et al.
2003; Nagatani et al. 2008; Hudkins et al. 2010).

256
 Figure 2. Base demands for Ramnicu Valcea water distribution system

Figures 3. Flow patterns for domestic, commercial and industrial consumers

When considering only the bulk flow reaction and a first-order decay
reaction, few nodes experienced low levels of residual chlorine concentration
during low period consumption (between 2.00 and 7.00 am ): 18, 29, 31, 75, 76. 75
and 76 are industrial consumers, 31 is commercial and 18 and 29 are domestic. The
low residual chlorine concentration find in those nodes is related with high travel
time of water from reservoirs, as it can be seen in figure 4 and figure 5.

Figure 4. Chlorine concentration in networks

Figure 5. Water age in networks nodes
nodes, kb = -0.1 h-1, kw = 0

257
 Differences in residual chlorine concentration are expected to appear when
considering also pipe wall reaction. In this case, beside the bulk reaction described
by a first-order decay reaction, a zero-order reaction at the pipes wall is considered.
As a result, large area of the network presents very low residual chlorine
concentration, presented in figure 6. The correlation between high water age and
low chlorine concentration is still evident.

Figure 6. Chlorine concentration

in networks nodes, kb = -0.1 h-1, kw = -0.17 h-1

In this case, the residual chlorine concentration drops below 0.1mg/l in some
nodes in the network. Figure 7 presents the values obtained for node 18 in the two
hypotheses. As it was expected, introduction of the pipe wall reaction lead to high
chlorine demand, making the system unsecure if the residual chlorine concentration
is very low (for some nodes in the network, during the low demand period, residual
chlorine concentration drop below 0.1 mg/l). In the theoretical case presented in this
article, the chlorine demand increased only by 30%, but, according to the literature,
the wall demand can represent up to 80% from the total disinfectant.

Figure 7. Differences between residual chlorine concentrations for node 18

6. CONCLUSION
Controlling the residual chlorine concentration in drinking water is a very
important aspect, since the decrease of chlorine concentration below the minimal
level may cause secondary development of microorganisms and excessive chlorine
concentration may cause formation of dangerous disinfection by-products.
Mathematical modelling of chlorine decay along the water supply system is a
problem whose solution is not yet absolutely mastered.

258
 Still, hydraulic/water quality models can be used by drinking water utilities
in order to efficiently plan, operate, and expand their potable water systems. But, in
applying water quality models to actual water distribution system it is critical that a
well-calibrated hydraulic model to be used along with site-specific reaction rate
data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The work has been co-funded by the Sectoral Operational Programme

Human Resources Development 2007-2013 of the Romanian Ministry of Labor,
Family and Social Protection through the Financial Agreement POSDRU/89/1.5/
S/62557.

REFERENCES

1. Arora, H., LeChevallier, M. W., Dixon, K.L. DBP occurrence survey. Journal of
American Water Works Association, 89, (6), 60 –68, 1997
2. Pedro Castro, Mário Neves. Chlorine decay in water distribution systems. Case
study – Lousada network. Electron. J. Environ. Agric. Food Chem., ISSN 1579-
4377, 2003
3. Gallard, H. and von Gunten, U. Chlorination of Natural Organic Matter: Kinetics
of chlorination and of THM Formation. Water Research, 36, 65-74, 2002
4. Haestad, et al. Water Distribution Modeling. 2001
5. Lewis A. Rossman. Epanet User Manual. 2000
6. Marhaba, T. F., and Washington, M. B. Drinking water protection and
byproducts: history and current practice. Advances in Environmental Research, 2,
103–115, 1998
7. Michael Hudkins, et al. FieldVerification ofWater QualityModels: Process,
Results & Benefits. FLORIDAWATER RESOURCES JOURNAL, Aprilie, 2010
8. Munavalli GR, Kumar MSM. Autocalibration of a water distribution model for
water quality parameters using GA. Journal American Water Works Association
98 (9): 109-123 SEP 2006
9. F. Rotaru. „Contributii in probleme de dimensionare si de exploatare a statiilor de
pompare si a retelelor de distributie a apei”. PhD Thesis, Bucharest, 2006
10. Toru Nagatani et al. Residual chlorine decay simulation in water distribution
system. The 7th International Symposium on Water Supply Technology,
Yokohama 2006, November 22-24, 2008, Yokohama, Japan
11. L.I.Vuta. Modelarea calitatii apei potabile din retelele de distributie. PhD Thesis,
Bucharest, 2008

259
 THE EVALUATION OF THE HYDROLOGICAL RISKS
ASSOCIATED WITH THE MAXIMUM DISCHARGE
IN THE UPPER WATER CATCHMENT OF THE RIVER BÂRLAD

I. MINEA, D. BUTELCĂ, M. NICULIŢĂ1

ABSTRACT. – The evaluation of the hydrological risks associated with the

maximum discharge in the upper water catchment of the river Bârlad was
realized based on the data respecting the maximum flows realized at two
hydrometric stations Baceşti si Negreşti, between 1954-2006. The analysis had in
mind both the evaluation of the maximum flows and the associated parameters
and the implications of some extreme hydrological events as floods. An important
component consists in the appreciation of the river safety levels based on the
maximum debit obtained with different calcul formulas (rational or reductional)
for the anticipation of the future hydrological events.

Keywords: hydrological riscks, maximum discharge, floods, river safety levels.

1. INTRODUCTION

An important characteristic in the regime of the river flows from Romania

is the presence of some periods,during the year,with high debits induced, either by
the atmospheric precipitations in impressive quantities, or by melting the snow or
often by the overlap of these two phenomena. The intensity and the duration of the
high debit periods is mainly influenced by the physical geographical conditions of
an hydrographic basin. Of all these,the main element is the climatic one, being
represented by the atmospheric precipitations in the forms described above. The
other physical geographical factors which contribute to the formation of the
maximum debits are: the geomorfometry of the draining basins,the type of the
ground and its humidity level, the geological structure and the composition of the
plant coating. An important role, especially in the case of the hydrographic basins
arranged by hydrotehnical purposes (like in the case of the superior basin of the
river Barlad), has the anthropic factor, by executions of the storage lakes, the
evacuation areas of the maximum debits (polders), dams etc.
The hydrographic array developed in the central-southern part of the
Moldavian Plateau, in the space Siret-Prut is represented, mainly, by the
hydrographical basin Bârlad and then by a series of branches of the river Prut with
a low hydrological importance (Elan, Chineja, etc.).
With the largest surface of all the branches of the river Siret, in which it
blazes (over 7220 km2), the hydrographic basin Bârlad represents over 45% of the

1
"Al.I.Cuza" University, Faculty of Geography and Geology, 700505 Iaşi, Romania, e-mail:
ionutminea1979@yahoo.com

260
surface of the Moldavian Plateau(between the rivers Siret and Prut). Although the
hydrotehnical arrangement of this basin is quite extended, there are a series of
hydrological situations which involve the production of some riscks events (floods)
with destructive effects over the social and economical belongings and the
geographical landscape.
Before realizing an thorough analysis of the processes and phoenomena
related to the maximum leakage and risk phenomena related to this it, is necessary
a theoretical approach of the difference between big waters and floods, thanks to
the various definitions, many of them overlapped, appeared in specialized
literature. High waters represent the leaking which is realized on the rivers of the
Moldavian Plateau at the beginning of spring, determinated, generally by the
melting of the snow due to the increased termperatures ,intensified by the falling of
liquid precipitations in quite important quantities. The floods represent another
characteristic form of producing the liquid leaking,mainly determined by the
falling of the torrential rains(associated with the melting of the snow), with an
effect in the increase in a short amount of time of the levels and debits of the
waters. Sometimes,the increasing of the levels and debits is so significant,that it
can cause floods in the major chanel, with negative effects on some social and
economical objectives.
The statistic analysis of the maximum leaking was realized based on the
data recorded between 1954-2006, on hydrometrical stations Baceşti and Negreşti.
This analysis permitted us to extract some information of practical matters ,which
will lead us to the adoption of measures which will be checked and consulted in the
projecting, execution and exploitation phase of the hydrotehnical constructions in
view of minimizing the effects produced by the hydrological hazards, especially in
the areas which are vulnerable to this type of phoenomena.
In the maximum leaking, the most representative parameters analysed
refer to the maximum levels and volumes associated to this, as well as to the
floods.

Fig. 1. The position of the upper basin of the river Barlad in Romania

261
 2. THE ANALYSIS OF THE MAXIMUM LEAKING: MAXIMUM
DEBITS AND VOLUMES

The multiannual variation of the maximum debits knocks out that at the
level of the upper basin of the river Bârlad, were registered a series of years in
which were produced the biggest maximum debits (1969, 1970, 1971, 1979, 1985),
and a series of years when this debits were more reduced(1991,1995)(table nr.1)
The highest debit registered between 1954-2006 (the maximum
maximorum debit) was of 164,0 m3/s, at the hydrometrical station Baceşti,
registered on 17.VII.1970 and of 390 m3/s, at the hydrometrical station Negreşti,
registered on 19.VI.1985. These debits were produced based on the manifestations
of downpours ,which had overdued at the meteorological stations and rainfall posts
from the northern part of the basin Bârlad 120-150 l/m2.

Tabel no. 1. The statistic of the monthly maximum debits in the hydrographical basin
Bârlad
Hydrometrical station Băceşti Negreşti
The maximum flow m3/s 164,0 390,0
(the maximum value)
Year 1970 1985
The maximum flow 0,274 4,64
(the minimum value)
Year 1995 1959
The maximum flow m3/s 48,0 74,4
(the average value)
Cv* 0,96 1,64
Cs** 2,56 3,12
Cs/Cv 2,64 1,89
σ*** 0.28 0,27
* values obtained by processing the hydrological data offered by the Basinal Association of water Prut-Bârlad
Cv – the coefficient of varriation of the data series of the minimal anual debits
Cs – the coefficient of assimetry of the data series of the minimal anual debits
σ – the medium square deviation

Fig. 2. Maximum monthly and instant debits in the upper basin of the river Bârlad

An important aspect of the analysis of the maximum debits is the

conditioning of the production of these by the achievement of some hydrotehnical
262
constructions of the type of the dams and the storage lakes.those print a general
tendance of reduction of the values of the maximum debits registered trough the
regularisation of the leaking (Fig. 2).

Fig. 3. The multianual variation of the maximum debits at the hydrometrical

stations of the upper basin of river Bârlad

During the year,the maximum debits present higher or lower variations,

from a month to another,deppending on the rainfall features of every month.On the
level of the upper basin of the river Barlad,the maximum debits produced more
often in the perion june-july (over 55% from the cases), followed by period march
–april (35% from the cases) and september (10% from the cases).
The lowest values of the maximum debits were registered in winter
(december-february), and in the end of the summer and the beginning of autumn
(august-october).
In order to project and realise the hydrotehnical construction as well as for
an efficient management of the water resources from a hydrographical basin,is
necesarry to calculate the maximum debits, with certain probabilities of
overfloading.So,at the level of the upper basin of the Bârlad river were determined
the maximum debits with different possibilities (0,01%, 0,1%, 0,5%, 1%, 5%,
10%) as well as the maximum debits speciffic and the maximum volumes
corresponding to this debits for the natural regime of leaking ,using the curves of
probability of the type Pearson III.

Table no. 2 The maximum anual debits (m3/s) and speciffic maximum debits
2)
(l/s/km with different possibilities calculated at hydrometrical stations from the upper
basin of the river Barlad
Nr. Hydro. Q.max (m3/s) for the probabilities q.max (l/skm2) for the probabilities
crt. station 0,01% 0,1% 0,5% 1% 5% 10% 0,01% 0,1% 0,5% 1% 5% 10%
1 Băceşti 329,0 254,2 178,1 123,2 99,0 74,1 2384.0 1842.0 1290.5 892.7 717.3 536.9
2 Negreşti 588,7 445,6 301,8 202,3 158,7 115,7 720.5 545.4 369.4 247.6 194.2 141.6

263
 The maximum debits registered at the hydrometrical stations,between 1954-
2006, do fit in in the probabilities of production 5% and 10% in the case of both
hydrometrical stations.
Also in practical purposes, for the design of hydrotechnical objectives, the
maximum volumes with probability of exceeding have also been determinated
(0,01%, 0,1%, 0,5%, 1%, 5% and 10%). In general, these fit between 23,0 mil. m3,
at the hydrometric station Baceşti, for the probability of production of 1% and 36,9
mil. m3, at the hydrometric station Negreşti, for the same probability (table nr.3).
Reporting the maximum volume of water corresponding to each
probability of exceeding at the surface of the sewn basin, in the right of each
hydrometrical station the maximum layers of water equivalent drained to the
volumes are obtained (hmax p%, mm).

Table no. 3. Maximum volumes and maximum layers of water equivalent to the
maximum volumes (mm), with different probabilities of exceeding, determinated for
hydrometrical station from the superior basin of Bârlad river
Nr. Hydro. W.max (106m3) for probabilities hmax (mm) for probabilities
crt. station 0,01% 0,1% 0,5% 1% 5% 10% 0,01% 0,1% 0,5% 1% 5% 10%
1 Băceşti 23.0 17.3 12.3 10.1 7.4 3.5 382 269 206 178 95 61
2 Negreşti 36.9 28.2 19.8 16.3 10.5 5.6 207 148 113 92 53 35

3 . THE EVALUATION OF THE HYDROLOGICAL RISKS

INDUCED BY FLOODS

The genesis of floods is directly connected with the climatic conditions

existent at a certain time in the analyzed basin and can be determinated by the
superficial drainage from rains (pluvial floods), from the sudden melting of snows
(nival floods), from the superposition of these two phenomenas (pluvial-nival
floods) or as a result of accidents in the area of hydrotechnical constructions
(Zăvoianu, 1999).
For the upper basin of Bârlad river, from the 26 hydrological events
associated with flood waves, 14 have occured in the summer months, 10 in spring
months and 2 in autumn months.
In hydrologic practice, of great importance is the knowledge of the flood
waves characteristic features. These elements are determinated with the help of
singular floods, registred at the hydrometrical stations and on the base of analysis
of the most representative floods can be calculated, later, the average elements
characteristics of the flood waves, which stay at the basis of building type
hydrographers of singular floods, with different probabilities. For Bârlad river, for
the probability of exceeding 1%, the medium time of manifestation of a flood is at
Baceşti hydrometrical station of 38 hours, for increasing in the downstream at 95
hours, at hydrometrical station Negreşti. All the characteristic elements of the flood
waves are influenced largely of the morphometric characteristics of basins ( the
lenght of water courses, the basins` medium altitude, the average slope of the
courses and of the basins, the catchments` surface).

264
 Another important aspect occurs from the random distributions of the
hydrological phenomenas which are obtained from a limited set of datas, result of
observations and recordings. The lack of monitoring stations of the hydroclimatic
elements with a relatively high density (at least one such station at 25 km2) thus
leads to the impossibility of validating the obtained results. Given these elements, it
is resorted at the division of the basins of large dimensions in a series of subbasins
and interbasinal areas, each characterized by specific values of the used
hydrological parameters. So can be realised an evaluation of the hydrological risks
from certain portions of the basin through type-models rainfall-runnoff , in large
basins; implies several steps :
- system decomposition (hydrographic basin) in a series of subsystems
(subbasins and interbasinal areas)l
- the evaluation of the hydrological leakages within each system;
- the evaluation of the hydrological risks within each system;
- the realization of graphics and risk maps at the level of the hole basin.
Because at the level of each subsystem there are no measurements and con-
tinuous observations over the necessary hydrological parameters for the evaluation
of the hydrological risk we used the genetic hydrological model input-output type
for the small river basins, using the rational formula (STAS 4068/1-82):
p %  16,7    I p % ( m / s / km )
q max 3 2

where: q max
p % - the maximum specific flow with probability of exceeding;

I p % - the intensity of rain calculated based on standard STAS 940-73;

16,7 - size conversion factor.
 - is the coefficient of superficial leakage on homogeneous areas regarding the
leakage (whose surface is noted with f), calculated with the formula:
n

 i  fi
 i 1 ,
F
where:  i - the partially coefficients of superficial leakage which characterizes the
homogeneous surfaces;
fi - a surface considered homogenous if for a series of fields` elements (type of use,
slope, texture etc) are homogeneous.
The partially coefficients of leakage α1 are presented in the specialized
literature (Hâncu et al., 1971, Mustaţă et.al, 1981), depending on using, slope,
texture and permeability of the field
Regarding the intensity of the rain concretion Ip% is established for the
lenght of the rain equal with the concentration time of the superficial leakage. An
important aspect to be retained in the calculation method of the concretion rain is
the fact that, in general, the concretion rain is considered to be uniformly
distributed on the whole surface of the catchment afferent to the control section, so
the lenght of the maximum intensity rain which is used in order to determine the
maximum flow is equal with the time of concentration (tc) of the superficial
leakage (and it is called concretion rain).

265
 The time of concentration represents the time where the water coming
from rainfall and which is leaking, gets from the farthest point of the basin to the
concretion section of the maximum flow).
The reduction formula used in determination of the maximum flow with
the probability of exceeding of 1%:
K    I 60 , 1%  F
Q 1% 
( F  1) m
where: K -0,28 transformation coefficient of rain`s intensity from mm/hour into m/s and
surface from km2 to square meters;
 - global coefficient of leakage;
I60,1% - the maximum hourly intensity of rain with probability of exceeding of 1%;
Starting from the recorded values, a series of tipical values (characteristic)
of the variable sections are calculated, such as : the average value, the dispersion,
the deviation etc. Then is considered that these typical values or parameters of the
empirical distribution are at the same time parameters of the theoretical
distribution, used to adjust and extrapolate the empirical distribution (in other
words, the parameters of the statistical population are estimated based on the
selection which is decided by measurements), obviously, this habit is an
approximation, which is a source of errors of the static concretion (Giurma, 2003).
For the Bârlad basin, the value of the concretion rain intensity based on the dataset
regarding intensity and average and maximum lenght of rains at some
meteorological station and rainfall stations (Bârnova, Negreşti, Vaslui).
For using the rational formula, first were determinated the average amd
maximum intensity of torrential rains from this basin. In this way, there were
determinated the maximum quantities of rainfall in 24 hours, with different
probabilities (Table no. 4).

Table no. 4. Maximum quantities of rainfall (mm) in 24 hours with different

probabilities (%) at meteorological station and the rainfall stations from Barlad basin
and from adjacent area
Nr. Meteo. station/ Pp max. abs. Max. quantities of pp (mm) in 24 hours
crt. Pluvio. station in 24 hours (mm) with different probabilities (%)
(value/date) 0,1 1 5 10 20 50
1 Bârnova 167,9/7.08,1989 194,3 158,9 136,9 127,9 118,7 104,6
2 Negreşti 91,4/20.08.1972 144,3 107,5 87,0 79,4 72,0 62,6
3 Vaslui 91,9/22.07.1980 112,3 93,9 82,4 77,8 72,9 66,4

In the next stage there were calculated the absolute maximum flows and
the specific maximum with different probabilities at the main hydrometrical station
within the basin,also identifying the relations from the maximum specific leakage
with the 1% insurance and the average altitude of the basins (see table no. 2 , fig.
no. 3).
Then, based on the dates from the rainfall stations ,regarding the share of
attention of flood and danger, and considering the limnimetric keys specific to each
station, the leakage coefficients were calculated and overcome situations of these
shares at the two rainfall station were identified.

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 Table no. 5 The values of the maximum flows corespondent to the main shares
at the rainfall stations from Bârlad basin
Hydro. Râul Supr. C.A. Q (m3/s) C.I. Q (m3/s) C.P. Q (m3/s)
Station (km2) (cm) coresp. (cm) coresp. coresp.
Băceşti Bârlad 142,31 340 33.1 440 62.7 600 125.0
Negreşti Bârlad 812,21 330 34,2 410 66,3 575 135,9
 

Fig. 5. The overcome situations of the main shares at some stations and hydrometric
stations from the superior basion of Bârlad river (Baceşti on the left, Negreşti
at the right) (remaking after Rusu C., 2009)

CONCLUSIONS

The evaluation of the hydrological risks asociated to the maximum leakage

in the superior basin of Barlad river highlighted a series of characteristics of these
hydrological parameters. So, the maximum flows registred al the hydrometric
stations from this area of the basin (Baceşti and Negreşti, in 1954-2006), fit
between production probabilities 5% and 10%, which imparts to the leakage a
strong torrential character. For the identification of the extreme values, it has
resorted to the use of different formulas proposed by the specialised Romanian
literature (rational and reduction), indicating a high risk of floods occurence in case
of rainfall that exceeds 100-150 l/m2, relatively frequently in the analyzed space.

REFERENCES

1. Giurmă I (2003), Viituri şi măsuri de apărare, Edit. “Gh.Asachi”, Iaşi.

2. Hâncu S., ş.a. (1971), Hidrologie agricolă, Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti.
3. Mustaţă L, ş.a. (1981), Elaborarea metodologiilor pentru calculul scurgerii pe
râurile mici, I.N.M.H., Bucureşti.
4. Rusu C. (coord.) (2008), Impactul riscurilor hidro-climatice şi pedo-
geomorfologice asupra mediului în bazinul Bârladului, Edit. Performantica, Iaşi.
5. Zăvoianu I. (1999), Hidrologie, Edit. Fundaţiei “România de Mâine”, Bucureşti.
6. www.ape-prut.ro

267
 IDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT OF CENTRAL
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS – CASE STUDY

ANCA ELENA GURZAU1, CRISTIAN POP1,

OVIDIU TRAIAN POPA1, IRINA DUMITRASCU1

ABSTRACT. - Risk assessment of central water supply systems - a case study.

This paper presents methods for identification and risk assessment of central water
supply systems, exemplified by a case study of the central water supply system in
Luna locality, Cluj county during 2009-2010. System assessment was performed
by means of previous data on water quality monitoring and water samples analysis
for the parameters imposed by Law 458/2002 (audit monitoring) in the
laboratories of the Environmental Health Center. The main risk identified at
source was the significant water contamination with nitrates, in this regard results
did not show significant change of the raw water quality (drain) over time.
Occurence of nitrates in excess is of mixed origin in Luna water source,
predominantly telluric net and accentuated anthropogenic due to agricultural
practices in the area. In this respect, evolution of bacterial load was significantly
related to the drain positioning in an intensively exploited agricultural area, the
important increase of contamination being due to manure application on upstream
lands. Two kinds of hazards were identified at the water treatment plant output and
in the distribution network, as well as at the water source: contamination with
nitrates and bacteriological contamination of faecal origin, the latter as a
consequence of a completely inadequate chlorination. Water in the distribution
network of Luna locality represents low health risks for small population groups
(risk score 8), as characterized qualitatively on the basis of monitoring. The
compliance plan for preventing effects targets the water source, treatment process,
distribution network and health status indicators.

Keywords: drinking water, risk identification, risk assessment

1. INTRODUCTION

Central water supply of localities represents an activity accompanied by

risks, and maintaining them within the limits of acceptability requires sustained
efforts and additional costs justified by the prevention of diseases and avoiding
environmental damage. Any definition of risk includes the idea of exposure to a
potential loss, of "probability of an undesirable result" of minor importance up to a
catastrophic one. The safe water expresses the accordance to the maximum
admissible limits of the relevant water parameters for human health.
In accordance with the Bonn Objective for obtaining "sanogenic drinking
water, in which consumers trust" the water safety plans (PSA) have major
requirements represented by the risk identification in each stage of the water

1
Environmental Health Center Cluj Napoca, Romania, www.ehc.ro, tel.+40 264 432979,
(e-mail: ancagurzau@ehc.ro)

268
production process from the water catchment to consumer tap and by the risk
assessment, that is the probability that a hazard causes health effects or determines
an unacceptable water quality. (WHO 2005, Ritter et al.2002, Summerhill ey
al.2010, Schmoll et al. 2006).
A water safety plan combines elements of a “hazard analysis and critical
control point” (HACCP) approach, quality management and the “multiple barriers”
principle, to provide a preventive management approach specifically developed for
drinking-water supply. It can provide a framework for evaluating microbial control
measures by helping to focus attention on process steps such as coagulation,
filtration and disinfection, which are important for ensuring the microbial safety of
water. (LeChevallier MW and Au K-K 2004).
Rules of good practice state that sanitary surveillance is organized when a
water source does not meet a requirement of the law that regulates it. This refers
mainly to microbiological contaminants and prevention of possible water-related
diseases, but also to certain chemicals (arsenic, fluorine or nitrates) when present in
high concentrations.
This paper presents methods for identification and risk assessment of
central water supply systems, exemplified by a case study of the central water
supply system in Luna locality, Cluj county.

2. MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study was conducted in 2010. The raw water source for Luna water
treatment plant is groundwater collected by a drain from 6 drillings. Luna water
treatment plant processes water by chlorination. The assessment of the central
water supply system in Luna locality, Cluj county was based on type HACCP
inspection (Hazard Analysis and Control in Critical Points). Previous data of water
quality monitoring were also considered in the study (laboratory of the water
supplier) as well as water samples analysis for the parameters imposed by Law
458/2002 regarding drinking water quality (audit monitoring) in the laboratories of
the Environmental Health Center. Risk assessment was performed by risk scores
determination based on a specific matrix.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Water source location
The drillings are located in the western part of Luna locality, upstream the
stables of the former cooperative farm, between the road linking the military base
with the airport and the group of houses “Bazil”.
The catchment front area is slightly sloping from V to E and from S to N,
drillings being surrounded by agricultural lands exploited only for cereal crops.
These lands belong to an agricultural association and they are treated with
herbicides. Due to the small depth of the drillings and soil structure, but especially
due to its location in the area of agricultural holdings, the collected water layer is
highly vulnerable to pollution.

269
 Sanitary protection areas are limited to the area with strict sanitary
protection regime, established on an area of 610 m in length (slightly larger than
the drain length) and 63 m in width. Under these conditions, water quality in the
aquifer is influenced by the external factors from the soil surface, the collected
water quality varies and depends mainly on the chemical and physical structure of
the soil.
3.2. Water quality exiting Luna water treatment plant and in the
distribution network – control monitoring
In order to assess the water treatment plant efficiency and the supplied
water quality, the analysis results were interpreted (color, odor, pH, conductivity,
turbidity, free residual chlorine and bound chlorine, ammonia, nitrites, nitrates,
oxidability, total hardness, iron, E.Coli, enterococci, coliform bacteria, faecal
coliforms) as part of the control monitoring during June 2009 - September 2010.
Among the analysis provided by the laboratory from Luna water treatment plant,
find below the parameters considered relevant for the water quality
characterization.
During 2009, the oxidability average values framed within the normal
limits, being very low. Instead, the nitrates average value in the three types of
monitored water (source-drainage basin, reservoir and Luna village network)
recorded average values above the maximum admitted by legislation (50 mg/l),
ranging between 52-59 mg/l. Chlorination was performed at extremely low levels,
well below the standard ones for microbiological safety, and the free residual
chlorine averaged between 0.04-0.07 mg/l.
During 2010, nitrates, the major contaminant of Luna water supply
system, kept at elevated levels above the admitted standard, the highest value of
71.4 mg/l being measured in the reservoir.
The average values for nitrates were higher in 2010 than in 2009 both at
the level of the collector tank and the reservoir (Table 1).

Table 1. Comparative levels of nitrates in Luna water supply system

Nitrates 2009 2010

Collector basin 52.71 58.22
Reservoir 55.87 65.29

During 2009 a constantly increasing bacteriological contamination has

been observed at the level of the collector tank starting in August (16
Enterococci/L and 16 Coliforms/L) with a maximum in November (149
Enterococci/L, 415 Coliforms/L and 346 E.coli/L). Evolution of the bacterial load
is significant in relation to the drain positioning in an intensively exploited
agricultural area, the important increase of contamination being probably due to the
application of natural fertilizers (manure) on upstream lands. Bacteriological
contamination is severe even more because chlorination is practiced in the drainage

270
basin. It is to be noted that during November 2009 the highest concentration of
nitrates in water was recorded in the collector tank. Insufficient chlorination is
reflected by the bacteriological contamination in the reservoir, enterococci being
known as germs with a higher resistance to chlorine.
During 2010, the bacteriological contamination of water in the drainage
basin was more reduced although chlorination followed the same procedure, the
free residual chlorine level being very low. During this period the nitrates level was
increased and higher than in 2009. Regarding the bacteriological examination of
water in the distribution network, it was performed only once in 2009 and it was
negative. Other two bacteriological examinations of water at school show
contamination with total coliforms in a sample, the other one being negative.
During 2010, also a single water sample was analyzed in the distribution network,
and it was contaminated with total coliforms.
According to the control monitoring, during the period January 2009 -
August 2010, on the whole, water in Luna supply system was 100% undrinkable in
terms of the free residual chlorine, 81% in terms of nitrates and 51%
bacteriological.
3.3. Water quality at the output of Luna water treatment plant and in
the distribution network – audit monitoring
In order to assess the water quality at the source and in the distribution
network we collected water samples on 13.09.2010. We mention that starting on
07.09.2010 at Luna water treatment plant an automatic chlorination station with
sodium hypochlorite solution and a denitrification station (filters) were put into
operation next to the reservoir near the school, thus the manual chlorination at
source being interrupted (collector drainage tank). The following samples were
collected: raw water at collector drainage tank (treatment station input), drinking
water at Luna water treatment station output - Luna network.
Raw water is characterized by a higher concentration of nitrates and
bacteriological contamination of faecal origin. Water contamination with
Salmonella, a dangerous pathogenic intestinal germ common to man and warm-
blooded animals, in the collector tank represents a special situation. In this case,
given the drain location, the faecal contamination of human origin is unlikely, but
possible due to application of manure, especially of poultry origin.
Like in the previously analyzed period, i.e. January 2009 - August 2010,
concentration of nitrates, very low levels of free residual chlorine and
bacteriological contamination of faecal origin remain as major problems of water
quality at the output of the water treatment plant. Subsequently, water quality in the
distribution network has the same deviations from the quality standards, with the
mention that the level of nitrates in the network records a significantly higher value
(78.25 mg/l). Hazardous substances (toxic) were not identified in the collected
water, other than nitrates, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene,
pesticides, heavy metals, etc. The results allow us to appreciate that at the time of
sampling, water was chemically and bacteriologically undrinkable and the

271
efficiency of the denitrification station was null (unchanged value of nitrates
exiting the water treatment plant compared to the raw water), as well as that of
chlorination. Reproducing the water analysis for nitrates after regeneration of the
denitrification filters shows that the level of nitrates decreases by 15.1% after the
denitrification process, the value at the output of the water treatment plant framing
within normal limits.

3.4. Risk assessment

A. Water source – drain
Risk identification
The following parametric risks were identified at Luna catchment front:
nitrates and bacteriological contamination.
Health risk assessment
Characterization of the source and catchment – The drain location in an
exploited agricultural area long before drilling is a major hazard. In the given
situation, the hydrogeological survey shows that soil is not a protective barrier for
the drain that captures the raw water. The sanitary protection areas are not formed
properly, on the basis of professional studies, as the perimeter with restriction
regime is lacking.
Data resulting from water monitoring
The risk generated by the chemical and bacteriological contaminants at
Luna catchment front is determined by different risks for each contaminant: risk of
nitrate poisoning and epidemiological risk regarding occurrence of waterborne
infectious diseases.
On the basis of the risk assessment matrix, a risk score 20 (major
consequences) was set for the water source, which implies an urgent operational
action and a probable capital investment necessary at the water treatment plant.

B. Treatment process
Risk identification depending on the treatment steps
Denitrification and chlorination are the water treatment methods at Luna
water treatment plant. Denitrification has a variable efficiency. Chlorination is too
low related to the water bacteriological quality and standards in force that provide
0.5 mg/l free residual chlorine at the output of the water treatment plant. There
have not been identified high levels of THM. Bacteriological contamination is
present inconstantly.
Health risk assessment
High levels of nitrates were found inconstantly, having the possibility of
generating acute and chronic poisoning. Periodical bacteriological contamination
can cause the occurrence of waterborne infectious diseases.
On the basis of the risk assessment matrix, a risk score 8 (minor
consequences) was set for the water treatment plant, which implies an operational
action and a probable capital investment necessary at the water treatment plant.

272
 C. Distribution network
Risk identification
The following parametric risks were identified: nitrates si bacteriological
contamination, both inconstant.
Health risk assessment
The risk score is 8 (minor consequences), which implies an operational
action and a probable capital investment necessary at the water treatment plant.
In individual or social context, homeostasis requirements impose risk
management, that implies adoption of measures either for reducing or accepting an
undesirable outcome (Jardine et all 2003).
Thus, by means of modern risk management, they are transferred from the
"minimum area" in the "optimal acceptability area”, where risks are slightly higher
and the overall social costs are kept to more acceptable levels. In a growing extent,
however, public training and participation are necessary for the compliance with
the legislation process, prevention of diseases and avoiding environmental damage.

3.5. Aspects of noninfectious and infectious water-related pathology

Among the chemicals possible present in the drinking water, some represent
special interest, such as those having toxic or carcinogenic effects.
Nitrates are inorganic compounds characterized by high solubility in water.
Major sources of nitrates in drinking water are fertilizers, sewage and animal
manure. Nitrates also occur naturally in the environment, mineral deposits, soil, sea
water, fresh water systems and in the atmosphere (Shuval et al. 1992). Sufficient
high concentrations of nitrates in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia in
infants, also called "blue baby syndrome". Healthy adults do not develop
methemoglobinemia at levels of nitrates in drinking water that place infants at risk.
The only non-carcinogenic effect known determined by nitrates is
methemoglobinemia. No other non-carcinogenic effect following chronic exposure
has not been demonstrated and there is no valid evidence that nitrates and nitrites
can cause cancer in the absence of amine-containing substances (ATSDR 2010,
Ritter et al. 2002, Mesinga et al. 2003).
In 2004-2007, considering the requirements of the EC Directive,
delimitation of vulnerable areas imposed the extension of areas declared as
vulnerable, including potentially vulnerable areas, to 58% of the country’s surface
(European Commission 2010). Studies performed in Transylvania showed that
nitrates pollution of the groundwater in Niraj River Basin is a major concern and an
important issue, in 43% of the sampled wells nitrate concentrations exceeded EU
standards (50 mg/l), the main cause of groundwater pollution with nitrates being
due to agricultural practices and untreated household water (Hajdu 2007).
The vast majority of water-related diseases are transmissible (LeChevallier
and Au K-K 2004, Craun et al. 2006). Diarrheal disease alone amounts to an
estimated 4.1% of the total disability-adjusted life years of the global burden of
disease and is responsible for the deaths of 1.8 million people every year (WHO
2004, Havelaar et al. 2003). It was estimated that 88% of that burden is attributable

273
to unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene and is mostly concentrated in
children in developing countries (WHO, 2004). In Romania also, the major risk
deriving from the drinking water quality is the microbiological one, and consists
essentially in causing water-related diseases - epidemics, endemics or isolated
diseases of causes associated with ingestion of water contaminated with human and
animal excrements.

3.6. Compliance plan for preventing effects

Subsequent to hazard identification and risk assessment the compliance
plan for preventing effects targets the source, treatment process, distribution
network and health status indicators:
 Organizing the sanitary protection perimeter with restriction regime.
 Technical maintenance of drain manholes in perfect condition in order to
avoid the aquifer contamination
 Reconsidering the water treatment process. With reference to the
chlorination station that does not operate/is not properly exploited.
Maintainance of denitrification filters in proper operation (washing for
regeneration) so that the filter efficiency is at least 40%
 Monitoring of health indicators related to water quality as the incidence
and spatial distribution of acute diarrheal disease

4. CONCLUSIONS

The main risk identified at source was the significant water contamination
with nitrates, the results did not show temporally changes of the raw water quality
(drain) in terms of nitrates. Presence of nitrates in excess in Luna water source is of
mixed origin, predominantly telluric net and accentuated anthropogenic due to
agricultural practices in the area. In this sense, evolution of bacterial load was
significantly related to the drain positioning in an intensively exploited agricultural
area, the important increase of contamination being due to manure application on
upstream lands.
Similar to the source, two hazards were identified at the output of the water
treatment plant and in the distribution network: contamination with nitrates and
bacteriological contamination of fecal origin, the latter as a consequence of a
completely inadequate chlorination.
As qualitatively characterized on the basis of monitoring, water in the
distribution network of Luna locality represents low health risks for small
population groups (risk score 8).
The risk assessment and management cannot be based on epidemiological
data, which are not sufficiently conclusive, following intervention through special
actions, provided by law, in case of source quality deterioration or contamination
incidents in the network sectors.

274
 The compliance plan for preventing effects targets the source, treatment
process, distribution network and health status indicators. Changing the water
source is not required but adjustment of the water treatment process is.
Also, actions are required in terms of public relations (social marketing
activities) and risk communication.

REFERENCES

1. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2010) Case Studies in
Environmental Medicine Nitrate/Nitrite Toxicity, available at
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/nitrate/
2. Craun GF, Calderon RL, and J. Wade TJ. (2006). Assessing waterborne risks: an
introduction, Journal of Water and Health, 04.Suppl.2.2006.
3. European Commission (2010) Commission staff working document on
implementation of Council Directive 91/676/EEC concerning the protection of
waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources based on
Member State reports for the period 2004-2007. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
water/water-nitrates/pdf/swd.pdf
4. Hajdu Z, Füleky G, (2007) Distribution of nitrate pollution in the Niraj (Nyarad)
River Basin, Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2, 2, 57 - 72
5. Havelaar AH,Melse JM (2003) Quantifying public health risks in the WHO
Guidelines for drinking-water quality: A burden of disease approach. Bilthoven.
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM Report
734301022/2003).
6. Jardine C, Hrudley S, Shortreed J, Craig L, Krewski D, Furgal C, McColl S,
(2003)- Risk management frameworks for human health and environmental risks.
J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev, 6, 569-720.
7. LeChevallier MW, Au K-K (2004) Water treatment and pathogen control:
Process efficiency in achieving safe drinking-water. Geneva, World Health
Organization and IWA.
8. Mensinga TT, Speijers GJA, Meulenbelt J. (2003) Health implications of
exposure to environmental nitrogenous compounds. Toxicol Rev; 22(1):41-51.
9. Ritter L, Solomon K, Sibley P, Hall K, Kenn P, Mattu G, Lindon B, (2002)
Sources, pathways, and relative risks of contaminants in surface water and
groundwater: a perspective prepared for the Walkerton inquiry. J. Toxicol.
Environ. Health. A, 11, 65, 1-142
10. Schmoll O et al. (2006) Protecting groundwater for health: Managing the quality
of drinking-water sources. London, IWA Publishing, on behalf of the World
Health Organization.
11. Shuval HI, Gruener N. (1992) Epidemiological and toxicological aspects of
nitrates and nitrites in the environment. Am J Public Health; 62(8):1045-52
12. Summerhill C, Smith J, Webster J and Pollard S, (2010) An international review
of the challenges associated with securing buy-in for water safety plans within
providers of drinking water supplies, Journal of Water and Health, 8, 387–390.
13. WHO (2004) Water Sanitation and Health (WSH). Burden of diseases and cost-
effectiveness estimates. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/
diseases/burden/en
14. WHO (2005) Water Safety Plans Managing drinking-water quality from
catchment to consumer.

275
 DEPOSITION OF SULPHUR AND NITROGEN VIA RAINWATER
(CASE STUDY - the administrative territory of the Hincesti district)
1
RAISA LOZAN , ANATOL TĂRÎŢĂ1, RAISA ZACASOVSCHI1

ABSTRACT - Deposition of Sulphur and Nitrogen from rainwater (case

study – the administrative territory of the Hincesti district)*. The quantitative
estimation of rainfall and determination of their chemical composition (samples
collected in open area and under the canopy) lead to periodic assessment of the
annual flow of ions and mineral deposits of sulfur and nitrogen oxide in the
atmosphere. In accordance with agreed European Scale for assessing levels of
atmospheric deposition it can be appreciated that the study area (Hincesti, central
part of Moldova) in 2006-2010 corresponds to the class of large sulfur deposits,
varying from 14.9 kg/ha/year (2009) to 24.8 kg/ha/year (2010). Quantities
referring to study area recorded intermediate values – 16.8 kg/ha/year and 22.4
kg/ha/year respectively for the years 2007 and 2008.
A comparison between annual average values of sulfur deposition recorded in
open area at European level in the period 2006-2010 lies in the study area
comparable to the central-eastern Europe region, exceeding 60% of the average. In
relation to this scale deposition of total nitrogen (from nitrate ion and ammonium
ion) are small-sized deposits in the area, with averages ranging from 2.2 to 4.3
kg/ha/year N-NO3- and 7.2-9.3 kg/ha/year for N-NH4+. There are slight oscillations
of annual averages from year to year that do not exceed 0.6 kg/ha/year.

Keywords: air pollution, rainfall, sulfur and nitrogen deposition, heavy metals,
mineral ion flows and hydrogen ion.

1. INTRODUCTION
During the 2006-2010 study period 522 samples of wet deposition were
collected and analyzed, including 429 in the form of rain, 55 - sleet and snow for
determination of 14 indicators (pH, alkalinity, acidity, PO43-, NO2-, NO3-, NH4+, Cl-,
HCO3-, SO42-, fixed residue, Ca2+, Mg2+), including organic component and load
with pollutants (Lasse (1989); Patroiescu (1980); Stum and Morgan (1981)).
Checkpoints throughout the years were as follows: –Ecological Stationary -
Hîncesti (permanent); Leova Environmental Inspection (temporary); Ecological
Stationary – Recea (in the northen part of the republic) and Chisinau Weather
Station (temporary).

2. EVALUATION METHODS, WORK METHODOLOGY

Analysis methods of physical-chemical parameters of water from rainfall,
and research methodology, as well as models of calculation are recommended by

1
Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova, email: rmlozan@yahoo.com

276
the European Environment Agency (EAA) and the Convention on Long Range
Tran boundary Pollution (CLRTP).
Ionic balance method, calculated by comparing the measured conductivity,
analysis of at least two synthetic samples in each series of 30 samples to verify the
accuracy of measurement were used to check validity of the obtained results.
Samples of dust, wet deposition (rain, snow and sleet) were collected
according to the methods described in EMEP EEA Guidebook 2009 revision.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Comparing the evolution of quantitative rainfall in the study area a rather

large fluctuation has been noticed, from 4 mm (minimum quantity, April 2009) to
193 mm (maximum, June 2009, 2010). 70-85% of rainfall fell during warm period
(April-November) remaining quantity is refer to cold period (December-March).
The average annual rainfall ranged from 353 mm (2007) to 747 mm (2010). The
average annual rainfall between 400-700 mm (24-41%) is the most common
amount (Fig. 1,2).

Fig.1. Quantitative characteristics Fig. 2. Evolution of the monthly amount of

of rainfall during 2007 - 2010, (Hîncesti) rainfall and mineralization of rainwater,
(Leova, 2007)

The dynamics of air masses determines the maximum annual variation of

rainfall in the warm season (193 mm in June) and a minimum in the cold season (20
mm in January). Annual maximum occurred almost always in hot months (Fig. 3).
The concentration of hydrogen ions (pH) has values ranging from 4.3 to
8.0. pH values indicate how much substances that cause acidity or alkalinity of
water from rainfall are contained and can characterize the aggressive properties of
water and the impact on the environment factors (natural waters, soil, vegetation)
(Fig. 4).
The annual flux of hydrogen ions in this period was between 45-52g
H+/ha/year (Fig.5). Maximum monthly amount of hydrogen ions reached 54 g
H+/ha, and the minimum 3g H+/ha under the canopy, while in open area this
quantity was 17.0 and 1.3 g H+/ha. Hydrogen ion flux ranging from 0.07 to 1.17
g/ha under the canopy and 0.03 to 0.37 g/ha in open area, which leads to
intensification of soil acidification, increasing of ion exchange capacity and as a

277
result to soil degradation. Evaluation of annual and periodic flux of mineral ions in
the atmosphere is based on quantitative rainfall estimation and determination of its
chemical composition. Obtained comparative results are given in fig.6

Fig.3. Evolution of the monthly amount of Fig.4. Distribution (%) of water samples
rainfall, (Hîncesti, 2010) according pH index

Total annual flux of mineral ions with rainfall in open area ranged from
132 kg/ha/year (2008) to 212 kg/ha/year (2010), being a function of the quantity of
rainfall and concentration of mineral ions, which in turn depends on the
accumulation of solid deposits, the origin and chemical parameters of deposition
(Cojocaru (1995); Gavrilescu (2004); Logan (1999).
Following from obtained results an experimental model for interpreting
flow of ions in forest ecosystem, capturing rainfall under canopy was proposed.

Fig. 5. Hydrogen ions flux with rainfall Fig. 6. Mineral ion flux from rainfall
* - were selected 2-3 days with rainfall in (open area)
these months

Obtained results show the following:

- Loading in mineral ions (expressed in mineralization) of the rainwater
collected under canopy is much higher than that of rainwater in the open area,
which indicates the high degree of accumulation of dry deposition of the canopy in
the interval between two drops of rain;
- Retention degree of rainfall by the canopy has values between 2-33%,
being a function of the rainfall character (heavy, quiet). In periods of low rainfall,
maximum retention by the canopy has exceeded 30%;

278
 - Nitrogen compounds (ammonium ion, nitrate, nitrite) are found in
rainwater in amounts that vary widely: for ammonium ions (N-NH4+ ) - from 1.35
to 4.30 mg/dm3 (open area) and 2.1 – 7.8 mg/dm3 (canopy); for nitrogen (N-NO3- )
- from 1.35 to 6.7 mg/dm3 (open area) and 2.9 to 13.6 mg/dm3 (canopy); for
nitrogen (N-NO2- ) – 0.02 – 0.25 mg/dm3 (open area) and canopy 0.043 to 0.38
mg/dm3.
Under the canopy all these parameters recorded higher values, which is
explained by the active pursuit of the processes of decomposition of organic
substances (ammonium appearance) and its microbial oxidation (occurrence of
nitrates) in the natural nitrogen cycle: organic matter (protein complex) - amino
acid - ammonia - nitrogen. Active response from rainwater reaches pH values
ranging from 4.5 to 8.2.
Analyzing data on sulfur and nitrogen deposition compared with the scale
for different regions of Europe it can be noticed that the study area (Hincesti) in
2006-2010 corresponds to the class of large sulfur deposits, varying from 14.9
kg/ha/year (2009) to 24.8 kg/ha/year (2010). For the years 2007-2008 sulfur and
nitrogen deposition recorded intermediate values – 16.8 kg/ha/year and 22.4
kg/ha/year respectively (Fig.7).
A comparison between annual average values of sulfur deposition recorded
in open area at European level in the period 2006-2010 lies in the study area
comparable to the central-eastern Europe region, exceeding 60% of the average. In
relation to this scale deposition of total nitrogen (from nitrate ion and ammonium
ion) are small-sized deposits in the area, with average values ranging from 2.2 to
4.3 kg/ha/year N-NO3- and 7.2 to 9.3 kg/ha/year for N-NH4+. There are slight
oscillations of annual averages from year to year that do not exceed 0.6 kg/ha/year.

Fig.7. Sulfur and mineral nitrogen flux Fig. 8. The contribution of lead in soil
(Hîncesti) from rainfall
Besides the main constituents (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, HCO3-, SO42-, Cl-) some
more constituents of the secondary and minor were determined (Cr, Cd, Zn, Pb,
Cu, Fe, Al), which indicated small amounts (0.0001 to 0.1 mg/dm3), but may have
a point of considerable importance of atmospheric pollution (Schmidt and Andern
(1980); Kondratiev (2004). The results of the heavy metal content (minor
constituents) have values that fall within acceptable limits, except Pb, which
exceeds the contents of the health index (30 mg/kg) (Fig.8).

279
 The main source of air pollution is the combustion processes in order to
obtain electricity, heating or different industrial processes.
Acidifying greenhouse gases in the atmosphere result from different
activities and may persist for several hours to several days in the atmosphere, and
can be transported hundreds of miles away from the place of production. To
determine the air emissions, four basic methods are used, each with advantages,
disadvantages and limitations of use.
These are: measurement of emissions, emissions balances determination by
determining correlations and emission factors based on emission characteristics.
During the field research we used a single method - systematic measurement of
emissions is measured using a chain of appropriate measurements of the
concentration of various substances in harmful emissions. The most widespread
application of this method is monitoring of gas emitting sources from a fixed point
(ecological stationary Hincesti)
In particular, concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen (NO2) are
continuously measured. Measurements of the sulfur dioxide concentration and
nitrogen emissions have been made continuously and give the possibility to
estimate annual average values of these gases in the emissions (Fig. 9, 10).

Fig.9. Evolution of monthly average Fig.10. Evolution of monthly average

concentrations of sulfur dioxide, concentrations of nitrogen dioxide,
(Hincesti, 2010) (Hincesti, 2010)

It can be seen that values for gaseous pollutants track were well below the
limits set by current standards. There were no exceedances of the limit value (60
µg/m³ for SO2 and 40 µg/m³ for NO2) in comparison with the limit value for SO2
and NO2 in the years 2007 - 2010. Annual averages are ranging from 2 µg/m³ and 7
µg/m³ for SO2 and between 3 µg/m³ and 9 µg/m³ for NO2.
Air pollution study involves description and explanation of the origin of
pollutants and predicts the behavior of substances emitted into the atmosphere.
These substances are transported by wind and mixed into the atmosphere by the
phenomena of turbulence and sometimes land area involved and deposited by
rainfall. Turbulence is actually responsible for the dispersion of pollutants in the
area. The diffusion of atmospheric meteorological factors that have a direct
influence is wind, vertical structure of temperature and humidity and rainfall.

280
 Processes to reduce the pollutant content are: 1. washing by rain - wet
deposition; 2. uptake by soil particles - solid deposits; 3. chemical transformations
of pollutants (Atkinson (1980); Logan (1999).
It was established that dispersion of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere
is weak due to: low wind speed (2.2 m/s) and high frequency of calm (51%).
Wind direction in the study area is influenced by the general appearance of
the landscape. Prevailing winds show western component SW, W, NW, 25%, 13%
and 27%. General circulation of the atmosphere requires a moderate frequency of
winds from the N (13%), NE (9%) and E (4%). The lowest annual frequencies
were S and SE winds (2.2 to 6.7%). Comparative analysis between different years
shows permanent dominance of the western component, which reached 61-65%
(Fig. 11, 12).

Fig.11. Distribution (%) on the direction Fig.12. Distribution (%) on the direction
of frontal air masses (2006) of frontal air masses (2010).

4. CONCLUSIONS

1. Ion charge in rainfall is very different, being based on various factors,

such as: the origin of air masses, the degree of purity and the crossed area in which
rainfall occurs. Total annual flux of mineral ions with rainfall in open area ranged
from 132 kg/ha/year (2008) to 212 kg/ha/year (2010), being a function of the
rainfall quantity and concentration of mineral ions, which in turn depends on the
accumulation of solid deposits, the origin and chemical parameters of deposition;
2. The degree of retention of rainfall in the canopy has values ranging
between 2-33%, depending on the rainfalls character (heavy, quiet). In periods of
low rainfall, maximum retention in the canopy has exceeded 30%;
3. Sulfur and nitrogen deposition compared with the scale for different
regions of Europe in 2006-2010 corresponds to the class of large sulfur deposits,
varying from 14.9 kg/ha/year (2009) to 24.8 kg/ha/year (2010). Quantities referring
to study area recorded intermediate values – 16.8 kg/ha/year and 22.4 kg/ha/year
respectively for the years 2007 and 2008. Total nitrogen deposition (N-NO3- and
N-NH4+) is in the reduced-sized deposits with average values ranging from 2.2 to
4.3 kg/ha/year N-NO3-and 7.2 to 9.3 kg/ha/year for N-NH4+ ;

281
 4. Dispersion of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere is poor, due to low
wind speeds and high frequency of calm. Comparative analysis between different
years shows that western dominance is frequently, reaching 61-65%;
5. Correlation between the direction of air masses and the evolution of the
ions content in rain waters has been emphasized. It was established, where the
predominance of western component of rainfall, pH is between 5.6 to 6.7, to the
south - between 6.65 to 6.85, to the north-north-east – 5.8 to 5.9. Mineral ion
content is also higher when air masses “comes” from western and eastern
directions. These results indicate on transboundary pollution, which plays a
significant role in the pollution of the atmospheric air both in studied area and the
republic as a whole;
6. The content of heavy metals (minor constituents) has values that fall
within acceptable limits except Pb, which exceeds the contents of the health index
(30 mg/kg).

REFERENCES

1. Atkinson B. (1981), Mesoscale atmospheric circulations. N-J, , 496 p.

2. Cojocaru I. (1995), Surse, procese şi produse de poluare. Iaşi, Junimea, 190 p.
3. Gavrilescu M., ş.a. (2004), Reducerea poluanţilor la sursă şi minimizarea
deşeurilor. Iaşi, ed. Ecozone, 220 p.
4. Коndratiev L..М. (2004), Ecological risk of water ecosystems pollution. Vladivostok,
5. Lассе Г.Ф. (1989), Clima Moldovei. Л., 372 с.
6. Logan B.E. (1999), Environmental Transport Processes. New York, 240 p
7. R.Lozan, A. Tărîţă, M. Sandu. (2008), Fluxurile de ioni minerali şi metale grele
pe sol cu apele din precipitaţii. Buletinul AŞM, seria Ştiinţele vieţii, nr. 3, p.153-
158.
8. Pătroescu, I. Gănescu. (1980), Analiza apelor. Craiova, 345 p.
9. Stum, W., Morgan, J.J., (1981), Aquatic chemistry, an introduction Emphasizing
Chemical Equilibrium in Natural Water, 2-nd edition, John Wiley and sons, inc.
10. Schmidt J., Andren A. The atmospheric chemistry of nickel. In: Nickel in the
environment (L.O. Nriagu, ed) pp 94-

282
 SPATIAL VARIATION OF STREAM POWER IN
THE BUZĂU AND IALOMIŢA RIVER CATCHMENTS (ROMANIA)

G. MINEA1, G. IOANA-TOROIMAC1, L. ZAHARIA1,

R. ZAREA2, M. BORCAN3

ABSTRACT. - Spatial variation of stream power in the Buzău and Ialomiţa

River Catchments (Romania). Stream power is a parameter that quantifies river
energy, respectively its work ability. The aim of this paper is to estimate the
stream power of rivers from the Buzău and Ialomiţa catchments and to present the
difficulties in calculating and interpreting its variation. Cross-sections
accomplished by the National Administration "Romanian Waters" were used in
fulfilling this objective, at hydrometric stations on the Ialomiţa, Prahova, Buzău,
Bâsca Chiojdului and Bâsca Rivers. Based on these profiles, and using hydraulic
methods, parameters like flow velocity, discharge and stream power were
calculated. Analysis results indicate that the rivers draining the Carpathian and
Subcarpathian regions are dynamic. They have a specific stream power of more
than 150 W/m² and are susceptible to rapid evolution. In the Romanian Plain rivers
are less energetic (a specific stream power below 40 W/m², excluding river sectors
with braided trends and incised channels). Also they are characterized by a less
intensive dynamic.

Keywords: stream power, bankfull discharge, river channel, Buzău River

catchment, Ialomiţa River catchment.

1. INTRODUCTION

Stream power is a parameter that quantifies river energy, respectively its

work ability (Bagnold, 1960).
Previous research show the usefulness of this parameter for the analysis of
sediment transport capacity (Bagnold, 1960; Allen, 1977) and processes regarding
the river channel morphology (Ferguson, 1981, 1987), especially its instability and
bank erosion (Brookes, 1987), to characterise the floods (Baker and Costa, 1987)
and for hydromorphological classifications (Schmitt, 2000).
In this context, this paper intends to be an exercise for estimating the
stream power of some Romanian rivers, to show the spatial variation of this

1
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, no 1. N. Balcescu Blvd., District 1, RO‐010041
Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: gabriel.minea@gmail.com, gabriela_toroimac@yahoo.com,
zaharialil@yahoo.com
2
“Romanian Waters” National Administration, Buzău – Ialomiţa Water Catchment Administration,
no. 20 bis Bucegi St., RO‐120208, Buzău, Romania, e-mail: razvan_zarea@yahoo.com
3
National Institute of Hydrology and Water Management, no. 97 Bucuresti – Ploiesti Road, District
1, RO‐013686, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: bmihaela1978@yahoo.com

283
parameter on one hand, and the difficulties related to its estimation and its
interpretation on the other hand.
After a brief presentation of the study area, data and used methods are
shown, insisting on explaining the choices made in order to apply the formula for
stream power. The obtained results first refer to stream power variations, and
second to its hydrogeomorphological significance.

2. FIELD STUDY

This example of stream power calculation is applied on the Ialomiţa and

Buzău River catchments, on the homonymous rivers and their tributaries: Prahova
for Ialomiţa; Bâsca and Bâsca Chiojdului for Buzău (Table 1).
Two reasons underlie the choice of the study area. Firstly the two river
catchments extend over several relief units with different characteristics (the
Curvature Carpathians, the Curvature Subcarpathians and the Romanian Plain),
which highlights a stream power variation, depending on the morphological
characteristics of these relief units. Secondly, the analysis gets more interesting
because of the neotectonic movements affecting the active region of the external
Curvature of the Carpathians (Polonic, 2006), that could complicate the river
processes on a long-term scale.

Table 1. Morphometrical features of the studied rivers and their catchments

(according to data from Atlasul cadastrului apelor din România, 1992)
Data about
river catchment
River
L H (m) Ir A Hm
Cs
(km) source confluence (‰) (km2) (m)
Ialomiţa 417 2310 6 15 1.88 10350 327
Prahova 193 1100 56 5 1.24 3738 541
Buzău 302 1250 8 4 2.27 5264 505
Bâsca Chiojdului 42 1340 239 26 1.28 340 668
Bâsca 76 1510 395 15 1.65 783 110
L = length, H = altitude, Ir = river slope, Cs = sinuosity coefficient, A = area, H m = mean altitude.

3. DATA AND METHODOLOGY

Bagnold (1960) deduces that the stream power (Ω) corresponds to the
transformation of flow potential energy into kinetic energy, and proposes the next
formula (1):

(1)
where:
Ω represents the stream power (W/m);
ρ is the water density that is equal to 1000 g/cm3;
g is the gravitational acceleration equal to 9.8 m/s²;
Q (m3/s) is the liquid discharge and
I (m/km) is the water slope.

284
 Specific stream power (ω), shown in formula (2), represents the
distribution of the stream power per unit of width of the river bed (Bagnold, 1977),
and is used for comparisons between river beds with different sizes (Ferguson,
1981):

(2)

where:
ω (W/m²) is the specific stream power;
Ω (W/m) is the stream power and
b (m) is the width of the river bed.

The intermediate parameters of these formulas were calculated based on

the cross-sections made by the "Romanian Waters" National Administration (2010)
at hydrometric stations (Figure 1), and on individual field observations. The choice
of the hydrometric stations (h.s.) and of the analyzed transverse profiles depends on
their availability from the database of the mentioned institution.

Data are obtained from processed GIS after topographic maps (scale 1:25,000)

Figure 1. Location of the studied hydrometrical station:

1 = Ialomiţa at Târgovişte h.s., 2 = Ialomiţa at Băleni-Români h.s., 3 = Ialomiţa at Siliştea Snagov h.s., 4 =
Ialomiţa at Coşereni h.s., 5 = Ialomiţa at Slobozia h.s., 6 = Prahova at Buşteni h.s., 7 = Prahova at Câmpina
h.s., 8 = Prahova at Halta Prahova h.s., 9 = Prahova at Adâncata h.s., 10 = Buzău at Nehoiu h.s., 11 = Buzău
at Măgura h.s., 12 = Buzău at Baniţa h.s., 13 = Bâsca Chiojdului at Chiojdu h.s., 14 = Bâsca at Comandău h.s.,
15 = Bâsca at Varlaam I h.s., 16 = Bâsca at Bâsca Roziliei h.s. and 17 = Bâsca Mică at Varlaam II h.s.

Depending on the use of stream power in various types of analysis, the

discharge used in this formula may have certain significations. It can be a
maximum discharge with recurrences probability or a peak discharge reached

285
during a flood. In order to characterize the river bed, the discharge taken into
consideration in this paper corresponds to the bankfull discharge; it is also
considered the most significant discharge in fluvial geomorphology (Astrade and
Bravard, 1999). For this purpose, firstly, the bank full level is determined and then
the parameters used in the stream power formula are calculated.

3.1. Low-flow channel delimitation

Low-flow channel delimitation is based on cross-sections at hydrometric

stations, and on field observations. The difficulty was to establish the channel
banks. Two criteria were taking into account: topographic and vegetation criteria,
which complete one another.
From topographically point of view, in most cases, the bank would be the
connection between the river bed and the floodplain. But if the floodplain is
missing, and there is a direct transition from the river bed to the terrace or slope,
this criterion can’t be applied.
Therefore, this criterion is supplemented by the vegetation one: the bank
limit corresponds to the transition from alluvial bed (or rock bed) to vegetation.
This criterion is secondary and strongly dependent on flow and phenophase
variations (e.g. during flooding the riparian vegetation of the floodplain can be
covered by alluviation).
Also if the two banks are not symmetrical, the less high bank is taken into
account, so that both sides of the floodplain will not be flooded. After that the
bank-full is drawn, which joins the two banks and it’s relatively parallel to the
water surface.

3.2. Estimation of the hydraulic parameters of the river bed

After the delimitation of the river bed, its morphometric parameters are
estimated based on the same cross-sections. The bankfull discharge is estimated on
the Manning-Strickler, formula (3), according to Navratil (2005):

(3)

where:
S is the cross-sectional area taken into account (in m2);
k is a constant equal to 1 in the International System of Measures Units;
R is the hydraulic radius equal to the ratio between cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter
(in m);
I is the slope of water surface (in m/m)(value that was measured during the transverse
profiles attainment, and which doesn’t corresponds necessarily to the bank-full),
n is the roughness coefficient calculated based on the formula of Strickler (4) according to
grain size d50 or estimated on the existing tables:

286
 (4)

where:
n is the Strickler roughness coefficient and
d50 , the median bed-material grain size (in mm).

For the hydrometric stations along the Prahova River, d50 granulometry
was measured using a quadrant of 1 m2, positioned near the main river bed, at a
depth of 10 cm. The measurement of the gravel and cobbles was done by using a
calliper. On the field, sand and clay particles were separated using sieves. Their
mass was estimated using a balance. For precision, some sand and gravel samples
were transported and re-examined in the Geomorphology Laboratory of the Lille
University 1.

4. RESULTS

4.1. Bank-full discharge

The values of the bank-full discharge and of the stream power (Table 2) are
characteristic for the moment of the cross-sections attainment and can vary because
of the river dynamics, especially during floods. Moreover, Rădoane and Rădoane
(2009) show vertical instability of the channels from the Eastern Carpathians
rivers, and Ioana – Toroimac (2009) and Ioana – Toroimac et al. (2010) notes the
river bed narrowing of the Prahova River.
In the case of the rivers and h.s. studied, the bank-full discharge generally
increases from upstream to downstream, due to the location of most of the h.s. in
areas of stable and single river beds. An exception is the Băleni - Români h.s. on
Ialomiţa River where bank-full discharge is 430 m3/s, higher than the bank-full
discharge at Siliştea Snagovului h.s. (224 m3/s); this fact is explained by the river’s
tendency to braid at Băleni - Români h.s.
The bank-full discharge can be used, in some cases, for the flood risk
management. For example the bank-full of Prahova River at h.s. Adâncata
corresponds to flooding stage (defined as the level at which begins the flooding of
the first socio-economical facility, according to Dobrot and Stănescu, 2002).
In case of the Buzău River at Baniţa h.s. the same situation is not valid,
because the channel seems to be strongly incised and the bank-full stage is higher
than the flooding stage, drawn for the downstream sector. For this reason the
discharge corresponding to the flooding level was calculated using the same
method.

287
 Table 2. Hydraulic parameters of the river beds*,
stream powers and specific stream powers for the studied rivers
River/ Data of the
Relief S I Q Ω b ω
hydrometric cross-
unit (m²) (‰) (m3/s) (W/m) (m) (W/m²)
station sections
Ialomiţa at
28.07.2009 91 1 197 1930 52 37
Târgovişte
Ialomiţa at
Băleni -Români Romanian 09.10.2009 102 3,5 430 14749 58 254
Ialomiţa at Plain
09.09.2009 92 0,5 224 1098 35 31
Siliştea Snagov
Ialomiţa at Coşereni 02.10.2009 109 0,4 265 1039 57 18
Ialomiţa at Slobozia 25.09.2009 332 0,1 794 778 62 13
Prahova at Buşteni
29.03.2006 23 7,6 50 3724 16 233
(natural)
Carpathian
Prahova at Buşteni
29.03.2006 53 7,6 175 13034 17 767
(arrangement)
Prahova at Câmpina Sub-
16.01.2006 102 5,5 233 12559 50 251
carpathian
Prahova
27.02.2006 164 0,8 290 2274 48 47
at Halta Prahova Romanian
Prahova la Plain
05.01.2006 166 0,5 278 1362 58 23
Adâncata
Buzău at Nehoiu Carpathian 24.09.2009 61 8,2 131 10527 45 234
Buzău at Măgura Subcarpathian03.09.2009 162 3,4 305 10163 71 143
Buzău at Baniţa - 406 0,7 1020 6997 109 64
Romanian
Buzău at Baniţa
Plain - 210 0,7 369 2531 97 26
(flooding stage)
Bâsca Chiojdului
Subcarpathian13.07.2009 85 15,1 280 41434 49 846
at Chiojdu
Bâsca at Comandău 26.07.2009 46 3,4 51 1699 21 81
Bâsca at Varlaam I 24.09.2009 28 20,1 86 16940 22 770
Bâsca at
Carpathian 24.09.2009 81 8,6 217 18289 39 469
Bâsca Roziliei
Bâsca Mică at
24.09.2009 28 17,2 77 12979 24 541
Varlaam II
S = cross-section area; I = water slope; Q = bankfull discharge; Ω = stream power; b = bank-full width; ω = specific
stream power.
*calculated from cross-sections at hydrometric stations from "Romanian Waters" National Administration.

4.2. Spatial variation of the stream power on relief units

Regarding the spatial variation of the specific stream power, the first
observation refers to the general decrease of its value from upstream to
downstream, in close dependency with decreasing of slope value and grain size.
In the Carpathians and Subcarpathians areas the specific stream power is
superior to 150 W/m². The highest values are given by the water slope high value
(15-20 m/km) at Varlaam I h.s. and Varlaam II h.s. on Bâsca and Bâsca Mică
Rivers, and Chiojdu h.s. on Bâsca Chiojdului River.
These high values of the stream power are shown by the high competence
of the rivers. For example, in the middle and lower part of the Bâsca River

288
Catchment, the high competence is demonstrated by the boulders, cobbles, gravels
deposits, stocked and sorted, from the riverbeds (Photo 1), and by the
hydrogeomorphological effects of floods on riverbeds and slopes.
Only one hydrometric station makes an exception: Comandău h.s. on
Bâsca River, which is characterized by a specific stream power of 81 W/m². This is
due to the relatively low slope of water surface (3.5 m/km), crossing the Comandău
Depression.
Another particular case is the Prahova River at Buşteni h.s., for which the
stream power is estimated in two situations: the real situation where the right bank
is changed by the human actions (protected by concrete slabs; Photo 1) and the
reconstructed situation with the natural right bank, based on field observations in
order to have an image of the river natural dynamics for comparisons with other
rivers.
In the Romanian Plain, the specific stream power values at hydrometric
stations varies between 13 and 40 W/m², decreasing from upstream to downstream.
Two stations make an exception: Baniţa h.s. on Buzău River and Băleni – Români
h.s. on Ialomiţa River:
- at Baniţa h.s., the river bed is characterized by a specific power stream of
64 W/m², high value compared with those noted above, due to channel
incision; if the bankfull is replaced by the flooding level, then specific
stream power is 26 W/m²;
- at Băleni – Români h.s., specific stream power is 254 m3/s; this high value
is explained by the channel’s tendency to braid on this area, indicating the
need to consider, in future research, this particularly sectors of the rivers
crossing the Romanian Plain.

Photo 1. Differences between the granulometry of the alluvial deposits on Prahova River
at Buşteni h.s.
(left; 20.X.2007) and on Bâsca River upstream of Varlaam I h.s. (right; 10.VIII.2010).

5. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The obtained results show some hydrogeomorphological features of the

studied rivers and can be a base for future research regarding river beds dynamics.

289
 According to the diagram drawn by Leopold and Wolman (1957), which
takes into account the bankfull discharge and the water surface slope, the studied
rivers tend to braid at crossing of the Carpathian and the Subcarpathian, while
crossing the Romanian Plain, they tend to meander, the exception being the Băleni
– Români h.s. on Ialomiţa River (Figure 2). Ferguson (1981, 1987), believes that a
specific stream power lower than 60 W/m² indicates less dynamic channels in
comparison to a specific stream power higher than 120 W/m² which indicates
dynamic rivers beds with a low sinuosity. According to Wasson et al. (1998), river
courses with a specific stream power below 35 W/m² react slowly (time scale of 30
years) to human adjustments (calibration, stability thresholds, etc.), while those
with a high specific stream power (over 35 W/m²) react more quickly (time scale of
10 years) to the same changes.

Figure 2. Relationship between bank-full discharge, slope water and channel pattern
according to Leopold & Wolman (1957)
1 = Ialomiţa at Târgovişte h.s., 2 = Ialomiţa at Băleni-Români h.s., 3 = Ialomiţa at Siliştea Snagov h.s., 4 =
Ialomiţa at Coşereni h.s., 5 = Ialomiţa at Slobozia h.s., 6 = Prahova at Buşteni h.s., 7 = Prahova at Câmpina
h.s., 8 = Prahova at Halta Prahova h.s., 9 = Prahova at Adâncata h.s., 10 = Buzău at Nehoiu h.s., 11 = Buzău
at Măgura h.s., 12 = Buzău at Baniţa h.s., 13 = Bâsca Chiojdului at Chiojdu h.s., 14 = Bâsca at Comandău h.s.,
15 = Bâsca at Varlaam I h.s., 16 = Bâsca at Bâsca Roziliei h.s. and 17 = Bâsca Mică at Varlaam II h.s.

In conclusion, the rivers that cross the Carpathians and the Subcarpathians
are dynamic and susceptible to easily record river bed modifications, due to
hydrotechnical works, while those crossing the Romanian Plain (except braided
sectors), are less dynamic and they react slowly to hydrotechnical works from river
beds. These results characterize the studied rivers at a small spatial scale. Therefore
we suggest improving the relevance of this type of analysis by increasing the
number of transversal profiles, especially in sectors with braided channels.

290
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Gregory Y K., River channel changes, Wiley, Chichester, 15-45.
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river influenced by neotectonics (the Saône river, France), Geodinamica Acta, 12, 1, 1-10.
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active de la Haute Prahova (Roumanie) durant les 150 dernières années. Revue
Géomorphologie: relief, processus, environnement, n°3, 275-286.
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straight, Rap. tech. US Geological Survey, US government printing office, Washington, 76.
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synthétique de la morphologie du cours d’eau pour relier le bassin versant et les habitats
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291
 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE EVOLUTION
OF THE ŞOMUZU MARE RIVER WATER QUALITY
IN THE DOLHEŞTI MONITORING SECTION

A. MĂNESCU 1, M. LUCA 2

ABSTRACT. – Considerations On The Evolution Of The Şomuzu Mare

River Water Quality In The Dolheşti Monitoring Section. The paper deals
with changes in indicators of quality physical - chemical, selected to present the
main environmental impact of existing pressures in the river Siret. The main
sources of pollution in the Siret basin are ranked according to: the impact of the
pollutant toxicity and the maximum permissible value set for the evacuated
pollutants. The study looked at water quality monitoring Siret River and it’s
tributaries in different sections of the monitoring study period was from 2009 to
2010. Based on the monitoring indicators agreed levels, grade falls into water
courses. For knowing the quality of water flowing from the Siret River Basin
during the years 2009 and 2010 were collected from river water samples Şomuzu
Mare Dolheşti city. The main sources of pollution in the catchment area have
influenced the state of its river water quality. After analyzing the variation in
quality indicators increased physical - chemical river water quality Şomuzu Mare
Dolheşti monitoring section in 2010, decreased compared with 2009, due to
nitrite indicator, inducing a weak class quality Şomuzu Mare River , falling in
the fourth grade of quality. Objectives and guidelines for water management
strategy of the Siret River Basin aimed at achieving good water quality status, as
required by the WFD.

Keywords: monitoring, quality parameters, accidental pollution, pollution

sources.

1. INTRODUCTION

The geographical areas with surface or subterranean mine exploitations

present multiple risk factors on the environment. The co-working of negative
natural factors – landslides, inundations, and earthquakes – with the artificial
ones – especially, those due to the exploitation deficiencies- can trigger the
initiation and maintaining of some destructive phenomena on the environment.
Depending on economic development in the river Siret have outlined major
sources of water pollution. These sources of pollution have led in time to create
major problems on water quality. Siret basin specific issues are: flooding,
accidental pollution, pollution of repeated users and the eutrophic sectors.

1
“Gh. Asachi” Technical University, Faculty of Hidrotechnic, Geodesy and Environmental Engineering,
Iasi, Romania, manescuandreea_85@yahoo.com,
2
“Gh. Asachi” Technical University, Iasi

292
 There is the situation of mine exploitations from the sterile burrow placed
in the mountain areas. The oil exploitation through the extraction points and
intermediary deposits placements, present a high risk for ecological disasters
triggering.
The decantation from the flowing and used water treatment ponds from the
ore preparation factories represents negative phenomena that can be transformed
into ecological disasters.
Between 1993 - 2003 there were 184 pollution incidents, with a minimum of 10
pollution in 1996 and a maximum of 28 in 2001. of the total pollution accidents
occurring in this period 46.2% were recorded Trotuş River and its tributaries,
26.1% were recorded on Bistriţa River and its tributaries, and 9.8% were registered
on the Siret River [6].
The pollutants affecting streams in most cases were 51.2% and petroleum
products 21.4% organic substances, the remaining 27.4% being represented by
ammonium, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, heavy metals, cyanides, detergents,
phosphorus suspension, ash, urea [6].

2. BACKGROUND ON THE SIRET RIVER BASIN

Romanian Siret River Basin is a system of 1013 water-course, having a

total length of 15,157 kilometers, which represents 19.2% of the total network
length encoded in the country [12].
Siret River Basin is located in the east - north-east is the largest river basin
in Romania. Siret River is the largest tributary of the Danube, with an annual
average flow at the mouth, approx. 250 m3 / s and is the largest river basin in
Romania. Siret River Basin has a total area of 44,811 km2 of which 42,890 km2
and 28,116 km2 in Romania in the administration of Directorate of Water Siret
River Area as [6].
Siret River Basin, the river sections, the situation is as follows: total length
of 4228 km monitored, 1499 km (35.5%) were classified as class I, 1658 km
(39.2%) in class II , 681 km (16.1%) grade III, 172 km (4.1%) grade IV and 218
km (5.2%) in the fifth grade [12].
Evolution of water quality in rivers Siret basin, according to STAS
4706/1998 is shown in the table. Figure 1 and table 1, including years of
monitoring from 1998 to 2002.

Table 1. Evolution of tow categories of water in the river Siret

Year (km River)
Quality class
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
I 1141 779 1063 1320 1515
II 521 846 658 309 206
III 59 96 - 60 -
Degraded 139 139 139 171 139
Total 1860 1860 1860 1860 1860

293
 Compared to the total water courses coded 78,905 km, not taking into
account the pollution due to natural background and considering the length of the
watercourses have water quality unattended I ° II shows that 1.2% of total falls in
class V, 2.4% in class fourth, 7.1% in grade III and 89.2% fall in class I and II.

1998
Cat. de calitate I
Cat. de calitate II
Cat. de calitate III
km /River Degradat
1600 1999
Cat. de calitate I
1400 Cat. de calitate II
Cat. de calitate III
1200 Degradat
2000
1000 Cat. de calitate I
Cat. de calitate II
800 Cat. de calitate III
Degradat
600 2001
Cat. de calitate I
400 Cat. de calitate II
Cat. de calitate III
200 Degradat
2002
0 Cat. de calitate I
Cat. de calitate II
Cat. de calitate III
Degradat

Fig. 1. Evolution of tow categories of water in the river Siret 1998 -2002

3. POLLUTION ACCIDENTS OCCURRING ON THE RIVER

ŞOMUZU MARE

Water is a natural source, renewable, vulnerable and limited, an important

element for life and society, raw material for productive activities, Sure Energy,
railway transport, important in maintaining ecological balance [5].
Great quality of the River was severely affected Şomuzu Mare in january
and february 2001, following the accident recorded on deactivation platform
METADET SA , Fălticeni profiled on the production of detergents.
The phenomenon of pollution recorded Şomuzu Mare River downstream
of deactivation and the neighboring platform METADET SA, Siret River to the
confluence with the Bistriţa River downstream of Bacau [7].
Given the dangerous toxic leak Şomuzulu Mare River, Siret River were
large variations in the concentrations of cyanide and ammonia.

294
 Contamination was caused by chemical waste landfill, located at the
district Tarna Mare - Fălticeni ramp where they were in a state of conservation in
1988 four tanks of 250 tons of cyanide and three tanks with 200 tonnes of ammonia
solution contaminated deactivation METADET SA Falticeni. The chemicals were
stored in unsuitable conditions; the reservoirs are extremely worn [7].

Fig. 2. Fălticeni Platform - S.C. METADET S.A.

By making large quantities of pipe stripping of pollutants (cyanide) have

come into the River Siret, Şomuzu Mare and then, leading to fish mortality in
people who ate fish poisoning infested, and human effort, materials and money to
stop the phenomenon and mitigation.
Figure 3 presents the maximum values recorded of cyanide on the rivers
Siret indicatoruli and Şomuzu Mare, from 18 to 27. 01. 2001, following the
accident recorded on the platform METADET SA Fălticeni deactivation [7].

4. MONITORING THE STATUS OF WATER QUALITY

PARAMETERS ŞOMUZU MARE RIVER, IN SECTIONS
MEASURING DOLHEŞTI 2009 – 2010

Between 2009 - 2010 was made an assessment of river water quality

Şomuzu Mare Dolheşti section by conducting surveys and measurements of
general water quality parameters. Samples were collected to determine the
pollutant concentration in Dolheşti section, represented by ammonium nitrogen,

295
nitrate, chloride, calcium sulfate, sodium, iron, suspensions, turbidity, detergents,
and total nitrogen [11].

Şomuzul Mare -
aval Tirgului
CYANIDER Şomuzul Mare -
(mg/l) amonte Siret
1.4 Siret - Lespezi

1.2
Siret - Scheia
1

0.8 Siret - Gidinţi

0.6
Siret - Drăgeşti
0.4
Siret - Holt
0.2

0 Siret - Bistriţa

Siret - Gălbeni

Fig. 3. The levels of cyanide in the river Siret River Great and Şomuzu Mare
River from 18 - 27/01/2001

AMONIU

AZOTITI
microgram/l
80 AZOTATI

70 CLORURI
60 SULFATI
50
CALCIU
40
SODIU
30
FIER
20
10 SUSPENSII

0 TURBIDITATE

DETERGENTI

AZOT TOTAL

Fig. 4. Average concentrations of physical - chemical in 2009,

Şomuzu Mare River section Dolheşti.

296
 Physical and chemical analysis conducted in 2009 for indicators: ammo-
nium nitrogen, nitrate, chloride, calcium sulfate, and sodium, iron, suspensions,
turbidity, detergents, total nitrogen were compared to relevant standards for each
part [11].
In figure 4 are presented the indicators mean values for: ammonium
nitrogen, nitrate, chloride, calcium sulfate, sodium, iron, suspensions, turbidity,
detergents, total nitrogen, under the monitoring Dolheşti [11].
After analyzing the variation in quality indicators increased physical -
chemical river water quality Şomuzu Mare Dolheşti monitoring section in 2009 is
influenced by the presence of calcium ion, slightly exceeding the permissible limit,
which frames the water quality class II [ 11]. In terms of iron ion quality Şomuzu
Mare River water Monitoring Section Dolheşti fall in quality class III, the other
class I parameters surrounding water quality.
After analyzing the variation in quality indicators increased physical -
chemical river water quality Şomuzu Mare Dolheşti monitoring section in 2010,
decreased compared with 2009, due to nitrite indicator, inducing a weak class
quality Şomuzu Mare River , falling in the fourth grade of quality [11]. In terms of
iron ion quality Şomuzu Mare River Water monitoring Section Dolheşti fall in the
second class of quality.
In figure 5 are presented the indicators mean values for: ammonium
nitrogen, nitrate, chloride, calcium sulfate, sodium, iron, suspensions, turbidity,
detergents, total nitrogen, under the monitoring Dolheşti [11].

STRENGTHS PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

ŞOMUZUL MARE RIVER, 2010 DOLHEŞTI SECTION
m icrogram /l AMONIU

70 AZOTITI
AZOTATI
60
CLORURI
50 SULFATI
40 CALCIU
SODIU
30
FIER
20
SUSPENSII
10 TURBIDITATE
DETERGENTI
0
AZOT TOTAL

Fig. 5. Average concentrations of physical - chemical in 2010,

Şomuzu Mare River section Dolheşti.

297
 5. CONCLUSIONS

Şomuzu Mare River has good water quality in the monitoring section
Dolheşti, sporadic exceedances were recorded indicators, nitrates, total nitrogen,
iron and calcium. Note that calcium indicator in one case leading to degradation of
water quality to Class IV. Most times, they induce status as "very good" class I.
The only thing to mention is that in certain situations, there is little value exceeded
the calcium indicator, water moving from a state of "very good" state "good.
The central objective of the Water Framework Directive (Directive
2000/60/EC) is to achieve "good status" for all water bodies, both the surface and
those of groundwater, except bodies and heavily modified artificial, which defines
"good ecological potential."

Acknowledge

This works was supported by project POSDRU, CUANTUMDOC, ID 79407.

REFERENCES

1. Balaban, A., (2008), Studii fizico-chimice şi biologice, referitoare la poluarea apelor

Dunării, Teză de doctorat, Facultatea de Chimie, Universitatea din Bucureşti, 2008.
2. Bica I., (2002), Protecţia mediului. Politici şi instrumente., HGA, Bucureşti, 2002.
3. Borica D., (2005), Aspecte privind complexitatea proceselor de poluare a mediului
acvatic.,Curierul de fizică, Anul XVI, Editura Horia Hulubei, 2005.
4. Ciornău R., (2000), Ecologie şi protecţia mediului., Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000.
5. Cojocaru I., (1995), Surse, procese şi produse de poluare., Editura Junimea, Iaşi, 1995.
6. Lam Lau, Y., Krishnappan, B.G., (1981), Modeling transverse mixing in natural
streams., Journal of the Hydraulic Division, ASCE, vol.107 HY2, 1981.
7. (2004), Luca M., Consideraţii privind fenomenul de poluare indus de haldele de
steril miniere. Internaţional conference “Disaster and Polluation Monitoring”, Iaşi,
Gh. Asachi, Tehnical University, 2004.
8. Luca, M., Tigaret, Gh., (2007), Consideration regarding the Water Quality of the
Paraul Sarat from Ecological Disaster of the Ocnele Mari, International Conference
„Disaster and Pollution Monitoring – IC.DPM. 3”. 1-2 nov. 2007, Iaşi, I, p. 249-254.
9. Luncaveţchi I., Ştefanache D., (2004), Degradarea calităţii apei râului Siret prin
poluarea cu cianuri şi amoniu. Poluarea accidentală din ianuarie 2001,
Internaţional conference “Disaster and Polluation Monitoring”, Iaşi, Gh. Asachi,
Tehnical University, 2004.
10. Mănescu S.,Cucu M., Diaconescu M.L., (1994), Chimia sanitară a mediului. Editura
Bucureşti, 1994.
11. *** (2000), Directiva 2000/60 pentru stabilirea unui cadru al politicii comunitare în
domeniul apelor.

298
 CLIMATE CHANGE – BETWEEN COSTS AND BENEFITS

CARMEN VALENTINA RĂDULESCU1,FLORINA BRAN2,CRISTINA POPA3

ABSTRACT. – Climate change – between costs and benefits. At global and

regional levels the effects of climate change start to show up. While some of the
countries make efforts to alleviate these effects and to find solutions, others are
facing economic or political restrains that prevent them in applying the principle
of common responsibility. The complex social, economic, and environmental
implications of climate change’s effects focused a growing part of research on the
analysis of costs and benefits. Although controversial, one of the methods used –
the cost-benefit analysis – revealed that in most of the cases the prevention costs
are lower than the costs of inaction. Prevention measures bring benefits by
anticipating the impact and minimizing the risks for ecosystems and economy. The
paper presents in its first part the controversies regarding the cost-benefit analysis,
and continues, in the second part, with estimations on costs and benefits of certain
policy instruments that target emission reduction.

Keywords: climate change, prevention, policy instruments, cost-benefit analysis

1. INTRODUCTION

Among the hypotheses debated along time by the scientific community

regarding the causes of global warming the most realist assessment of the climatic
system advances the idea of anthropogenic causes, carbon dioxide being the
predominant greenhouse gas. According to IPCC (2007) this gas accounts for 83%
of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Estimates indicate that in this
century it will occur a major global climate change due to a 1.4-5.8°C increase of
the average temperature, with wide economic, social, and environmental
implications (fig.1).
The reaction of global community to these facts is embodied by world
strategies such as: Kyoto Protocol (1997) aiming to reduce the GHG emissions;
Viantiane Agreement (2005) that envisages targets freely chosen by parties and the
promotion of less polluting technologies; the Copenhagen Agreement (2009) that
pursued the negotiation of a new global agreement as follow up for the Kyoto
Protocol in terms of GHG emission reductions, with confusing results to date.

1
Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Faculty of Agro-Food and Environmental Economics,
Bucharest, 010961 Mihail Moxa 7, Romania, e-mail: cv_radulescu@yahoo.com
2
Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies, Faculty of Agro-Food and Environmental Economics,
Bucharest, 010961 Mihail Moxa 7, Romania, e-mail: florinabran@yahoo.com
3
Minsitry of Environment and Forests, e-mail: cris20072002@yahoo.com

299
 Source: PRUDENCE project
Fig. 1. Change in mean annual temperature by the end of this century

Although the anthropogenic contribution to climate change is now beyond

the bulk of the debate, there are many uncertainties that interfere with meaningful
decisions toward a low carbon future. The paper aims to contribute in this subject
area by focusing on the potential of cost-benefit analysis to bring in new milestones
in order to support decision making. Thus, in the first part we will look to the method
itself and will explore some counter arguments for its wider application. Further, we
examine the costs of climate change and reveal the benefits of the most widely
applied emission reduction measures. Finally, we state a range of conclusions that
highlight the relation between costs of prevention and costs of inaction.

2. THE COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF CLIMATE CHANGE –

DIVERGENT OPINIONS
At global level a number of researchers made analyzes that aimed to
highlight the costs and benefits associated with climate change. One of the reports
with high visibility (the Stern Review) used a quite controversial method – cost-
benefit analysis (CBA). In other reports, Baer (2007), Tol (2006), and Yohe (2006)
developed their own CBA methodologies.
The data gathered by the Stern Review regarding the economic aspects of
climate change lead to a quite simple conclusion: the benefits of energetic early
action exceed by far the economic costs of inaction. The report considers that the
risk of serious climate change effects could be substantially reduced if the level of
GHG will be stabilized at 450-550 parts per million (ppm). It also suggests that the
annual cost of reducing GHG emissions equals almost 1% of the world GDP and it
will lead to a ceiling of carbon dioxide concentration at 550 ppm until 2050.

300
 Another milestone in climate change reporting is provided by the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). In the latest report (IPCC,
2007) there is suggested that the macro-economic effects of reducing or stabilizing
carbon dioxide concentration at the 445-710 ppm for 2030 vary between a slight
increase in global GDP to a decrease of 3%, depending on the stabilization target.
The Stern Review performs the following actions: (1) assesses the probable
costs of climate change until 2200 under the “business as usual” scenario, meaning
that no measure is applied in order to control the level of emissions; (2) assesses
the costs and benefits of different means of reducing GHG emissions and
stabilizing climate; and (3) assesses the policy options within the light of the (1)
and (2) assessments.
Munasinghe et al. (1995) consider that an analysis of costs and benefits
provides a useful framework for the organization of information regarding
alternative actions for approaching climate change. Nevertheless, the authors stress
that the application of CBA for climate change encounters serious difficulties due
to the global and regional pattern of the issue. The economic assessment of the
climate change consequences is the central element of the traditional CBA, but the
confidence in the estimations (especially non-commercial consequences) is low. In
addition, the techniques of CBA would not be useful in analyzing aspects such as
equity. For example, it does not provide indication on who should bear the costs.
Along time the Stern Review was subject of many debates and attracted
both criticism and favorable resolutions. For instance, Cole (2007) considers that
the Stern Review benefited from a too large media propaganda compared with
other academic analyzes. This intensive promotion is determined by the prestige of
the author, since the use of CBA is quite unclear from both theoretical and practical
standpoints. Meanwhile, the author argues that the publication of the report has no
impact on the United Kingdoms policy regarding climate change.
Dasgupta (2006) also criticizes the Stern Review. He argues that if the
premises of the model would be followed the investment rate should reach 97.5%
of what is produced today for increasing the living standards of future generations.
The main weaknesses of the model stand in: (1) the impossibility of modeling tasks
to consider all the socially relevant costs and benefits that express a local or global
concern; and (2) neglecting social processes, which by their nature are less
appropriate for quantitative analyzes, but which play a key role for a certain course
of events (Cojanu, 2008).
In June 2008, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization published the Cost-Benefit Analysis of Climate Change: Stern
Revisited. This report analyzes the economic approaches of climate change, with a
special focus on the Stern Review. The authors consider that the large number of
uncertainties that surround the relation among climate change’s causes, their
potential impact and assessment raise questions on the exactness of the
conclusions.

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 3. THE COSTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The costs of GHG emission reduction to a level that could avoid the
devastating effects of climate change is estimated to be the equivalent of 1% of the
global GDP, while the costs of uncontrolled climate change will reach 5% of the
global GDP with a high probability to increase toward 20%. In 2008, Stern states
that due to the fact that climate change is deploying faster than it was predicted, the
costs of emission reduction will be larger, respectively 2% of the global GDP. The
Stern Review concludes that, on the long run, the preventive actions to limit
climate change will be less costly than the damages caused to economies by
ignoring climate change. Meanwhile, adaptation could reduce costs, in case that
there are specially designed policies for the elimination of barriers that prevent
private action to contribute to its potential.
The preliminary estimates of the Stern Review suggest that in case of a
4.4°C increase of global mean temperature the additional costs of adaptation for
infrastructure and buildings could account as much as 1-10% of the total
investments made in construction sector by OECD countries. The additional costs
of constructing new infrastructure and buildings that are more resistant to climate
change in OECD countries could vary from 15 to 150 billion dollars per year (0.05-
0.50% of GDP). If temperature increases with 5-6°C it is very likely a sudden
increase in the costs of adaptation measures and, consequently, a lower relative
effectiveness of these measures.

20
2080s
18
16
14
2080s
12
10
8 2020s
6 2020s

4 2080s
2020s 2080s 2020s
2
0
without with without with without with without with

25,3 cm sea level increase 56,4 cm sea level increase

cost of residual damages adaptation costs

Source: Green Paper regarding climate change adaptation

Fig. 2. Costs of residual damages and adaptation measures
in different climate change scenarios

302
 Fig.2 illustrates that the damages caused by the increase in sea level could
be, in case that no adaptation measure is taken, four fold larger than the costs of
additional protection dams against floods. In case that no measure is taken, the
costs of damages will increase significantly from 2020s until 2080s.

4. BENEFITS OF EMISSION REDUCTION MEASURES

By using appropriate instruments such as regulations and standards, taxes

and levies, commercial licenses, voluntary agreements, subsidies, financial
incentives, research and development programs, and information instruments it will
be possible to contribute significantly for the reduction of emissions and the
mitigation of effects.
The Emission Trading Scheme (ETS) is the most conclusive example of
how a market based instrument could approach an ecological issue. Through the
Directive regarding emission trading it is aimed to maximize the opportunities to
reduce emissions and minimize the costs in industry. The scheme establishes a
system of transactions which provides a financial incentive for emission reduction.
The system guarantees the existence of emission rights buyers represented by the
companies that exceeds the emission limits and that these companies will have to
pay substantial penalties in case that they choose not to buy emission rights.
According to some estimates, the ETS contributes to emission reduction where it is
more efficient from an economic point of view and reduces the cost of emission
reduction approximately with one third.
Meanwhile, in order to support the green energy, each member state has
established a subsidizing system consisting in preferential prices, competitive
obligations or offers, associated with a wide range of fix subsidies and fiscal
mechanisms. The green certificates represent an example in this respect. These are
documents received by producers from the energy transport operator that certify
the fact that the producer delivers energy in the grid. At their turn, electricity
providers are confined by the state to acquire green certificates according to the
quantity of energy sold by them for encouraging the production of “clean” energy.
The carbon market constructed within the framework created by the Kyoto
Protocol is another illustration about how the use of incentives could help toward
meeting the goals established by an international agreement. According to the
estimates of IPCC (2007) there is an economic potential in all sectors involved in
GHG emission reduction. This potential is large enough to offset the foreseen
increase of global emissions and even for reducing these emissions below the
current level. Thus, the economic benefits of ceiling the increase of global
emissions to a level that corresponds the a 2°C in global mean temperature increase
will exceeds the costs of emission reductions needed for going beyond this
threshold. Although initially there will be expenses for the transformation of the
energy sector and GHG emission reduction, the incomes will come as saving of
money from avoiding the damages produced by climate change. Approximately

303
30% of the provisioned emissions of residential and trade sectors could be reduced
by 2030 with a net economic benefit.

5. CONCLUSIONS

At global level there were made a number of assessments with the goal of
highlighting the costs and benefits of climate change. Although it is controversial,
CBA remains one of the most widely used methodology for performing this
assessment. It revealed, in various frameworks, that the cost of prevention is far
lower than the cost of damages.
By using appropriate instruments such as the ETS and green certificates in
Europe or the global emission trading system implemented within the framework
of the Kyoto protocol it is possible to reach the emission targets that will maintain
the global mean temperature below the threshold of 2°C increase.
We conclude that the various uncertainties that surround the assessment
instruments available today should not be considered as barriers. Thus, ACB
proved to be a good support for decision making, although the result provided by
its application were different from one area to another. This case is also supportive
for the adaptive management, in which each measure should be regarded as an
experiment and the measures should be compared in terms of their results.
Therefore, the focus on quantitative environmental information and the possibility
to integrate environmental and economic information gains another stimulus.

REFERENCES

1. Baer, P., Spash, C.L. (2008), Cost-Benefit Analysis of Climate Change: Stern
Revisited, Socio-Economics and the Environment in Discussion (SEED), CSIRO
Working Paper Series Number 2008-07.
2. Cojanu, V. (2008) Încălzirea globală şi analiza economică: o perspectivă
heterodoxă asupra pieţei, Jurnalul Economic, Anul XI, nr. 28.
3. Cole, D. (2007), The Stern Review and its critics: implications for the theory and
practice of benefit-cost analysis, Indiana University School of Law.
4. Dasgupta, P. (2006), Comments on the Stern Review's Economics of Climate
Change, University of Cambridge, November 11.
5. Munasinghe, M., P. Meier, M. Hoel, S. Hong, and A. Aaheim (1995),
Applicability of Techniques of Cost-Benefit Analysis to Climate Change, in Global
Climate Change: Economic and Policy Issues, M. Munasinghe (ed.), World Bank
Environment Paper Number 12.
6. Stern, N. (2006), Stern Review on the economics of climate change, London, UK.
7. Tol, R.S.J. (2006), The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change: A
Comment.
8. Zaman, G. (2005), Implicatii social-economice ale schimbarilor de clima în
Romania, Revista 22, nr. 04.

304
 MORPHOMETRIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL SUITABILITY
OF THE RELIEF FROM THE CRUCII LAKE BASIN
(STÂNIŞOAREI MOUNTAINS)

ALIN MIHU-PINTILIE1, GHEORGHE ROMANESCU1

ABSTRACT. Due to high rainfall in 1978, was a landslide that crossed the stream
Cuejdel Stânişoarei Mountains. Slip was favored by a forest road construction. In
a first phase to form a lake of about 250-300 m, 25-30 m wide and 4-5 meters
maximum depth. In the summer of 1991, for the same reasons, took place a further
landslide, which led to the formation of the largest natural dam lake in the country.
Newly formed natural dams present a height between 25 and 30 m, with higher
values to the left and towards the lower right with a total length of 80 m. The lake
water has been steadily and stood at an absolute altitude of 665.5 m (until 1994-
1995). As a result of strong floods and widened the opening of the lake water level
dropped. Under these conditions the lake has the following characteristics: surface
area of 12,2 ha, 1,0 km in length and average width of 102 m. After this period
morphological and morphobatimetrics studies of the lake, and on the
characteristics of the receving basin were thinning. It aims the study morphometric
and morphographical on modern techniques, of the Crucii Lake reception. It is
envisaged the morphometry and morphological suitability of the relief with
essential role in the genesis of Crucii Lake.

Key words: natural dam lake, receving basin, morphometrics, morphological

suitabillity.

1. INTRODUCTION

Natural dam lakes in Romania are rare but extremely interesting in terms of
the formation and hydrological behavior. All lakes formed after the blocking of the
watercourses through landslides have formed the Eastern Carpathians: Rosu, Crucii,
Dracului, Iezerul Sadovei, Bolatau etc. Of all of these the most studied is the Rosu
Lake (Enea et al., 2010, Nicu and Romanescu, 2010; Romanescu and Stoleriu, 2010).
Crucii Lake is known as the Cuiejdel. It represents a relatively recent
lacustrine unit, which was completed over several phases of formation. This
process started in 1978, when a large proportion landslide damed the Crucii valley.
The completion occurred in 1991, when amid high rainfall occurred new mass
movements. In 1991 the natural dam completely blocked the entire valley, causing
the accumulation of large amounts of water. Thus was formed the biggest natural
dam lake in Romania.

1
University “Al. I. Cuza” of Iaşi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Department of Geography, B-
dul Carol I 20A, 700505, Iaşi, România, Tel.0040-744774652, Fax.0040232-201481, E-mail:
allin_86@yahoo.com, geluromanescu@yahoo.com.

305
 Being one of the most interesting lakes of this type in Romania, developing a
complex morphology and sheltering a rich biodiversity, this lacustrine unit presents a
great scientific importance. Despite the features mentioned can say that this aquatic
unit is extremely weak studied in terms of hydromorphological: Ichim, 1969, 1973,
1979, Rusu et al., 2001, 2002; Rădoane, 2002-2003; Surdeanu, 1998 etc.
The present analysis represents an update of geographic information. It is
an analysis of the modern receving basin, covering in particular its morphometry,
morphology and suitability of the landscape. Highlighting the physical and
geographical characteristics meets a larger project of analysis of the entire river
system created by the emergence of Crucii Lake.

2. LOCATION AND LIMITS

Crucii Lake is located in Stânişoarei Mountains in the upper basin of the

river Cuiejdiu (98 km2, 24 km), on the middle of the stream Crucii (8,77 km2, 3,3
km), left tributary Cuiejdiului, about 21 km NNW of Piatra Neamt. It has a length
of 1 km, an area of 12,2 ha, maximum depth of 16 m and a water volume of about
907,000 m3.
Latitudinally is between 47º01'54” lat. N and 47º02'25” lat. N and the
longitude is between 26°12'50" long. E and 26º13'14" long. E.
The delimitation of the receving basin is given on the alignment of the
Tarniţelor Peak (1081 m) and Garcina Massif (873 m) north, the Muncelul top and
peak (1067 m) to the east, Crucii Hill and Piciorul Rotund to the west. Has an area of
8,75 km2, of which 48,22% is of the sub-stream Crucii, 29.25% comes from Glodu
sub-stream and the remaining 22,53% is attributed to small tributaries (Fig. 1).

Fig.1. Geographical location of Crucii Lake

306
 Following the morphological features of the basin, Crucii lake is elongated
on the main valley (NW-SE). At the junction of the main tributary (Crucii rivers
and Glodu) branch off the two valleys, with more expansion on the main valley.
Lake water level was steadily and stood at 665,5 m absolute altitude up to 1994-
1995 when there were many floods that have enhanced the form of channel
opening (Rădoane, 2002-2003).
Crucii Lake is not the only lacustrine basin in the country formed after the
dam of the watercourses by landslides, and could be recalled here lacustrine units
with the same genesis: the Rosu Lake on Bicaz, Iezerul Sadovei on Sadova,
Bolatau Lake from the same basin of Sadova etc. Because of the size, Crucii Lake
is considered the biggest natural dam lake in Romania. As a result of various
geomorphological factors that induce a transient status of these types of lakes, and
also as a result of the accelerating clogging the situation of this aquatic unit is
getting complicated
Lacustrine unit Crucii Lake was originally called Lake Cuiejdel, named
after the creek tributary of Cuejdiu that was dam. Today is often used the name
Crucii Lake, becoming hydronym independently and formally established by local
authorities.

3. RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

In researching this area was used the mapping method with the help of a
series of topographic maps in scale 1:25.000, 1983 edition, from which they
extracted all major morphometrics elements of the receving basin. Global Mapper
software was used vs. 11 vs. TNT Mips. CorelDRAW 69 and 4. To calculate the
morphometric coefficients were applied the determination formulas proposed in the
specialty literature by Zavoianu, 1978 (form factor and report form), Miller (quoted
by Gâştescu, 1968, 1971) (the ratio of circularity), Zavoianu, 1978 (elongation
ratio) Cebotarev, 1957 (quoted by Zavoianu, 1978) (development coefficient of
watershed) etc.
For the making of the favorability morphologic analysis there were
consulted a number of publications from the specialty literature, research reports
and a series of thematic articles, and as a support for comparison, all of these were
accompanied by satellite imagery and orthophotoplanes.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Reception basin morphometry

The morphometric data extracted from the topographic maps show that
the Crucii Lake receving basin has an area of 8,77 km2, occupying 8,94% of the
catchment area of Cuejdiului. It is a relatively small area compared to the size of
the lake. It is this parameter reveals that the lake is a complex construction,
which was not created by the existence of a catchment but of a collateral factor.

307
 The maximum length, on the NE-SW direction, is 3,312 km, and the
average is 2,67 km. Width, due to the shape of the basin, given by the extinction of
the two main tributaries, Cuiejdel and Glodu is 4,25 km. Watershed rises to
altitudes above 1000 m, mainly in the west and northeast sectors. Its length is of
12,75 km (Fig. 2).
The lenght of the drainage
network is 24,19 km, its main
tributary streams Cuiejdel, Glodu,
Fagetu, Hălăgeanu and a series of
smaller tributaries, most of
torrential character.
Altitudinal space that is
part of the Crucii lake catchment
takes place on about 539 m, the
highest altitudes are found in the
western sector (Magurii Hill,
1117 m, Muncelului Peak, 1076
m), but also in the north-eastern
(Tarniţelor Peak, 1081 m, Massif
Garcina, 873 m). Minimum share
of the basin is found in the lake
outlet, somewhere around 578 m.
Fig.2. Receiving basin of Crucii Lake
Main morphometric
parameters were calculated: the shape, circularity ratio, coefficient of asymmetry,
the degree of elongation and the development coefficient of watershed. These
indicators fit the Crucii lake basin in the group of small basins, circular, with a
relatively differentiated asymmetry, having a more pronounced expansion of the
left side, and a high degree of development of the watershed (Table 1).

Morphological favorability

Geological conditions
In terms of lithology Cuejdiul basin has a geological structure dominated 
by the existence of the eastern ends of the marginal crease, east of Tarcău Canvas. 
There  are  facies  alternating  different  lithological  resistance.  Facies  rocks  are 
striped  lengthwise  and  parallel  to the direction  NNW  -  SSE,  suffering great 
tectonic  movements  in the  horizontal plane.  The adaptation to  the  structure  is 
partly evident. 
River Cuiejdu cut obliquely, and sometimes cross these structures carving
the valley. He cut several rock bands badenian age, apţiană, albiană and senonian.
Cuiejdelul is subscribe to priaboniene facies, represented by marls and sandstones
with globigerine quartz of Lucacesti facies (upper priabonian). For lower
priabonian are representative marls and gray clay, marly limestone and sandstone
from the layers of Bisericani. Layers of Plopu with marls gray clay green and

308
calcareous sandstones with hieroglyphics are also found. Oligocene is composed of
quartz sandstones and shales of Kliwa.

Table 1. Main morphometric features of the receiving basin

Nr. Unit
Morphometric elements Value
ctr. measure
1. Area 8,77 km2
2. Length 2,677 km
3. Width 4,258 km
4. Maximum length 3,312 km
5. Water course lenght 4,96 km
6. Perimeter 12,75 km
7. Minimum share 578 m
8. Maximum share 1117 m
9. Spring altitude 750 m
10. Asymmetry coefficient 0,26 -
11. Form factor 0,80 -
12. Circularity ration 0,67 -
13. Elongation ratio 0,95 -
14. The coefficient of watershed development 1,21 -
15. Report form 0,86 -

The presence of the marginal crease is highlighted by a clear predisposition

lithological and an advanced degree of vulnerability to surface erosion processes
and mass movements. The layout of the overthrust canvas scales, with higher strata
nearly vertical, creates premises for erosion in the longitudinal way on the loose
bands, and the occurrence of landslides or rock collapses or of huge amounts of
material. In this way the consuming of the slopes is made by combining the two
categories of processes: erosion and mass movements.
The morpholitology of the area can be defined, in these circumstances, as
the main support for the changes in the landscape, being in the same interface as its
parameter and with great sensitivity and responsiveness to all external impulses
(Rusu, 2004).
Dynamic aspects of geomorphology and watershed Cuejdel and Cuejdiu
are induced by the belonging of the micro-region dominated by the characteristics
of the flysch deposits showing a superficial mantle very susceptible to external
energy flows. For this reason, the deposits register the fastest speed changes in
thickness and spatial redistribution in preferential directions, vertical or parallel to
the stable substrate.
Geomorphological aspects
Geomorphological processes that govern the Crucii Lake basin are
conditioned, in particular, by altitude, through imposing the settings of
morphogenetic conditions, and develops according to the categories of existing
rocks. Flysch zone is located entirely within the denudational morphogenetic floor.
In this case the distribution and intensity of geomorphic processes undergo some
changes according to the slope, exhibition, lithological variety, afforestation,
season, etc.

309
 Erosion in the surface, coupled with steep slopes and slopes with greater
depth of the landslides and of the racord from the flysch zone, it shows an intense
activity. On the cleared slopes on the left of the valley of Cuejdiu, with greater
consistency of the landslides material, surface erosion is increased. The process is
enhanced by the stronger impact of forestry
activities. The most affected is the lower third
of slopes, which was largely deforested and
reforested recently.
Heavy erosion occurs in the basins
Cuejdel and Cuejdiu on both types of rocks
(priaboniene and oligocene), but with different
intensities and effects. This type of erosion
takes special accents in the altitude range 800-
900 m, where precipitation exceeds 600-700
mm / year. It is present in forested areas but
also in those without forest cover. There had
been a series of torrential valleys, which
favored the slopes most often exceed 30°,
which denotes the relative youth of the
processes of erosion. Both slopes and their
thalweg present rugged shingle accumulations
of gravels of different sizes, resulting in the
fixed disintegration of the cut rocks. Fig.3. Forest Road
Linear erosion has taken and along the left side of Crucii Lake
deepened the cracks along the slope, resulting forms similarto the erosion gullies.
Heavy erosion on flysch rocks created a wide range of forms, such as rain gutters
and organisms evolved. Primary factor in the onset of rains in the catchment
Cuejdel activity is the climatic factor, with precipitation ranging from 700-900 mm
/ year, correlated with the presence of flysch deposits up to an altitude of 900 m
and slopes ranging from 12-30°. In this way it explains the existence of epigenetic
gullies, with longitudinal profil, broken by rapids, on the right side of the valley
Cuejdel.
Gullies have a higher frequency on the slopes along the valleys and
tributaries, due to a richer human fingerprint. Many of the torrential organismes
took and deepened the channels created by the wheels and logging equipment.
Another factor that led to the intensification of the phenomenon of gullying is
rebuilding roads, along the old guilles, resulting in two adjacent gullies. The
multiple gullies are frequentlyr on the right side of Cuejdiu.
Landslides have a greater frequency on the flysch slopes due to favorable
lithology and of the developnment of the landslide material. The trigger of the
emergence of mass movements is given by the heavy rains, but also by massive
deforestation, due to favorability lithology (Fig. 4). High consumption areas appear
at the top of the slopes, on the slopes, inter-sculpted peaks and interfluvial, being
affected by landslides in steps. On the rest of the slope are found landslides under

310
the form of monticuli, waves or nest (on the right of the river Cuiejdu and on the
left of the stream Cuejdel). The most common type of landslides are the detrusor
ones and are triggered at the top of the slopes, in the form of steps. By their
pushing nature they trigger landslides in waves at the bottom.

Genesis of the Crucii Lake

Crucii Lake was formed after the dam of the main course by a large
landslide (35 ha), which occurred on the left side of the valley Cuejdel in several
stages. It debuted in 1978 when has ocurred the first mass movement with a
tendency to block the valley. Paroxysm was reached in 1991, when landslide
material blocked the entire valley.
Rainfall from may to august reached the amount of 741.4 mm. The
thickness of slipped deposits vary between 5 and 25 m in the dam area. Their
dynamics is still strong. In the period 2003-2004 was a new road that begins in the
village Cracaoani, encompassing almost the entire left bank of the lake.
The causes behind the outbreak of accumulation may be natural (natural
rainfall, earthquake in 1990 with the value of 5,4 on the Richter scale) and
anthropogenic (forest road construction in the area which was later destroyed by
landslides).

5. CONCLUSIONS

The genesis of Crucii Lake from Stânişoarei Mountains is related by the

suitability of the geological substrate to the production of landslides. Mountainous
terrain with slopes up to 30° tilt, the overlapping substrate lithology consists of a
sequence of rocks and deposits permissive, are the premises for large gravitational
movements. The appearence of the biggest natural dam lake in Romania, almost
identical with the genesis of Rosu Lake, Bolatau, Iezerul Sadovei lake and many other
establishments of its kind in the Eastern Carpathians mountain range, was determined
by morphological suitability of the landscape.
Geographical observations revealed that the reception basin of the Crucii
Lake, characterized by a complex morphology, but also the recent dynamics,
presents a number of issues that betrays the instability of slopes with direct
implications on current morphometry. For this reason, the study of Crucii Lake
complex, small lakes in the area, sliding occurred between waves and the receiving
basin, presents a great scientific importance for maintaining unchanged and
unspoiled natural heritage.

311
 REFERENCES

1. Enea A., Romanescu Gh., Stoleriu C. (2010), Caracteristicile morfometrice ale

bazinului hidrografic lacul Roşu, Resursele de apă din România. Lucrările
primului simpozion naţional, 11-13 iunie 2010, Târgovişte, Editura Transversal,
Târgovişte.
2. Gâştescu P. (1963), Lacurile din R.P.R. – geneză şi regim hidrologic, Editura
Academiei R.P. Române, Bucureşti.
3. Gâştescu P. (1971), Lacurile din România.Limnologie regională, Editura
Academiei R.P. Române, Bucureşti.
4. Ichim I. (1969), Contribuţii la studiul geomorfologic al versanţilor din sud-estul
Munţilor Stânişoarei, Lucrările Staţiunii de Cercetări Biologice, Geologice şi
Geografice “Stejarul”, Pângăraţi.
5. Ichim I. (1973), Cercetări geomorfologice în bazinele montane ale râurilor:
Cuejdiu, Cracău şi Ozana, Studii şi Cercetări Geologie-Geografie, seria II, Piatra
Neamţ.
6. Ichim I. (1979), Munţii Stânişoarei, studiu geomorfologic, Editura Academiei
Române, Bucureşti.
7. Minea I., Romanescu Gh. (2007), Hidrologia mediilor continentale. Aplicaţii
practice, Casa Editorială Demiurg, Iaşi.
8. Nicu C.I., Romanescu Gh. (2010), Utilizarea staţiei totale Leica TCR 1201 în
cartografierea cuvetei lacului Roşu (Carpaţii Orientali) şi a zonei umede
adiacente, Resursele de apă din România. Lucrările primului simpozion naţional,
11-13 iunie 2010, Târgovişte, Editura Transversal, Târgovişte.
9. Rădoane N. (2002-2003), Un nou lac de baraj natural în bazinul Bistriţei
Moldoveneşti – Lacul Cuejdel, Studii şi Cercetări de Geografie, Tom XLIX-L.
10. Romanescu Gh. (2009), Trophycity of lacustrine wetlands on the Carpathian
territory of Romania. A case study from the East Carpathian mountains, Lucrările
Seminarului Geografic “Dimitrie Cantemir”, Univ. “Al. I. Cuza”, Iaşi.
11. Romanescu Gh. (2009), The physical and chemical characteristics of the lake
wetlands in the central group of the east Carpathian Mountains, Lakes, reservoirs
and ponds – Romanian Journal of Limnology, nr. 4.
12. Romanescu Gh., Stoleriu C. (2010), Parametri morfobatimetrici ai cuvetei lacului
Roşu (Hăghimaş), Resursele de apă din România. Lucrările primului simpozion
naţional, 11-13 iunie 2010, Târgovişte, Editura Transversal, Târgovişte.
13. Rusu C., Mărgărint M.C., Rusu E. (2001), Observaţii asupra dinamicii recentea a
reliefului din bazinul râului Cuejdi (Munţii Stţnişoarei). Implicaţii asupra coplexului
hidrogeomorfologic Lacul Crucii, Revista de Geomorfologie, vol III, Bucureşti
14. Rusu C., Mărgărint M. C., Rusu E., Boamfă I. (2002), Noi arii de interes ecologic
din Moldova: Parcul Forestier Vânători – Neamţ şi Lacul Crucii (bazinul
hidrografic al Cuejdelului), Terra, nr. 1-2/2001, Bucureşti.
15. Rusu E. (2004), Administrarea durabilă şi conservarea hidro-ecosistemului
Lacului Crucii din Munţii Stânişoarei prin crearea unei zone de protecţie lacustră,
Contract de cercetare CNCSIS, Nr.42.
16. Surdeanu V. (1998), Geografia terenurilor degradate. Alunecări de teren, Editura
Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca.
17. Zăvoianu I. (1978), Morfometria bazinelor hidrografice, Editura Academiei
R.P.Române, Bucureşti.

312
 FLOW REGIMES SPATIAL VARIABILITY

HORVÁTH Cs.1, St. BUIMAGA-IARINCA1, G. ROŞIAN2,

Oana-Antonia POP3

ABSTRACT. Flow regimes spatial variability. This study investigates the

spatial distribution of annual flow regimes within the Tur River basin, using 29-
year records (1979-2007) of mean monthly flow, for 7 gauging stations. A
multivariate, statistical classification of regime “shape” and “magnitude” is used
to group annual regimes. The classification revealed two “shape” classes with
different timing of major flow peaks and three “magnitude” classes. These results
suggest regime “shape” is controlled by the seasonal distribution and nature of
hydroclimatic inputs. As such, a framework can be provided around which to test
hypotheses, making regional classification an important tool for hydrological
research, particularly over large and complex geographical domains.

Keywords river flow; regimes; hydroclimatology; clusters; classification.

1. INTRODUCTION

A river flow “regime” defines the bound variability in runoff over the
hydrological year. The nature of seasonal behavior is dependent upon hydroclimatic
processes and basin characteristics; hence, the flow regime is often used as the basis
for regionalization (i.e. determination of hydrologically similar areas).
A sketch for identifying the types of river flow “regime” in Romania was
published in the “Geografie Fizică” manual developed by V. Mihailescu (1936).
Methodical studies of this kind have been made since 60’s.
For Romania, the types of river flow “regime” are determined by the
presence of the Carpathians, which prints a vertical zonality to the
physicogeographical factors, and the climatic effects of the Black Sea. So, we
identified three major types of hydrologic regime (macro-tips) – carpathian, peri-
carpathian and Ponto-Danube – and twelve minor types (mezotipuri) depending on
regional differences (I. Ujvari, 1980). The criteria used in the analysis and
separation were the types of arrangements relating to high waters, floods, low
waters, the flow distribution during the year and river water sources (nival, pluvial).
This paper aims to characterize the nature and geography of a river basin
regime thus, infer the key factors determining spatial variations in the annual

1
Babes-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Geography, 5-7 Clinicilor Street, 400006. Cluj-
Napoca, Romania. E-mail:
hcsaba@gmail.com; stefan.buimaga@ubbcluj.ro.
2
Babes-Bolyai University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Environmental Science, 30 Fântânele, 400294
Cluj-Napoca, Romania. E-mail: georgerosian@yahoo.com
3
Western University "Vasile Goldis" Baia Mare, Romania. E-mail: oana_ant@yahoo.com

313
runoff regimes. This aim is achieved through some specific objectives: develop a
new robust and sensitive regime classification methodology, and identify flow
regime “regions”.
Left tributary of the Tisza River upper basin, the Tur River (Fig. 1), lies in
the north part of Romania, starting from the high volcanic mountains of Oaş and
Gutâi to the lower plains of the Someş River, with a direction of flow from East to
West. We analyzed the basin only upper from Turulung (the last hydrometrical
station with long-term data), to have hydrological control over the runoff.

Fig. 1. Tur River basin

2. DATA

Long-term (1979-2007; 29 hydrological years) monthly records were

obtained for 7 hydrometric stations within the Tur River basin from the Romanian
Water Authority, “Someş - Tisa” Branch. Stations were selected to provide a
relatively uniform spatial coverage across the basin.
The long-term flow regime for each of the 7 stations was estimated by
calculating mean monthly runoff for all years. The most frequent month of
minimum flow was identified as August. Thus, runoff time series were divided into
hydrological years commencing in September. This ensured that the rising limb,
annual peak and flow recession were included within the same 12-month period.
Throughout the paper, station years are referred to by the calendar year in which
they begin.

314
 Used hydrometric stations and data Tur River (1979-2007)*
Stand.
Hydrometric Altitude Area Mean Qmin Qmax
River name Dev.
station 2 3 3 3
m km m /s m /s m /s m3/s
Tur Turulung 130 733 10,817 0,232 53,80 2,870
Talna Pasunea Mare 137 170 2,311 0,097 9,530 0,456
Turt Gerta Mare 149 36,6 0,486 0,007 2,710 0,170
Tur Negresti Oas 238 38 0,888 0,008 3,740 0,142
Valea Rea Huta Certeze 285 61 1,659 0,059 6,990 0,231
Talna Vama 192 51 1,205 0,067 4,620 0,173
Lechincioara Boinesti 185 84,6 1,009 0,000 5,530 0,306
* Romanian Water Authority, „Someş - Tisa” Branch

3. REGIME CLASSIFICATION METHODOLOGY

The “flow regime” defines the bound variability in river discharge over the
hydrological year. Since it is important to assess both the size and timing of
discharge events, a methodology is adopted which employs multivariate techniques
to separately classify regimes according to their “shape” and “magnitude”. The
classification procedure used is similar to that devised by Donna Bower & D. M.
Hannah (2002) and by S. R. Kansakar et al. (2002).
Simplified, the method supposes that, the “shape” classification identifies
stations with a similar form of annual average regime hydrograph, regardless of the
absolute magnitude of runoff; while the “magnitude” classification is based upon
four runoff indices (i.e. the mean, minimum, maximum and standard deviation of
mean monthly runoff observations) for each station, regardless of their timing.
To classify flow regime “shape” independently of “magnitude”, the 12
monthly observations for each station were standardized separately using z-scores,
STANDARDIZE formula in Ms Excel 2003.
2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5
z-scores

0.0
IX X XI XII I II III IV V VI VII VIII

-0.5
Vama Negresti oas
-1.0
Huta Certez Boinesti

-1.5 Turulung Pasunea Mare

Gherta Mare
-2.0

Fig. 2. Standardized flow data z-scores

315
 The four “magnitude” indices were derived for the long-term regime, for
each station; here also it was necessary to standardize between indices (to control
for differences in their relative values) by expressing each index as z-scores across
the 7 stations.
We used, cluster analysis, that refers to methods which attempt to group
cases in such a manner that the members of each group are, in some sense, “close”
to one another. Several variables may be chosen for the analysis, and the
differences in these variables between two cases determine the “distance” between
the two cases. Hierarchical clustering was performed using five methods (single,
average and complete linkages, centroid and Ward). This exploratory analysis
revealed that different algorithms identify different classes.
Ward’s method was found to yield the most informative and evenly-sized
classes, while other methods tended to produce unevenly-sized clusters that did not
well characterize regional hydrological patterns. This method (also known as
incremental sums of squares) says that the distance between two groups is
proportional to the change in the within group sum of squares which re-sults when
the two groups are combined. In other hydrological regionalization studies the
Ward’s method was also found to give the most robust and physically realistic
clusters. “Shape” and “magnitude” were both classified using hierarchical,
agglomerative cluster analysis (Ward’s method).
Pasunea Mare
Negresti Oas

Gherta Mare
Huta Certez

Turulung

Boinesti
Vama

10

15

20
Distance

25

30

35

40

45

Fig. 3. “Shape” dendogram (WinSTAT)

The data were computed using partitional clustering and hierarchical

clustering algorithms, in MATLAB software, we also tried the MsExcel WinSTAT
add-in with similar results. For the hierarchical clustering, Euclidian distances and
Ward’s method linkage were used and returned three clusters.

316
 In the partitional clustering, Kmeans method returned us one well-
separated cluster and two contiguous clusters. Kmeans uses a two-phase iterative
algorithm to minimize the sum of point-to-centroid distances, summed over all k
clusters:
1. The first phase uses batch updates, where each iteration consists of
reassigning points to their nearest cluster centroid, all at once, followed by
recalculation of cluster centroids. This phase occasionally does not
converge to solution that is a local minimum, that is, a partition of the data
where moving any single point to a different cluster increases the total sum
of distances. This is more likely for small data sets. The batch phase is fast,
but potentially only approximates a solution as a starting point for the
second phase. (Seber, 1984)
2. The second phase uses online updates, where points are individually
reassigned if doing so will reduce the sum of distances, and cluster
centroids are recomputed after each reassignment. Each of the iteration
during the second phase consists of one pass though all the points. The
second phase will converge to a local minimum, although there may be
other local minima with lower total sum of distances. The problem of
finding the global minimum can only be solved in general by an exhaustive
(or clever, or lucky) choice of starting points, but using several replicates
with random starting points typically results in a solution that is a global
minimum. (Spath, 1985)

Fig. 4. “Magnitude” dendogram (MATLAB)

Five iterations were computed to find the solution with lowest value of
sum of distances. The distance considered is Squared Euclidian, each centroid is
the mean of the points in that cluster.
The centroids identified in hierarchical tree (dendogram) were used for the
first iteration in kmeans analysis. The Ward’s method is the correct hierarchical
analog of the kmeans techniques. Contiguity demonstrates that each set of data in

317
the cluster is closer to at least one set of data in its cluster that to any set in another
cluster.
The structure of the cluster dendogram was used to decide upon the
appropriate number of clusters (i.e. regime classes). Thus, each of the 7 stations
was grouped by standardized regime “shape” and relative runoff “magnitude”. The
spatial distribution of the “shape” and “magnitude” classes allowed flow regime
“regions” to be identified.
In the scientific literature (Ujvari, 1972) the area is represented by two
flow regime types, in the high mountain region by the Carpathian Western type and
in the lover areas by the Peri-Carpathian Western type, the main difference
between them is the moment of the spring maximum runoff, at the lower stations
(March) it appears sooner with a month compared to the others (April). The
difference is explainable by the runoff supply, in both cases it is mixed from
pluvial and nival waters, only the weight differs. This phenomenon can be followed
in today’s data series also (Fig. 2).
In case of both classifications (shape and magnitude) we found three
clusters represented by three regions in the study area. The difference between
them is due mainly to the orography of the region in this case, and also to the
computation mechanics. By comparing the results to the scientific literature, the
shape classification resembles the most with the traditional classification, only here
this new type of classification can follow more finely the small differences
impounded by the orography.

Fig. 5. Flow regime regions delimitated by the “shape” and “magnitude” clusters

318
 4. CONCLUSION AND FURTHER RESEARCH

The spatial distribution of the "shape" and "magnitude" classes allows the
identification of flow regime "regions". These results are not only of scientific
interest; they have major implications for the assessment and prediction of water
resources. To rectify some of the errors which may appear in the computation, a
regionalization of precipitation regimes should be conducted, using similar
techniques. Also, we should not underestimate the importance of the other runoff
influencing factors, like geology, basin characteristics, vegetation, soil and also the
significant influence, in the water supply formation, of the temperature.
For a truly robust and quick possibility to assess the flow regime type of a
region, the classification must take in to account as many of the runoff components
as possible.

ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
Investing in people!
Ph.D. scholarship, Project co-financed by the SECTORAL OPERATIONAL PROGRAM
FOR HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 2007–2013
Priority Axis 1. “Education and training in support for growth and development of a
knowledge based society”
Key area of intervention 1.5: Doctoral and post-doctoral programs in support of research.
Contract nr.: POSDRU/88/1.5/S/60185 – “INNOVATIVE DOCTORAL STUDIES IN A
KNOWLEDGE BASED SOCIETY”
Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

REFERENCES

1. C. R. L. Laize & D. M. Hannah (2008), Seasonal hydroclimatological variability in

near-natural UK river basins. Sustainable Hydrology for the 21st Century 15-17
September 2008 (Proceedings of 10th BHS National Hydrology Symposium)
University of Exeter.
2. Donna Bower & D. M. Hannah (2002), Spatial and temporal variability of UK river
flow regimes. FRIEND 2002—Regional Hydrology: Bridging die Cap between
Research and Practice (Proceedings of thee Fourth International FRIEND Conference
held al Cape Town. South Africa. March 2002). IAHS Publ. no. 274. 2002. ISSN
0144-7815.
3. S. R. Kansakar, D. M. Hannah, J. Gerrard (2002), Flow regime characteristics of
Himalayan river basins in Nepal. FRIEND 2002—Regional Hydrology: Bridging die
Cap between Research and Practice (Proceedings of thee Fourth International
FRIEND Conference held al Cape Town. South Africa. March 2002). IAHS Publ. no.
274. 2002. ISSN 0144-7815.
4. Ujvari, I. (1957), Alimentarea râurilor din R.P.R, în Meteor. şi Hidrologie, nr. 1.
5. Ujvari, I. (1972), Geografia apelor României. Editura Stiinţifică, Bucureşti.
6. Seber, G. (1984). Multivariate Observations. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
7. Spath, H. (1985). Cluster Dissection and Analysis: Theory, FORTRAN Programs,
Examples. New York: Halsted Press.

319
 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DEGREE OF POLLUTION
WITH CHROMIUM OF TÂRNAVA MICĂ RIVER
IN TÂRNĂVENI CITY

RETI KINGA-OLGA1, I. D. MANCIULA1

ABSTRACT. Chromium pollution of Târnava Mică River in Târnăveni city is

possible due to several factors: the presence of three settlings basins inside the
former industrial units S.C. Bicapa S.A. in the vicinity of the river, the degradation
of the insulating layer inside the structure of the settling basins, over-capacity
storage pits, the soil type existing in the examined area, the weather, the climate
and the groundwater level. This study examines the direct and indirect
relationships between these factors and their influence upon the river pollution. In
order to obtain relevant results on the degree of pollution of Târnava River,
detailed analysis of relevant factors since 2004 were made, after which time there
was a decrease in chromium concentrations in Târnava Mică River. Following an
analysis matrix we can conclude that there is a direct influence between the
chromium concentration in Târnava Mică River, climatic conditions and the
infiltration of waste disposal.

KEYWORDS: pollution, environmental factors, Târnava Mică River, settlings

basins.

1. INTRODUCTION

The pollution has affected many cities in Romania, especially the forced
industrialized cities during the communist period. Pollution has occurred due to
uncontrolled or accidental discharges from industrial establishments, which had a
maximum productivity until 1989. Thereafter began a rapid decline of the industry
on a national scale, but not manifested by a significant reduction in pollution.
Pollution has persisted over time, until now, mainly due to:
- surface storage of untreated industrial waste components that affect the
quality of the environment through leakage and evaporation;
- lack of decommissioning of industrial units, which resulted in major
changes for the landscape areas which are currently subject to landscape degradation.
Among the localities of this type is Târnăveni city, which is located in the
central Târnava Plateau, on the riverside of Târnava Mică River, in a slight
widening of its sector. The presence of methane gas near the village was the basic
element in the emergence and development of local industries, especially the
chemical industry. This industrial development has had repercussions on the
quality of environmental components in the vicinity of industrial area, mainly on
                                                            
1
Babeş-Bolyai University, Faculty of Science and Environmental Engineering,
Cluj-Napoca, 400294, Fântânele Street, No.30, Tel. 0264-307030,
e-mail: retikinga@gmail.com

  320
water quality in Târnava Mică River, due to several factors of influence which we
take into account in our analysis: the distance to the river, degradation and
overloaded capacity of the sludge storage areas, weather-climatic conditions, soil
type and groundwater level.

2. STUDY AREA

In Târnăveni city, the main source of pollution with negative effects on the
environment was represented by chemical factory, which in 1991 was organized in
two industrial units: S.C. Bicapa S.A. and S.C. Carbid-Fox S.A. The unit is located
in western city Târnăveni, having Târnava Mică River to the south, some
residential neighborhoods to the north and north-west and some arable land to the
east and west (figure 1).

Figure 1. Location of the chemical plant in Târnăveni city

The industrial unit started its activity in 1916 by producing explosives and
war gases, and then manufactures carbide until 2007, when they stopped all pro-
duction activities. Those two industrial units had the following profile of activities:
- S.C. Bicapa S.A. was specialized in manufacturing and marketing of
inorganic compounds (sodium dichromate, potassium dichromate, chromic
anhydride, barite, sulfur, sulfur compounds and oxides), pest control products,
ceramic products, and machinery and spare parts components;
- SC Carbid-Fox S.A. has had as main objective the manufacturing and
marketing of metal packaging products and several chemical substances (carbide,
lime, formic acid, hydrofluoric acid and sodium sulfate).

  321
 Both industrial units were equipped with storage facilities for raw materials,
finished products and by-products which in turn were organized into categories of
substances in open air or semi-open platforms, warehouses, silos, reservoirs and
waste landfills and settling basins. Three settling basins inside the industrial unit
were used for decantation of the sewage sludge out of industrial waste waters,
which comes from sodium dichromate and barite production units. They are
arranged as follows:
- the settling basin (B1) began working in 1981 and it was used to store
sludge from the industrial wastewater treatment plant;
- the second settling basin (B2) was put into service in 1972 and is
currently exhausted;
- the third settling basin (B3) was put into service in 1974 and is now
exhausted.
These settling basins are located on the right side of Târnava Mică River,
at distances ranging between 15 and 35 m and bordered to the north and west by
industrial area, in south by Târnava Mică River and to the east by agricultural land
(figure 2).

Figure 2. Positioning of the settling basins inside the industrial unit.

Sludge characteristics are presented next in table 1:

  322
 Table 1. Structural characteristics of the settling basins

Storage
Year of Designed Current Storage
Settling capacity
construction/ height height capacity
basin reached
elevation (m) (m) (thousand m3)
(thousand m3)
B1 1981-1991 5,5 9,5 300 450
B2 1972-1978 6 10 455 750
B3 1974-1975 6 10 206 345

3. METHODS AND ANALYSIS

In our analysis we want to reflect by using an evaluation matrix, the

negative effect of the settling basins from the industrial unit on the water quality of
Târnava Mică River. Such an analysis should take into account several factors of
influence, namely: local morphology, also hydro-geological, meteorological and
climatic data, hydrological data and also structural characteristics of the settling
basins.
Regarding the land morphology near the basins, this land is relatively flat
with a slight tilt towards the Târnava Mică River. The land around the sludge is
partially damaged due to seepage, waterproofing soils and basins leakage during
periods of heavy precipitation (the leachate exceeds the upper B2 and B3 basins
and drain on their slopes).
Lithology in the analyzed site has the following sequence:
- between 0 - 0.30 m: topsoil layer;
- between 0.30 to 3.8 m: layer composed of semipermeable sand clays and
dusty sands, and also sandy clays and powders, with a coefficient of permeability k
= 2.0 - 2.5 m/day;
- between 3.8 to 10.8 m: layer consists of large and medium sands mixed
with fine sands, with an average coefficient of permeability k = 86-100 m/day.
Within this layer, ground water can be easily found.
- below 10.8 m the parent rock is composed of shale clays.
Groundwater is affected by the Târnava Mică River, being a drain of the
studied area. The general direction of groundwater flow is orientated towards south
and the depth at which the groundwater was found is about 2.5 to 3.0 m.
The main course of the study area is the Târnava Mică River, with the
following morphometric characteristics:
- minimum flow recorded from September to October Q = 1.3 m3/s and Q
= 1.65 m3/s from December to January;
- maximum flow in spring, when snow melting overlaps the rainy periods,
so the flow ranging between 80-300 m3/s.
Among the weather-climatic conditions, must mention those who have a
direct influence on the leakage of the settling basins and also upon the groundwater

  323
level, namely monthly precipitation and temperatures. The dry period is from
September to March and during April-August are recorded significant amounts of
precipitation. These parameters were registered in 2004, when samples were taken
from the settling basins.

Table 2. Precipitation and the temperatures recorded in Târnăveni city in 2004.

Months I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII

Quantity
29 23,5 29 44 32 67,8 37 56 61 35 33 35
ml/m2
Temp
o -4 -0,8 +4,65 +10,3+15,3 +18,1 +19 +18,5 +15,6 +10 +4,4 -2
C

Concentrations of hexavalent chromium from the settling basins were

determined by groundwater sampling in January, April, August and November,
from wells drilled at 850 m downstream of the first basin (B1), next to the second
basin (B2) and upstream, at 150 m of both basins (data provided by the industrial
unit). Data on concentrations of chromium in Târnava Mică River were provided
by the National Company “Romanian Waters”, Water Basin Administration Mureş.
Hexavalent chromium concentration in the first basin (B1) during the operational
phase has recorded a maximum value of 1360mg/l, whiles for the other two basins
(B2 and B3) the pollutant concentration of 5.8mg/l, comes after washing the
pollutant by rain water.

Table 3. Cr6+ concentrations inside the sludge and Târnava Mică River.

Period I Period II
November January April August
Downstream Basin
0,25 mg/l 0,23 mg/l 0,35 mg/l 0,41 mg/l
B1 (at 850 m)
Right of Basin B2 0,99 mg/l 0,87 mg/l 1,33 mg/l 1,68 mg/l
Upstream basin B3
0 mg/l 0 mg/l 0 mg/l 0 mg/l
(at 150 m)
Basin B1
downstream
0,24 mg/l 0,21 mg/l 0,32mg/l 0,40 mg/l
Târnava Mică
River
Legislation: NTPA
0,1 mg/l
001/2002

In terms of shielding the settling basins, this is made of gel-concrete with a

hydraulic conductivity k = 1.72 x 10-4 m/day, property which shows a very low
conductivity and permeability. Infiltrations from settling basins occur due to
leakage over the protection dam during periods of high quantitative precipitation.

  324
 To determine the impact of leachate on water quality of Târnava Mică
River and by taking into account the influence factors mentioned above, we used
the matrix method of impact strength to determine the influences of the factors
analyzed and the intensity of impact, along these lines:

• - low negative impact

•• - large negative impact
0 - no impact
+ - low positive impact
++ - significant positive impact

Table 4. Impact assessment matrix on water quality in Târnava Mică River

INFLUENCES IMPACT ON TÂRNAVA MICĂ RIVER

Site morphology •
Lithology of the area •
Rain water ••
Temperature 0
Groundwater level ••
River distance from settling basins ••
Cr6+ in sludge ••
Cr6+ concentrations in wells ••
Basins layer protection +
Storage capacity of the settling basins ••

4. CONCLUSIONS

The matrix analysis shows that between water quality of Târnava Mică
River and the quantity of precipitation, the groundwater level, the excess sludge
storage capacity and concentrations of hexavalent chromium from basins and
wells, is a direct influence and the negative impact of these factors is significant.
Large amounts of precipitation recorded, especially in the rainy period (II), lead to
high concentrations of chromium in both wells and river water, due to seepage,
basins leakage and infiltrations into groundwater, which is directly related to
Târnava Mică River. The proximity of the river, allow the pollutant to reach the
river water in a short period of time, affecting its quality. It has been noted that in
both seasons (rainy and dry), the concentrations of chromium exceeded the
maximum permissible concentration in groundwater and Târnava Mică River,
which reflects the fact that there are permanent leachate infiltration into the
groundwater, due to a sludge storage capacity exceeded. The sludge influence on
the water quality of Târnava Mică River is underlined by the fact that upstream of
settlings basins no concentrations of chromium were recorded into the

  325
groundwater. All tests were performed in 2004, when the wells were made, year
after which sampling has stopped.
To reduce the negative effects exerted by the settling basins on the water
quality of the Târnava Mică River, leachate must be neutralized and wastes must be
transported in specially designed landfills.

REFERENCES

1. HORHOI E. 2001, Calitatea mediului înconjurător în culoarul Târnavei

Mari. Studiu geoecologic. Editura Logos'94. Oradea
2. MAC I. (2003), Ştiinţa mediului. Ed. Europontic. Cluj-Napoca
3. MUNTEAN O. L., BACIU N., CORPADE C. (2005), Strategii de
dezvoltare durabilă pentru mediul urban. Environment & Progress. 2005/4.
Cluj-Napoca, p. 253-256
4. MUNTEAN O. L. (2003), Impactul antropic asupra componentelor
environmentale în culoarul Târnavei Mari (sectorul Vânători – Micăsasa).
Teză de doctorat. Cluj-Napoca
5. RETI KINGA OLGA (2009) Diferenţierea sistemului environmental în
structuri urbane cu stări critice în bazinul Târnavei, Teză de doctorat
6. SOROCOVSCHI V. (1996), Podişul Târnavelor. Studiu hidrologic. Ed.
CETIB. Cluj-Napoca.
7. *** Bilanţ de mediu nivel II,
8. *** PLANUL LOCAL DE ACŢIUNE PENTRU MEDIU MUREŞ (2004),
Agenţia pentru protecţia mediului Mureş
9. *** RAPORT PRIVIND STAREA MEDIULUI PE ANUL 2004 ÎN
JUDEŢUL MUREŞ (2004), Agenţia pentru protecţia mediului Mureş
10. *** RAPORT PRIVIND STAREA MEDIULUI PE ANUL 2005 ÎN
JUDEŢUL MUREŞ (2005), Agenţia pentru protecţia mediului Mureş
11. *** RAPORT ANUAL PRIVIND CARACTERIZAREA CALITĂŢII
APEI ÎN PERIOADA IANUARIE-DECEMBRIE, ANUL 2004, Compania
Naţională “Apele Române” Administraţia Bazinală de Apă Mureş

  326
 THE DYNAMIC OF USING THE RIVERS ENERGY
FROM REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA TERRITORY

DIANA BRAGA1

ABSTRACT – The dynamic of using the rivers energy from Republic of

Moldova territory. One of the least explored and tapped energy sources in
Moldova are the inland rivers. Considering the critical condition of the country
regarding energy sources, it would be highly necessary to study the feasibility of
hydraulic energy reserves. Although Moldova has no major rivers with a large
flow of water, the network of small tributaries of its two large rivers, Dniester and
Prut, could be used to a certain extent for partial power supply to villages situated
along inland watercourses.
The first scientific developments concerning the hydropower potential of the
rivers in Bessarabia belong to professor D. Pavel. Around 1933 he was suggesting
a series of hydro-technical facilities on Prut and Dniester rivers and their
tributaries. Subsequently, in the ‘40s of the 20th century the first power plants
were built on small rivers. After World War II some small hydropower plants,
built during the interwar period, had been restored and some other put into
operation. These include the plant at Dubăsari with a capacity of 48 MW that
started operating in 1954 on Dniester River, and the hydroelectric complex at
Costeşti -Stânca with a capacity of 16 MW, in 1978 on the River Prut.
Nevertheless, the leverage of hydroelectric resources is not significant, only 23
being used nowadays, which is 7% of the hydropower potential - a rather modest
number compared to other states.

Keywords: hydropower resources, water mills, hydropower plants, hydro-electric

power station, hydraulic energy.

1. INTRODUCTION
Rivers have been used in the area between the Dniester and Prut rivers
since ancient times through the use of water mills. The statistical data testify that
before the implementation of massive steam engines and internal combustion
engines, water mills were particularly spread in Moldova.

2. HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS

Most water mills were on the Hotin hill and in Codri on the Raut River. In
medieval writings one would often encounter the term “jalovania mlinov” or places
where they were built. These sources witness that throughout Moldovan
principality, already in the 15th-16th centuries, there was a significant number of

1
The Tiraspol State University, Faculty of Geography, Chisinau, Moldova,
e-mail: dianabrg3@gmail.com

327
water mills used to produce food and industrial products: flour, oil, textiles, timber,
etc. They belonged to the great feudalists, to Moldovan rulers, to monasteries and
the clergy (Bossy, 1937).
Although in the Middle Ages, on the territory between the Dniester and
Prut Rivers a relatively large number of hydraulic facilities were operating, their
existence was recorded only on some large and medium scale maps of the late 18th
century – assigned to the territory of Moldova of that time – the map of Bawr,
Bϋschel, Otzellowitz J. Liechtenstern - as well as some plans and estates.
Historical and ethnographic research and documentary entries of the time
show that in Moldova, throughout the 18th century, there were more types of
hydraulic facilities in use. These categories were: water mills for grain milling,
most of them located near water banks, including the banks of the minor river beds
or on ponds above the dams, including floating mills installed on large rivers; the
oil mill - called “tescuri”, used to obtain oil out of pumpkin seed, flax, hemp;
fulling mills, sometimes called hives, used for felting woven wool and obtaining
cloth; „steaza” and „dîrsta” - for finishing fabrics.
Still, in the Middle Ages, the generic term “water mill” was very widespread
and attributed to several kinds of hydraulic installations. Therefore, in order to make
a difference, additional features were often added resulting into such terms as: paper
mill, tanning mill, saws mill, “aparcaş” mill, “prav” (rifle) mill, etc. In addition to
this, no maps or plans of estates provide a clear distinction between the kinds of
hydraulic facilities, and there are no adequate explanations in maps legend.
Thus, Bawr’s map enlists 166 hydraulic facilities on the territory of Moldova,
of which only 72 are known to have the symbol of a watermill, which is the only
explained in the legend by the generic term of “mouline” (= moara). The remaining
94 symbols are marked by a plan symbol, but have no explanation in the legend.
Based on this data the map “Moldova’s hydraulic facilities in the 18th
century” (Fig. 1) was elaborated. It roughly shows the geographical distribution of
these installations. Thus, there are 951 hydraulic facilities charted on the map.
According to the map the majority of these hydraulic facilities functioned
in the western half of Moldova, an area with the most dense network of rivers and
with a permanent flow.
Taking into consideration their geographical distribution of longitudinal
zones, from the West to the East, it is possible to notice that 775 of them, i.e. the
majority, were to the west of Hotin line, in the Siret River valley, 122 were on the
plateau area between Siret and Prut and only 54 in the area between the Prut and
Nistru Rivers. Their distribution was closely linked to the physical-geographical
and socio-economic conditions. According to the map, the fewest hydraulic
facilities were in the eastern half of Moldova, especially in the provinces of the
south - east, with a low and slightly fragmented landscape, a poor hydrographic
network and a slower and irregular flow, caused by the dry continental climate.
During the late Middle Ages the same territories were frequently threatened and
invaded by the armies of the neighboring empires, a fact that disturbed a favorable
social-economic development.

328
 Fig.1. Hydraulic facilities in Moldova in the 18th century

Later research work allows us to reconstruct in more detail the manner and
distribution of water mills across the former (Russian Province of) Bessarabia.
Thus, by the 19th century water mills were most common in the central and
northern parts, areas with a fairly dense network of rivers.
During this period their classification becomes more frequent. Thus, water
mills were divided into stationary mills and mobile pontoons.
Stationary water mills were built on large and small rivers, on ponds, thus
comprising the majority of water mills. Depending on the construction of the wheel
they were divided into “morişti” mils and beaters (“colesuhi”).
“Morişte” were the oldest and simplest types of water mills. They are
distinguished by a simple structure and being installed on rapid rivers and streams.
In a more or less similar form these Morişte-mills were encountered until
recently on Ciugure River in Proscureni and Costesti villages, Riscani district.
Most often these were owned by individual peasants, while some others were for
the common use of village inhabitants.
Beater-mills looked stronger and more founded, representing mills with
huge vertical wheels mounted on a horizontal axis. Depending on the various parts
of the wheel structure, the way the water was administered and the way they would
be turned on, the beater-mills were divided into upper intake and lower intake
mills.
These kinds of mills were encountered in Ciorna river valley near the
Glinjeni village, on Ciugure river near Duruitorii Noi village, on Nistru river, near
Tipova village, Rezina district. During floods, they have been damaged and were
not restored.

329
 Floating water mills used rafts or boats as foundation. Most of them were
situated on the Prut and Nistru rivers, in places where the flow velocity was
significantly higher compared to other rivers. N.N. Puzîrevskii affirms that "being
in a large number on the Nistru River, a few hundred, they were hindering greatly
the shipping (Станчу, 1979).
It is most likely that floating mills were known long ago on the territory
between Dniester and Prut Rivers, but the time of their first use could not be stated
(Fig. 2).
However, it is known that in 1837 residents of the Gremeşti, Ţiţcani and
Perera villages, of Hotin district, as well as those from Tomeştii Vechi, Balti
district, were allowed to build new floating mills on Prut river, and some old mills
had to be replaced from the Bedreac village to Bogdăneşti village and from Perita
village to Ţiţcani village of Hotin district, because of bank erosion. Peasants of
Ganceşti village were allowed to build a floating mill on the Prut river, where "one
already existed” (Станчу, 1979).

Fig.2. Water mills

The increase of grain production in the late 19th and early 20th century led
to the development of milling as such, as well as to the diversification of mill-
types. It is rather impossible to elaborate a complete study on water mills in the
region during the early 19th century. Thus, a source mentions the presence of 1294
mills in the region by1817, without focusing on their types. As a consequence it is
virtually impossible to determine the number of water mills out of their total
amount. However, it is known for sure that more than one half of these mills
belonged to peasants and yeomen. The majority of mills were in Hotin, Codru and
Orhei districts, i.e. areas with a developed agriculture.
In the years that followed, along with the increasing grain production and
sale capacity, milling continued to develop. Statistics become more reliable starting
with the second half of the 19th century (Гросул, Будак, 1972) . The extent to
which all types of mills where spread in the second half of the 19th - early 20th
century are shown in the table below.

330
 Table 1. Distribution of water mills in Bessarabia between 1850 – 1919

District 1850 1870 1880 1900 1919

Chişinău 53 66 62 19 -
Orhei 126 125 120 68 22
Bălţi 108 136 55 43 18
Soroca 136 198 202 196 70
Hotin 385 536 189 598 414
Bender - 6 - - 16
Akkerman 4 5 - 1 -
Ismail - - - - -
Total 812 1072 628 925 540

As presented in the table, water mills were most frequently encountered in

the central and northern districts. This situation may be explained by the fact that
the water resources of inland rivers in southern Bessarabia were insignificant.
These data indicate that the number of water mills had grown by 1870. During the
years that followed their number started to decline sharply. In 1919 it was almost
twice smaller compared to that registered in 1900. The territorial distribution of
mills places Hotin district in the first place, followed by Soroca, Orhei and Balti.
This decline is logically explained by the development and use of the more
sophisticated steam mills.
A more complex perspective upon water mills on the territory of Bessarabia
in 1919 was elaborated by Giurgea (1919).
According to him, by 1919 there were 540 water mills on the territory
between Dniester and Prut, of which about 414 were situated in the Hotin district
and fewer in others: Soroca – 70, Orhei – 22, Bender - 16. In the other counties no
mills were attested. By 1923 this number grew to 887, a fact highlighted in the
analysis of the “Statistical Dictionary” for 1923. In time their number might
gradually decrease, slowly disappearing from the country’s economic landscape,
with few vestiges attested at present.
The first scientific developments concerning the hydropower potential of
the rivers in Bessarabia belong to professor D. Pavel (1976). Around 1933 he
witnessed a series of hydro-technical facilities on Prut and Dniester rivers and on
their tributaries.
Subsequently, in the ‘40s of the 20th century the first power plants were
built on small rivers.
After World War II some small hydropower plants erected during the
interwar period were restored. The installations that operated before the war on
Camenca and Beloci rivers, tributaries on the left of Nistru River, were also
restored. In the years 1948–1949 two more power plants started operating on
Camenca River in Cubota village.
331
 During the ’50s of the 20th century few more power plants were build in
Brinzeni and Cazanesti on Raut River, with a capacity exceeding 100 kW. Later
on, more small and medium scale hydro-plants were built on Jeloboc-Piatra on
Raut River.
The use of hydropower resources of large rivers started in 1954, when the
power plant at Dubasari with a capacity of 48 MW, started its activity.
At present this hydropower plant provides electricity only to the districts
situated on the left side of the Nistru River.
The use of energy potential of the Prut River started in 1978, when the
hydroelectric complex at Costeşti –Stânca, with a capacity of 16 MW, was put into
operation in partnership with Romania.

3. CONCLUSIONS

Moldovan hydropower potential is favorable to the rearrangement of water

mills and small hydropower plants (SHP). The issue of SHP construction in
Moldova is more and more present with the increasing world prices for energy and
concomitant lack of financial resources to purchase energy.
The degree of exploit of hydropower resources is insignificant. So far 23
have been used, which is 7% of the hydropower potential, a modest leverage
compared to other states.

REFERENCES

1. Bossy R., (1937), Mărturii finlandeze despre România. Bucureşti.

2. Giurgea E. „Situaţia generală a morilor din Basarabia după plase şi judeţe”.
Chişinău, 1919.
3. Pavel D.(1976), Arhitectura apelor. Editura Eminescu, București.
4. Гросул Я., Будак И., (1972), Очерки истории народного хозяйства
Бессарабии (1961- 1905). Кишинев.
5. Станчу Е., (1979), Традиционные крестьянские промыслы Молдавии в ХIХ
– начале ХХ век. Кишинёв.
6. *** (1923) Dicţionarul statistic al Basarabiei, Ediţie oficială, Direcţia
generală a statisticii, Serviciul statistic regional din Chişinău. Ed. „Glasul
Ţării”, Chişinău.
7. *** (1984) Documente şi zapise moldoveneşti de la Constantinopol (1607 –
1806)”. Iaşi.

332
 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE DROUGHT PHENOMENON
IN CLUJ COUNTY

CORNEL BLAGA1

ABSTRACT. - Considerations on the drought phenomenon in Cluj County.

Cluj county area is 6674 km², and is located in the northwestern part of Romania.
The climate is temperate continental with oceanic influences, relatively humid, but
there are also periods of drought and even years with deficient rainfall, as there are
periods of excess rainfall. Dryness and drought phenomena are caused by cosmic,
climatic, hydrological (groundwater depth, the existence of surface water sources)
factors, features of the underlying surface, vegetation coverage, soil texture and
structure. The relief determines a climate elevation with differences in terms of
precipitation and temperatures quantities. To calculate the dryness degree of the
climate at weather stations in the Cluj county, the Emmanuel de Martonne aridity
index was used. Drought do not induce into the substrate the geomorphologic
processes per se, however, they pave the way for starting the deflation process,
surface erosion and ravine, by reducing the cohesion between the particles and the
formation of deep cracks in the soil and even rock. In these climatic conditions,
droughts are less frequent in the county of Cluj, in relation to the extra-Carpathian
regions and are distributed unevenly across the county. The number of periods of
drought decreases with the increase of the altitude, from an average of 2.6 drought
periods a year at Dej (altitude of 232 m) to an annual average of 0.3 draught
periods at Vlădeasa Peak (altitude of 1836 m).

Keywords: drought, dryness, moist.

1. INTRODUCTION
Cluj County has a surface of 6674 km² and is located in the northwestern
part of Romania, being crossed almost in the middle by the parallel of 46˚50'
northern latitude and meridian of 23˚30' east longitude. To the north it shares a
border with the counties of Salaj and Maramures, with Bistrita-Nasaud to the east,
to the south-east with Mures, with Alba to the south and to the west with Bihor.
Relief: The western part of the county is occupied by the Vlădeasa, Gilău
and Muntele Mare Mountains and the north-east part of the Trascău Mountains, the
northern district overlaps the Someş Plateau and the south-east overlaps the
Transylvania Plain (Someş Plain and the north-west part of the Mureş Plain).
Climate: temperate continental with oceanic influences.
The Cluj county is situated in a relatively humid climate compared to the
counties in the eastern and south-eastern parts of Romania. Nevertheless, even here
exist years with drought periods and even years with scarce rainfall, as there are
periods of excess rainfall.

1
National Administration of Meteorology Bucharest – CMR TN, Cluj-Napoca, 400213, e-mail:
cornel.blaga@yahoo.com

333
 y = 107.45x + 347.38
1600

1200
1183
800 557.5 853.4
606
400
626.8 514
0
232 m 410m 425 m 560 m 1364 m 1836 m

Dej Cluj- Turda HuedinB aiso ara

Vladeasa
Napo ca

Fig.1. Physical map of the Cluj county Fig. 2. The annual average precipitation
at the meteorological stations in the Cluj
County, in the period 1961-1990 (in mm).

Average annual rainfall, calculated according to the average for the period
1961-1990, for the meteorological stations in Cluj County, is between: 514 mm at
Turda and 1183.8 mm at Vlădeasa Peak, with differences according to the altitude
and exposure to the dominant movement of the air masses (Figure 2).

2. DEFINITION AND CLASIFICATION OF DROUGHTS

The term drought signifies a complex of climatic and hydrological factors

that reduce, in a certain region, the intensity of the water cycle during a longer or
shorter period of time and whose first result is the stagnation in growth or the
drying of the plants (N. Topor, 1964).
A period of drought is always preceded by a period of dryness. C. Donciu,
in 1962, using the Hellman criterion of pluviometric characterization of a period,
defines the dry period as being the absence of rainfall in 5 consecutive days, during
which time it did not rain at all, or if it did rain, the precipitation that day did not
exceeded the daily average. A drought period is characterized by the absence of
rainfall for least 14 consecutive days during the cold season (October to March)
and for least 10 consecutive days during the warm season of the year (April to
September), and if precipitation occurred, they did not total an amount greater than
0.1 mm. Both phenomena (dryness and drought) occur firstly in the air
(atmospheric drought) and if it persists for a long period of time, and the
temperature and wind intensify the evapotranspiration processes, reducing the
water reserve in the soil, then the dryness and drought phenomena descends from
the air towards the soil (pedological drought). The merging of the two is called
mixed drought (Octavia Bogdan, 1999). Hydrological drought occurs in certain
conditions, associated to the lack of precipitation or if rainfall level are too low to
help fuel the hydrographic system (I. Minea, CI Left, 2004).

334
 3. DROUGHT TRIGGERS

The dryness and drought phenomena are caused by cosmic, climatic,

hydrological (groundwater depth, the existence of surface water sources) factors,
features of the underlying surface, vegetation coverage, soil texture and structure.

3.1. Cosmic factors

From the statistical research methods to substantiate the long-term
forecasting, considering the helio-geophysical factors, conclusions regarding the
correlation between the sign of the interplanetary magnetic field anomalies (Kp)
and the production of droughts in the country were drawn. According to research,
the maximum repeatability in our country's drought is expected to occur before a
maximum of Kp values, remaining relatively high during maximum Kp years,
according to the Kp peak the probability of droughts decreases a lot. The deviation
from annual average of the meridian circulation indices (which favors the
formation droughts phenomenon) for the atlanto-European area is influenced by the
production of extremes solar activity (Răhău L. 1978).

3.2. Climatic factors

Dry periods are mostly determined by high pressure-anticyclonic formations,
and in some cases and by the cyclone formations composed of masses of dry air or
of a uniform pressure field, with a value close to the normal value (1013 hPa) and
without showing cyclonic or anticyclonic circulation at the ground level. The
sustainability of the drought regimes is proportional to the intensity of the
anticyclone, its height, the volume of hot air in the column above the central part
and the origin of the hot air supply in the upper parts.

3.3. Case Study: 24th of September – 26th

of October 2000 time interval. Synoptic situation
For the synoptic analysis maps of altitude, geopotential field and
temperature from 850 to 500 hPa and soil maps from wetterzentrale.de and NCEP-
NCAR reanalysis maps were used. In the 24th of September to the 26th of October
2000 time interval our country was under the influence of a high pressure field,
caused by the expansion to the south, south-east of the ridges of the Scandinavian
Anticyclone and to the south-west of the ridges of the Eastern European
Anticyclone. During this period of time, at the meteorological stations at Turda and
Dej no precipitation occurred at all, this being the longest period without rainfall
recorded in the county of Cluj. At other stations in the county, the rainfall during
this period was very low, ranging between 0.4 l/m2 at Cluj-Napoca, 0.6 l/m² at
Băişoara, 2.0 l/m² at Huedin and 2.1 l/m² at Vlădeasa.
At ground level, on the 24th of September 2000, the northern part of the
European continent was under the influence of the Scandinavian Anticyclone. Its
core is centered over the North-Eastern part of the Baltic Sea has a value in the
center of 1035 hPa. In Romania, the pressure at ground level is high, of 1025 hPa.

335
Beginning with the 26th of September its core this gradually weakens reaching a
value of 1025 hPa, and lengthens in form of a belt from Finland to Bulgaria,
stopping the advance of Iceland Low from the Atlantic Ocean on continent. From
the 29th of September, the extended ridge of the Scandinavian Anticyclone, merges
with the ridge of the East - European Anticyclone formed above the Central
Russian Plain, covering the northern parts of Europe, between the Scandinavian
Peninsula in the west and the Ural Mountains in the east, and it extends towards the
south to the Mediterranean Sea. In Romania, the pressure at ground level, though
slightly declining, remains at high levels of 1020 hPa. On the 1st of October, the
pressure at the center of the Eastern European Anticyclone reaches 1030 hPa, and
in Romania the pressure increases up to 1025 hPa. Until the 5th of October the
pressure remains high in the eastern part of the European continent, the Eastern
European Anticyclone is active, while the Scandinavian Anticyclone is slightly
weakened, allowing the movement of the Iceland Low trough towards the
Scandinavian Peninsula. In the following days ground level pressure remains
almost unchanged, after which in the time interval between the 8th of October un
the 13th, the high pressure field in the eastern part of the continent strengthens, and
also to withdraws towards the east, the pressure in the northeastern Russian Plain
reaching 1040 hPa. The anticyclone ridge that acts over Romania maintains a high
pressure of 1020 hPa at ground level. Because of the withdrawal eastward of the
East European Anticyclone, the Iceland Low trough, which is at first placed above
the west of Great Britain, moves forward towards the west and north-west parts of
the continent. In the 13th of October the high pressure field occupies the whole part
northern Europe, the Iceland Low trough retreating from the west of the continent
towards the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. In Romania, the pressure remains high,
with values of 1025 hPa. In the 17th of October the high - pressure field in the
northern part of the continent moves from the Scandinavian Peninsula towards the
western parts of the Russian Plain, its ridges creating a belt of high pressure from
Finland to the Mediterranean. In Romania, the pressure at ground level remains
high, with values of 1025 hPa. The Iceland Low remains active in west of the
continent and the trough connected with it dominates the coasts of Great Britain. In
the following days no significant changes in the weather are observed. On the 20th
of October the high pressure field that dominates the northern part of Europe, sends
ridges from Finland to Greece, increasing the pressure at ground level in our
country to levels of 1030 hPa. The Atlantic Cyclon deepens, the pressure at its
center reaching values of up to 995 hPa.
In the 23rd of October the ridges of the anticyclone in north-east part of
Europe merge over Romania with the ridges of the Azores High, which is
expanding. The Iceland Low is positioned in the north-west part of the continent,
approaches the continent with a eastward movement of its trough. Two low
pressure centers with values of 995 hPa are developed, one in the northern part of
Scandinavian Peninsula and the other one above Northern Ireland. The weather in
our country remain unchanged until the 26th of October, when the Azores High
ridge withdraws to the south-west of the continent, and Eastern European

336
Anticyclone ridge withdraws to the north-east, while Iceland Low trough in the
north-west of the continent is moving towards the south-east, determining small
amounts of rainfall in the region of our country, on the 27th of October. From the
29th of October the high pressure field over our country is reorganized and rainfall
stops again. In the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis map in Figure 3, it is shown that the
average values of the pressure in our country were between 1018-1022 hPa.
At the 500 hPa isobaric level, at the beginning of the time interval, on the
24th of September it can be observed that the 500 hPa area is located at the 584-588
dmgp level. The extension of a ridge to Italy and Greece makes the whole
continent to be in an area of high geopotential. Above Romania is 576 dmgp
isopleth. Beginig with the 29th of September, above Romania is the 568 dmgp
isopleth. On the 1st of October at the 500 hPa level, the ridge of the Eastern
European Anticyclone remains active and moves to the west and south-west of the
continent, reaching Germany. Between the 8th and the 13th of October in the
anticyclone core, values of the height of the surface of 572 gpdm are recorded, and
the 13th of October these values are rising, reaching 580 dmgp. Above Romania the
568 dmgp isopleth maintains its position. From the 17th of October until the 16th of
October the geopotential values remain high, decreasing from the 26th of October
reaching a value of 564 dmgp. On the 24th of September 2000 the temperature at
850 hPa isobaric level, above Romania was of 5°C, compared to the climatic
normal for this period (9°C). Beginning in the 29th of September it increases
slightly to values of up to 6-8ºC. This temperature value is maintained until the 5th
of October when starts growing, reaching 10ºC. In the 17th of October, the
temperature at the 850 hPa level increases up to 12ºC, then on the 20th of October it
drops to 6°C, close to the climatic normal of 4°C.

Figure no. 3. Average Figure no. 4. Average Figure no. 5. Average

distribution of isopleths at distribution of isopleths at distribution of isotherms
ground level, period 500 hPa, period 09.24.2000- at 850hPa level, period
09.24.2000-23.10.2000 23.10.2000 24.09.2000 to 23.10.2000

Mean values of meteorological elements in the middle troposphere, in the

time interval between the 24th of 2000 and the 25th of October 2000, can be seen on
the NCEP-NCAR reanalysis maps (Figure 4 and 5).

337
 3.4. Topography and vegetation
Relief determines a natural setting of the climates with differences in terms
of precipitation, temperatures and other elements. The amount of precipitation
increases with altitude, with a precipitation average gradient of 100 l/100 m (in our
area), until it reaches the optimum level of precipitation, at about 1600-1800 m and
then it begins to decline. The average annual number of periods of drought
decreases with the increasing of altitude. Figure 6 shows a decrease in average
annual periods of drought with the increase of altitude. Thus in Dej, located at an
altitude of 232 m, the average drought periods per year is 2.6, and at Vlădeasa at an
altitude of 1836 m the average annual number of cases is reduced to 0.3. The
presence of vegetation, especially the forest, favors air humidity growth in the
evapotranspiration process and hence the falling of the convective type of
precipitation.

3
2.6 y = -0.4x + 2.5333

2
1.3
1.4
1
0.8
0.4 0.3
0
232 m 410 m 425 m 560 m 1364 m 1836 m

Dei Cluj- Turda Huedin B aiso araVladeasa

Napo ca

Figure no. 6. Average annual number of Figure no. 7. Map of the

periods of drought, period 1991-2000. distribution of drought periods

In our country’s temperate continental climate, differences are observed

according to the altitude. A classification of climates based on elevation includes
the following types of climates: lowland climate (in our county is not met); hilly
and plateau climate; mountain climate and climate of depression regions.

4. CLUJ COUNTY REGIONALISATION ACORDING

TO THE DEGREEE OF DRYNESS OF THE CLIMAT

To calculate the degree of dryness of the climate at the weather stations in

the county of Cluj, the aridity index of Emmanuel de Martonne was used, which is
calculated by dividing the annual average amount of precipitation to annual
average temperature and adding 10; A = P/T + 10. According to the results of these
computations (Figure No. 8) the Cluj county is situated in a semi-humid climate
(lower basin of the Aries), perhumid climate in the mountainous region and humid
climate in the rest of the county (Figure No. 8).

338
 Fig. 8. Map of the regionalization of climates
in Cluj county according to the Emmanuel
de Martonne aridity index
5. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES INDUCED
BY DROUGHT
Fig. 9. Production of cracks
and soil salinization under
the influence of drought
(Google images)

Drought do not induce into the substrate the geomorphologic processes per
se, however, they pave the way for starting the deflation process, surface erosion
and ravine, by reducing the cohesion between the particles and the formation of
deep cracks in the soil and even rock. By strong evaporation, the salts from depth
are involved in a movement of ascendance, with water, towards the surface layers,
thus causing soil salinisation. On slopes where deep cracks were formed due to
drought, if torrential rain fall, the ravenatie processes will occur easily.
Weakly cohesive soils decay easily, after droughts, transforming into fine
particles and dust, which are mobilized by the wind (the deflation phenomenon)
(Figure 9).

6. CONCLUSIONS

Cluj county is situated in a temperate continental climate with oceanic

influences ranging from 1183.8 mm rainfall/year at Vlădeasa, at an altitude close to
the optimum rainfall (1836 m), and 514.1 mm/year at Turda, located in a region
with foehn influences.
In the Cluj County, according to the “de Martonne” aridity index, three
types of climates are found:
- semi-humid climate in the lower basin of Aries, because of the foehn
influences.
- humid climate in the rest of the hill and plateau region with slight foehn
influences and lower precipitation in the upper Somesul Mic Corridor.
- perhumid climate in the mountain region.

339
 Under these weather conditions, droughts are less frequent compared with
the extra-Carpathian regions and are distributed unevenly across the county.
The number of periods of drought decreases with the increase in altitude,
from an average of 2.6 annual periods of drought at Dej (altitude 232 m) to an
average of 0.3 annual periods at the peak Vlădeasa (altitude 1836).
An exception is Turda, which even though is located in a region with foehn
influences and lower amounts of precipitation, has a averaged of only 0.8 annual
drought periods compared to Huedin, which has an average of 1.3 annual drought
period.
At the Dej meteorological station are recorded both the average of the
longest period of drought and the dry period with the longest time span in the
county (along with Turda), which lasted from the 24th of September to the 26th of
October 2000.

REFERENCES

1. Bogdan, Octavia, Niculescu, Elena (1999), Riscurile climatice din România.

Editura Sega- Internaţional, Bucureşti, p. 280.
2. Donciu, C. (1962), Studiul secetelor în Republica Populară Română.
,,Meteorologia, Hidrologia şi gospodărirea apelor”, an.VII, nr.3/1962, p.170-176.
3. Holobâcă, I.H. (2004), Perioadele deficitare pluviometric în Depresiunea
Transilvaniei (1901-2000). ,,Riscuri şi Catastrofe”, Editor Sorocovshi,V., Editura
Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca, p.150-157.
4. Minea, I., Stângă, I.C. (2004), Analiza variabilităţii spaţiale a unor indici de
apreciere a secetelor, ,,Riscuri şi Catastrofe”, Editor Sorocovshi,V., Editura Casa
Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca, p. 138-149.
5. Moldovan, F., Sorocovschi, V., Holobâcă, I.H. (2002), Deficitul pluviometric ca
fenomen climatic de risc în Depresiunea Transilvanie. ,,Riscuri şi Catastrofe”,
Editor Sorocovshi,V., Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca, p. 90-97.
6. Rahău, L., (1978), O modalitate de reliefare a unor legături între structura
câmpului magnetic interplanetar şi secetele în R.S. România. Meteorology and
Hidrology, Bucureşti, România, nr.2/1978.
7. Topor, N., (1964), Ani ploioşi şi secetoşi în Republica Populară Română. C.S.A.
Institutul Meteorologic, Bucureşti, p.304.
8. http://www.noaa.gov
9. http://www.google.ro
10. http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/cdc/data.ncep.reanalysis.html

340
 VARIABILITY OF THE PRECIPITATIONS REGIME
FOR THE FIRST DECADE OF XXIst CENTURY
IN SOUTHWESTERN ROMANIA

CRISTINA BURADA1,2, ADRIANA BACESCU2, CARMEN MANESCU2

ABSTRACT.-Variability of the precipitation regime for the first decade of

XXIst century in southwestern Romania. The first decade of the XXIst century
was a period marked by an increase in frequency of extreme weather events. The
period analyzed in this paper (2001-2010) was characterized by a high variability
in terms of spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation amounts recorded.
Some absolute monthly and annual records of rainfall values have been exceeded
during this decade in Oltenia (southwestern Romania), standing out the years 2007
and 2008, like dry years, and 2004 and 2005, as excessively rainy years.
The aim of this paper is to analyze the spatial and temporal evolution of the
annual amounts of rainfall recorded in southwestern Romania between 2001 and
2010. For this paper daily diagnostic data recorded in 14 synoptic weather stations
in the Oltenia Regional Meteorological Center were used. The synoptic weather
stations with reduced operating hours have been excluded from working in order
to limit the errors. We calculated the averages for the past 10 years (2001-2010),
for the series of 30 years (1961-1990, 1971-2000 and 1981-2010) and also for the
past 50 years (1961-2010) and we compared the obtained values in order to
observe the trendline of annual precipitation amounts. We used synthetics graphs
and tables for a better overview of the characteristics of the precipitation amounts
in the analyzed region.

Keywords: precipitation regime, variability, southwestern Romania.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the general context of the current climate variations (IPCC, 2007), the
first decade of XXIst century was marked by pronounced pluviometric contrasts in
temperate regions and also in Romania (Burada et al, 2009, Busuioc et al, 2007,
Cazacioc, 2007, Georgescu and Stefan, 2010). Beside the air temperature, the
precipitation amount is a representative parameter of climate changes that occurred
recently and that is the reason this study proves its necessity and actuality. The
analysis of the precipitations evolution over the last decade joins in the general
mentioned theme.
The period analyzed in this paper (2001-2010) was characterized by a high
variability in terms of spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation amounts
recorded. In the mentioned decade in Oltenia (southwestern Romania) some
absolute monthly and annual records of rainfall values have been exceeded,

1
Universitatea Bucuresti, Facultatea de Fizica, str. Atomistilor, nr 405, 077125, Magurele, Romania
2
Administratia Nationala de Meteorologie, str. Brestei, nr 3A, 200581, Craiova, Romania

341
standing out the years 2007 and 2008, like dry years, and 2004 and 2005 as
excessively rainy years.
Previous studies showed that periods of surplus in terms of rainfall
intensity are higher and shorter for Romania (Croitoru, 2006, Clima Romaniei,
2008). The weather evolution (and thus the precipitation regime) is leading
influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere, by the cyclones and the
anticyclones and also by the topography in the studied area (Clima Romaniei,
2008, Burada et al, 2009, Cordoneanu, 2009, Croitoru et al, 2009, Georgescu and
Stefan, 2010, Ion-Bordei, 1988, Pop, 2003).
The aim of this paper is to analyze the spatial and temporal evolution of the
annual amounts of precipitation recorded in south-western Romania between 2001
and 2010.

2. DATA AND METHODS

The studied region, Oltenia, is located in southwestern Romania, the field

of research ranging from 22° to 25°E and 43° to 46°N (table 1). According to its
geographical location it is also distinguished in terms of climate from other
provinces of the country. It is located inside the Carpatho-Balkan Mountains,
which influences the movement of air masses by meridian trajectories. Specific
features of climatic elements in Oltenia are generated by its geographical position
and by the complex and varied topography.

Fig. 1. The location of the

studied region. Altitude (m) of
synoptic weather stations

In terms of altitude, the counted synoptic weather stations range between

36 m (Bechet, Dolj county) and 531 m (Polovragi, Gorj county). Most of the
synoptic weather stations (12) are located in the plain areas (altitude below 300 m)
and only two are located in the hilly area (altitude between 300 and 800 m) (fig. 1).
The fragmentation of the landscape is one of the major causes of the
different conditions of development for the atmospheric processes and phenomena
such as for the climate variations (Stancescu, 1983). The annual rainfall regime,

342
averaged over the period 1961-2010, ranges from 522.2 mm (Bechet) to 917.8 mm
(Apa Neagra) (figure 2). The highest amounts of rainfall were recorded in hilly and
mountain regions, as a result of orographic convection caused by the Carpathian
Mountains (Cordoneanu, 2009, Ion-Bordei, 1988).

Table 1. Coordinates of the

synoptic weather stations
Synoptic
weather Lat N Long Alt
station (˚) E (˚) (m)
Craiova 44°18' 23°52' 192.0
Bailesti 44°01' 23°19' 57.0
Calafat 43°59' 22°56' 61.0
Bechet 43°47' 23°56' 36.0
Tg Jiu 45°02' 23°15' 203.0
Apa Neagra 44°59' 22°51' 258.0
Polovragi 45°09' 23°48' 531.0
Tg Logresti 44°52' 23°42' 265.0
DrTrSeverin 44°37' 22°37' 77.0
Bacles 44°28' 23°06' 313.0
Slatina 44°26' 24°21' 172.0
Caracal 44°06' 24°21' 106.0
Fig. 2. Spatial distribution of averages precipitations Rm Valcea 45°05' 24°21' 237.0
amounts (mm), over the interval 1961-2010 Dragasani 44°39' 24°14' 280.0

Spatial and temporal variability of rainfall is also conditioned by the

altitude (figure 3), by the topography, including orientation of slope, etc. Since the
second half of the 20th century human activity, and especially the process of
urbanization and industrialization, have led to an increasing number of the
condensation nuclei followed by the increasing in the frequency of rainfall (Clima
Romaniei, 2008).

600
y = 0,7133x - 269,38
500
R2 = 0,4458 (R=0,67)
altitude (m)

400
300
200
100
0
precipitations (mm)
500,0 950,0
Annual average rainfall values (1961-2010)
Linear trendline

Fig. 3. Correlation between annual average rainfall values (1961-2010) with altitude

The variation curve of multi-annual monthly average amounts of rainfall

has a main maximum in June and a main minimum in February. The Mediterranean
climate influence is highlighted by the occurrence of a precipitation secondary
maximum in December (figure 4).

343
80
precipitations (mm)

35
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB
OLTENIA average (54.8 mm) month

Fig. 4. The monthly variation of average annual precipitation values (1961-2010)

For this study monthly precipitation amounts from 14 synoptic weather

stations of the NMA network, located in southwestern Romania were used. In order
to eliminate the errors the part-time synoptic weather stations have been excluded
from study and for the studied ones, the choice was made considering their
territorial representation and also in terms of data homogeneity. We analyzed the
monthly and annual precipitation amounts series recorded between 1961 and 2010.
Data were managed and validated by the NMA.
Statistical methods were employed (Wilks, 2006) in order to determine
annual and multi-annual means, median, maximum and minimum values of the
interval, standard deviations, coefficient of variation, trends. The multi-annual
averages for the past 10 years (2001-2010), for the series of 30 years (1961-1990,
1971-2000 and 1981-2010) and also for the past 50 years (1961-2010) were
calculated and than were compared in order to identify the trends and the
fluctuations of the precipitation amounts for the analyzed intervals. Synthetics
graphs and tables were added for a better overview of the precipitation amounts
characteristics in the analyzed region.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The temporal variability of precipitations is determined by advective and

dynamic processes (atmospheric general circulation features and thermodynamic
structure of the atmosphere). Multi-annual variation of precipitation amounts
between 2001 and 2010 can be seen looking at the series of data from synoptic
weather stations counted (table 2).
The equations of trendlines highlighted the positive regression coefficients
(table 3), but different in size. Thus an increasing in the amounts of rainfall during
the first decade was revealed, more pronounced in Bailesti, Bechet, Targu Jiu, Apa
Neagra, Tg Logresti, Dr Tr Severin, Caracal or more discrete in Craiova, Calafat,
Polovragi Bacles, Slatina, Rm Valcea, Dragasani.
The multi-annual averages calculated for the 2001-2010 decade exceed
those calculated for the 1961-2010 period at all the synoptic weather stations in the
region. Except the year 2008, characterized by a lack of rainfall for the majority of
synoptic weather stations, in the other years of the decade exceeding average
344
annual precipitation amounts were recorded. In the analyzed period the annual
average precipitation amounts ranged from 574.6 mm/year at Bechet (southern
region) to 1083.8 mm/year at Apa Neagra (hilly region) (table 2). In the most cases
(except Apa Neagra), median values were lower than the average value, differences
ranging up to -52.5 mm at Tg Jiu, so that the distribution values is tilted to the
right.
Table 2. Simple statistical parameters of the used
precipitation amounts time series (2001–2010)
Synoptic
weather Mean Median Maxima Rel dev of Minima Rel dev of
station (mm) (mm) (mm) Data max (%) (mm) Data min (%)
Craiova 711.8 681.8 1082.3 2005 52.1 484.1 2008 32.0
Bailesti 621.0 608.9 850.0 2005 36.9 442.4 2001 28.8
Calafat 594.3 570.4 809.5 2005 36.2 443.8 2004 25.3
Bechet 574.6 557.9 807.8 2005 40.6 433.7 2008 24.5
Tg Jiu 889.9 837.4 1121.9 2005 26.1 695.5 2001 21.8
Apa Neagra 1083.8 1088.9 1434.8 2010 32.4 767.1 2001 29.2
Polovragi 991.1 943.1 1233.3 2005 24.4 708.2 2008 28.5
Tg Logresti 698.5 647.3 978.6 2005 40.1 511.1 2008 26.8
DrTrSeverin 709.7 707.3 876.4 2010 23.5 501 2001 29.4
Bacles 638.6 614.5 909.0 2005 42.3 496.7 2008 22.2
Slatina 682.8 680.0 999.1 2005 46.3 486.6 2008 28.7
Caracal 618.1 596.8 901.8 2005 45.9 444.4 2008 28.1
Rm Valcea 775.2 745.6 1085.3 2005 40.0 493.3 2008 36.4
Dragasani 718.0 713.0 1034.5 2005 44.1 509.5 2001 29.0
Mean 736.2 1008.9 37.0 529.8 28.0

Table 3. Variation of the regression coefficient (mm/decade)

Synoptic weather station Regression coefficient (2001-2010)

Craiova 6.01
Bailesti 15.76
Calafat 6.05
Bechet 9.46
Tg Jiu 14.34
Apa Neagra 54.73
Polovragi 7.80
Tg Logresti 9.44
Dr Tr Severin 21.58
Bacles 2.23
Slatina 2.23
Caracal 10.56
Rm Valcea 4.39
Dragasani 4.57
Mean 12.1

345
 Analyzing the time series of precipitation amounts for the period 1961-
2010 in Oltenia, different trends were identified, with highest slopes in the last
decade (table 4).
Calculation of linear trend indicates a small decrease in the amount of
annual rainfall for the period 1961-2010 for the whole region. For the intervals
1961-1990 and 1971-2000 more significant slopes were calculated, corresponding
to the negative regression coefficients (-0.2, -4.4 and respectively, -6.5). For the
period 1981-2010 an increase in annual precipitation amounts (emphasized by 7.2
positive regression coefficient) was identified and it was less significant compared
to that of the previous decade (the regression coefficient value was 12.1, fig. 6).
1600
Table 4.Regression
1400
coefficient
Precipitations (mm)

1200
1000
Period Regression
800
coefficient
600 (1961-2010)
400 (mm/year)
200 1961-2010 -0.2
0 1961-1990 -4.4
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
1971-2000 -6.5
Year 1981-2010 7.2
Craiova Bailesti Calafat Bechet Tg Jiu
Apa Neagra Polovragi Tg Logresti DrTrSeverin Bacles 2001-2010 12.1
Slatina Caracal Rm valcea Dragasani

Fig. 5. Times series of annual precipitation amounts (1961-2010)

1000
y = 12.085x + 669.77
Precipitations (mm)

500
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year
OLTENIA
AVERAGE 2001-2010 (736.2 mm)
AVERAGE 1961-2010 (659.8 mm)
Trendline

Fig. 6. Annual variation of the average precipitation amounts (2001-2010) (in mm)

Compared to the average (12.085), during the last decade different trends
have been revealed in the region, but all positives with lower or higher slopes
(table 3, fig 7).

346
1500
Precipitations (mm)

400
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Year
Craiova Bailesti Calaf at Bechet Tg Jiu
Apa Neagra Polovragi Tg Logresti Dr Tr Severin Bacles
Slatina Caracal Rm Valcea Dragasani

Fig. 7. Annual variation of the precipitation amounts (2001-2010) (in mm)

4. CONCLUSIONS

The study of spatial distribution and temporal variability of precipitation

regime highlighted the differences between synoptic weather stations. The spatial
distribution is explained primarily by local features related to the topography, with
the largest amounts of rainfall in hilly and mountain regions.
Analyzing the time series of precipitation amounts for the period 1961-
2010 in Oltenia, different trends were identified with a more pronounced increase
in the last decade. Calculation of linear trend indicates at the scale of the whole
region a small decrease in the amounts of annual rainfall for the entire period 1961-
2010 with the highest slopes for the intervals 1961-1990 and 1971-2000 (the
negative regression coefficients -0.1786 and respectively, -4.4379 and -6.513).
Between 1981 and 2010 an increase in annual precipitation amounts was
observed (highlighted by positive regression coefficient 7.1737), more prominent
in the last decade (the coefficient was 12.085)
During the last decade different trends have shown in the region, but all
positives and all showing a more intense or a more moderate growth.
This first descriptive study is an initial phase in developing a more
extensive work for the south-western part of Romania.

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of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M.
Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 996 pp.
15. *** (2008), Clima Romaniei, Ed. Academiei Romane, Bucuresti, 365 p

348
 ISSUES REGARDING THE FLOOD IMPACT
ON THE HERPETOFAUNA HABITATS
FROM RIPARIAN AREAS FROM BARCĂU BASIN

V. NEMES1, C. SERAC2, A. CAPONY3, W. KLOK4

ABSTRACT. –issues regarding the flood impact on the herpetofauna habitats

from riparian areas. Flood risk management measures have a major effect on
biodiversity conservation of wetlands and riparians areas. Therefore, understanding
the need for cooperation and collaboration of all stakeholders (governmental and
non-government) in planning and flood risk management in line with European
requirements, respectively Habitat directive in association with the domestic law.
This paper aims to highlight the importance of riparian areas developed at the
interface between terrestrial and aquatic systems, who besides his role in the
delineation of ecosystems and the complex functions they perform: loading /
discharging groundwater, flood control,protection against erosion, retention of
nutrients and export of biomass, protection, microclimate stabilization has a major
role in the conservation of specific habitats of these environments, being the least
affected by anthropogenic activity,so that relations found between the "living
world" and natural support are the most solid.
Because the decline of amphibians has direct and visible effects on ecosystem
structure, there is an acute need for optimization of the local reproductive populations
of amphibians is required for appropriate management of habitats such as breeding
and feeding habitats. Only protection of aquatic habitats (breeding) has little value
if terrestrial habitats used for feeding amphibians are destroyed.

Keywords: habitat, conservation, flood, herpetofauna, riparian area.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Barcău river hydrographic basin is located in the northern part of the
Criş river basin, at the contact between the mountains Plopiş and Silvaniei Hills.It
drains on the Romanian territory an area of 2005 km2, the length of its course being
134 km (Ujvari, 1972). From spring until the the border with Hungary, the river
passes through various forms of terrain - mountains, hills, plains - highlighting the
physico-geographical complexity of its basin. Stemmed from the limestone plateau

1
University of Oradea, Faculty of History, Geography and International Relations, Oradea, e-mail:
nemes_vali@yahoo.com
2
University of Oradea, Faculty of History, Geography and International Relations, Oradea, e-mail:
corinaserac@yahoo.com
3
Laboratoire Centrale des Ponts et Chaussées, Nantes, adriencapony@lcpc.fr
4
Radboud University, School of Management, European Spatial and Environmental Planning, e-
mail: wytzeklok@student.ru.nl

349
under Ponor, near the village of Tusa (977 m). After crossing the erosion
depression of Nuşfalăului enter in the gorge of Marca and after a detour to the
north resumes its general course to the west. Its main tributaries are: Topliţa,
Comăneasa, Înot, Bistra, Făncica, Valea Fânaţelor, Fâneaţa Mare and Ierul (fig. 2).

Figure 1. Cris basin subunits in Romania

2. MORPHOMETRIC DATA

Barcău, the northernmost of the main rivers of Cris River Basin, has a
length of 134 km (in Romania). Stems from Meses Mountains, has a direction of
flow in east-west orientation with some variations on certain sections, the average
slope is 4 ‰ for the whole river, there are sectors where the average slope exceeds
20 ‰ and sectors where the average slope decreases to 1 ‰.
Sinuosity coefficient is 1.72, comparable to that of other rivers in the basin
rivers.Barcau river hydrographic Basin has an average elevation of 240 m, shows
an asymmetry to the left, part of which reap 75% of the river tributaries of the
order I.

350
 The average density of river network is between 0.30 km/km2 in the
mountain and plains region and 0.80 km/km2 and hilly region. Highest values (over
1.30 km/km2) recorded in the upper sectors of the rivers in the hilly area. Due to
the unique hydrological regime and how the river reacts in extreme conditions
(heavy rains, concentrated in space and time) were necessary improuvement of the
river basin by building standingt accumulation of, totaling 483 ha, which can store
a volume of 7.80 thousand m3 and succeed in large part, through good management
and use, flood wave attenuation. Part of this work arrangement is also the dam
constructed downstream of Sântimbreu, which borders the river before crossing the
state border, with the aim to protect settlements and agricultural areas of possible
floods in the riverbed. Here should be mentioned the 47,020 ha of forest with
special role in retaining water from precipitation and fixation and soil protection
against rainfall erosion.

3. HYDROLOGICAL REGIME

Hydrological measurements, especially those for determining the flow are

very important in defense against flood.
To study the distribution in time, of the average annual flow have used
annual average values determined from a number of four hydrometric stations,
evenly arranged in the basin, which covers large parts of the upper, middle and
lower basin. Analyzed data come from the years between 1968-2007. Annual flow
variation depends on the amount of precipitation fallen during the year (fig. 2).
As regards the year was recorded maximum average annual flow, this
coincides at the Nusfalau hydrometric station (4.17 m / s), Marghita hydrometric
station (7.85 m / s) and Salard hydrometric station (13.2 m / s), that is the year
1980. At the Marca hydrometric station the record year with the maximum average
annual flow was 2001 (5.57 m / s).
Distribution of monthly and seasonal average flow during the year in
Barcău Basin reflect especially a variation within the year of the various climatic
factors. A special remark should be made to the fact that, unlike the rest of the
country, particularly in the west and in the Cris Basin, there is an appreciable
influence of oceanic climate characterized by rain in winter. These rains landing on
water soaked soil and overlapping, generally over large water produced by melting
snow, give rise to major floods, both in terms of peak flow and volume of water
drained (Josan et al., 2004).

351
Figure 2. Barcău Basin. Annual average flows at the hydrometric stations of Nuşfalău, Marca, Marghita si Sălard (1968–2007)
 4. FRAGILITY OF THE HERPETOFAUNA HABITAT

Rivers are recognized as sites with microhabitat with heterogeneous and

complex conditions. Understanding the conditions of riparian areas habitat, that
transitional conditions from streams to dry environment represented by the banks
of rivers.
Temperature of stream has often been treated in literature (Sinokrot and
Stefan, 1993, Beschta, 1997, Mohseni and Stefan, 1999) but very few studies deal
with riparian microclimate.
Variation of microclimate values is insignificant, it is determined either by
topography or the existing vegetation (forest edge topoclimate).
Regarding the herpetofauna habitat management it is necessary to achieve
a design that would minimize the effects of fragmentation appearing on the
waterway, preservation of large areas as possible and maintain connectivity of
fragmented habitats creating habitat contiguous to each other (Richards et al.,
2002).
Habitat fragmentation is considered to be one of the major causes of
contemporary loss of biodiversity (Soulé 1987; Blaustein et al., 1994).
Fragmentation acts to increase local extinction risks by reducing local population
size (Shaffer 1987), which may in turn reduce a species geographical distribution.
However, rescue effects due to dispersal between local populations (Brown and
Kodric-Brown 1977; Hanski et al. 1996) may ameliorate extinction risks. This
process depends on the availability of propagules for dispersal (individuals which
leave a donor population to join a receptor population), the geographical distance
between donor and receptor populations and the permeability of the habitat matrix
to movement by these migrating propagules (Dunning et al. 1992; Taylor et al.
1993; Wiens 1997; Villalba et al., 1998; Brooker et al., 1999; Wiens 2001).
Dispersal distance can be increased by habitat destruction whereas matrix
permeability can become altered by changes in land uses (Ray et al., 2002).
Food is the primary link between an animal and its surrounding
environment. Prior to optimize the conditions for local reproductive populations
of amphibians, we need appropriate management of habitats such as breeding
and feeding habitats. Protection of aquatic habitats only (breeding) has little
value if terrestrial habitats used for feeding amphibians are destroyed.
Thus research of Semlitsch (2000) show the role of the creation of
buffer distances in wet areas of reproduction of amphibians. Considering the
results of research on amphibian habitats can see certain trends in the distribution
of them on a geographic unit related to the components of a river basin, so there are
a number of buffer zone models that can be created: in the longitudinal
hydrographic network (Hayes et al., 2006), outlining a continuity between two
adjacent buffer zones (Sheridan and Olson, 2003), Bury and Corn (1988) proposed
the creation of patches axes.

353
Figure 3. Riparian management considerations for retention of headwater amphibians:
(a) narrow buffer zone; (b) wider buffer zone; (c) patch reserves at headwaters with
functions contributing to downstream habitats, and to provide connectivity between
joined headwater channels; (d and f) patch reserves can provide connectivity across
ridgelines to adjacent drainages, and can be placed downstream to provide enhanced
riparian habitat protection such as at tributary junctions; (e and g) partial harvest
(shaded area) and/or leave islands (circles) may be used to provide connectivity functions
between watersheds.(Olson, et al, 2007)

Buffers which would lend the Barcau basin are difficult to establish since
there are 13 species of amphibians (Salamandra salamandra, Triturus cristatus,
Triturus vulgaris, Bombina bombina, Bombina variegata, Pelobates fuscus, Bufo
bufo, Bufo viridis, Rana ridibunda, Rana dalmatina, Rana temporaria and Rana
arvalis) and five species of reptiles (Emys orbicularis, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta
viridis, Zootoca vivipara and Natrix natrix) (Covaciu et al., 2002).

354
 CONCLUSIONS:

Habitats of amphibians and reptiles of Barcau river hydrographic basin are

found in proximity to watercourses, and not only, so they present a high risk due to
flooding. Thus even if these animals are favored by excess water, there is a risk
(Sorocovschi et al., 2002) when it comes to habitat for feeding and the aquatic
habitat in times of egg laying. Floods often cause fragmentation of habitats, such
hydroameliorative works are required in the rivers. To avoid herpetofauna habitat
fragmentation it is essential to create buffer zones to allow normal development of
relations between individus and environment.

REFERENCES

1. Atlasul Cadastrului Apelor din România, Partea 1, Date morfo-hidrografice

asupra reţelei hidrografice de suprafaţă, 1992, Ministerul Mediului;
2. Beschta, R., 1997, Riparian Shade and Stream Temperature: An Alternative
Perspective, Rangelands, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 25-28
3. Blaustein A.R., Wake D.B. and Sousa W.P. 1994. Amphibian declines: judging
stability, persistence, and susceptibility of populations to local and global
extinctions. Conservation Biology 8: 60–71.
4. Brooker L., Brooker M. and Cale P. 1999. Animal dispersal in fragmented habitat:
measuring habitat connectivity, corridor use, and dispersal mortality. Conservation
Ecology (online) 3(1): 1–22.
5. Brown J.H. and Kodric-Brown A. 1977. Turnover rates in insular biogeography:
effect on immigration on extinction. Ecology 58: 445–449.
6. Bury, R.B., Corn, P.S., 1988. Responses of aquatic and streamside amphibians to
timber harvest: a review. In: Raedeke, K.J. (Ed.), Streamside Management:
Riparian Wildlife and Forestry Interactions. Institute of Forest Resources,
University of Washington, Seattle, WA, pp. 165–181.
7. Covaciu-Marcov S.D., Telcean,I., Cupşa, D., Cadleţ, D., Zsurka, R., 2002
Contributii la studiul herpetofaunei din regiunea Marghita (jud. Bihor, Romania),
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula Biologie, Tom IX, 2002, pp. 47-57
8. Dunning J.B., Brent J.D. and Pulliam H.R. 1992. Ecological process that affect
populations in complex landscapes. Oikos 65: 169–174
9. Hanski I., Moilanen A. and Gyllenberg M. 1996. Minimum viable metapopulation
size. American Naturalist 147: 527–541.
10. Hayes, M.P., Quinn, T., Dugger, D.J., Hicks, T.L., Melchiors, M.A., Runde, D.E.,
2006. Dispersion of coastal tailed frog (Ascaphus truei): a hypothesis relating
occurrence of frogs in non-fishbearing headwater basins to their seasonal
movements. J. Herpetol. 40 (4), 533–545.
11. Josan, N., Sabău, N., 2004, Hazarde si riscuri naturale si antropice in bazinul
Barcaului, Edit. Universitatii din Oradea;
12. Mohseni, O., Stefan, H., 1999, Stream temperature/air temperature relationship:
a physical interpretation, Journal Of Hydrology, Vol. 218, Issues 3-4, pp 128-141
13. Monografia hidrologică a bazinului hidrografic Crişuri, 1968, Studii de
hidrologie, XXIV, IMH, Bucureşti;

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14. Olson, D.H., Anderson, P.D., Frissell, C.A., Welsh, H.H., Bradford, D,F., 2007,
Biodiversity management approaches for stream–riparian areas: Perspectives for
Pacific Northwest headwater forests, microclimates, and amphibians,Forest
Ecology and Management 246, 81–107
15. Ray, N., Lehmann, A., Jolz, P., 2002, Modeling spatial distribution of amphibian
populations: a GIS approach based on habitat matrix permeability, Biodiversity
and Conservation
16. Richards, H.W., Wallin, O.W., Schumaker, H.N., 2002. An analysis of late-seral
connectivity in western Oregon, USA. Conserv. Biol. Vol. 16, pp. 1409–1421
17. Semlitsch, R.D., 2000. Principles for management of aquatic-breeding
amphibians. J. Wildl. Manage. 64, 615–631.
18. Shaffer M.L. 1987. Minimum viable populations: coping with uncertainty. In:
Soulé M.E. (ed). Viable Populations for Conservation. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 69–86
19. Sheridan, C.D., Olson, D.H., 2003. Amphibian assemblages in zero-order basins in
the Oregon Coast Range. Can. J. For. Resour. 33, 1452–1477.
20. Sinokrot, B., Stefan, H., 1993, Stream temperature dynamics: Measurements and
modeling, Water Resources Research, Vol. 29, No. 7, pp. 2299-2312
21. Sorocovschi, V., Şerban, Gh., Bătinaş, R., 2002, Riscuri hidrice în bazinul inferior
al Ariesului , în “Riscuri si catastrofe”, vol.1, pag. 143-148, Editor V.
Sorocovschi, Editura Casa Cartii de Stiinta, Cluj-Napoca.
22. Soulé, M.E. 1987. Viable Populations for Conservation. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK
23. Taylor P.D., Fahrig L., Henein K. and Merriam G., 1993. Connectivity is a vital
element of landscape structure. Oikos 68: 571–573
24. Ujvari, I. 1972, Geografia apelor României, Editura ştiinţifică Bucureşti;
25. Villalba S., Gulinck H., Verbeylen G. and Matthysen E. 1998. Relationship
between patch connectivity and the occurrence of the European red squirrel,
Sciurus vulgaris, in forest fragments within heterogeneous landscapes. In: Dower
J.W. and Bunce R.G.H. (eds). Key Concepts in Landscape Ecology. IALE,
Preston, UK, pp. 205–220.
26. Wiens J.A. 1997. The emerging role of patchiness in conservation biology. In:
Pickett S.T.A., Ostfeld R.S., Shachak M. and Likens G.E. (eds). Enhancing the
Ecological Basis of Conservation: Heterogeneity, Ecosystem Function, and
Biodiversity. Chapman & Hall, New York, pp. 93–107.
27. Wiens J.A. 2001. The landscape context of dispersal. In: Clobert J., Danchin E.,
Dhondt A.A. and Nichols J.D. (eds). Dispersal. Oxford University Press, Oxford,
UK, pp. 96–109

356
 SURFACE WATER POLLUTION WITH HEAVY METALS
IN THE LOWER CATCHMENT OF JIU RIVER BASIN,
ACCORDING TO THE WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE
(2000/60/EC)

ADINA SANDA ŞERBAN1

ABSTRACT. – Surface water pollution with heavy metals in the lower

catchment of Jiu river basin, according to the Water Framework Directive
(2000/60/EC). The Water Framework Directive establishes a single transparent,
effective and coherent water policy by defining a strategy to combat pollution by
requiring specific action programs.
Chemical pollution of surface water presents a threat to the aquatic environment
with acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic organisms, accumulation in the
ecosystem and losses of habitats and biodiversity, as well as a threat to human
health (art.1 from Directive 2008/105/EC regarding the environmental quality
standards for water policy).
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the chemical status for surface water
bodies in the lower catchment of Jiu river basin. The assessment was made taking
into account the water impact of four heavy metals: cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni),
mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb).

Keywords: Water Framework Directive (WFD), chemical status, heavy metals.

1. INTRODUCTION

Heavy metals occur naturally in the environment and their chemistry differs
significantly from that specific organic pollutants. Heavy metal can also appear in the
wastewater discharges from point sources or diffuse sources of emissions that may
contain besides heavy metals, synthetic pollutants (organic pollutants).
From legal perspective, the impact of dangerous substances, including the
heavy metals on aquatic ecosystems was taken into consideration since the early 70
when one of the first water related directive, (76/464/EEC) concerning the
pollution caused by certain dangerous substances discharged into the aquatic
environment was adopted. The Directive introduced the concept of list I and list II
substances, which were listed in the Annex to the Directive, with the purpose to
eliminate pollution from list I substances and to reduce pollution from list II
substances. From the heavy metals assessed in this study, mercury and cadmium
are part of list I and lead, nickel of list II.
Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60/EC), which is the most
comprehensive and integrated piece of water legislation ever adopted in Europe,

1
Bucharest University, Faculty of Geography, 010041, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail:
adinaserban22@yahoo.com

357
assesses the pollution with heavy metals by establishing the chemical status.
According to WFD, all member states are required to achieve good water status for
all water (continental, estuarine, subterranean and coastal water bodies) by 2015.
Surface water quality is assessed taking into account the ecological and chemical
status.
Water Framework Directive defines the “Good surface water chemical
status” as the chemical status achieved by a surface water body in which
concentrations of pollutants do not exceed the environmental quality standards
(EQS) established in Annex IX, under Article 16(7) and under other relevant
Community legislation setting environmental quality standards at Community level
(Article 2, Water Framework Directive).
Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) are defined as concentrations of
pollutants that should not be exceeded in order to ensure protection of the
environment and human health. The list of these EQS is aproved by the
2008/105/EC Directive (Annex I) concerning environmental quality standards in
the field of water policy and includes 33 substances and groups of substances. The
environmental quality standards for the four heavy metals assessed in this study are
presented in the next table (table no.1.)

Table 1. Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) for priority substances

AA-EQS (2) MAC-EQS (3)

CAS
No Name of substances Inland surface Inland surface
number (1)
waters waters
1. Nickel and its compounds 7440-02-0 20 Not applicable
2. Mercury and its 7439-97-6 0.05 0.07
compounds
3. Lead and its compounds 7439-92-1 7.2 Not applicable
4. Cadmium and its 7440-43-9 ≤0.08(class 1) ≤0.45 (class 1)
compounds 0.08 (class 2) 0.45 (class 2)
(depending on water 0.09 (class 3) 0.6 (class 3)
hardness classes) (4) 0.15 (class 4) 0.9 (class 4)
0.25 (class 5) 1.5 (class 5)
(1) CAS: Chemical Abstracts Service.
(2) This parameter is the EQS expressed as an annual average value (AA-EQS). (3)
This parameter is the EQS expressed as a maximum allowable concentration
(MAC-EQS).
(4) For cadmium and its compounds the EQS values vary depending on the
hardness of the water as specified in five class categories (Class 1: < 40 mg
CaCO3/l, Class 2: 40 to < 50 mg CaCO3/l, Class 3: 50 to < 100 mg CaCO3/l, Class
4: 100 to < 200 mg CaCO3/l and Class 5: ≥ 200 mg CaCO3/l).
Source: 2008/105/EC Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on environmental quality
standards in the field of water policy.

358
 2. DATA AND METHODS

The chemical status of surface water bodies can be assessed using two
approaches:
(a) following the principle of one out, all out as established by the Water
Framework Directive, meaning that any metal in waters over the EQS
(environment quality standard according to 2008/105/CE Directive) will determine
the whole water body to fail in achieving the chemical status;
(b) using a combined analysis of the metals in water and in sediment.
By considering both water and sediment analysis in determining the status
of water quality, resources could better be targeted at those water bodies where
levels of pollution have a greater negative effect on the biological elements.
However, some researchers say further research is needed on EQS measurements
in water and in the interpretation of chemical concentrations of contaminants in
sediments.
The chemical status is classified in:
(1) Good chemical status, which is an objective for the Water Framework
directive.
(2) Bad chemical status (when the water body is failing in achieving the
chemical good status).
The chemical status is assessed for each surface water body which include
at least one monitoring station.
"Body of surface water" is a discrete and significant element of surface water
such as a lake, a reservoir, a stream, river or canal, part of a stream, river or canal, a
transitional water or a stretch of coastal water (art. 2, Water Framework Directive) .
There is still relatively little comprehensive information about the overall
impact of most hazardous chemicals, particularly concerning the effects of
combinations of chemicals on human health and the environment. The increasing
number of man-made substances present in the environment is a matter of great
concern, and calls for the application of the precautionary principle.
The first approach above mentioned was used in this study.
Due the fact that heavy metals can be found naturally in the environment,
first it is calculated the background level of each metal by calculation the ratio
between the average concentration in water and the assigned value of each metal
(Cd, Hg, Ni and Pb). The assigned values are common concentration values found
in inland waters, estimated as: 0.050 μg/ for cadmium, 0.010 μg/l for mercury, 4.7
μg/l for nickel and 0.43 μg/l for lead.
Heavy metal concentrations are expressed in dissolved fraction which
means the proportion of substance to be found as dissolved after separation of
suspended solids in the water column;
annual _ average _ concentration
So, if X = is ≤ 1.0 (1) ,
assigned _ value
in the assessment will be used the Environmental Quality Standards from 2008/105
Directive.

359
 If the ratio ”X” is > 1.0, the Specific Environmental Quality Standard for
each metal is calculated.
Y = annual average concentration – assigned value.(2)
EQSspecific=EQS (from 2008/105 Directive) + Y. (3)
This Specific Environmental Quality Standard will be used to assess the
chemical status for the downstream monitoring stations.
For each heavy metal is calculated the next evaluation ratio in order to
assess the chemical status:
annual _ average _ concentration
Q1 = (4)
EQS average _ concentration
annual _ average _ concentration
Q2 = (5)
EQS max imum _ concentration
If Q1≤ 1.0 and Q2≤ 1.0 the chemical status in that monitoring station is good.
If Q1> 1.0 sau Q2> 1.0 that monitoring station fail to achieve the chemical
good status.

3. STUDY AREA

The chemical status was assessed for the lower catchment of Jiu river basin
with a surface of 2215 skm and a river network of 357 km which included: Jiu river
between Racari until Danube confluence, Carnesti river, Amaradia between
Plostina confluence and Jiu confluence, Meretel, Mascot, Raznic, Craiovita river,
Isalnita reservoir (surface of 1,8 skm) and Victoria-Geormane lake (0,59 skm). The
assessment was made using the average concentration of heavy metals for 2007, in
ten monitoring stations as it can be seen in the next figure (Fig.1.Monitoring
stations for lower catchment of Jiu river basin).
The analysis took into account the data confidence level, which can be:
a) High, when the frequency of heavy metal monitoring is according to the
Water Framework Directive (12 measurements/year).
b) Medium, when the frequency of heavy metal monitoring is less than12
measurements/year.
c) Low, when there are no monitoring data for the reference year that is used
in the establishing of chemical status. In this case it is made a risk
assessment analysis.
In this study, the chemical status of the water bodies was assessed with a
medium confidence level.

360
Fig.1. Monitoring stations for lower catchment of Jiu river basin

361
 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

By using the first approach, the study reveals the chemical status for the
lower catchment of Jiu river basin.
As it can be seen in the figure no.2 (Chemical status for lower catchment
of Jiu river basin), after the evaluation of the ten water bodies (Carnesti: spring-Jiu
confluence, Jiu: Turceni reservoir-Isalnita reservoir, Mascot: spring-Raznic
confluence, Meretel: spring-Brabova confluence, Raznic: spring-Jiu confluence,
Amaradia: Plostina confluence – Jiu confluence, Craiovita: spring-Jiu confluence,
Jiu: Bratovoiesti-Danube confluence, Isalnita reservoir and Victoria-Geormane
lake), eight water bodies achieved the good chemical status and the rest of two
were failing in achieving this status.

Table 2. The mean heavy metal concentrations in 2007

Cadmiu Hardness
Monitoring Nickel Mercury Lead
m (mg
Station/Water body (µg/l) (µg/l) (µg/l)
(µg/l) CaCO3)

Filiaşi /Carnesti: spring-Jiu confluence 2,26 0,09 0,83 0,06 387,4

Răcari/ Jiu: Turceni reservoir-Isalnita reservoir 0,99 0,11 0,61 0,035 100,5
Upstream Gropanele/ Mascot: spring-Raznic confluence 2,3 0,04 0,75 0,03 151,5
Upstream Gogosu/ Meretel: spring-Brabova confluence 1,9 0,04 1,1 0,03 321
Breasta/ Raznic: spring-Jiu confluence 3,1 0,16 0,54 0,04 339,7
Negoieşti/ Amaradia: Plostina confluence – Jiu
confluence 1,7 0,133 0,56 0,044 284,4
Facai/ Craiovita: spring-Jiu confluence 3,01 0,23 1,69 0,35 310
Zaval/ Jiu: Bratovoiesti-Danube confluence 1,34 0,25 0,808 0,40 98,5
Dam/ Isalnita reservoir 1,51 0,1 0,73 0,05 91
Baraj/ Victoria-Geormane lake 0,55 0,14 0,3 0,023 215

The two water bodies that have failed in achieving the chemical good
status are situated downstream from Craiova waste water discharge point, which
did not have a waste water treatment plant until December 2010 and also from the
Doljchim Chemical Plant, situated at about 10 km north-west of Craiova city.

5. CONCLUSION

These Hazardous substances which have been assessed in this study can
harm ecosystems and human health. Due to their intrinsic properties, they can be
accumulated in the food chain to such levels that can become toxic to organisms,
also can remain in the environment for a very long time and may cause toxicity,
persistence and bioaccumulation in the aquatic environment.
In the lower catchment of Jiu river basin (Jiu: Bratovoiesti-Danube
confluence and Craiovita: spring-Jiu confluence water bodies), the concentration of
cadmium and mercury exceeded the environmental quality objectives.

362
Fig.2. Chemical status for lower catchment of Jiu river basin

363
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6. *** (2008) Institutul Naţional de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Protecţia Mediului –
ICIM Bucureşti - „Studiu privind elaborarea sistemelor de clasificare şi evaluare
globală a stării apelor de suprafaţă (râuri, lacuri, ape tranzitorii, ape costiere)
conform cerinţelor Directivei Cadru a Apei 2000/60/CE pe baza elementelor
biologice, chimice şi hidromorfologice.
7. *** (2000), Directiva 2000/60/EC a Parlamentului şi Consiliului European care
stabileşte un cadru de acţiune pentru tarile din Uniunea Europeana în domeniul
politicii apei, Jurnalul Oficial al Comunităţii Europene.

364
 TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS ASSESSMENT
OF THE DRINKING WATER TREATMENT AT TARGU-MURES
WATER TREATMENT PLANT

CORNELIA DIANA HERTIA 1, ANCA ELENA GURZAU 2,

MARIA ILONA SZASZ 3

ABSTRACT. – This paper intends to assess the technological process of

obtaining drinking water at Targu-Mures water treatment plant. The assessment
was performed before changing the technological process and four months were
chosen to be analized during 2008: January, April, July and October for its
efficiency analysis on treatment steps. Mures River is the water source for the
water treatment plant, being characterized by unsteady flow and quality
parameters with possible important variability in a very short period of time. The
treatment technological process is the classic one, represented by coagulation,
sedimentation, filtration and disinfection, but also prechlorination was constantly
applied as additional treatment during 2008. Results showed that for the measured
parameters, raw water at the water treatment plant fits into class A3 for surface
waters, framing dictated by the bacterial load. The treatment processes efficiency
is based on the performance calculation for sedimentation, filtration, global and for
disinfection, a better conformation degree of technological steps standing out in
January in comparison to the other three analyzed months. A variable non-
compliance of turbidity and residual chlorine levels in the disinfected water was
observed constantly. Previous treatment steps managed to maintain a low level of
oxidisability, chlorine consumption and residual chlorine levels being also low. 12%
samples were found inconsistent with the national legislation in terms of
bacteriological quality. Measures for the water treatment plant retechnologization are
taken primarily for hyperchlorination elimination, which currently constitutes a
discomfort factor (taste, smell), and a generating factor of chlorination by-products.

Keywords: drinking water, water treatment plant, water source.

1.INTRODUCTION

The quantity and quality of water available for different uses represent the
basis for the level of people’s development and the subsequent quality of life
improvement (Barba, 1997).
During the last three centuries the increasing demand of water for human
use (from freshwater sources) was much more pronounced than the population
growth. It is internationally accepted that identification of proper water sources,

1
Babes-Bolyai University, Faculty of Environmental Science, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
corneliahertia@yahoo.com
2
Environmental Health Center Cluj-Napoca
3
S.C. AQUASERV S.A. Targu-Mures.

365
their severe protection and a complete and correct treatment can provide a water
quality that does not represent a health hazard. The correct choice and water
sources protection are of prime importance in ensuring safe drinking water
supplies. It is always preferable to protect the water sources than to treat after
contamination. Existing data in Romania highlight the sources quality degradation
in time due to the anthropic impact (Gurzau, Bocos, 1995). A study showed a
bacteriological contamination of surface waters that were the water sources for 7
water treatment plants in Transylvania, with a prevalence of 12% samples that did
not frame in class A for surface waters.
Human impacts pose a threat to water quality maintenance due to
contaminant introduction (Plummer, Long, 2007). It is often necessary to accept
the current and historic pollution of the water source and to consider a water
treatment in accordance with it. Population coverage with safe drinking water in
sufficient quantity is the most relevant indicator for the population’s state of health.
The processes used to obtain water that is safe for drinking take their raw water
from among a wide range of natural water sources, either from or below the surface
of the earth (Sutherland, 2008). Raw water quality is recognized by the
concentration of suspended matters (turbidity), color caused by dissolved matters,
taste, smell, hardness and microbiological load. In order to obtain safe drinking
water it is necessary to know the physico-chemical and microbiological
characteristics of the raw water in order to determine in which class it frames and
the best treatment method for it. Besides treatment, a monitoring plan is necessary
that includes source water protection and maintenance of the distribution system
integrity (Plummer, Long, 2007).
In Romania during 2000, from the total population of about 22 million
inhabitants, 14.7 million persons (65%) benefited of drinking water from the public
network, out of which 11.3 million in urban areas (92% of the total urban
population), and 3.4 million in rural areas (33% of the total rural population).
Drinking water quality in Romania is regulated by Law no.458/2002, which
transposes Directive 98/83/CEE regarding drinking water. The water treatment
plant in the city of Targu-Mures has Mures River as the raw water source, being
characterized as any surface water by an unsteady flow and unsteady quality
parameters with possible important variability in a very short period of time.
The objective of this paper is to assess the technological process of
obtaining drinking water at the water treatment plant in the city of Targu-Mures.

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

This paper used water quality parameters from Targu Mures water
treatment plant for drinking purpose in 2008, while analysis of technological steps
efficiency and their performance was based on current data available at the water
treatment plant laboratory. This water treatment plant operates since 1907 with the
technological line known as Plant I (old plant, shut-down in 2002). Plant II (new
plant) consists of three complete and independent systems (modules) for water

366
treatment, put into operation in 1974 (module I), 1982 (module II) and 1999
(module III). The water treatment plant is located in the north of the city on the
right bank of Mures River and in the vicinity of AZOMURES plant – section for
photosensitive materials – at north, Unirii district at south and east and agricultural
lands planted with cereal products at west. The main source of pollution of Mures
River upstream from Targu-Mures water treatment plant for drinking purpose is
represented by the domestic faecaloid and industrial wastewaters from Reghin city,
located 30 km upstream.
The efficiency of the treatment processes, namely the assessment of what
was removed after applying a particular process, was calculated for each
technological line of the investigated month and consisted in a performance
assessment of sedimentation, filtration, global (comparison between the filtered
water quality before disinfection and the raw water quality) and disinfection. For
the efficiency analysis of the technological process on treatment steps, 4 months
(January, April, July and October) were chosen according to seasonal oscillations
of the raw water quality (temperature, oxidisability, turbidity, microbiological
contamination - strictly dependent on rainfalls also).

3. RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION

Table 1 shows that the bacterial load expressed by total coliforms, faecal
coliforms and faecal streptococci has significant values in almost all the 12
analyzed months. This shows a bacterial contamination of faecal origin that leads
to framing in class A3 for surface waters treated for drinking purpose.

Table 1. Bacterial load of the raw water in-going the water treatment plant

Year Total Fecal Fecal

2008 coliforms coliforms streptococci
month no./100cm3 no./100cm3 no./100cm3
JANUARY 3068 1183 1644
FEBRUARY 429 392 1004
MARCH 1961 1692 4487
APRIL 10578 8472 4228
MAY 10525 8000 2413
JUNE 34506 8965 1834
JULY 18895 9158 3042
AUGUST 14419 6919 2313
SEPTEMBER 20833 7350 2156
OCTOBER 23944 11956 322
NOVEMBER 35188 20938 237
DECEMBER 21656 11563 5573

YEARLY AVREAGE 16333 8049 2438

A3 A3 A3

367
 Fig. 1 shows that between the turbidity evolution and coliform bacteria
does not exist each time a positive correlation. In physico-chemical terms (pH,
oxidisability, ammonium ion) the raw water in-going the water treatment plant is
framing class A1 for surface waters treated for drinking purpose, and class A3 in
terms of results obtained for iron and phenols (Table 2).

100000

10000

1000 Turbidity
Total coliforms
100 Fecal coliforms

10

1
ST
RY

NE

R
CH

IL

LY
RY

R
R

R
AY

BE
BE
BE

BE
R

JU

U
JU
UA

AR
UA

M
AP

EM

TO

M
M
AU
N

M
BR

CE
VE
JA

C
PT

O
FE

NO

DE
SE

Fig. 1. Correlation between turbidity and coliforms (2008)

Table 2. Physico-chemical parameters

of the raw water in-going the water treatment plant
YEAR
Turbidity pH Oxidisability NH4+ Aluminium Iron Phenols
2008
month FNU unit pH mg O2/dm3 mg/dm3 mg/dm3 mg/l mg/l

JANUARY 16.42 7.58 2.835 0.29 0,00 1161,20

FEBRUARY 31.51 7.76 4.048 0.15 0,01 0,12 0,10
MARCH 118.05 7.73 8.510 0.18 0,02 0,15 0,44
APRIL 105.33 7.70 8.000 0.12 0,05 0,16 0,19
MAY 40.25 7.65 4.495 0.08 0,08 199,00
JUNE 65.66 7.63 6.183 0.15 0,15 214,93
JULY 93.44 7.76 8.020 0.10
AUGUST 35.40 7.65 4.054 0.06 0,01 0,08
SEPTEMBER 22.02 7.85 3.700 0.10 0,02 0,16
OCTOBER 32.02 7.80 4.081 0.08 0,02 0,15 0,31
NOVEMBER 33.84 7.88 4.327 0.07 0,16
DECEMBER 37.63 7.71 5.080 0.22 0,12 0,15
YEARLY AVREAGE 52.630 7.723 5.278 0.133 0,039 143,294 0,238
A1 A1 A1 A3 A3

368
 According to the measured parameters for framing the surface waters
treated for drinking purpose, the raw water used in the water treatment plant that
serves the city of Targu-Mures frames in class A3. This water class needs for the
drinking purpose physical, advanced chemical treatment, perchlorination and
disinfection - for example: intermediate chlorination, coagulation, flocculation,
sedimentation, filtration by adsorption (on activated carbon), disinfection
(ozonization, final chlorination).
Efficiency of each treatment method in relation to the previous method
must be: coagulation/sedimentation: 90% on the basis of turbidity; rapid filtration:
>80% on the basis of turbidity and colimetry; final disinfection: >99% on the basis
of colimetry and free residual chlorine. For the overall efficiency to be 100%,
values of the following indicators before disinfection should be: turbidity: <5
turbidity units; total coliforms: <50/100ml; faecal coliforms: <5/100 ml.

Turbidity - Module 1

120
97.05 96.90
100
86.60

80 92.19 91.87
65.63 Decantation
% 60 61.02 Filtration
62.20 61.84 Global
40 27.46

20
13.73 15.92

0
January April July October

Fig. 2. Efficiency of treatment steps for turbidity at module 1 (2008)

Organic matter - Module 1

80
75.88 71.82
70
72.13
60 67.08
58.33
50
Decantation
% 40 Filtration
41.91 Global
30
27.46
20 28.27
15.92
10 14.39
13.73 13.45
0
January April July October

Fig. 3. Efficiency of treatment steps for organic matter at module 1 (2008)

369
 Efficiency of each module of the water treatment plant depends mainly on
the raw water quality. During the first analyzed month, January, the raw water
quality was influenced by the seasonal oscillations, in exchange during the
following three analyzed months, April, July and October, a better quality of the
raw water was recorded. Figure 2 shows that the decantation efficiency, except for
January, calculated on the basis of turbidity was 86%, in exchange filtration
efficiency was reduced. During the following three analyzed months efficiency
increased over 90% for turbidity and over 70% for organic matters present in
water. In terms of low overall efficiency, it showed that there were many water
turbidity values before disinfection exceeding the maximum admitted value – 5
FNU. In module 1 turbidity and organic matter act in parallel in sedimentation,
filtration or globally. In terms of organic matter, filtration is poor for module 1
during January (Fig. 3).
Module 2 of the water treatment plant has functioned sporadically during
2008, so that its efficiency was not calculated.

Turbidity - Module 3

120

96.95 99.52 98.61 96.56

100
86.60 94.48 87.51
93.26
80 91.38

77.27 79.37 Decantation

72.50
% 60 Filtration
Global
40

20

0
January April July October

Fig. 4. Efficiency of treatment steps for turbidity at module 3 (2008)

Organic matter - Module 3

90
77.88
80
70.57
70
73.75
55.64
60 66.21
Decantation
50
% 36.27 48.04 Filtration
40
Global
30
26.76
20

10 14.62
12.98 15.71 12.92
0
January April July October

Fig. 5. Efficiency of treatment steps for organic matter at module 3 (2008)

370
 Module 3 of the water treatment plant for drinking purpose shows a higher
efficiency in terms of removal turbidity and organic matters present in the water
previously decanted and filtered in the other two modules. Overall efficiency in all
four analyzed months was over 95% for turbidity (Fig. 4). In the case of organic
matters in water during January and October when the raw water quality was
degraded by the quantity of rainfall, the overall efficiency was 36% and 55%
respectively, while in May or July efficiency increased to over 70% (Fig. 5).
After the decantation process, turbidity values are lower than the maximum
admitted value – 5 FNU, except for January when a parallel reduction of organic
matter and turbidity was observed at decantation. Low efficiency recorded in
January was due to the raw water quality for both module 1 and module 3. A
constant variable non-compliance of turbidity and residual chlorine levels in the
disinfected water was observed. At the water tretament plant output the water
quality raises the quality issue related to residual chlorine levels (Table 3).

Table 3. Residual chlorine levels in water and their ratio

at the water treatment plant output - average values
RECOMM.
VAL.
FREE TOTAL RECOMM. VAL. TOTAL
YEAR RESIDUAL RESIDUAL FREE RES. RES. PERCENTAGE
2008 CHLORINE CHLORINE CHLORINE CHLORINE FREE/TOTAL
JAN 0.862 1.058 0.5 0.625 81.408
FEB 0.996 1.193 0.5 0.625 83.444
MAR 1.006 1.202 0.5 0.625 83.713
APR 0.998 1.198 0.5 0.625 83.306
MAY 0.900 1.100 0.5 0.625 81.818
JUNE 0.885 1.085 0.5 0.625 81.561
JULY 0.919 1.116 0.5 0.625 82.394
AUG 0.925 1.132 0.5 0.625 81.704
SEPT 0.971 1.162 0.5 0.625 83.558
OCT 1.050 1.249 0.5 0.625 84.065
NOV 0.987 1.181 0.5 0.625 83.601
DEC 0.983 1.179 0.5 0.625 83.370

Actual technological process provides that complete treated water on each

module must be mixed and then distributed. Until it reaches the consumer, water is
no longer rechlorinated, as there are no rechlorination points in the tanks.
In terms of bacteriological quality, 12% samples were found inconsistent
with the national legislation. The most likely explanation is the lack of a sufficient
contact time between water and chlorine at the point where sampling was
performed. On the other hand, this contamination cannot be neglected because the
group of coliforms and faecal streptococci are indicator bacteria, their presence can
be accompanied by the presence of other pathogenic bacteria, viruses or parasites
that can cause endemic or waterborne epidemic epidemiological phenomena.

371
 4. CONCLUSIONS

Targu-Mures water treatment plant processes water from the river Mures,
characterized by a generally important bacteriological contamination (class A3). It
can be concluded that the treatment process is imposed by the poor microbiological
quality of the raw water due to upstream discharges of untreated or insufficiently
treated wastewaters. The treatment efficiency interpretation should consider the
raw water quality parameters taken into account (turbidity). Microbiological
contamination of water is another indicator that should necessarily be taken into
account. The main problem of the water quality at the water treatment plant output
is the high levels of free residual chlorine since the current water treatment and
distribution system in Targu-Mures requires hyperchlorination.
Measures for retechnologization of the water treatment plant and
rehabilitation of the distribution network will contribute substantially to the
improvement of the drinking water quality, and will lead to hyperchlorination
elimination which is currently a discomfort factor (taste, smell).

REFERENCES

1. D. Barba, P. Caputi, D. Cifoni (1997), Drinking water supply in Italy, Elsevier,

pag. 111-117,
2. Mark W. LeChevallier, Kwok-Keung Au (2004), Water Treatment and
Pathogen Control, World Health Organisation, Cornwall, UK, pag. 17-25,
3. Anca Gurzau, Brindusa Bocos (1995), Infestarea cu chisturi de Giardia sp. a
unor ape de suprafata din Transilvania, Rev. Romana de Parazitologie, vol. V.,
nr. 1., pag. 14-15,
4. Anca Gurzau, Brindusa Bocos (1996), Contributia analizei parazitologice a
apei (chisturi de Giardia sp.) in aprecierea eficientei tratarii apei in scop
potabil, Acta Medica Transilvanica, nr. 2, pag. 134-136,
5. Jeanine D. Plummer, Sharon C. Long (2007), Monitoring source water for
microbial contamination: Evaluation of water quality measures, Water
research, nr. 41, pag. 3716-3728,
6. Ken Sutherland (2008), Drinking water: Pretreatment processes for fresh
water, Handbook for filter media, pag. 22-25.

372
 NANOSTRUCTURED TiO2 SENSITIZED WITH PORPHYRINS
FOR SOLAR WATER-SPLITTING

MARCELA-CORINA ROŞU1, RAMONA-CRINA SUCIU, SIMINA DREVE,

T.D. SILIPAŞ, I. BRATU AND E. INDREA

ABSTRACT. – Nanostructured TiO2 sensitized with porphyrins for Solar

water-splitting.The production of hydrogen from water using solar light is very
promising for generations of an ecologically pure carrier contributing to a clean,
sustainable and renewable energy system. The selection of specific photocatalyst
material for hydrogen production in photoelectrochemical cells (PECs) is based on
some important characteristics of semiconductor, such as photo-corrosion and
chemical corrosion stability, photocatalytic potential, high sensitivity for UV-
visible light. In the present paper, different nanocrystalline TiO2 photoanodes have
been prepared via wet-chemical techniques followed by annealing treatment and
sensitized with porphyrins and supramolecular complexes of porphyrins. The so
obtained photocatalysts were characterized with UV-VIS absorption spectroscopy
and spectrofluorimetry. The purpose of these experiments is to show if the
prepared materials possess the necessary photocatalytic characteristics and if they
can be used with success in H2 production from water decomposition in PECs.

Keywords: TiO2, Porphyrins, Ruthenium complex compounds, Sensitizers.

1. INTRODUCTION

The production of hydrogen from water using solar light is a very

promising, as a sustainable and renewable energy system. The selection of specific
photocatalyst material for hydrogen production in photoelectrochemical cells
(PECs) is based on some important characteristics of semiconductor, such as
photo-corrosion and chemical corrosion stability, photocatalytic potential, high
sensitivity for UV-visible light (Peharz et al., 2007; Zhu and Zäch, 2009).
Photosensitization of wide-band gap semiconductors, such as TiO2 by
visible light absorbing dyes, has become more practical for solar cell applications
in the conversion of light into electricity. The sensitization of TiO2 has been
studied extensively in the past (Amao et al., 2004; Campbell et al., 2004; Peng et
al., 2008; Rochford and Galoppini, 2008; Kathiravan and Renganathan, 2009a;
Zhou et al., 2009).
Porphyrin and porphyrin derivatives are very effective dyes, suitable
photosensitizers for photovoltaic conversion of solar to electrical energy due to
their strong absorption in the region of 400–450 nm (B or Soret band) as well as in
the 500–700 nm (Q bands) (Wang et al., 2007; Kathiravan and Renganathan,
2009b).

1
National Institute for Research and Development of Isotopic and Molecular Technologies 400293
Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail: marcela.rosu@itim-cj.ro

373
 The presence of different functional anchoring groups (i.e. hydroxyl,
carboxylate and sulfonate groups) broadens the absorption of photons in the visible
region, improves the electron injection efficiency of porphyrins into the conduction
band of TiO2 and it has a good influence to the efficiency of TiO2–porphyrin
systems (Kathiravan and Renganathan, 2009b; Wang et al., 2009).
In the present paper, different photoanodes types of nanocrystalline TiO2
have been prepared via wet-chemical techniques followed by annealing treatment
and sensitized with porphyrins and supramolecular complexes of porphyrins. The
obtained photocatalysts were characterized using UV-VIS absorption spectroscopy
and spectrofluorimetry. The purpose of these experiments is to show if the
prepared materials possess the necessary photocatalytic characteristics and if they
can be used with success in H2 production from water decomposition in PECs.

2. EXPERIMENTAL

TiO2 P25 powder (ca. 80% anatase and 20% rutile; ~ 30 nm in diameter
particles) was obtained from Degussa AG, Germany. Besides TiO2, as starting
materials, acetylacetone (Merck, Germany), poly-propylene-glycol (Machery-
Nagel, Germany) and Triton X-100 (Fluka, Switzerland) were used without further
purification. The solvents, dichlorethane and chloroform were purchased from
Merck, Germany and ethanol was obtained from SC PAM Corporation SRL,
Romania. The sensitizers used in this work were: protoporphyrin IX (Fluka, USA),
meso-tetraphenylporphyrin (Alfa Aesar, Germany), tetra-(4-pyridyl)porphyrin
(Fluka, USA), tetra-sulfonato-phenyl porphyrin (Fluka, USA) and tris(2,2’-
bipyridyl) ruthenium (II) chloride (Fluka, Switzerland). The conductive indium tin
oxide glass (ITO, ≤ 20 ohms/sq.) was obtained by Praezision Glas & Optik,
Germany. Bi-distilled water was used throughout all the experiments.
In an agate mortar with pestle, 0.6 g TiO2 was mixed with bi-distilled
water, acetylacetone, Triton X-100 and polypropylene glycol in 200:10:5:1
volumetric ratio, until completely homogeneous dispersion.
The structural formulas for the used organic additives are presented in the
Figure 1.

n= 60-150
n = 9-10
a) b) c)
Fig. 1. Structural formula of: a) acetylacetone, b) polypropylene glycol
and c) Triton-X 100 (http://www.sigmaaldrich.com)

The prepared paste was deposited onto a ITO glass by doctor blade method
in order to obtain five samples. These samples were dried in normal conditions for

374
24 hours, and then were heat-treated at 600°C for 90 min., with an increase rate of
temperature of 10°C/min. While still warm, the samples were immersed in 10-3 M
solutions of protoporphyrin IX (PPF-IX), meso-tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP),
tetra(4-pyridyl)porphyrin (TPyP), tetra-sulfonato-phenyl porphyrin (TSPP) and
tris(2,2’-bipyridyl)ruthenium (II) chloride ((Ru(bpy)3Cl2 )), see Figure 2. A mixed
dichlorethane and chloroform solution was used to prepare the dyes’ solutions.
After dye adsorption, the TiO2-dye layers were rinsed with ethanol.

a) b) c)

d) e)

Fig. 2. Structural formula of the used sensitizers:

a) PPF IX (http://en.wikipedia.org),
b)TPP (http://www.scbt.kr),
c) TPyP (http://www.chemicalland21.com),
d) TSPP (http://www.chemicalbook.com)
e) Ru(bpy)3Cl2. (http://www.sigmaaldrich.com)

The optoelectronic properties of TiO2-sensitizer samples have been

investigated by using UV-VIS absorption spectroscopy (JASCO V-550
spectrometer) and spectrofluorimetry (ABL&E JASCO V 6500 spectrofluorimeter
with xenon lamp).

375
 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The UV–VIS spectrum of TiO2 layer without dyes presents an absorption

peak maximum at about 320 nm corresponding to the photoactivation of titania by
light with energy higher than 3.0-3.2 eV or wavelength less than 400 nm (Fig. 3).

4 MSL-TiO2
Absorbance [a.u.]

200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Wavelength [nm]

Fig. 3. UV-VIS spectrum of TiO2 sample without sensitizer

The UV-VIS absorption spectra for nanostructured TiO2 layers sensitized

with porphyrin-type compounds (noted: MSL-PPF IX, MSL-TPP, MSL-TPyP,
MSL-TSPP and MSL-Ru(bpy)3Cl2) are shown in Figure 4.

1.5 MSL-TPyP
MSL-TPP
1.0
MSL-TSPP
MSL-PPF IX
MSL-RuC
0.5
Absorbance [a.u.]

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Wavelength [nm]

Fig. 4. UV-VIS absorption spectra of TiO2-sensitized samples

The TiO2-sensitized layers absorption spectra show the maximum
absorption between 230 nm and 260 nm, i.e. the sensitized TiO2 layers absorb light
radiation in the UV region. It can be noted that the same types of layers, TPP

376
sensitizer presents a maximum absorption, while TSPP and Ru(bpy)3Cl2
compounds do not produce a significant absorption and they can not consider the
most efficient sensitizers for UV.
The TiO2 layers sensitized with porphyrins or porphyrin-type compounds
are part of photoelectrocatalytic materials class and their efficiency can be
determined by measuring the fluorescence spectra of these materials.
Figure 5 illustrates the fluorescence spectra of TiO2 samples excited at
wavelength of 250 nm, whose energy was used to excite the valence electrons and
to promote them to the conduction band.

120 MSL-TiO2
MSL-TPyP
MSL-TPP
100 MSL-TSPP
MSL-PPF IX
Intensity [a.u.]

MSL-RuC
80

60

40

20

280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460
Wavelengt [nm]

Fig. 5. Fluorescence spectra of TiO2 and TiO2-sensitized samples

Two intense emission peaks for all samples can be seen, one in the UV
region (~ 295 nm) and another in the visible region (~ 420 nm). The electronic
phenomena who give fluorescence are more intense for TiO2 layer sensitized with
TPP in both UV and visible region. The TSPP, PPF IX and ruthenium complex
show fluorescence emission of the same intensity as that of titanium dioxide in UV
domain but less intense than TiO2 in the visible region.

3. CONCLUSIONS

Different TiO2-based layers with various porphyrins-type compounds were

prepared and their photoelectrochemical properties were comparatively
investigated by UV-VIS absorption and fluorescence.
A correlation between TiO2 and the five mentioned compounds used in the
TiO2-sensitizer layers was observed. The results are promising regarding the
preparation of layers of titanium dioxide sensitized with porphyrin-type
compounds in order to obtain photoanodes with applications in PECs for H2
production from water decomposition.

377
 REFERENCES

1. Amao Y., Yamada Y. and Aoki K. (2004), Preparation and properties of dye-
sensitized solar cell using chlorophyll derivative immobilized TiO2 film electrode,
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry 164, 47–51.
2. Campbell W.M., Burrell A.K., Officer D.L., Jolley K.W. (2004), Porphyrins as
light harvesters in the dye-sensitised TiO2 solar cell, Coordination Chemistry
Reviews 248, 1363–1379.
3. Kathiravan, A. and Renganathan, R. (2009a), Photosensitization of colloidal TiO2
nanoparticles with phycocyanin pigment, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
335, 196–202.
4. Kathiravan, A. and Renganathan R. (2009b), Effect of anchoring group on the
photosensitization of colloidal TiO2 nanoparticles with porphyrins, Journal of
Colloid and Interface Science 331, 401–407
5. Peharz G., Dimroth F. and Wittstadt U. (2007), Solar hydrogen production by
water splitting with a conversion efficiency of 18%, International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy 32, 3248 – 3252.
6. Peng T., Dai K., Yi H., Ke D., Cai P. and Zan L. (2008), Photosensitization of
different ruthenium (II) complex dyes on TiO2 for photocatalytic H2 evolution
under visible-light, Chemical Physics Letters 460, 216–219.
7. Rochford, J. and Galoppini, E. (2008), Zinc (II) Tetraarylporphyrins Anchored to
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378
 CONSIDERATION REGARDING THE MEAN RUNOFF
OF THE MAIN RIVERS FROM THE SOUTH DOBROGEA

C. E. (TELTEU) PĂSCULESCU1
 
 
ABSTRACT. – Consideration regarding the mean runoff of the main rivers
from the South Dobrogea. This paper investigates the specific features of the
runoff of the main rivers from the South Dobrogea. The evidence of these is
based on the processing of monthly and yearly discharges, for the next stream
gauging stations: Cuza Vodă, Albeşti, Biruinţa. The used methodology includes
statistical analysis (employed to determine frequencies and exceeding
probabilities), correlations, investigation and observation made in the area. In the
South Dobrogea the mean multiannual discharge ranged between 0,08 m³/s and
0,27 m³/s, the mean multiannual specific liquid discharge ranged between 0,50
l/s.km² and 2,56 l/s.km², the mean multiannual volume of water ranged between
697.525 m³ and 8.491.284 m³, the mean multiannual water layer ranged between
15.67 mm and 80,87 mm. In the studied area the largest discharges were in the
months: June, July and September. The lowest discharges were in February,
December, July and November. The richest discharges were in the summer and
the lowest discharges in the winter.

Keywords: mean runoff, rivers, Dobrogea, rainfall, evapotranspiration.

1. INTRODUCTION

The water resources of the rivers can be synthetically appreciated by the

assessment of the mean liquid discharge parameters and the analysis of their spatial
and temporal variability. This type of flow can be expressed as liquid discharge (Q
in m³ / s), specific liquid discharge (q in l/skm²), water layer (h in mm) and volume
of water carried by the rivers (W m³) (Zaharia, 1999).
The aim of this study is to present the features of the mean liquid flow of
the main rivers from South Dobrogea: Agicabul, Albeşti, Biruinţa and Urlichioi. It
is mainly based on the processing of data regarding the monthly and yearly mean
liquid discharges from The National Institute of Hydrology and Water
Management, for the next period: the hydrometric station Cuza Vodă, on the
Agicabul River: 1984–2007; the hydrometric station Albeşti, on the Albeşti River:
1966–1997; the hydrometric station Biruinţa, on the Biruinţa River: 1974–2009;
the hydrometric station Biruinţa, on the Urlichioi River: 1974–2007.
For the analysis of the meteorological data was assessed the data regarding
the air temperature and the precipitation from the weather stations Mangalia,
Constanţa, Medgidia and Adamclisi, for the period 1965-2000. This data was taken
1
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, Nicolae Bălcescu Blv., No. 1, Bucharest,
Romania, e-mail: camipasculescu@yahoo.com

379
from the paper Condiţiile climatice şi influenţa lor asupra cadrului geografic din
Dobrogea de Sud (Torică, 2004). The analysis of the potential evapotranspiration
and of the snow layer is based on the processing of data taken from the paper
Clima României, 2008 (for the period 1961-2000). The used methodology includes
statistical analysis (employed to determine frequencies and exceeding
probabilities), correlations, investigation and observation made in the area.
The important contributions regarding the knowledge of the hydrological
and hydrochemical features of the rivers from the South Dobrogea can be found in
the synthesis papers, as Monografia hidrologică a râurilor şi lacurilor din
Dobrogea (1968) or in papers of authors like L. Zaharia and I. Pişota (2003) ş. a.

2. THE MAIN FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FLOW

OF THE RIVERS FROM THE SOUTH DOBROGEA
The flow of the rivers from the South Dobrogea is the result of the
combination of the specific natural and anthropogenic factors of the area. Among
them more important are the meteorological, geological and morphological factors.

2.1. THE CLIMATIC FEATURES

The climatic features are the decisive factors which influence the
variability of the liquid discharge of the rivers. A major role is held by the air
temperature regime, the rainfall regime and the evapotranspiration regime. The
South Dobrogea has a temperate climate characterized by dryness, with sea
influences in the eastern side, determined by its geographical location and the
features of the meteorological parameters (Geografia României, 2005).
In the research area, the mean multiannual air temperature ranges between
10.8°C/year (the Adamclisi weather station) and 11.7°C/year (the Constanţa
weather station). In the summer months, the mean values of the air temperature
range between 20°C/month – 22°C/month; in the winter months the temperature
reach even - 0.7°C/month.
The mean multiannual values of the rainfall are weak and in this area these
were ranged between 412 mm/year (the Mangalia and Constanţa weather stations)
and 473 mm/year (the Adamclisi weather station). The yearly analysis of the
rainfall show years with richer rainfalls over 700 mm/year (e.g. at the Adamclisi
weather station in the year 1997 have been measured 717.5 mm) and years with
lower rainfalls below 223 mm/year (e.g.: at the Medgidia weather station in the
year 2000 have been measured 222.7 mm).
The yearly analysis show that the richer rainfalls are specific for the
months May and June (over 50 mm/month) and the weaker rainfalls are specific to
the months January and February (below 30 mm/month).
In the South Dobrogea, an important meteorological parameter of the water
resources is the evapotranspiration. This ranged in mean 725.6 mm/year at the
Constanţa weather station, exceed 120 mm/month in the interval June-August at
the Constanţa weather station, in the period 1961-2000 (Clima României, 2008).
Regarding the snow layer, because of the climatic features specific of the South

380
Dobrogea and because of the sea influences, it is present in a smaller number of days
(the mean 15 days, the maximum 44 days – Clima României, 2008) and it has a mean
monthly thickness which doesn’t exceed 1 cm/month.

2.2 THE GEOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES

The South Dobrogea is a structural plateau, with almost plane layers,
overlapping in many sedimentary cycles, over the eastern side of the Moesian
Platform (Popescu, Ielenicz, 2003). It is a platform, with plane or wavy interfluve
and with altitude ranging between 200 m (in west) and 100 m (in east) (Ciulache,
Torică, 2003). From petrographical point of view, in this area 90% of the outcrop
are loessoid deposits followed by limestone, marl-limestone (7% outcrop, 75%
based on loessoid deposits), sandstones, conglomerates, sands, gravels and clays
(Geografia Românie, 2005). These lithological deposits, and also the gentle slopes
are favorable to the infiltration of the rain water and those of the river bed, favoring
the draining phenomena and therefore reduction of the water resources of the rivers.

3. GENERAL DATE ON THE RIVERS FROM THE SOUTH

DOBROGEA

In the South Dobrogea, because of the specific features of the area, the
density of the drainage network is very weak (under 0.1 km/km²).The rivers have
an intermittent pattern, sometimes even accidentally, becoming active only after
powerful rainfalls (Zaharia, Pişota, 2003). In the table 1 are presented the main
morphometric data of the analyzed rivers from this paper: Agicabul, Albeşti,
Biruinţa şi Urlichioi. The Albeşti, Urlichioi (Dereaua) and Biruinţa belong to the
Seaside Basin and are the tributaries of the lagoons and fluvial-sea lakes: Albeşti
River is a tributary of Mangalia lake, the Urlichioi and Biruinţa Rivers are tributary
of the Techirghiol lake (Fig. 6). From these rivers an important role has the Albeşti
Rriver because it’s upper sector develops on the surface of Bulgaria (Prebalcanic
Plateau). The lengths of these rivers range between 7 km and 25 km. After analysis,
we find out that on Romania’s surface the largest catchment area with 326 km ² belongs to
the Albeşti River and the lower catchment area belongs to the Urlichioi River with 25 km².

Tabel 1. The morphometric data specific to the rivers from the South Dobrogea*

Stream Data regarding the main streams The

Length Elevation (m) The mean The catchment
(km) slope (‰) sinuosity area
upstream downstream (km²)
coefficient
AgiCabul 22 72 4 3 1.24 118
Biruinţa 7 40 0 6 1.17 90
Urlichioi 7 68 0 10 1.18 25
Albeşti 25 100 0 4 1.69 326**
* According to Atlasul Cadastrului Apelor din România, vol. I, 1992; **The partial catchment area–without the
catchment area from the Bulgaria

381
 Fig. 6. The South Dobrogea – Hydrographical map
(built upon L. Zaharia and I. Pişota, 2003)

4. THE MEAN MULTIANNUAL LIQUID DISCARGE AND ITS

SPATIAL VARIABILITY

The mean multiannual runoff is highlighted by the values of the

multiannual discharge, the specific liquid discharge, the volume of water and the
value of the layer water. As a result of the physical and geographical conditions
specific to South Dobrogea, the rivers that drain these areas show a weak liquid
flow that is reflected by all the parameters of the mean flow. This way, the
multiannual discharges of the four analyzed rivers are smaller than 0,3 m³/s, the
biggest value being the one of the Agicabul River (0.27 m³/s) (table 2). The mean
multiannual specific liquid discharge ranges between 0,50 l/s.km² and 2,56 l/s.km²,
the mean multiannual water volume ranges between 697.525 m³ (Urlichioi River)
and 8.491.284 m³ (Agicabul River), and the mean multiannual water layer ranges
between 15.67 mm (Albeşti River) and 80.87 mm (Agicabul River). The
coefficient of interannual variation of the mean discharges ranged between 0.36
(Agicabul River) and 0.66 (Albeşti River). The values below 0.4 could be caused
by the relatively short analysis time and also by the influence of the lithological
substratum and a possible underground supply. Generally, the small values of the
mean multiannual discharge mirror the climatic conditions, with weak
precipitations and high evapotranspiration.

382
 Table 2. Morphometric and hydrologic characteristics
of the main rivers in South Dobrogea.

Hydrometric Surveillance F H L Q0 q0 W0 h0
River (km) Cv
station period (km²) (m) (m³/s) (l/s.km²) (m³) (mm)
Cuza 1984-
Agicabul 105 23 20 0.27 2.56 8.491.284 80.87 0.36
Vodă 2007
1966-
Albeşti Albeşti 349* 160 25 0,17 0.50 5.468.085 15,67 0.66
1997
1974-
Biruinţa Biruinţa 47 49 7 0.08 1.63 2.416.820 51.42 0.38
2009
1974-
Urlichioi Biruinţa 22 53 8 0.022 1.00 697.525 31.71 0.51
2007

*partial surface, without „F” from Bulgaria; Data source – N.I.H.W.M.

F – the catchment area (corresponding to the hydrometric station); H – average altitude of the catchment area (at
the level of the hydrometric station); L – the length of the stream (spring- hydrometric station); Q0 – the mean
multiannual liquid discharge; q0 – the mean multiannual specific liquid discharge; W0 – the mean multiannual
volume of water ; h0 – the mean multiannual water layer; Cv – The coefficient of interannual variation of the mean runoff

Analysing the correlation between the mean specific liquid discharge and
the catchment surface we notice a weak dependence between the variables (table
3). This is because of the short working time of the stations and the action of some
local factors that influence the flow.

Table 3. Correlation coefficients and determination coefficients

of different relationships between the main parameters
of the runoff and the main parameters of the catchments or climatic features

Relationship Correlation coefficient Determination coefficient

q0 – F 0,1 0,012
q0 – H 0,91 0,828
Cv – H 0,81 0,663
P1 – Q1 0,72 0,515
P2 – Q2 0,58 0,336
P3 – Q3 0,21 0,044
P4 – Q4 0,45 0,206
 
q0 – the mean multiannual specific liquid discharge of the main rivers from the South Dobrogea (l/s.km²; 1984-
1997); F – the catchment area (km²; corresponding to the hydrometric station of the main rivers from the South
Dobrogea); H – average altitude of the catchment area (m; at the level of the hydrometric station of the main rivers
from the South Dobrogea); Cv – the coefficient of interannual variation of the mean runoff of the main rivers from
the South Dobrogea (1984-1997); P1 – the annual amounts of precipitations at Mangalia weather station (mm;
1984-1997); Q1- the mean annual discharges of the river Albeşti (Albeşti station) (m³/s; 1984-1997); P2 the annual
amounts of precipitations at Constanţa weather station (1984-1997); Q2 – the mean annual discharges of the river
Urlichioi (Biruinţa station) (m³/s; 1984-1997); P3 – the annual ammounts of precipitations at Constanţa weather
station (1984-1997); Q3 – the mean annual discharges of the river Biruinţa (Biruinţa station) (m³/s; 1984-1997);
P4 – the annual ammounts of precipitations at Medgidia weather station (1984-1997); Q4 – the mean annual
discharges of the river Agicabul (Cuza Vodă station) (m³/s; 1984-1997).

383
 By analysing the correlation between the mean multiannual specific liquid
discharge and the average altitude of the catchments (at the level of the gauging
stations) we see a connection between the variables at level of significance α=0.05,
for the common period for all the gauging stations (1984-1997). There is also a
tight connection between the coefficient of interannual variation of the mean runoff
and the average altitude of the catchments (at the level of the gauging stations) (table 3).
For highlighting the influence of the precipitations over the mean discharge
we did correlations between the mean annual discharges and the annual amount of
the precipitations. This way, the correlation between the mean annual discharges
from Albeşti and Biruinţa (Urlichioi River) gauging stations and the annual amount
of precipitation shows a connection between the variables , at level of significance
α=0.05. There is a poor connection is between the mean annual discharges for
Cuza Vodă and Biruinţa gauging stations and the annual amounts of precipitations
(Medgidia and Constanţa gauging stations). This could be because of some local
conditions that influence the drainage (possibly underground supply).  

5. THE MEAN YEARLY LIQUID RUNOFF

Across the analysis period, the mean yearly flow has had higher and
lower oscillations from one year to another mainly generated by the non-
uniformity of the climatic features. The analyses of the mean multiannual flow
reveal that the highest mean yearly discharges were in the years 1984 (0. 426 m³/s;
Agicabul River), 1989 (0.345 m³/s; Albeşti River), 2005 (0.157 m³/s; Biruinţa
River), 1996 (0.043 m³/s; Urlichioi River). The highest values of the mean yearly
discharges are the consequence of the richer amounts of precipitations specific to
each year. The lower mean yearly discharges during the analyses were recorded in
the years 1970 (0.0017 m³/s; Albeşti River), 2007 (0.08 m³/s; Agicabul River),
1977 (0.027 m³/s Biruinţa River) and 1976 (0.0008 m³/s; Urlichioi River), with
values which ranged between 0.0008 m³/s and 0.08 m³/s and were mainly
generated by the high evaporation, by the lower amounts of precipitations (for
example: almost 285 mm in the year 1976) and by the specific lithological
features. For a more precisely analysis regarding the variability of the mean
interannual liquid flow the yearly discharge coefficient was determined, a
parameter which represent the variability of the mean yearly discharge against the
mean multiannual discharge. The analysis reveals that the highest values of the
yearly discharge coefficient ranged from 1.5 to 2.05 in the years with the richest
yearly mean discharges. The analysis regarding the frequency of the yearly mean
discharges with some interval of discharges reveals that the higher frequency had
the discharges with values between 0.001 m³/s to 0.05 m³/s at the Albeşti
hydrometric station; 0.01 m³/s to 0.015 m³/s at the Biruinţa hydrometric station,
on the Urlichioi River; 0.30 m³/s to 0.35 m³/s at the Cuza Vodă hydrometric station
and between 0.05 m³/s to 0.1 m³/s at the Biruinţa hydrometric station, on the
Biruinţa River.

384
 6. THE MEAN MONTHLY LIQUID RUNOFF

The analysis regarding the variability of the mean monthly discharges

reveal a hydrological regime with higher and lower oscillations from one month to
another mainly generated by the influence of the climatic features on the supply
sources.
On the whole area, the richest mean discharges occurred, generally, in the summer
months, with a frequency to 15%
from the mean yearly volume of
water. These values are the
consequence of the rain showers
specific to this season although the
values of the evapotranspiration are
higher, according to the knowledge
presented in Chapter 2.1. The
analysis of the hydrological regime
reveals some differences from one
river to another, which can be the Fig. 16. The variability of the mean mountly
consequence of the influence of discharges from the Albeşti, Cuza Vodă,
specific local features in the Biruinţa (Urlichioi and Biruinţa Rivers)
formation of the runoff. The lowest hydrometric stations
mean discharges are specific for the months from the cold season of the year, when
the frequencies of the mean runoff from the mean total volume of water ranged
between 5%-7%. These values reveal the lower rainfall supplies from this season
and the insignificant snow supply (fig. 16).

7. THE SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF THE MEAN RUNOFF

The seasonal variability of the water resources transported by the rivers is a

consequence of the contribution of supply sources which are generally influenced
by the climatic features.
The analysis reveal that in the summer was the richest flow, when there
were transported between 24.85% and 39.27% from mean yearly volume of water.
The studied rivers had the lowest mean discharges in the winter, between 17.04%
and 24.82% from the mean yearly volume of water. The richer discharges from the
summer are the consequence of the rain shower and the lower discharges from the
winter are the consequence of the weaker amounts of liquid precipitations. In the
spring, the mean runoff ranged between 22.87% and 25.60% from mean yearly
runoff. The rivers are supplied in this season from the melting snow. In the autumn,
the mean runoff ranged between 20.82% and 25.11%, because of the lower
amounts of precipitations specific to this season.
On the whole area has been found that the variability of the mean runoff at
the seasonal scale is lower compared with other regions of the country. The values
of the report between mean runoff from the season with a rich flow (Ap) and a low

385
flow (As) are smaller than 3: 2.30 in the case of the Albeşti River; 1.51 in the case
of the Urlichioi River; 1.42 in the case of the Agicabul River; 1.02 in the case of
the Biruinţa River (table 4).
 
Tabel 4. The data regarding the seasonal variability
of the mean liquid runoff from the South Dobrogea**
The seasonal mean liquid runoff
Hydrometric (% from the yearly volume of water)
River Ap/As*
station
Spring Summer Autumn Winter
Agicabul Cuza Vodă 25.46 30.47 22.59 21.48 1.42
Albeşti Albeşti 22.87 39.27 20.82 17.04 2.30
Biruinţa Biruinţa 25.22 24.85 25.11 24.82 1.02
Urlichioi Biruinţa 25.60 30.28 24.01 20.11 1.51
*Ap=the season with a rich flow, As=the season with a low flow; ** According to N.I.H.W.M. data.

CONCLUSIONS
As a consequence of the specific climatic and lithological features of the
studied area the rivers from the South Dobrogea have lower discharges highlighted
by the values of the multiannual discharges which don’t exceed 0.3m³/s. The
higher volumes of water transported in the interval June-July are caused by the rain
showers specific to these months. Among the seasons, the summer has the richest
flow, when are transported between 24.85% and 39.27% from the volume of water,
while the winter is the season with the lowest flow (between 17.04% and 24.82%).
However the ratio between the mean runoff in the season with the richest flow and
the season with the lowest flow is weaker (the maximum 2.30) which reveals a
relatively uniform seasonal regime.

REFERENCES

1. Ciulache, S., Torică, V. (2003), Clima Dobrogei, Analele Universităţii Bucureşti,

Anul LII.
2. Diaconu C., Lăzărescu D., 1965, Hidrologia, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Bucureşti.
3. Popescu, N., Ielenicz, M. (2003), Relieful Dobrogei-caracteristici şi evoluţie,
Analele Universităţii Bucureşti, Anul LII.
4. Zaharia, L. (1999), Resursele de apă din bazinul râului Putna-studiu de
hidrologie, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti.
5. Zaharia, L., Pişota, I. (2003), Apele Dobrogei, Analele Universităţii Bucureşti,
Anul LII.
6. *** (1992), Atlasul Cadastrului apelor din România, Vol. I, AQUAPROIECT,
Bucureşti.
7. *** (2005), Geografia României-vol. V, Câmpia Română, Dunărea, Podişul
Dobrogei, Litoralul Românesc al Mării Negre şi Platforma Continentală, Editura
Academiei Române, Bucureşti.

386
 ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN EXPOSURE
TO TOLUENE DIISOCYANATE

OLIVIA ANCA RUSU1, CRISTINA NEAGU1, IRINA DUMITRASCU1, IULIA

NEAMTIU1, ALEXANDRU ZEIC1 AND EUGEN GURZAU1

ABSTRACT. – Assessment of human exposure to toluene diisocyanate.

Toluene diisocyanate (TDI), an aromatic compound, may be dangerous for human
health. Diisocyanates have wide industrial use in the fabrication of flexible and
rigid foams, fibers, elastomers, and coatings such as paints and varnishes.
Isocyanates are known skin and respiratory sensitizers, and proper engineering
controls should be in place to prevent exposure to isocyanate liquid and vapor;
exposure to TDI vapors is well documented to increase asthma risk. The study
focused on the exposure of workers and nearby populations to toluene
diisocyanate in a Polyurethane Foam Factory located in Baia Mare, Romania.
Workplace air measurements were performed in different departments of the plant,
after sampling either in fixed points or as personal monitoring. Sampling in four
different locations of Baia Mare town was carried out, - during and after the
foaming process. TDI sampling was performed on silica cartridge followed by
GC-MS analysis. TDI concentration at workplace was lower than 0,035 mg/m³,
which represents the permissible exposure limit, while in the city the TDI
concentration had shown values below 0,20 μg/m³. Health assessment of a group
of 49 workers was based on questionnaire interview, determination of TDI
antibodies and lung function tests. Data collected until this stage do not show any
negative effects of TDI on the employees health. Since this plant had only recently
begun operating, continuous workplace and ambient air TDI monitoring, along
with workers health surveillance, is deemed necessary.

Key words: toluene diisocyanate, exposure assessment, environment, professional

environment, health.

1. INTRODUCTION

Toluene diisocyanate is one of the most common aromatic isocyanates

used in the production of polyurethane polymers. Polyurethanes are broadly used in
high resiliency flexible foam seating, rigid foam insulation panels, microcellular
foam seals and gaskets, durable elastomeric wheels and tires, automotive
suspension bushings, electrical potting compounds, high performance adhesives
and sealants, Spandex fibers, seals, gaskets, carpet underlay, and hard plastic parts
(such as for electronic instruments). The global consumption of polyurethane raw
materials is climbing, having an average annual growth rate of about 5% (Avar,
2008); this represents a rising industry, making very important the development of
safer and less polluting manufacturing methods.

387
 TDI (molecular formula C9-H6-N2-O2) is the most volatile of the isocyanate
compounds. In its commonest form TDI is a colorless to pale-yellow liquid
consisting of a mixture of 2,4- and 2,6-diisocyanates isomers which will
polymerize readily in air. It has a high vapor pressure (0.025 mmHg at 25 0C;
boiling point 115-120 0C) and must be strictly controlled to prevent fugitive
emission losses to atmosphere. TDI liquid must be managed carefully as, at
temperature below 8-14 0C, the substance will begin to freeze, creating special
problems in outdoor handling activities for much of the year.
Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) is the second highly produced diisocyanate,
accounting for 34.1% of the global isocyanate market in 2000 (Randall and Lee,
2002). It is a hazardous aromatic compound synthesized in six steps (Randall and
Lee, 2002), in which phosgenation of corresponding amines represents the main
technical process for the manufacture of isocyanates. The amine raw materials are
generally manufactured by the hydrogenation of corresponding nitro compounds;
in this case, toluenediamine (TDA) is manufactured from dinitrotoluene, which
then converted to toluene diisocyanate (TDI).
Isocyanates are known skin and respiratory sensitizers, and proper engi-
neering controls should be in place to prevent exposure to isocyanate liquid and
vapor; exposure to TDI vapors is well documented to increase asthma risk (Allport et
al., 2003). Occupational asthma and hypersensitivity pneumonitis as a direct result of
introduction to isocyanates in general and TDI in particular have been extensively
researched, predominantly in last 10 to 15 years (Ott et al., 2007; Aul et al., 1999).
Other forms of hypersensitivity manifestation have also been linked to diisocyanates
and TDI professional contacts (dermatitis – Estlander et al., 1992; eye - conjunctiva,
mucosal irritation – Omae et al., 1992; Littorin et al., 2007).
There is no permissible exposure limit for TDI in the residential areas in
Romania. For the Foam Factory in Baia Mare the maximum concentration of TDI
allowed in community atmosphere is 1 µg/m3 for 30 minutes.

2. METHODS

2.1. Environmental sampling and data collecting methodology

TDI sampling was performed both in the community ( Baia Mare) and at
the workplace, by either fixed point or personal monitoring technique. Fixed point
(-ambient sampling) was carried out at breathing level (1.5 m) with a pump – silica
cartridge device. Air sampling was correlated with duration of the pollutant
emission. Personal monitoring is a sampling method very efficient for the exposure
assessment of workers to occupational hazards, as it is a shift measurement timing.
This method requires workers wearing the ensemble consisting of a personal pump
device and the silica cartridge.
The first step is to collect the environment data correctly. After the
sampling points are set up, the stand and the auxiliary devices are fixed, the pump
must be calibrated for the desired flow. The sample is taken on a silica cartridge
(adsorbent tube). The pump is started and air is crossing the silica cartridge with a

388
known, steady flow (0.25 l/min) for 20-30 minutes. Absorber tube ends are sealed
and kept cold (4 °C) until analysis.
Imission measurement of toluene diisocyanate in the community involve
sampling on a silica gel cartridge in four points inside the city of Baia Mare, sites
located at different distances from the plant.

Fig. 1. The TDI sampling ensemble

In these points, measurements were made for three consecutive days, five probes
for each location being sampled every day. Sampling was performed as it follows:
during the foaming process three samples (at the same time) were taken on each
point, and two more samples, at 4 and 8 hours after the ending of the foaming
process, were also taken in each point. This operation was repeated during the next
two days. The sampling time for the first three tests depends on the foaming
process duration (the time it takes place is divided by three). For the other two
samples, the sampling time was 30 minutes. The sampling flow rate for toluene
diisocyanate was 0.25 l/min.
• First point is situated on Motorului 8 street, at a distance of approximately
1000 m from the factory;
• The second point is situated on Culturii 8 street, at 2750 m away from the
factory;
• The third point is on the Vasile Lucaciu 126 street, at a distance of 4750 m
from the factory;
• The last point is situated on the Uzinei 3 street, at a distance of
approximately 7450 m from the factory.
Inside the factory, two measurements were performed at fixed points in the
foaming department, at the ends of the plant: the first one next to the mixer in
which take place the addition of the components and the second one at the end of

389
the plant were foam block is already formed. The sampling time for this
measurements was 100 minutes at a flow rate of 0.25 l/min.
In this department (foaming), a series of personal monitoring were also
completed. Three workers with the workplace along the plant had worn the
ensemble formed by personal pump and silica cartridge. These workplaces were
situated at the beginning of the plant, next to the mixer, at the middle of the
conveyor belt and at the end of the line. The sampling in this case was during one
foaming process, with a flow rate of 0.25 l/min.
More personal monitoring was made in the cutting area for two
workplaces. The sampling time was 120 minutes with the flow rate of 0.25 l/min.

2.2. The analysis methodology

The purpose of this procedure is to determine TDI air concentration, after
adsorption and desorption on activated silica gel cartridge. The method described is
applicable to both industrial isomers (2,4 - and 2,6 - TDI). The principle of this
method is quantitatively transfer of the sample from the silica gel cartridge in a vial
followed by extraction of the toluene diisocyanate with methanol. The extract is
afterwards measured using a mass spectrometry chromatograph (GC-MS Shimadzu
QP2010).
Laboratory analysis is gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry
and begins with preparing the devices and the column according to instructions.
After this, the calibration curve must be drawn; initially two series of standard
solutions were prepared with the solvent. The extraction has been made in the
following concentrations: 40 µg/l; 60 µg/l; 80 µg/; 100 µg/l. The standards were
measured by recording the chromatogram for each standard solution. The device
software plots the calibration curves, these being linear curves. Calibration curve
should be checked no less than at 12 months, and always when using new reactors.
Reagents utilized in this method are GC-purity methanol and E1 standard TDI
(Merck supplier). The sample processing is done by breaking the sample cartridge
in a lidded vial, then adding 2 ml of methanol, followed by one minute stirring in
order to make the extraction. The extract is filtered and placed in a smaller vial that
is sent to the GC analysis. Reading the results occurs by measuring the
chromatogram under specific working method; the amount of TDI (the area in the
chromatogram) is read from the calibration curve.

2.3. Health data collection and analysis

As the monitoring process began right from the opening of the factory, a
group of presumably unexposed new workers has been initially evaluated
throughout a health questionnaire, pulmonary function tests, serum TDI antibodies
and individual polymorphisms, as well. At a 6 months follow up, lung function
tests and blood sampling were repeated, while the questionnaire was reapplied to
the subjects. TDI antibodies and individual polymorphisms are not discussed at this
moment.

390
 Trained interviewers filled in the questionnaires independently. Questions
were aimed to record respiratory health problems and allergic background in
specific details. Smoking habits and close contact with pets or other animals, as
well as home environment, were briefly asked in the questionnaire, while a special
attention was paid to the work practice – personal protective equipment, and
exposure control measures such as ventilation and hygiene conditions, along with
questions on workers’ compliance to safety rules. A matter of interest was the issue
of previous contacts with polyurethanes, explicitly TDI and other diisocyanates;
sections of the questionnaires covered information about pre-employments and
exposure to insulating construction foams or sprayed paints.
The lung function tests were performed and their results interpreted by
occupational healthcare professionals. Standard spirometry parameters were
pursued and on their bases, the specific diagnostics were set.
For final interpretation of the gathered data, the statistical procedure of Chi-
square test was used. Chi-square (noted χ2) is generally considered the statistical
indicator of differences among proportions (percentages) and it can reduce the
foregone conclusions emerged from comparing non-homogenous factions.

3. RESULTS

3.1. Environmental monitoring

During 2010, there were four sets of measurements performed for
determination of airborne TDI concentrations in Baia Mare:
• The first measurements took place on 16, 17, 18 February 2010;
• The second set of measurements took place on 23, 24, 25 June 2010;
• The third set of measurements were made in 08, 09 and 10 September 2010
• The last set of measurements took place on 16, 17, 18 November 2010.

Table 1. Results from inside plant measurements

TDI STEL TWA

Workplace concentration (15 min) (8 h)
mg/m3
Cutting area (individual Long-blocks cutting operator <0.0002 0.14 0.035
monitoring) Cutting operator <0.0002 0.14 0.035

Mixer operator (engineer) <0.0002 0.14 0.035

Foaming hall (individual
monitoring) Paper operator <0.0002 0.14 0.035
Cutting operator <0.0002 0.14 0.035

Near mixer tank (beginning of

<0.0002 0.14 0.035
plant)
Foaming hall (fixed point)
End of plant (emergence of
<0.0002 0.14 0.035
foam blocks)

391
 Data obtained after analyzing the TDI samples from the factory are
presented in table 1. The results obtained after analysis of these samples were
lower than 0.20 µg/m3 , which represents the detection limit of the device.
As shown in table 1, the concentrations of TDI from the samples inside the
factory are very low, lower than the detection limit of the device. This can be
explained due to advanced technology in manufacturing facilities, which are all
automated.

3.2 Health status monitoring

In questionnaire responses, for increased relevance of this analysis, the

cohort of subjects was divided into three levels of possible exposure at the working
station, ranging from level I (the most significant) to level III (least potential
exposure); these subgroups will be identified as “departments” in paragraphs
below.
Table 2 summarizes the frequency of positive answers in three departments
with diverse levels of assumed exposure. Categories listed below reflect the main
lines of interest in projected finales.

Table 2. Positive answers percentage in departments

Foaming Cutting Administrative
Department Total
(level I) (level II) (level III)
(%)
Category 6 6 6 6
Initial Initial Initial Initial
months months months months
Diagnosed respiratory
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.67 0.00 2.08
disease
Respiratory symptoms 4.08 0.00 8.16 6.25 6.12 2.08 18.36 8.33
Recent respiratory ailment 0.00 2.08 6.12 12.50 4.08 2.08 10.20 16.67
Hypersensitivity 2.04 0.00 2.04 0.00 2.04 0.00 6.12 0.00
Allergic symptoms 0.00 2.08 0.00 6.25 0.00 6.21 0.00 14.58
Smoking habits 12.24 12.50 16.32 16.67 12.24 12.50 40.81 41.67
Other TDI exposure 22.44 4.16 22.44 4.16 22.44 8.33 67.34 16.67
Equipment satisfaction 26.53 22.91 36.73 35.41 24.48 31.25 87.75 89.58

The only comparison that holds statistical significance (p ≤ 0.05) is that

between new exposures to diisocyanates in the two time-lines, since drastically
fewer had occurred in the 6 months interval. Concerning performed lung tests, in
the group of 44 valid lung function tests, 39 (88.63%) were considered within
physiological limits while five (11.37%) persons were diagnosed with mild to
moderate peripheral obstructive ventilatory dysfunction. The mean prevalence of
obstructive dysfunction is considered to be around 12% in general population
(Weaver LK et all, 2009; Kogevinas et all, 1999). Further on, we considered
prevalence of diagnosed disease in our group in relationship to previously

392
mentioned departments, which theoretically signify different levels of potential
exposure. 4.55 % of the subjects that presented obstructive dysfunction were in the
first group, 6.82 % were from the “medium exposure” subgroup and none from the
Administrative section.
In order to establish an indication of patterns to be observed in further
analysis as more data accumulates, we tried to make a direct comparison between
frequencies of declared respiratory symptoms and objective spirometry results.
Tables below present this cumulated information.

Table 3. Connection between respiratory symptoms and dysfunction

Initial 6 months
(%) Obstructive dysfunction
Respiratory symptoms Respiratory symptoms
Total 18.36 8.33 11.37
I 4.08 0.00 4.55
II 8.16 6.25 6.82
III 6.12 2.08 0.00

Differences between first two columns have proved no statistical

significance, as already stated through total questionnaires investigation; however,
a fairly strong correlation has been brought forward when initial and follow-up
declared symptoms were set beside diagnosed obstructive dysfunctions.

Fig. 2. Regression curves

The second figure shows the simple linear regressions for the aforemen-
tioned factors, pointing out a similar ascendant trend and a better correlation of
total lifetime responses (initial questionnaire) with the resulted affections.
Regression equations may be found in the image.
Nonetheless, as seen from the picture, the parallel is not conforming to the
arrangement of departments in presumed exposure order; most asserted symptoms
are in the second group, both initially and at follow-up.

393
 4. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The results of all the TDI samples were lower than the detection limit of
the device (0.20 µg/m3).
The health assessment segment of this monitoring was based upon the
assumption that there are different levels of exposure risk to TDI, in relation to
specific workplace demands inside the plant. Overall, few resulting correlations in
health survey parameters had statistical significance, and no association could be
drawn between these outcomes and the corresponding working place environment
– the presumed level of risk considering chemical exposure.
Furthermore, environmental data collected to this point give no additional
indication as to whether the initial supposition was correct. However, these results
are not surprising when keeping in mind that this health information is
intermediary and situated at a very early point in terms of relevance; from a
physiological point of view, manifestation of premature clinical effects would have
been unexpected. Moreover, a single set of probes measuring TDI levels inside the
plant might prove insufficient for a correct and complete estimation of emissions at
workplace, especially during foaming process, when large quantities of
diisocyanates are utilized.
Clinical literature published data sustain the knowledge of serious health
effects (e.g. lung function tests changes and bronchial asthma) developed in
association with very low levels of airborne TDI. Considering this fact when taking
our results into account, we cannot support the presumption that measurements
below the level of detection accrue in no adverse health effects.
Future sets of testing, both subject based and environmental measurements,
will take place for the next three to four years at an estimated frequency of twice a
year (approximately at six months).

REFERENCES

1. Avar Géza (eds.) (2008), Polyurethanes (PU), first edition, Kunststoffe

international, München, Germany; pages 123-127;
2. Randall, David; Lee, Steve (2002); Eds.: Randall and Lee, The Polyurethanes
Book.; third edition; John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA; chapters two and five;
3. Allport DC, Gilbert, DS and Outterside SM (eds.) (2003). MDI and TDI: safety,
health & the environment: a source book and practical guide.; first edition; John
Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK; chapter 3;
4. Aul DJ, Bhaumik A, Kennedy AL, Brown WE, Lesage J, Malo JL., (1999);
Specific IgG response to monomeric and polymeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate
conjugates in subjects with respiratory reactions to isocyanates.; Journal of Allergy
and Clinical Immunology; volume 103(issue 5); pages: 749-755;
5. Ott MG, Jolly AT, Burkert AL, Brown WE., (2007); Issues in diisocyanate
antibody testing. Critical reviews in toxicology.; volume 37 (issue 7); pages: 567-
585;

394
6. Estlander T, Keskinen H, Jolanki R, Kanerva L. (1992); Occupational dermatitis
from exposure to polyurethane chemicals.Contact Dermatitis: Environmental and
Occupational Dermatitis; volume 27 (issue 3); pages: 161-165;
7. Omae K, Nakadate T, Higashi T, Nakaza M, Aizawa Y, Sakurai H., (1992); Four-
year follow-up of effects of toluene diisocyanate exposure on the respiratory
system in polyurethane foam manufacturing workers. I. Study design and results
of the first cross-sectional observation.; International archives of occupational and
environmental health.; volume 63 (issue 8); pages: 559-564;
8. Littorin M, Axmon A, Broberg K, Sennbro CJ, Tinnerberg H., (2007); Eye and
airway symptoms in low occupational exposure to toluene diisocyanate.;
Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health; volume 33 (issue 4); pages:
280-285.
 THE WIND INFLUENCE ON THE FOREST LANDSCAPE
IN THE UPPER BASIN OF MUREȘ RIVER

V. PARASCHIV11

Abstract. The wind effects on the slopes bounding Giurgeu Depression manifest
themselves differently on the forestry landscape according to the features of the
abiotic components of environment: geological structure, exposition, slope,
configuration of secondary valleys, precipitation, drainage, local winds. Forestry
landscape of the lower part of the slopes in the depression suffers, almost
cyclically, the most visible changes due to wind, even though it is situated in a
concave area dominated by calm (60%), but which, by local and occasional
amplification of the wind, causes frequent ruptures and breakages of trees
(sometimes associated with biotic factors), with negative effects on the activity of
population in the area as well as to landscape as a whole.

Keywords: wind, ruptures, forestry landscape, Giurgeu Depression.

1. INTRODUCTION

Forestry landscape in the upper basin of Mureș, respectively in Giurgeu

Depression can be taxonomically classified within the derived landscapes; the limit
of humanization in the forest overcomes the geographical limit of depression due to
pastoral activities. The paleogeographical evolution of the forests in the area is
determined by the spatial-temporal events of climatic parameters, which give to the
forestry landscape a natural setting of altitude with pronounced phytogeographic
inversions here and there. In the recent years due to global warming and steady
growth of massive deforestations (many of them illegal!), some of the forestry areas
have become vulnerable to wind events, emphasizing or leading, depending on the
local conditions, to ruptures on important areas, with visible effects in the landscape
and in the forestry economy of the region. Although we are in an area where the
atmospheric calm lasts over 60% of the year, the breakages and ruptures due to
wind sometimes associated with the snow have most of the time mixed genesis,
along with climatic abiotic factor (wind and snow), but a substantial contribution
has also the biotic factors, fungi and parasites of trees as well as the deer.

2. GENERAL CLIMATIC PARTICULARITIES WITH

REFERENCE TO WIND

The extension of Giurgeu basin to NNW-SSE direction, on a distance of

72,5 km and an average width of only 22-23 km, on east-west direction, makes
1
Ph. Stud., "Alex. Ioan Cuza" University to Iaşi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Geography
Department; P.O. Box 5-3023, 700425, Iaşi; e-mail: vio_scout@yahoo.com

396
possible the influence of all four major barrel centers of semi-permanent nature
with thermic and dynamic origin. Winds are not considered characteristic climatic
elements for a unit with a concave relief. In Giurgeu basin, winds are strongly
influenced by the features of the general circulation of the atmosphere and the
active surface, which cause an increased frequency of atmospheric calm. In
January, the activity of Siberian anticyclone and indirectly of the Mediterranean
cyclone is noted, while in July, the cyclone is situated in a medium-barrel field,
between the Azores anticyclone and the south-east cyclone, with very stable
horizontal gradients. These general medium barrel situations may be changed by
situations of thermodynamic circumstance, that occur at very short intervals. Thus,
the Norse, Iceland and Greenland anticyclones frequently make sudden and
significant changes in the appearance of the weather, such as late summer frost
(“ice saints“= nocturnal cooling with ground frost in May) and early autumn frosts,
which are produced under the influence of Scandinavian anticyclone, and which
could be quantified as modifying agents of the forest landscape. From the recorded
data along 40 years in the weather station in Toplița, it is shown that the highest
annual rate of wind is recorded in the northwest and west sector, in proportions of
20-22%. Air currents in the western sector, generally predominate in all seasons,
bringing polar air masses in winter and - more rarely, sometimes - tropical
temperatures in summer. Sometimes, over the peaks of the Carpathians (most
frequently from the west), it may occur meetings of some air masses of different
origins and properties, or parts of an air mass with a relatively low height,
separated by the mountains that it has passed off , altering its features according to
the crossed underlying surface. Following such meetings, orographic fronts can be
developed and generate thermic changes, strong wind (catabatic) and
hydrometeorological phenomena with manifestation of natural hazard.
The active underlying surface has characteristic features due to concave
hollow relief, which is characterized by higher air humidity, frequency of hoarfrost
and dew deposition, atmospheric calm (50%), diurnal and nocturnal obvious
thermic contrasts, as well as seasonal, "lakes of cold "in winter, with variable
thickness to a few hundred meters (stationary and laminated), leading to
installation of thermic inversion, accompanied by early and late frosts.
The differentiations of the underlying active surface are determined by the
exhibition and inclination of slope, altitude, hydrography, vegetation coverage, soil
and its moisture. Thus, in wet meadows, frost occurs late because of the thermic
moderator role of water but in areas with forest vegetation, diurnal thermic
variations are insignificant; the first frosts occur earlier at the edge of the forest,
while the late frosts are maintained for a longer period of time within the forest,
because the heating of the active surface is prevented. The prevailing of the wind
directions do not show significant changes from one month to another, being
directly related to the opening, orientation and depth of fragmentation of relief
towards the surrounding mountains. Changes in the wind direction can be noticed
from the analysis of the cardinal at the two weather stations in the hearth of

397
depression, at Toplița the dominant frequency is from north-west and owns 16% of
the total (while the atmospheric calm owns 52.2%) and at Joseni, the dominant
frequency is from the west, with 9.8% (while the calm atmosphere holds 66.3%).
The higher frequency of atmospheric calm is a direct function of the relief, shelter
and exhibition, which is reflected in the differentiation
of practical observations in the field.

a) b)

Figure no. 1. a)The cardinal at Toplița weather station; b)Monthly and annual chart
of wind speed at the weather station in Giurgeu Depression (1961–2000)

Figure no. 2. Diurnal regime of wind speed at the observation hours

in Giurgeu Depression (1961–2000)

Multiannual average speed recorded monthly is of 0.1 m / sec, with its

maximum and minimum differentiated by occasional factors and sometimes of
hazard. Annual average speed is nearly identical for the two weather stations in the
hearth of the basin, being of 1.36 m / sec., at Toplița and 1.3 m / sec. at Joseni.
Monthly maximum averages are characteristic to April, May and June (almost 2 m /
sec.), deviations are determined by generated conditions, as it happened in
February 1990 and in December 1988, when the highest values of ground blizzard
were registered (15.4 days).The minimum average values are specific to fall-
winter, when in some years we encounter values below 1.0 m / sec, as in February
and October 1987 at Toplița, with values of 0.3 m / sec.
Föhn winds found in the hearth of basin are catabatic warm and dry winds,
which are formed on the slopes opposite to the general circulation of the

398
atmosphere, dominant from west and south-west. Their influence is reflected on the
regime of all the climatic, hydrological and biogeographical elements. In Giurgeu
Depression, there are quite characteristic, being responsible for the reduced amount
of precipitation that is recorded from June to October, for the increased calm
specific to the centre of the depression (in the area Gheorgheni-Joseni-Remetea),
for the prevention of thermic convection depending on the barrel type as well as on
the manifestations of short duration of wind with high and very high intensity
especially in early summer, which sometimes cause, especially in the last 25 years,
almost in a cyclical manner, climatic hazards (such as breakages and ruptures).
Even though the manifestation of the winds in Giurgeu Depression don’t seem to
affect decisively the structure of forest landscape through their intensity and
duration, manifestations of climatic hazard of wind cause the production of visible
and immediate effects on this landscape. From the preliminary statistical data,
partially processed, extracted on the basis of an existing synoptic tables in
“composesorates” (associations of small-private-owners of the forest): Gheorgheni,
Ditrău, Suseni, Ciumani, Joseni and the forestry districts in Toplița and Gălăuțaș
result that the incidence of deforestation and forest destruction due to breakages
and wind or snow ruptures during 1990-2009 is about 2-3%, and the cyclicity of
the phenomenon is of 12-15 years at the intensity of destruction of over 10 hectares
of the forest landscape to a hazard event. The analysis of the map that shows the
evolution of deforested areas in the upper lev basin of the Mureș in the last
approximative 100 years can quite easily lead us to some hasty conclusions, and
even less relevant on the importance of wind analysis as a factor of hazard on
forestry landscape; on one hand the low intensities of wind and the few elements of
protection that are in the reach of the management of forestry landscape in the case
of manifestations of climatic hazards, and on the other hand, the drastic reduction
of forest area throughout the upper basin of the Mureș River (figure no. 3)

Figure no. 3. Deforestations in the Giurgeu Depression between 1910-2006

399
 3. CASE STUDY WINDFALL DURING the 14th – 16th of JUNE 2010
in the NORTHERN GIURGEU DEPRESSION

The third lower of the slopes of the North and Northwest of Giurgeu
Depression were affected by windfall on the optimum background of manifestation
of this natural hazards and risk phenomenon on forests. It is possible that windfalls
and partial breakage due to snow in the 2009-2010 winter determined the reported
effects in that early summer, which caused important material damage and formed
itself into a natural hazard which manifested during the 72 hours and its side effects
have great impact on the natural landscape or on the planning of territory (parks
and arboreal facilities made by humans in the affected localities) The analysis of
the partial climate data recorded at the weather stations in the depression -Joseni
and Toplița-and correlated with the data from Bucin Step weather station-(Gurghiu
Mountain) give us some data on the conditional of the environmental factors that
have existed and stimulated the windfall the eastern and north-eastern slopes of
Gurghiu mountains and the Gurghiu Piedmont in Giurgeu Depression: on the left
bank of Mureș river at Vâgani and Zencani, at Gălăuțaș and Toplița (figure no. 4).
The dominant wind direction recorded at the three analyzed weather
stations was from the West and Southwest and its intensity recorded in those days
was high, but only periodically, alternating periods of calm with periods of
moderate and high intensity (maximum 17 - 18 m./s. during the interval from 20,15
till 22,00 on the 15th of June, 2010). Winds from the west, which are channeled on
Gurghiu Valley developed on the west-east direction, are climbing the Gurghiu
mountain peaks and come down heated and with increased speed through the
saddles of the Bătrâna-Măgheruș-Luncani peaks (correlated analysis with the Tg.
Mureș weather station located in the Transylvanian Depression):
• dominant direction of wind recorded at weather stations was from the West
and South-West at all four analyzed weather stations and its intensity
recorded those days was very high, regularly alternating situations of calm
with periods of moderate intensity and high wind (maximum 17 to 18 m/s.,
the time between 20:15 to 22:00 on June 15th, 2010). Winds from the
West, who are channeled on Gurghiu Valley, which is developed on the
west-east direction, climb the Gurghiu mountain and descend heated and
with increased speed through saddles between Bătrâna- Măgheruș-Luncani
peaks ( the correlative analysis also with Tg. Mureș station located in the
Transylvanian Depression);
• when on the bottom of valleys and depressions there is stagnant cold air,
of thermic inversion (be it winter or summer), the wind does not reach the
low altitudes of the topographical level, but slides over the bottom layer
(the level of thermic inversion) characterized by stability and then climbs
the second peak gaining in intensity and determining windfall (the ones
along the Gălăuțaș Valley);
• where the axis of the valley is oriented in the direction of the wind these
are channeled according to the direction of the riverbed, up or down

400
 depending on the inclination of the riverbed. If the slopes are too steep
ascending turbulent movements can be formed in particular at the edge of
the current as well as windfall on the peaks exposed to the wind (windfalls
from Vâgani and Zencani on the terraces forehead of 60 and 90 m of the
Mureș River, at the entrance into the Toplița-Deda gorge)
• a final situation we have when the valley is oriented obliquely to the wind
direction, when the air mass is deflected horizontally as well or tend to
move along the valley, either to become perpendicular to the ridge line, the
case of ruptures and breakages in Toplița area, respectively the area of the
ski slopes Măgheruș and resort spa Bradu/Banfy.
• after this period, 14th -16th of June 2010, of maximum intensity of natural
events of climatic hazard with windfalls and breakages, there was a period
in which the weather was influenced by excessive summer events, with
torrential rains and excessive heat, of which, that of 12th of August 2010
with hail of the size of a walnut, has inflicted great damage on 150
households and on the forest from Toplița area. All these phenomena are
due to events caused by global climate change since 2003, and they have
an increasingly frequency and intensity in this geographical region as well.

Another factor of climatic hazard, the hail, wreaked havoc in the area of
Mureș-Toplița confluence in summer 2010. Hail has an average frequency of 1.4
days at Toplița, and of only 0.9 days at Joseni but the maximum frequency was
recorded in 1972 (when there were recorded six days at the weather station in
Joseni). During the day, hail often occurs in the afternoon when the thermic
convection reaches its climax.

a) b) c)

Figure no 4. Windthrow effects of 15th-16th July 2010 of Giurgeu Depression:

a) Banfy– Toplița; b)Măgheruș–Toplița; c)Vâgani

The duration of rain with hail is small, maximum of 10-12 minutes, and the
grain size is generally of 5-15 mm in diameter. The month with the
most frequent events as those is June.
The analysis of hail in Giurgeu Depression shows a very low incidence of
this during 1961-2000 but, after 2003, the hail wreaks havoc on the landscape
every two years!

401
 4. CONCLUSIONS
Literature is unanimous in recognizing the great influence of how to create
and run their stands on their future stability to wind. If against the hydro-
meteorological factors it is impossible to struggle, by knowing the mode of action
of these factors on the trees, foresters are able to make trees resistant to their
action. There will never be able to remove ruptures and breakages caused by wind,
but it will be thus eliminated the catastrophic effects that occur in certain
conditions forest management. The study of stationary factors that favor
amplification of damage allow a clear distinction of needed interventions in terms
of intensity, timing and their periodicity of interventions thus increasing economic
efficiency and operational safety of the stands. From the presentation we can
conclude that the wind damage to forest stands and their ecological imbalance are
two closely related processes. Reduction of these losses requires an ample
ecological restoration of deconstructed forests.
Although the winds in well individualized depression areas have neither
speed nor long duration, the atmospheric calm being predominant, local and
regional dynamic factors can increase and determine climatic hazards with visible
effects in the local forestry landscape.
The geographical position of slopes massively affected by these natural
hazard phenomena confirms the preliminary assumptions: the hazard source →
west winds → föhn wind → local conditions → produced phenomenon → material
damage / risk.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Apostol L., Paraschiv V. (2010) The cycle of anthropic and anthropogenetic landscape
in Giurgeu Depression. Spatial-temporal evolutions, at the International Symposium
„Present Environment and Sustenaible Development”, Univ. „Al. I. Cuza”, Iași
2. Barbu I. (2005) Methods of assessing risk for snow injuries in the forests of
Romania in “Forestry Bucovina”, XII, 1-2, I.C.A.S. Câmpulung, Romania
3. Blujdea V. (2009) Evaluation and monitoring the global environmental changes
on forest ecosystems, restoration / conservation of forest biodiversity for
ecological reconstruction. ICAS, Voluntari, Romania
4. Macovei Corina, Paraschiv V. (2010) The environmental risk in the forests of the
Northern half of the Carpathians (Romania), in “Forum Carpaticum, Integrating
Nature and Society Towards Susteinability” (pp. 115). www.forumcarpaticum.org.
Univ. Jagelonia, Krakow, Polska
5. Nițescu C., Vlad R. (1999) Reaserches on the impact caused by wind and snow on
the forest of conifers in the exposed areas. The National Administration of
Forests- I.C.A.S., București
6. Paraschiv V., Covăsneanu A. (2010) Deforestations in Giurgeu basin and their fin-
gerprints on the regional landscape at the International Symposium „Present Envi-
ronment and Sustenaible Development”, Univ. „Alex. Ioan Cuza” din Iași (poster)
7. Sommerfeld R.A. (1974) A Weibull Prediction of the Tensile Strenght.Volume
relationship, in „Geographical Research”, no.23.
8. Vlad R.(1997) Research on the impact of wind and snow on pine forests in the
exposed areas. Ed. Experimental Station of Spruce Culture Publishing House,
Câmpulung, Romania.

402
 THE CLIMATIC CHANGES INFLUENCE
ON ROMANIAN AGRICULTURE SECTOR
1 2
GAVRILETEA MARIUS DAN , PETRESCU DACINIA CRINA

ABSTRACT. - Nowadays the entire world is confronting with different serious

problems: economic crises, climate changes, increase of the population and many
others. The accelerate rhythm of climate changes in the last years strongly affects
the agriculture system. In this paper we will focus on the evolution of mean
temperature and its effects on agriculture. The continuously global warming
generates extreme meteorological phenomena, especially floods and heavy rains
that destroy the crops. We will also analyze the existing situation in Romania
related to agriculture risks (influenced by meteorological phenomena), the
modalities that the Romanian Government and the insurance companies come to
help the agriculture companies to decrease the exposure to specific risks. In
conclusion, we will present pertinent solution for agriculture system in order to
manage the delicate problems caused by climatic changes in Romania.

Keywords: climate change, meteorological phenomena, agriculture, risk, insurance.

1. INTRODUCTION

A very delicate problem of the last year (2010) refers to the climate
changes. Unfortunately, when we debate such an actual subject, we analyze only
the increasing level of global temperature.
The global temperature increases from one year to another, all these
modification having negative impacts on Earth climate. Both the air and the water
are negatively influenced. The air is warmer than usual and the level of the seas is
increasing.
Also, the water from ocean is evaporating more than ever, this means that
the rains, hurricanes and other meteorological phenomena are more intense and
powerful and generate floods. More over, the heavy rain periods are followed by
long dry periods. All these facts have a powerful and negative influence on the
agriculture systems and on the crops.

2. TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATION ANALYSIS

Using NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies, the year of 2010 is
almost equal to year 2005, as the warmest year since 1880 – starting date for
recording the temperature by this institute.

1
“Babeş-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Business, Horea 7, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, email:
dan.gavriletea@tbs.ubbcluj.ro
2
“Babeş-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Business, Horea 7, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, email:
crina.petrescu@tbs.ubbcluj.ro

403
 We can observe from Table 1 the warmest years, taken into account the
highest deviation from mean temperature.

Fig. 1. The Top Warmest Years

Source: Authors’ own calculations

Year 2010 was the warmest year, followed by 2005 and then by 2007 and
2009. It is very concerning the fact that the warmest year was recorded in the last
decade. Anyway the last decade 2000 - 2009 was the worst one, because the
average temperature increased with 0.20 C (source: www.nasa.gov).
Using the average temperature for the last three decades (1981-1990, 1991-
2000 and 2001-2010) we can observe from the Fig. 2 the increasing trend.

Fig. 2. Evolution of Global Average Temperature in the Last Three Decades

Source: Authors’ own calculations

The average increasing has doubled in the last decade than in the previous
one – increase of 0.2360 C (from 0.310 C in 1991-2000 to 0.5460 C in 2001-2010)
compared to 0.1170 C (from 0.1930 C in 1981-1990 to 0.310 C in 1991-2000).

404
 If we use the fact that since 1880 the average temperature worldwide
increases with 0.80 C, that means that in the last decade there was a 25%
modification in temperature evolution – a huge percent in a very short period.
Table 1. Deviation from Mean Temperature, decades between 1880-1940
Source: www.europa.eu
Year 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940
North Hemisphere
-0.3 -0.4 -0.05 -0.31 -0.15 0.06 0.1
Mean
Europe
-0.16 -0.23 -0.11 -0.08 0.09 0.48 -0.73
Mean Temperature
Global
-0.28 -0.39 -0.08 -0.33 -0.19 -0.08 0.04
Mean Temperature

Table 2. Deviation from Mean Temperature, decades between 1880-1940

Source: www.europa.eu

Year 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

North Hemisphere
-0.13 0.1 -0.3 0.1 0.48 0.48 0.84
Mean
Europe
0.32 0.33 -0.15 -0.43 0.96 1.08 1.01
Mean Temperature
Global
-0.16 -0.01 0.03 0.19 0.36 0.33 0.63
Mean Temperature

Using the mean temperature at the end of each decade since 1880 we
realize a comparing graphic between global mean temperature, North Hemisphere
Temperature (we choose this hemisphere because Europe belongs to it) and
European Mean temperature (as Romania is part of Europe).

Fig. 3. Mean Temperature Deviation – Evolution and Comparison 1880–2010

Source: Authors’ own calculations

It can be seen from Fig. 3 that the North Hemisphere is usualy warmer than
the global mean temperature. Furthermore, the European mean temperature
excedes the North Hemisphere mean, especially because of the high level of the
405
industrialization and the pollution. The European mean temperature recorded high
level of increasing in the moments of important stages in industrial development
during the last century: before and after the Second Wolrd War and at the
beginning of 80’s. Since 1980 the European mean temperature increase by 1.50 C
(www.ec.europa.eu). The situation in Romania doesn’t differ too much compared
to European one: the mean temperature evolution since 1901 up to 2008 was of
almost 0.50 C (www.unfccc.int).

Fig. 4. Trend of annual mean air temperature in Romania (1901-2008)

Source: www.unfccc.int

However, if we analyze the temperature evolution since 1984 (the coldest

year in the last 30 years – with a mean of 8.50C), the increase (with 3.10C in
average – to the level of 11.50C in 2008) is important and the negative aspects in
the agriculture are obvious.

3. INSURANCE SOLUTION FOR ROMANIAN AGRICULTURE

All the modification in worldwide climatic system influenced individually

each zone of the world, each country. In Romania, these modification of the mean
temperature generated serious problems to the land use in agriculture. Further, we
will focuse on the modalities that the negative impact on agriculture may be solved
through insurance industry.
In the last years, in Romania many extreme meteorological phenomena
were recorded (heavy storms and rains that generated floods, powerfull winds and
hail, unexpected snow in spring time, excesive dry during the summer) that
affected negatively the entire agriculture crops.
Because these facts are of national interest, both the Romanian
Government (by Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development) and the
Insurance companies offer the possibility for the agricultural companies to protect
their crops.

406
 Under the Law Nr.381/2002 the Romanian Government pays
compensations for agriculture crops losses caused by natural calamities. The
compensations are paid only if the losses exceed 30% of the total production, but
are limited to 70% from the operational expenses for the crops. They are paid only
for the insured crops.
In order to receive these facilities, the facultative insurance policies must
be subscribed until the 15th of December for autumn crops and until 31st of May for
spring crops and plantations.
A very contradictory situation appeared in 2009, when The Agriculture
Payments and Intervention Agency decided to allocate subventions in agriculture
sector without requesting a crop insurance policy to the beneficiaries. This measure
strongly affected the insurance companies. They subscribed in the first semester of
2009 only 45.5 mil. RON in insurance premium. This represents a decrease with
66% from the recorded level in 2008 (Source: www.1asig.ro).
• This decrease proves once again that many agriculture companies’
managers have a very poor attitude towards protection against different
risks through insurance policies. They expected the Government to pay for
their losses. This is not correct because losses that are covered by the
Government have a double impact on Gross Domestic Product:
• The special expenses increase with the level of compensation paid after a
natural disaster (for example after floods)
The national demands for grain is continuous and the production is compromised,
which means that Romania needs more imports, imports that will affect External
Payment Balance and, in the end, the National Budget
Following that last idea, the specialists estimate that if the losses caused
only by floods, heavy rains and low temperature to agriculture decreased with 10%
the agricultural production, the decrease of the Gross Domestic Product would be
around 0.6% (Source: www.capital.ro).
In order to avoid supplementary pressure on the National Budget, the
companies involved in agriculture sector have the option to prevent themselves
from different risks, by subscribing an insurance policy.
The facultative insurance policies differ from an insurance company to
other. The differences appear at the level of insured risks and at the modality of
calculating the compensations in case of losses. The risks are split into different
categories: calamities (floods, landslide, and earthquake), meteorological
phenomena (windstorms, hails, early autumn frozen, late spring frozen, heavy
rains), fire, specific diseases, parasites and pests.
The insured risks are grouped under different categories and the insurance
premium depends of the coverage level.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development comes to help
agriculture companies giving them subvention for insurance premium paid to
through a facultative insurance policy (source:www.apia.ro):

407
 • There will be a reimbursement of 70% from insurance premium for the
insurance policies that cover unfavorable meteorological phenomena that
may be assimilated to natural disasters, or
• There will be a reimbursement of 50% from insurance premium for the
insurance policies that cover unfavorable meteorological phenomena that
may be assimilated to natural disasters and other losses caused by
meteorological phenomena, crop diseases and pests.

In the moment of loss occurrence, the compensations are determined

through two techniques:
• Some insurance companies pay the compensation taking into account
exactly the physical surface destroyed;
• Some insurance companies pay the compensation taking into account the
level of operational expenses used in order to obtain the destroyed crop;

Table 3. Techniques for Paying the Compensation

Source: Authors own calculation

Elements Data
1. Surface with Crops 310 ha
2. Medium Production Insured 3.000 kg/ha

3. Medium Production Remained 2.460 kg/ha

4. Total Loss percentage 18% = 100 – (2)/(1)*100

6. 1st Technique - Operational Expenses 470.310 Ron
7. Losses 84.656 Ron = 470.310 * 18%
8. Compensation 84.656 - Deductible
nd
10 2 Technique - Insured Sum 576.000 Ron
11 Losses 103.680 = 576.000 * 18%
12 Compensation 103.680 – Deductible

From the above table it can be noticed that the differences between
compensations are important: 19.024 Ron. In order to avoid delicate problems in
the moment of a loss occurrence, at the moment of subscribing the insurance, these
aspects must be known.

408
 4. CONCLUSIONS

The problems that agriculture companies in Romania are facing with –

because of global warming, are serious and may easy generate important financial
losses. In order to avoid these negative aspects, the risk managers of agriculture
companies must develop different strategies. They can protect themselves by
transferring these risks to insurance companies even if this will increase their
operational costs.
Furthermore, these companies must be involved together with Romanian
Government in finding efficient measures to protect themselves against floods – by
renovating the existing dams or building new ones in exposed areas. The National
strategy must be a proactive one: instead of using the 3.5 billion Euros (the sum
spent on floods effect compensation during the last 6 years), an intelligent strategy
would have maintained and built numerous dams during the last decade. According
to the Floods Protection National Program, this program should cost until 2039
almost 12.5 billion Euro – 400 million Euros per year. This means that the cost of
covering the floods effect – almost 600 million Euro per year – are 50% higher
than the costs of building new dams (www.capital.ro).
We appreciate that the faster that measures are taken by the Romanian
Government, the fewer the losses caused by floods are. Also, the managers that use
a proactive attitude against risk transfer will be the successful ones in these
difficult times.
Additionally, worldwide measures must be taken, by each individual
country, in order to reduce pollution and global warming.

REFERENCES

1. *** (2002), Law 381/2002 Privind acordarea despǎgubirilor în caz de calamitǎţi

natural în agriculturǎ 2
2. http://www.apia.org.ro/materiale%20promovare/ajut_prime_asig_08112010.pdf,
accesed on 28.12.2010
3. http://www.1asig.ro , Doronceanu Oleg - Subvenţiile în agriculturǎ, necondţionate
de existenţa asigurǎrii, 19.10.2009
4. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/rou_nc5_resbmit.pdf, accessed on 7.01.2011
5. http://www.capital.ro, Amariei Rǎzvan -Tributul plătit ultimelor cinci inundaţii:
3,5 mld. Euro, 14.07.2010
6. http://climate.nasa.gov/news/index.cfm?NewsID=249, accessed on 15.12.2010
7. http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/figures/mean-surface-temperature-in-
europe, accesed on 18.12.2010
8. http://www.junkscience.com/GMT/compareNCDC.html , accessed on 19.02.2011

409
 RISK WEATHER PHENOMENA IN CLUJ COUNTY
IN JUNE 2010

IRINA BLAGA1

ABSTRACT. – Risk weather phenomena in Cluj county in June 2010.

June, in the Cluj county area, has been a month of extremes, in both heat
and precipitation. The beginning of the month debuted with daily
maximum temperatures close to the normal heat period product and then
gradually heating the air occurred, the maximum temperatures increasing
from day to day, reaching very high values, up 34 °C, by the middle of
the month, when the temperature-humidity index (ITU) reached and
exceeded, in relatively large areas, the critical level of 80. In the second
part of June, the target area was characterized by atmospheric instability
that fostered the development of strong convective structures, which led
to the recording of large amounts of rain from showers and heavy rain,
that were associated with floods and strong winds, which turned into
storms with hail and lightning. For the second half of the month, a
particular case dated 06/21/2010 was analyzed, the day in which the most
destructive effects of the floods, seen as phenomenon hazardous weather
reported by the Inspectorate for Emergency Situations (ISU) in Cluj
County: the death of a person in the Morlaca area, 250 homes flooded in
the cities of Huedin, Morlaca, Sâncraiu, Săcuieu, Călata, Poeni. There
have also been floods in the cities of Turda, Copaceni and Martinesti.
Landslides were recorded in Domosu and Horlacea.

Keywords: ITU, thermal convection, precipitation, floods.

1. INTRODUCTION

The maximum temperatures recorded at the weather stations in the county

of Cluj in the first days of June were close to the normal heat period, a warming of
the air occurred gradually, increasing the maximum temperatures day by day,
reaching values up to 34°C in the middle of the month, when the temperature-
humidity index (ITU) reached and exceeded the critical threshold of 80.
Pronounced instability characterized both Romania and the Cluj county
area in the second half of June, when the precipitation that fell over extended areas
led to the recording of large amounts of rain water from showers and heavy rain,
that were associated with floods and the intensification of the wind, which
transformed into storms with hail and lightning.
Warnings are issued when the ITU index is above 80. The severe
phenomena recorded in the second half of June, required radar monitoring,
1
National Administration of Meteorology Bucharest – CMR Transilvania Nord, Cluj-Napoca,
400213 Cluj- Napoca, Romania, e-mail blaga_irina@yahoo.com

410
observational data provided by the Doppler radars in Bobohalma and Oradea, using
OmniWeatherTrack applications and PUP and monitoring of the satellite images.

2. DATA AND METODES

Data from hourly, daily and monthly meteorological measurements were

used, obtained from meteorological and precipitation stations. Precipitation and
temperature values recorded at all stations in the area were extracted. For the
synoptic analysis, ground level and altitude maps of the standard isobaric surfaces
of 500 and 850 hPa and reanalysis maps were used. Radar data have been
analyzed: Reflectivity, Composite Reflectivity, VIL's, OHP's, THP's, Echo Tops,
Hail Index, Storm Traking Info, Storm Total Rainfall, Satellite imagery and upper
air soundings survey data from Cluj-Napoca.

3. EXCESSIVE HEAT IN THE FIRST HALF OF JUNE

Figure 1. Stations at which the ITU index (with the threshold of 80)
was overcomed on the 11th, 12th and 13th of June 2010

In the beginning of June, during the first four days, the daily maximum
temperatures recorded were lower by 2.5 - 6°C than the normal values (21-22°C)
of the period. Then a heating of air gradually occurred, maximum temperatures
increasing from day to day, reaching at the end of the first decade of June values of
29-31°C, higher than the average daily maximum (23-24°C). Continuing this
increasing trend, at the beginning of the second decade, on 6/13/2010, the
maximum temperatures reached the highest values of June and were within the
range 32-34°C. The highest value of 34°C was recorded in Cluj-Napoca and Dej.
Temperatures of 33°C were recorded in Turda and 32°C in Huedin. Thereafter,
there is a gradual decrease in the maximum temperature, but it is still higher than
normal values (22-24°C). In the third decade of the month, on June 23rd, the
beginning of a cooling period is observed, which lasted until 27th June. Beginning
with 27th June, the maximum temperatures and recorded an increase, getting close
to the normal thermal period (24-25°C). The temperature-humidity index (ITU) has
reached and exceeded the critical threshold of 80 in large areas, on 11th, 12th and

411
13th of June (Figure 1). The maximum air temperatures, at the stations which have
recorded a value greater than the critical threshold of 80 for ITU, were 33-34°C in
Cluj-Napoca, 31-32°C in Huedin, 32-34°C in Dej 33°C and in Turda.

4. ATMOSPHERIC INSTABILITY IN THE 21ST OF JUNE

The events in the second half of June 2010 occurred in the context of
synoptic- scale blocking movement. In the second part of June, the continuance of
an accentuated air instability in our country’s region, the high temperatures, high
humidity and the physical and geographical conditions (extension, shape and
altitude of the relief) favored the development of convective structures and
prompted large amounts of rainfall, exceeding the monthly averages. Thus, the
meteorological and precipitation stations in the county of Cluj, during the month of
June 2010, recorded that the value of the precipitation totaled an amount of water
between 236.6 mm at Belis and 83.5 mm at Salatiu. In relatively large areas the
quantity of water exceeded 100 l / m2.
In the operational forecast of convective phenomena, more traditional
methods are still used to determine the characteristics of air masses, easily used for
establishing the estimative parameters of the degree of instability and the
possibility of producing thunderstorms, strong wind gusts, showers and hail:
Showalter Index, Lifted Index, K Index, Vertical Totals, Cross Totals, CAPE, CIN,
and other similar ones.
The instability index values determined from the soundings survey reflect
the degree of instability in Cluj-Napoca on the 21st of June 2010. The SSI Index
(Showalter Stability Index) is an index used to forecast severe weather. It has a
value of -0.36, indicating a moderate instability. The LI (Lifted Index) has a value
of 1.57 associated with weak instability, with showers. The KI (K Index), which is
used to identify convective environments that produce heavy rain, has a value of
34.10, indicating a probability of occurrence of thunderstorms and non-frontal storms
of 60-79%. The VTI (Vertical Total Index), which is directly related to the vertical
thermal gradient between the 850 and 500 hPa levels, representing the intensity of
vertical transport, turbulent air has values of 26°C, indicating the production of
strong convective storms. The CTI (Cross Total Index), which determines the
contribution of the lower levels to moisture, in an unstable air mass has values of
23°C. The TTI (Total Total Index), another severe weather index, is obtained by
adding CTI and VTI, has values of 49.30, indicating the production of severe storms.
The CAPE Index (Potential Energy Available for Convection) has small values,
compared with an empirical threshold of 1000 J/kg, required by moderate
instability. The CIN Index (Convective Inhibition) has values of -116.48 (Figure 2).
Numerical models, even those with fine resolution do not always manage
to capture the local characteristics specific to the region. In the area of interest
several convective cells have developed, starting in the morning. The presence on
their direction of travel of the lakes Beliş, Fântânele and Tarniţa, formed an
additional moisture factor that contributed to the increase of the convection.

412
 Figure 2. Upper Air Sounding on 21st of June 2010, (00 UTC) at Cluj-Napoca

5. RADAR ANALYSES

All nowcasting warnings were issued for Cluj county were based on data
and radar images, received from the WSR98D radar from Oradea and Bobohalma,
using OmniWeatherTrack and PUP applications, which allow the display on the
screen the radar products. On the 21st of June 2010, several convective cells were
developed, initially in the western part of the county, then in the eastern part. Base
reflectivity shows the intensity of reflectivity for each of the four angles of
elevation (height) of the volume, while the composite reflectivity shows the highest
intensity on a vertical column, regardless of the height of storms. The first warning
was issued for the county of Cluj at 8:45 UTC, for Huedin area. For the 40 dBZ
reflectivity threshold, it was used as a marker to identify areas where the deep
convection can be triggered, and the 50 dBZ threshold was used to locate areas
with mature thunderstorms, which could produce severe weather phenomena.

Fig. 3. Base reflectivity, at 8:47 Fig. 4. Composite reflectivity, at 11:34

413
 Intense convective activity is observed in the north-west part of the county,
with up to 60dBZ reflectivity near the city of Huedin. At 8:47 UTC the reflectivity
was approximately 55 dBZ at Huedin according to the Bobohalma radar estimates
(Figure 3), then at 11:34 the reflectivity composite reached 65dBZ according to the
Oradea radar estimates (Figure 4).
For the OHP products (1 hour precipitation) which shows the horizontal
distribution of rainfall expected over a period of one hour and the THP (3 hour
precipitation) which shows the horizontal distribution of rainfall for a period of
three hours, the threshold of 25 mm and 45 mm were used as lower limits for the
accumulation of amounts of precipitation that can cause damages. At 9:38, the
OHP product, near the city of Huedin had maximum rainfall amounts of up to
76.20 mm (Figure 5). The THP product, at 12.54, estimates for three hours
maximum values of rainfall of 101.60 mm (Figure 6).

Figure 5. OHP, at 9:38 UTC Figure 6. THP, at 12:54 UTC

For the VIL (Vertical Integrated Liquid), the estimation of liquid water
contained in a storm, the value of 25 kg/m2 was used as the threshold for potential
production of large quantities of precipitation. VIL is also used for the probability
of the creation of hail and detecting the presence hail. For values greater than 20
kg/m2, it can be associated with severe hail. At 9:44 UTC, near the city of Huedin,
the radar at Oradea estimated that the liquid water contained in the storm had
values of 35-40 kg/m2 and radar estimates of the presence and size of hail stone in
the Hail Index radar product, show the presence of hail at 9:32, near Huedin, a fact
confirmed by observations at the meteorological station, where the presence of
small hail was reported.
The amounts of water recorded at the meteorological and precipitation
stations for which warnings were issued (32 l/m2 at Huedin between the hours of
12:35 p.m. to 1:35 p.m. OVR, 27.6 l/m2 at Belis from 1:00 p.m. to 2:00 p.m. OVR,
at Călata between 11:30 a.m. to 1:30 p.m. OVR - 33.6 l/m2 and between 1:30 p.m.
to 3:30 p.m. OVR - 39.1 l/m2), confirmed the predicted precipitation.
Due to the intense and sustained convective activity, the temperature at
Huedin did not exceed the maximum 22ºC.
During the afternoon and evening, the convective activity took place in the
eastern part of the county of Cluj, on a NW-SE path. Intense convective activity is

414
observed in the extreme east of the county, with reflectivity up to 65dBZ near the
town of Turda. The field of reflectivity remaining high at several successive radar
scans.
Using the cumulative rainfall image (Storm Total Rainfall), the Bobohalma
radar can estimate the evolution of rainfall in the city of Huedin. In the early hours
of the 21st of June 2010, at 00:01 UTC, the precipitation amount was of 152.4 l/m2
(Figure 7), resulting from the aggregation of rainfall beginning with the date of the
9th of June 2010, at 7:40 UTC until the 21st of June 2010, at 00:01 hours UTC. At
the end of the day, at 11:46 p.m. UTC, the quantity of water fallen in the same
place were 381.0 l/m2 (Figure 8). For the same product (Storm Total Rainfall) of
the Oradea radar, the beginning of the interval is the 2nd of June 2010, at 10:07
p.m., and by the end of the 21st of June 2010, at 11:55 p.m. UTC, the same amount
of 381.0 l/m2 is observed in area Huedin (Figure 9).
For the 21st of June, the radar estimates of the total quantities of water from
rainfall fallen in Huedin is 228.6 litters per square meter.

Figure 7. STR Bobohalma Figure 8. STR Figure 9. STR Oradea

radar - 21.06.2010, at Bobohalma radar - radar – 21.06.2010, at 11.55
00:01 UTC 21.06.2010, at 11:46 p.m p.m UTC

In this context, on the 21st of June 2010 the weather was generally
unstable. The sky was cloudy and on extended areas it rained, accompanied by
lightning, short-term strong winds (47 km / h in Turda, and in the high mountain
areas, the wind was up to 72 km / h at the Vlădeasa Peak, 1800). Isolated small-
sized hail was reported at Huedin. In small areas were recorded torrential rains.
The maximum amount of water that has fallen was 81.0 l/m2 at Belis. Maximum
temperatures ranged from 22ºC at Huedin and 28°C at Dej and the minimum were
between 14ºC at Huedin and 18ºC at Dej. There were 8 issued nowcasting
warnings for immediate dangerous weather for Cluj county.
In many places, the storms caused damage and casualties among the
population. There was a death of a 21 years old man in Morlaca (Cluj County),
after the car he was in was taken by elevated waters of the Tibat and Domoş
streams. From the ISU reports: in the towns of Huedin, Morlaca, Sancraiu,
Sacuieu, Călata, Poeni in the Cluj County, 250 households were flooded, and the E
60 highway was covered with water. There have been floods in Turda, Măartineşti
and Copăceni. All the events were reflected in the local press (Figure 10).

415
 Figure 10. Pictures from the local press, on 21st iunie, in the town of Huedin (Cluj)

6. CONCLUSIONS
June 2010 was analyzed in a synoptic and mesoscale context, highlighting
the differences between the first half of the month and the second half.
In early June, continuing its upward trend in the 13th of June 2010,
maximum temperatures reached the highest values in of the month and ranging
between 32-34°C. The highest, 34°C, was recorded in Cluj-Napoca and Dej.
From the 11th of June 2010 until the 13th of June, heat warnings for thermal
discomfort were issued, when temperature-humidity index (ITU) has reached and
exceeded the critical threshold value of 80, on extended areas.
In the second part of the month, the atmospheric instability was influenced
by the development of convective structures related to the altitude nuclei of cut-off
type and the presence of several frontal systems that have crossed our country. The
presence of the low pressure altitude centers and warm, moisture air from the lower
levels were the basic ingredients of the synoptic scale increase. Instability
manifested itself during the day and evening hours, when showers fell, including
lightning, strong wind, which also transformed into squall line. On small areas,
rains had torrential character and hail fell. The important factor that contributed to
the flooding of 21st June 2010 was the low mouvement over long periods of time of
convective cores in the same place.
Comparing the amounts of precipitation that fell in June 2010 with
maximum rainfall amounts over time, during this month it was found that at
Huedin, where the effects of precipitation were the strongest, 218.8 mm/month
were recorded, compared to 99.0 mm, standard Climatic norm of June. The sum of
precipitation fallen in June 2010 is close to the absolute maximum of June: 246.3
mm / month in year 2009.
High values of the quantities of precipitation in June 2010 (compared to
the climatic normal) were recorded at Turda 172.6 mm (77.9 mm), Cluj-Napoca
166.8 mm (85.9 mm) and Dej 134 mm (87.0 mm).
In the case presented in detail for the second half of June, the rain-affected
areas where the degree of organization of convection was very strong, constituting
an essential part of the registration of large amount of precipitation, were analyzed.
On the 21st of June, at the Huedin meteorological station 54.4 mm/24 hours
were recorded, which is 24.5% of the total monthly rainfall, and at the Belis
precipitation station 81.0 mm/24 hours were recorded, representing 34.23% of the
monthly rainfall for June 2010.

416
 On the 21st of June, the most intense effects of rainfall in June were
recorded: one death, in Morlaca; 250 flooded households in Huedin, Morlaca,
Sâncraiu, Săcuieu, Călata, Poeni; been floods in the city of Turda, Copăceni and
Mărtineşti; landslides were recorded in Domosu and Horlacea.
The ISU report on flood protection, recorded that for June 2010, rainfall
exceeded the critical threshold, activating the run-off of slopes, torrent activation,
formation of floodwater on the side and main courses, enabling the bank erosion
and landslides, both in the city, and in the terrain. These phenomena have led to the
recording of two victims in the county of Cluj (on 21st and 22nd June) and it
produced significant damage

REFERENCES

1. Bogdan O., Niculescu E., (1999): Riscuri climatice din România. Acdemia
Română, Institutul de Geografie, Bucureşti, 280 p.
2. Bordei E.I., (1983): Rolul lanţului alpino-carpatic în evoluţia ciclonilor
mediteraneeni. Editura Academiei, Bucureşti, 136 p.
3. Busuioc A., Dumitrscu A., Soare E., Orozan A.,(2007): Summer anomalies in
2007 in the context of extremly hot and dry summer in Romania. Romanian
Journal of Meteorology, Vol 9, Nr 1-2, 2007 (ISSN 1223-1118).
4. Cazacioc L.(2007): Spatial and temporal variability of extreme daily precipitation
amounts in Romania. Romanian Journal of Meteorology, Vol 9, Nr 1-2, 2007.
5. Forland E., J., Andersson H., Drebs I., Hanssen-Bauer I., Vedin H., and Tveito O.,
E., (1998): Trends in maximum 1-day precipitation in the Nordic Region. DNMI -
Report 14/98 KLIMA, 55 p.
6. Osborn T., J., Hulme M., Jones P.,D., and Basnett T., (1999): Observed trends in
the daily intensity of the United Kingdom precipitation. International Journal of
Climatology, 20, 347-364.
7. Topor N., (1964): Ani ploioşi şi secetoşi. CSA, Institutul Meteorologic.
8. www.wetterzentrale.de
9. www.estofex.org
10. www.cdc.noaa.gov/cdc/data.ncep.reanalysis.html

417
 STUDY OF THE SYNOPTIC SITUATION
THAT FAVOR THE FREEZING RAIN
IN NORTHWESTERN TRANSYLVANIA

NATALIA URBAN 1

Abstract. - Study of the synoptic situations that favor the freezing rain in
Northwestern Transylvania. The paper discusses a study on the “freezing rain”
and the spatio-temporal distribution of days with freezing rain in the northwestern
region of Transylvania. For this study we have analyzed statistical data from 12
meteorological stations in the counties of northwestern Transylvania. The period
for which the analysis is done is 36 years (1972-2008). There was a statistical
processing of days with ice, analyzing the average number of monthly and annual
distribution of areas with freezing rain and analyzing the thickness of the ice
deposit, and also looking at the synoptic situation where was freezing rain on the
relatively large spaces in the area studied. For this purpose we used data averaged
NCEP-NCAR reanalysis. For an average circulation of the troposphere, since the
winter air masses have a lower vertical development, geopotential surfaces were
used at 700 hPa. To determine the average barrel near the ground rules have been
used geopotential fields at 1000 hPa and the surface pressure field. Field analysis
was also done at ground level pressure and temperature throughout the air column.
The analysis of synoptic situation shows that this phenomenon occurs in most
cases when there is a mass of hot air entering a cooler air mass and there is a
corresponding trough for the one at the ground, favor the phenomenon on a wider
range of northwest area.
Keywords: freezing rain, thermal inversion, Northwestern Transylvania

1. INTRODUCTION
In operational meteorology there is an interest for the present diagnosis and
prognosis of severe weather of the cool season. Knowledge and understanding of the
characteristics of the circulation, which promotes the freezing rain, has an important
role in determining the areas where this phenomenon may occur frequently, and in
the assessment of early onset. Also, regional climatology and local knowledge is
another important factor in determining the extreme characteristics.
« The glazed frost is a weather phenomenon which consists in depositing
an ice layer of dense, matte or transparent, which appears on the ground and
objects, especially on the sunny side wind. This occurs due to freezing of water
droplets falling on a highly cooled surface. The glazed frost occurs most frequently
at temperatures between 0 and -3°C and is one of the most dangerous weather
phenomena, having a negative impact on all transport » (Clima României, Editura
Academiei Române, p. 340-341)

1
„Center Regional Meteorological North Transylvania, Cluj-Napoca, Romania,
e-mail: natalia_urban@yahoo.com

418
 2. DATA AND METHODS
The present paperwork discuss about the freezing rain, and the spatio-
temporal distribution of days with glazed frost in Northwestern Romania. For this
study we have analyzed statistical data recorded in 12 meteorological stations in
the counties of Bistriţa-Nasaud, Cluj, Maramureş, Satu Mare and Sălaj. The data
were available for 36 years (1972-2008). In order to process the database were used
the computing of Microsoft Excel progam, upon which were calculated sums,
monthly average and annual average. Also, using the graphic representation
features of Matlab program, version 6.0, was made the map of spatial distribution
for cases with freezing rain in the analyzed period.

3. RESULTS
Analyzing the average number of monthly and annual distribution of areas
with freezing rain and thickness of the ice deposit we could observe the following
issues: in terms of distribution areas, most days with freezing rain have been
recorded at weather stations Dej (99 cases) and Cluj-Napoca (60 cases) (Fig.1).
The two stations are located in the corridor Somes, an area known as the “Gate of
Somes” the penetration of more humid western air masses.

Fig. 1. A number of cases with freezing rain. Source: CMR archive data processed
in North Transylvania

After statistical processing of the number of days with freezing rain several
features may be revealed. Thus, analyzing the annual and monthly average number
of days with glazed frost was found that, generally the month with more days of
freezing rain is January, with 177 cases with freezing rain, followed by December,
with 168 cases with freezing rain, and the year with the highest frequency of
occurrence of this extremely dangerous phenomenon was 1989, with 32 cases,
followed by the years 1996 and 1997, with 27 cases each.

419
 177
180 168
160

140

120

100

80
59
60

40
25
20
1
0
IAN FEB SEPT NOV DEC

Fig. 2. The frequency of freezing rain during 1972-2008

Further analysis was done in terms of the thickness of the ice on the
conductors, there were 426 cases between 1-10 mm diameter, 5 cases between 11 to
20 mm in diameter and in 6 cases the diameter on the conductors was larger than 20 mm.

3.1. Synoptic analysis

Analyzing all the cases with freezing rain during 1972-2008, in terms of
temperature in which freezing rain began submitting the highest occurrence is for
air temperatures between -5 and -2°C, while the temperature at which the
phenomenon has ended, the highest frequency was for temperatures between 0 and
1°C (table 1).

Table 1. The thermal range of appearance for cases with freezing rain
in indentical synoptic situations

Thermal inteval (°C) Number of cases

With freezing rain Without freezing rain
-2<T≤-1 129 41
-1<T<0 123 89
0≥T≥1 21 186
T>1 2 51
-5<T≤ -2 134 56
T≤-5 23 11

3.1.1. The 16th of January 1990; 22-23rd of December 1995

On 15th of January at the 850 hPa level, the temperature in the northwest
was -5°C, and in the next two days has reached 2°C. The temperature shows that
the average orientation of a mass penetration indicates warm air mass over a cold
air mass, the geopotential isopleths and the 500 hPa level was increasing. On the
previous day of glazed frost occurrence day, Romania has been under the influence

420
of an anticyclone field, and the next day the Northwest part of the country has
been under the influence of a cyclone off Icelandic trough.

421
 Fig. 3. Review media and pressure field average 700 hPa geopotential,
850 hPa temperature and sea level pressure

3.1.2 The 3rd of December 1993; 21st of January 1997

During the day of 2nd of December, -2°C temperature was recorded at 850
hPa level, following that over our country a warm air mass advanced, so the
temperature have reached around 0°C. This thermal heating took place on the
whole column. The surface is under the influence of a relatively high pressure field
and the geopotential in altitude is increasing.

422
 Fig. 4. Review media and pressure field average 700 hPa geopotential
and sea level pressure

After analyzing the cases of freezing rain that took place on relatively large
areas in the Northwest, in the period 1972-2008, we have gotten a few situation:

Table 2. Synoptic situations for days with freezing rain

Date Synoptic analysis

2-3/12/1985 Field anticyclone on the ground, back elevation, and takes of warm air
entering a cooler air mass.
16/01/1990 Anticyclone over the ground field, entering a cyclone in trough elevation
22- Icelandic cyclone and takes off from a warm air mass entering a cooler air
23/12/1995 mass.
3/12/1993 Field anticyclone ground, geopotential slight increases in altitude and takes
21/01/1997 a load of warm air entering a cooler air mass.
28-31/12/ Trough elevation short wave cyclone ground and take a cooled air mass
2002 over a warmer table.
6/12/2003
18/12/ 2004 On the ground cyclone in trough elevation and penetration of cold air
masses over a warmer table.

From the sounding data recorded at Cluj-Napoca the heights of 0 and -

10°C isotherms were extracted for cases where we had freezing rain on relatively
large areas. In all cases there was thermal inversion near the ground level , this also
promoting the freezing rain.

423
 Table 3. Isotherms height of 0 and -10°C and height of thermal inversion

Date Isotherm de 0°C (m) Isotherm de -10°C (m)

2-3/12/1985 400 3000
16/01/1990 600 3500
3/12/1993 400 3000
22-23/12/1995 400 3800
21/01/1997 400 3500
28-31/12/2002 and 6/12/2003 No data No data
18/12/2004 400 3700

4. CONCLUSIONS
The month with the highest frequency in occurence of freezing rain is
January and the year with the highest frequency in occurrence of freezing rain was
1989, with 32 cases of freezing rain. The temperature with the highest frequency of
occurence of freezing rain is between -5 and -2°C.
Synoptic analysis of the situation where we had the largest expanse of
freezing rain which occurred in the most of the cases shows that it take place when
a warm air mass enter over a cold air mass. On the other side, there is a trough
separated from the cyclone with corresponding ground Icelandic phenomenon
favors a wider area in the Northwest, this is occurring at a rate of 62.5% from the
cases. Freezing rain has been favorised by the existing thermal inversion at the
ground level in most of the cases, the isotherm of 0°C being close to the ground
level, at 400/600 m, and the level of -10°C at 3000/3800m.

REFERENCES

1. Natalia A. Bezrukova, Richard K. Jeck, Marat F. Khalili, Ludmila S. Minina,

Alexander Ya. Naumov, Evgeny A. Stulov (2006), Some statistics of freezing
precipitation and rime for the territory of the former USSR from ground-based
weather observations, Atmospheric Research, 82,1-2,p.203-221.
2. John Cortinas Jr., (2000), A Climatology of Freezing Rain in the Great Lakes
Region of North America, Monthly Weather Review, 128, p. 3574-3588.
3. Tamara G. Houston, Stanley A. Changnon, (2002), Freezing Rain Events in the
United States, Journal of Appled Meteorology, 42, p. 1497-1513.
4. R. Wood, (2005): Drizzle in Stratiform Boundary Layer Clouds. Part I: Vertical
and Horizontal Structure, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 62 p. 3011-3033.
5. R. Wood, (2005): Drizzle in Stratiform Boundary Layer Clouds. Part II:
Microphysical Aspects, Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 62 p. 3034-3050.
6. *** (1972-2008), Arhiva Administraţiei Naţionale de Meteorologie, Bucureşti
7. *** (2008), Clima României, Editura Academiei Române, p. 340-341
8. http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/gridded/data.ncep.reanalysis.html accesed on
August, 12, 2010
9. http://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab/

424
 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES

T.M. CORNEA1, M. DIMA1, D. ROCA1

ABSTRACT. – Climate change impacts on water resources – The most recent

scientific assessment by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
[6] concludes that, since the late 19th century, anthropogenic induced emissions of
greenhouse gases have contributed to an increase in global surface temperatures of
about 0.3 to 0.6o C. Based on the IPCC’s scenario of future greenhouse gas
emissions and aerosols a further increase of 2o C is expected by the year 2100.
Plants, animals, natural and managed ecosystems, and human settlements are
susceptible to variations in the storage, fluxes, and quality of water and sensitive to
climate change. From urban and agricultural water supplies to flood management
and aquatic ecosystem protection, global warming is affecting all aspects of water
resource management. Rising temperatures, loss of snowpack, escalating size and
frequency of flood events, and rising sea levels are just some of the impacts of
climate change that have broad implications for the management of water
resources. With robust scientific evidence showing that human-induced climate
change is occurring, it is critical to understand how water quantity and quality
might be affected. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the environmental risks
caused by climate anomalies on water resources, to examine the negative impacts
of a greenhouse warming on the supply and demand for water and the resulting
socio-economic implications.

Keywords: climate change, environmental risk, water resources, GHG.

1. INTRODUCTION

The rapid changes in the environment are caused by rising world population,
the growth rate of consumption of resources by human society and by technology
changes. The most important component of global change is climate modification
due to the amplification of the natural greenhouse effect, caused by anthropogenic
emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), which will have an important impact on the
environment and on social-economical activities.
The present climate change felt more strongly in recent years in Romania
and all over the world represents the trigger of an endless chain of consequences
that affects all four environment components, the social-economic activities and
quality of life.
Currently, the dominant theory concerning the causes that led to present
climate change lies with the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), which argues that global warming had resulted from increasing
concentrations of anthropogenic GHG in the twentieth century.

1
”Gheorghe Asachi” University, Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Geodesy and Environmental Engineering,
700050 Iasi, Romania, e-mail: corneateodoramanuela@yahoo.com

425
 The conclusions of the Global Environmental Change“The Threat to
Human Health”, published by the World Watch Institute and United Nations
Foundation [2] asserts that the changes the are taking place in the climate and
ecosystems threaten the very foundations of human health (access to adequate food
resources, clean air, clean water and safe housing) and are, at this point, the biggest
challenge of the XXI century, with regard to public health.

2. THE IMPACTS AND POSSIBLE SCENARIOS OF CLIMATE

CHANGE

The effects of climate change are already being felt, with impacts across
bioceonosis spaces, human life and many economic sectors. While there will clearly
be some gains from climate change, most of the impacts will be negative, and gains
and losses will not be evenly distributed. [3]

Table 1.The impact of climate change on critical areas[3]

Water Rising global temperatures will lead to an intensification of the hydrological cycle,
resulting in dryer dry seasons and wetter rainy seasons, heightened risks of more
extreme and frequent floods and drought with significant impacts on the availabi-
lity of water, as well as the quality and quantity of water that is available and
accessible. Melting glaciers will increase flood risk during the rainy season, and
strongly reduce dry-season water supplies to one-sixth of the World’s population.
Agriculture Declining crop yields are likely to leave hundreds of millions without the ability
to produce or purchase sufficient food supplies, especially in Africa. Agriculture
in some northern regions should increase in productivity due to a rise in
temperatures, but will decline at higher levels of temperature change.
Ecosystems Ecosystems may shift – forests, land types and plant species will dieback in
some areas as temperatures rise, but increase in other areas. In many cases, the
pace of change in temperature may be too fast for ecosystems to adjust, resulting
in the loss of forests and species.
Health Higher temperatures expand the range of some dangerous diseases, such as
malaria, which already kills one million people annually, most of whom are
children in the developing world. Heat waves associated with climate change,
and increases in water borne diseases, will result in increased health problems.
Coastlines Melting ice and thermal expansion of oceans are the key factors driving sea
level rise. In addition to exposing coastlines, where the majority of the human
population lives, to greater erosion and flooding pressures, rising sea levels will
also lead to salt water contamination of groundwater supplies, threatening the
quality and quantity of freshwater access to large percentages of the population.

In Romania, projections of global scenarios, namely the period 1991-2099

compared to 1961-1990, shows a rising average of air temperature of about 2° C in
winter and 3.5 - 4.3° C in summer season (3.5° C in northern, 4.3° C in southern
territory).

426
 In terms of precipitation changes are significant; deficits during summer
surpluses in winter, light surpluses in the north-west part and deficits in south-
western regions of our country.
In the twentieth century, the effects of global warming reveals increase in
mean annual temperature of 0.3° C, almost in the entire country, being more
pronounced in southern and eastern areas. In terms of seasonality, there have been
significant warming during winter and summer (the most pronounced being
recorded in Bucharest-Filaret, with 1.9° C), and cooling during autumn more
significant in the western regions of the country. [7]

3. CURRENT IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER

RESOURCES IN ROMANIA

Observations and measurements made in the world and in Romania on

some climatic parameters and the effects of climate on water resources show
certain signs that support the hypothesis of climate change. Among the signals
produced in Romania, worthy of consideration, are [7]:
- Over the last 100 years has been proved the global warming trend in
Romania, with the largest increases of up to 0.4° C in industrial areas;
- Aridity phenomenon of climate and increased frequency of occurrence of
extreme values of temperature and precipitation:
- Record of extreme temperatures in Romania: 44.5o C at Râmnicelu
(10.08.1951), 44,3o C at Calafat (24.07.2007);
- Intense rain falling on the small areas that produce catastrophic effects:
(e.g. 120 mm/m2 rain that fell in 40 minutes near Buzau, Cuculeasa, June 22 1999
and 285 mm/m2 rain that fell in 30 hours in Bucharest 21-22 September 2005,
which represents 60% of annual rainfall);
The emergence of non-specific weather climate in Romania (the Făcăieni
tornado);
Increased frequency of catastrophic floods
Chroniclers recorded regularly over time, catastrophic floods: 10
the sixteenth century, 19 in the seventeenth century, 26 in the eighteenth century,
28 in the nineteenth century and 42 in the twentieth century.
Six catastrophic floods occurred in Romania in 2005 with a probability of
producing between 1% and 0.5%: in April, Timiş and Bega river; June, Argeş,
Vedea and Olt river, July, lower Siret and Trotuş basins, August, higher Siret
basin; September Ialomiţa river, Damboviţa and coastal area, December, basins of
Banat area.
Increase of the maximum annual flow of the Danube. In the last 166 years is
a tendency to increase the maximum flow at Baziaş with 1200 m3/s due, mainly, to
the climate changing and of impoundment on upstream Danube and its tributaries.
Increase by 34 cm of sea level during 1860–2004.

427
 4. THE QUANTITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ON EARTH

For decades there have been made great efforts to determine the amount
and distribution of water. The total amount of water present on our planet is
estimated at about 1.4 billion cubic kilometers. Estimates suggest more accurate
figure of 1357.506 x 1015m3 [11].
Europe's water resources is estimated at 1015 m3 groundwater, 2580 x 109
m surface water (131 x 109 m3 in rivers, 2027 x 109 m3 natural lakes, 422 x 109
3

m3 in artificial reservoirs) and 4090 x 109 m3 in glaciers. Average flow (runoff =

precipitation minus soil absorption and evaporation) is 304 mm/year, estimated
about 3100 x 109 m3 for a territory of 10.2 million km2.
Compared to the European population (680 million inhabitants), this is
theoretically 4560 m3/capita/year at a current total capture of 700 m3/capita/year.
[7]. Existing water distribution in Europe is uneven. Northern European countries
have per capita, 8.6 times more resources than others. It is estimated that close to
urban centers in all European countries except Ireland, surface and groundwater
resources are overexploited.
Compared with the rest of Europe, Romania is a country with limited water
resources. Despite the completion of many reservoirs, the volume of surface water
is modest with relatively small rivers flow.
In figures, Romania's total water resources are estimated at 40 x 109
m /year, of which only 5 x 109 m3 in rivers per year and 3 x 109 m3/year of
3

groundwater. The hydro potential is approximated at 1750 m3/inhabitant/year

comparing the European average which is 4800 m3/inhabitant/year.

5. WATER NEEDS OF HUMAN SOCIETY

Ensuring adequate public water is a problem everywhere, although in

principle it is a declared priority over other needs for water (industry, agriculture,
etc.). Water consumption has continuously increased worldwide three times since
1950 and the definitive loss of surface and groundwater has increased more than
sevenfold in the last century.
Thus in 1980 the water consumption per capita was 1980 m3 in the U.S.,
1172 in Canada, 962 in Egypt, 946 in Finland, 836 in Belgium, 460 in China, 423
in Poland, only 60 in Malta, in 1990, industrial water consumption reached 250
million tons for iron and steel industry, 30 million tons of aluminum industry, 21
million tons for chemical fertilizer industry, 14 million tons for food industry, 47
million tons for pulp and paper industry, 50 million tons for textile industry, 75
million tons of oil refining industry, 15 million tons in other industries, a total of
over 500 million tons of water.[8]
In Europe, water use by category of use is very different from one country
to another. Thus, in Germany, Belgium, Finland, Lithuania, over 80% of
abstraction is used in industry, in Greece, Italy, Denmark, Spain, the industry
consumes less than 30%.

428
 In Romania, water use is very diverse, with a number of peculiarities: price
is still very low, with low consumption efficiency.

Table 2. Development of Water requirements in Romania[6]

YEAR WATER DEMAND IRRETRIEVABLE

[m3/an] [billions m3/an]
1975 14.4 9.7
1980 22.4 15.3
1990 35 25.6
2000-2010 46 36

5. SOURCES AND SITUATION OF ENSURE NECESSARY

WATER SUPPLY

Specific water availability of the continents (in cubic meters/per year) of

water that fall on 1 km2 of area and per one person is presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Renewable water resources and water availability by continents [9]

Continent/ Population, Water resources, Potential water

Area, [billions.km2 ] billions km3/year availability,
1000m3/year
Average Max Min per 1km2 per capita
Europe [10.46] 685 2900 3410 2254 277 4.23
America N [24.3] 453 7890 8917 6895 324 17.4
Africa [30.1] 708 4050 5082 3073 134 5.72
Asia [43.5] 3445 13510 15008 11800 311 3.92
America S [17.9] 315 12030 14350 10320 672 38.2
Australia and Oceania 28.7 2404 2880 1891 269 83.7
[8.95]
The World [135] 5633 42785 44751 39775 317 7.60

Due to a rapid Earth’s population growth in the last decades the potential
water availability of Earth’s population decreased from 12.9 down to 7.6 thousand
m3 per year/person. The greatest reduction of population water supply took place in
Africa (by 2.8 times), Asia (by two times), and South America (by 1.7 times), and
only with 16% per Europe.

429
 On Figure 1 the specific water availability (thousand m3 per year per
capita) of every region is designated with shading by the following gradations: < 1
catastrophically low; 1.1 - 2.0 very low; 2.1 - 5.0 low; 5.1 - 10 average; 10.1 - 20
high; > 20 very high.[7]

Fig. 1. The specific water availability (m3/year/capita) around the world [8]

Table 4 shows the dynamics of water use by the continents for the current
century and a forecast till 2025 obtained on the basis of the above initial data and
methodological approaches.

Table 4. Dynamics of water use in the World by continents (km3/year) [9]

Continent Assessment Forecast

1900 1950 1990 1995 2000 2010 2025
Europe 37.5 136 482 455 463 535 559
13.8 50.5 198 189 197 234 256
America N 69.6 287 653 686 705 744 786
29.2 104 221 237 243 255 269
Africa 40.7 55.8 203 219 235 275 337
27.5 37.8 150 160 170 191 220
Asia 414 843 2114 2231 2357 2628 3254
249 540 1315 1381 1458 1593 1876
America S 15.1 49.3 152 167 182 213 260
10.8 31.7 81.9 89.4 96.0 106 120
Australia/ 1.60 10.4 28.5 30.4 32.5 35.7 39.5
Oceania 0.58 5.04 16.4 17.5 18.7 20.4 22.3
Total 579 1382 3633 3788 3973 4431 5235
331 768 1982 2074 2182 2399 2764

Note: First line - water note: withdrawal, second - water consumption

430
 To see more clearly the distribution of specific water availability values by
natural-economic regions of the world, it is presented on global charts for 1950,
1995, and 2025.

6. THE IMPACT OF WATER ISSUES ON HUMANS LIFE

Climate change is one of the major challenges of our century - a complex

area in which we should improve our knowledge and understanding for taking
immediate and correct action to adapt to future climate conditions.
Drought (excessive lowering of the groundwater) and desertification
(reduction of soil surface covered with vegetation and considerable depletion and
soil erosion) is, as pollution, the second biggest problem facing the world, affecting
all regions of the globe.
Worldwide, 3.6 billion hectares of the 5.2 billion hectares of arable land, is
prone to drought. Annually, desertification is expanding at 50 000 hectares of land
in the world. Desertification, present in over 110 countries, is affecting
approximately 1 billion people and it’s causing annual damage of 42 billion
dollars. [9]
Drought and desertification affect sustainable development through
interrelated social problems that it generates and enhances: reducing water
supplies, the potential for food production, hence food security of the population,
poverty as the worst dysfunction in the areas affected by these phenomena and
deteriorating health due to inadequate food consumption, resulting in anemia and
malnutrition.
In Romania there is a clear trend of intensification and extension of
droughts and desertification of natural causes, but also from anthropogenic causes
(deforestation, destruction of irrigation systems, etc). Of the 14.7 million hectares
of farmland, about 7 million hectares (48%) are affected by drought for long
periods in consecutive years. [10] Currently in our country, the phenomenon of
desertification manifests on approx. 350 000 hectares. Some experts say that unless
action is taken in time, it is likely that the population in southern Romania is forced
to migrate over the next two decades, in the northern areas.
The most affected areas are south and south-west of Oltenia, the south-east
of Banat, southern Moldova (sandy area of Hanul Conachi) and Dobrogea.
In extremely dry years, the phenomenon of drought may comprise almost the entire
territory of our country, as happened in more recent years, 2000 and 2003. Large
precipitation deficits occurred in 1907, 1924, 1928, 1934, 1945, 1946, 1948, 1953,
1982, 1983, 1992, 1993 and more recently, in recent years, namely, 2000 2001,
2002 and 2003. [2]
Floods are the most destructive natural phenomenon of high frequency
worldwide. Annually, floods occur on Earth more than 20 000 deaths and 100
million people are affected, to varying extents, the consequences of this
phenomenon.

431
 In Europe, flooding is also the most common type of natural disaster. Floods
have caused about 43% of all natural disasters during 1998-2002, when there were
approx. 100 serious floods, which caused about 700 deaths, displacement of about
half a million people, economic losses of at least 25 billion, about 1.5% of Europe's
population being affected. The European countries that were hardest hit frequent
floods in recent years include United Kingdom, Romania, and Germany etc [7].
Flood risk map shows that most of our country is vulnerable to this type of
disaster. Areas most at risk are located, particularly in basins of large rivers (Mureş,
Someş, Criş, upper Olt, Siret), in areas along the Danube and its Delta as well as
smaller rivers in central part of Moldova, which regularly suffers the consequences
of flooding. [4]
For Romania, meteorologist’s studies indicate an increase in mean annual
temperature of 0.5o C per country in the last century, with some differences by
region. A more pronounced warming (0.8o C) was observed in south and southeast,
where the average annual temperature reached 11oC.[5]
The population of Romania was confronted with large eco-climatic special
events over the past two decades, but it seems that they have become more frequent
after 2000: heat and drought (2003, 2005 and 2007), catastrophic rainfall and floods
(in 2005 and 2006), extreme weather phenomena (tornado type, in 2002), and not at
least the changing of the main features of seasons.
Year 2007, for example, was the warmest of the last 107 years in Romania,
with maximum over 44o C and greater persistence of hot days.

7. CONCLUSION

Climate change - a phenomenon clearly and widely recognized by

scientists - generate heated arguments around explaining its causes, as recognition
of one or other potential causes involve incurring huge costs for some operators.
Climate changes can lead to robust growth in poverty and undermine
sustainable development, especially in less developed countries. Efforts to mitigate
the effects of global climate change can strengthen the prospects for global
development partly by reducing the risk of negative impact of climate change.
Global efforts against climate change have been initiated over 20 years ago
(1988), when it was established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in
the UN, that assesses the risks of climate change induced by these potential effects
and options for adaptation and climate mitigation.
Available water amount is 1500m3 per capita and it is expected to decline
to 1000 m3 in 2050 as a result of population growth and impact of climate change.
In this study the authors evaluate global climate change and its impact on
world’s water resources.

432
 REFERENCES

1. Cismaru, C., Gabor, V., Bartha, I., Scripcariu, D.,(2004), Gestiunea secetelor,
Performantica Editor
2. ***(2009), Global Environmental Change: The Threat to Human Health,
published by Worldwatch Institute and United Nations Foundation (Myers, 2009)
3. Holmes. J. (2007) “Climate change and water resources”, WaterAid 288701, May
2007
4. Ianculescu M., (2010), Forums dedicated to protecting and developing forests in
Romania, Revista Padurilor 1886, Nr 1, 2010
5. Stanciu, M., Chiriac, D., Humă, C. (2010), Impactul schimărilor ecoclimatice
recente asupra calităţii vieţii, CALITATEA VIEŢII, XXI, No 3–4, 2010, p. 238–
250
6. ***(2008), Impacturi ale schimbarilor climatice in Europa- 2008. Evaluare pe
baza de indicatori, AEM Report NO. 4/2008 AEM
7. ***(2007), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) , available online
at: http://www.ipcc.ch
8. ***(2006), Stern review- The economics of climate change, Chapter 3 , Available
online at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/
9. ***Summary of the monograph „World water resources at the beginning of the 21
st century” prepared in the framework of IHP UNESCO, State Hydrological
Institute Email: sasha@eos.sr.unh.edu
10. ***(2008), Strategia Nationala privind reducerea efectelor secetei , prevenirea si
combaterea degradatrii terenurilor si desertificarii, pe terman scurt, mediu si lung,
available online:
http://www.madr.ro/pages/strategie/strategie_antiseceta_update_09.05.2008.pdf
11. http://www.greenagenda.org/eco-aqua/cunoas.htm

433
 THE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE
IN TERRITORY. CASE STUDY: DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
IN DÂNGĂU MARE, CLUJ COUNTY

M. ALEXE1, IZABELA AMALIA MIHALCA2

ABSTRACT. - The importance of technical infrastructure in territory. Case

study: drinking water supply in Dângău Mare, Cluj County. Water represents
an important element in life. Accessibility, water quantity and quality show the
standard of living of one community. This article presents a case study, the one of
water supply in Dângău Mare from Cluj County. The purpose of this analysis is to
reveal the benefits of applying some measures regarding water supply in the rural
area, as well as the dysfunction abilities which derive from a bad management (eg.
lack of sewage system). Dângău Mare lies near the Gilău Mountains and possesses
important and rich resources of surface and underground waters varying under
qualitative ratio. The hydrological resources of Dângău Mare are made up of
river/rivulet networks (Mireş, Blidaru, Agârbiciu), phreatic waters and natural
springs. The identification and delimitation of the Dângău Mare territory
represents the first stage of this study, followed by the consultation of
bibliographic and cartographic sources, field surveys, to obtain the qualitative and
quantitative pieces of information. The second stage consists in the analyzation
and classification of information, the integrated study of phenomena and
elaboration of cartographic models using GIS. At the end of this study we have
made the SWOT analysis to emphasize the characteristics of favourability, the
anomalies and the opportunities to improve and develop the territory of Dângău
Mare from Cluj County.

Key words: supply, hydrographic resources, management.

1. INTRODUCTION

There are major problems in using the hydrological resources in the world
as well as in Romania. This is due to the fact that there are inconsistencies between
distribution, requirements and the existing resources in time and space. In
accordance with the Directive no. 2000⁄60⁄CE to establish a union politics
environment regarding water, ”water does not represent a commercial good, but a
patrimony which has to be protected, defended and treated as such”. Therefore it is
required to establish some suitable measures in using the hydrological resources in
the analyzed territory as well as on national and international level. The
hydrological resources management consists in an integrated approach which exists
between the components of the hydric system and environment.

1
"Babeş-Bolyai" University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
malexe@geografie.ubbcluj.ro
2
"Babeş-Bolyai" University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
izabela.mihalca@geografie.ubbcluj.ro

434
 Accessibility, water quantity and quality highlight the level of development
of one community. This article presents a case study concerning water supply in
Dângău Mare from Cluj County. Although Dângău Mare lies near the Gilău
Mountains and possesses important and rich hydrographic resources of surface and
underground waters varying under qualitative ratio, these are poorly exploited
because there are only 4 km of supply networks with drinking water and with no
sewage systems.
In the following part we shall present the characteristics of Dângău Mare
and the proposed measures to improve and develop the analyzed territory. The
purpose of this analysis is to reveal the benefits of applying some measures
regarding water supply in the rural area, as well as the dysfunction abilities which
derive from a bad management (eg. lack of sewage system).

2. LOCATION

Dângău Mare is part of Căpuşu Mare Commune in Cluj County, which

gathers nine villages: Agârbiciu, Bălceşti, Căpuşu Mare, Căpuşu Mic, Dângău
Mare, Dângăul Mic, Dumbrava, Păniceni, Straja (fig. 1). The main landform of the
commune is that of hill and mountain, realizing the bond between the Căpuşului
Hill and the Gilău Mountains. The hydric resources of the commune are formed by
a series of rivers and rivulets: Crişul Repede, Căpuş, Mireş, Blidaru, Agârbiciu,
Caselor Valley, Râştii Valley (Pop, 2007), to which we can add phreatic waters and
springs.
The Dângău Mare village is bounded to the south by the Gilău Mountains,
to the north by the Bălceşti village, to the west by the Fânaţ Hill (871 m) and to the
east by the Pleşu Hill (861 m). The natural resources are poor, peculiar to the hills
areas – fields with average fertility, prevailing grasslands (due to the development
of agriculture based on vegetables and raising animals). All these are corroborated
with hill climate - annual temperature range 7°C in the lower areas of Gilău
Mountains, precipitations between 800–1000 mm and moderate winds; the
presence of average and high inclination slopes is favourable to the development of
winter tourism (existence of an arranged ski track and of other undeveloped yet) as
well as of the summer one (hiking, riding etc.); the existence of rich surface and
underground hydric resources.
Thus, due to the previously presented characteristics, the analyzed
territory fits to an average potential of development.

3. METHODOLOGY

The identification and delimitation of the Dângău Mare territory represents

the first stage of this study, followed by the consultation of bibliographic and
cartographic sources, field surveys, to obtain the qualitative and quantitative pieces

435
Fig. 1. Căpușu Mare Commune – geographical position
of information (The Căpuşu Mare Hall, interview with the locals, Department for
the Regional Statistics Cluj).
The second stage consists in the analyzation and classification of
information, the integrated study of phenomena (the Regional method) and
elaboration of cartographic models using GIS. In the realisation of the cartographic
supports we have used topographic maps (1:50000), orthophotograms and
appropriate programmes – ArcView, ArcGis.
At the end of this study we have made the SWOT analysis to emphasize
the characteristics of favourability, the anomalies and the opportunities to improve
and develop the territory of Dângău Mare in Cluj County.

4. WATER SUPPLY OF DÂNGĂU MARE

Drinking water supply in Dângău Mare is part of the water supply project
for six villages in Căpuşu Mare Commune (Căpuşu Mare, Căpuşu Mic, Agârbiciu,
Dângău Mare, Dângău Mic and Bălceşti), project realized according to the
Government Ordinance no. 7/2006 and ran between 2007-2010. There were made
15 km of sewage systems in Căpuşu Mare and Căpuşu Mic (the rest of the
localities do not have such facilities) through SAPARD funds obtained between
2004-2007. The authorities also want to supply with drinking water and create
sewage systems in Dumbrava.
Thus, from the total supply network of Căpuşu Mare Commune (35 km),
the Dângău Mare locality has a 4 km long network and with Dângău Mic and
Bălceşti has 10 km.
Because of the hill landforms and
the presence of the Gilău Mountains (high
altitudes, inclined slopes etc.), as well as
of the great apport of water in the
analyzed territory, water abstraction has
been made using three springs located on
the northern side of the “Curmătura” Hill.
Water is being collected into a 75 mc
storage tank (fig. 2) from the base of the
slope to a 900 m altitude. Water filtration
is made through gravel and sand filters.
The quality of drinking water is not
Fig. 2. Storage tank
damaged and it is not required the
presence of other types of filters because there are no crops to pollute the phreatic
layer through chemical fertilizers in the catchment area as well as on a 3 ha
perimeter. In the past this area was used as grassland but now because of the
diminishing of livestock it is used only for hay harvesting. From the main catching
reservoir water is being pumped on a 750 m long distance and a difference in
height of 63 m between the tank from the school and the one on the “La Grajduri”
Hill (963 m). The pipe between the two tanks has a 100 mm diameter. The

437
 pumping process is automated through pumps-
hydrophore-level sensors installed in both tanks. At
the school the capacity of the tank is around 300 mc
(fig. 3). The implementation of the tank on the
highest point of the village (963 m) has led to the
development of water distribution network through
freefall, the difference in height between the reservoir
from the school and the edges of the network ranging
between 885 m and 940 m (fig. 4).
Water distribution pipes are made of high
density PVC and have a diameter of 70 mm. In the
branch points there are mounted distribution channels

having pressure adjustment valves and hydraulic

Fig. 3. Storage tank
shock. Each household has a connection channel to the main network. Where it
was possible, from a physical point of view, one connection channel could supply
up to three houses. In Dângău Mare can be connected 160 houses, but also the
network supplies the Dângău Mic and Bălceşti villages. At the same time each lane
is provided with hydrants, which are very important in the case of a fire because of
the relatively high distance of Cluj-Napoca City (36 km) and the 40 min
intervention time of the fire-fighters.

Fig. 4. Water supply in Dângău Mare

438
 Unfortunately, regarding the distribution network we can say that because
there has not been made the connection of the houses to the network using water
meters, some consumers joined to the connection chambers and began using water
without paying any money (August 2010 – January 2011). Metering process is
planned to be accomplished beginning with February 2011.
The greatest dysfunction met in Dângău Mare was the lack of a sewage
system which denotes a bad management. This technical problem (a water supply
system without a sewage system) leads to a discharging of remaining wastes into
rivers and groundwater polluting water and soil.
The implementation of the sewage system in the locality (as well as in the
whole commune) is a measure that will lead to the improvement of life and to a
minimal standard of living required in this century.

5. SWOT ANALYSIS

The SWOT analysis of Dângău Mare is a useful instrument in showing the

aims of development of the territory. We shall emphasize favourability and
dysfunctions, threats regarding the territory if there would not be taken a series of
measures as well as the existing opportunities.
Strengths:
 presence of varied land forms (meadows, hills, mountains) which ensure
geological diversity
 presence of water resources which ensure a long term needs (rivers,
rivulets, springs, phreatic layer)
 realization of the water supply system
 modernization at a high level of installations
 automatization of the system
 the infrastructure assigns a good accessibility
 there are no regional problems regarding the environment (pollution of
phreatic layer)
 weak collaboration with Cluj County Council
Weaknesses:
 lack of a sewage system
 locals preferring to use traditional methods in collecting water
 lack of connections from the main supply network with the houses
(finalisation 2011)
 lack of ecological education
 the territory does not benefit of any support from the authorities
Opportunities:
 possibility of accessing European funds to develop the infrastructure
 post-adheration programmes to accsess grand funds
 partnerships between local authorities and economic agents

439
  establishment of bindings with the areas inside and outside the commune
 development of winter tourism, winter sports, tracking etc.
 development of the real estate market
 the building of secondary residences
Threats:
 the loss of some funds from tax collection
 degradation of the landscape
 the maintenance of the area in a relatively isolation

REFERENCES

1. Cocean, P. (2005), Geografie regională, Edit. Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-

Napoca.
2. Cocean, P. (coordinator), (2007), Amenajarea teritoriilor periurbane, Edit. Presa
Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca.
3. Pop, P. Gr. (2001), Depresiunea Transilvaniei, Edit. Presa Universitară Clujeană,
Cluj-Napoca.
4. Pop, P. Gr. (2007), Judeţul Cluj, Edit. Academiei Române, Bucureşti.
5. Sorocovschi, V., Pop, R. (2001), Aspecte privind alimentarea cu apă a oraşelor
din judeţul Cluj, Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai, Geographia, nr.2, Cluj-
Napoca.
6. Surd, V. (2002), Introducere în geografia spaţiului rural, Edit. Presa Universitară
Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca.

440
 DETERMINATION OF THE GROUND-WATER LEVEL
BY MODERN NON-DISTRUCTIVE METHODS
(GPR TECHNOLOGY)

I. C. NICU1,2, Gh. ROMANESCU1

ABSTRACT. – Determination of the ground-water level by modern non-dis-

tructive methods (ground-penetrating radar technology). Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) is now a well-accepted geophysical technique, which unfortunately
in our country its less used. Historically, the development of GPR comes from the
use of radio echosounding to determine ice thickness and it was only a short step
to enlarge the domain of research such as permafrost, geological investigation
(bedrock, sedimentology), environmental assessment and hydrogeophysical
studies (under-ground water location, soil water content). The GPR method
measures the travel time of electromagnetic impulses in subsurface materials. An
impulse radar system radiates repetitive electromagnetic impulses into the soil. A
bandwidth antenna is usually placed in close proximity and electromagnetic
coupled to the ground surface. It detects and measures the depth of reflecting
discontinuities in subsurface soils and other earth materials to within a few
centimeters depending of antenna frequency. For over 30 years, GPR has been
used extensively for hydropedological investigations. Our research aims to
determine the groundwater to estimate the degree of evolution of hydro-
geomorphological processes.

Keywords: Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Ground-water, geophysics, hydro-

geomorphological processes.

1. INTRODUCTION

Ground Penetrating Radar method – GPR belongs to nondistructive

geophysics, based on electromagnetic waves propagation in soil, rocks or other
investigation mediums (concrete etc.) (Conyers, 2004). The original incentive for
its development was for the army, who used it to detect burried mines and tunnels
(Daniels, 2004). Today is a well known method used in different domains:
 Geological investigation: detecting bedrock, sedimentology (Davis and
Annan, 1989; Beres and Haeni,1991; Bristow, 2003; Neal, 2004);
 Utility locating: electric lines, water drains lines, cable TV etc. (Al-
Nuaimy et al., 2000; Lester et al., 2007);

1
University „Al.I.Cuza” of Iasi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Department of Geography,
Bd.Carol I 20A, 700505, Iasi, Romania, Tel.0040-744774652, Fax.0040232-201481, e-mail.
geluromanescu@yahoo.com, nicucristi@gmail.com.
2
University „Al.I.Cuza” of Iasi, Department of Science, St. Lascăr Catargi 54, 700107, Iaşi,
Romania, Fax.0040232-201102, e-mail. nicucristi@gmail.com.

441
  Concrete detection: localization of reinforcing bars and metallic ducts,
concrete thickness (Bungey, 2004; Barrile and Paccinotti, 2005; Chang et
al., 2009);
 Hydrology (Doolittle et al., 2006; Ruffell, 2006; Lowry et al., 2009);
 Bridge and railway monitoring (Hugenschmidt, 2002; Narayanan et al.,
2004);
 Environmental assessment and hydrogeophysical research: localization of
under-ground storage tanks, soil contamination, soil water content (Mellet,
1995; Pyke et al., 2008; Gerhards et al., 2008);
 Road inspection: pavement structure analysis (Evans et al., 2006);
 Archaeology (Pérez Gracia et al., 2000; Conyers, 2004; Leucci et al.,
2006);
 Forensics (Freeland et al., 2003; Ruffell et al., 2005);
GPR is widely used in various domain of research. In Romania it was and
is still used in archaeology (Tencariu et al., 2010; Cotiugă et al., 2010). The
following archaeological sites have been studied: Isaiia (com. Răducăneni, jud.
Iaşi), Siliştea (com. Români, jud. Neamţ), Tinosu (jud. Prahova), La Pod (com.
Bucşani, jud. Giurgiu), Tangâru (com. Stoeneşti, jud. Giurgiu), Trivalea Moşteni
(com. Trivalea Moşteni, jud. Teleorman), Geangoeşti (com. Dragomireşti, jud.
Dâmboviţa), the historical center of Botoşani city, with remarkable results that
have been presented at symposiums and scientific exhibitions.
By this application we try to extend GPR domains of research:
hydrogeology. In the following operating principles are exposed and the results
obtained from scans (Băiceni–Muzeu Cucuteni gully slopes).
Romanian literature is reminiscent of shear or punctual measurements for
ground-water but, unfortunatelly not fully explained. From this point of view only
the foreign literature rises to the expected level: Al-Nuaimy et al., 2000; Barrile
and Paccinotti, 2005; Băcăuanu, 1968; Băcăuanu et al., 1980; Beres and Haeni,
1991; Bristow and Jol, 2003; Bucur and Barbu, 1954; Bungey, 2004; Cassidy,
2000; Chang et al., 2009; Conyers, 2004; Cotiugă et al., 2010; Daniels, 2004;
Davis and Annan, 1989; Doolittle et al., 2006; Evans et al., 2006; Freeland et al.,
2003; Gerhards et al., 2008; Hugenschmidt, 2002; Jeffrey, 2000; Lester and
Bernold, 2007; Leucci, and Negri, 2006; Lowry et al., 2009; Mellet, 1995;
Naranayan et al., 2004; Neal, 2004; Pérez-Gracia et al., 2000; Pyke et al., 2008;
Reynolds, 1998; Ruffell and McKinley, 2005; Ruffell, 2006; Sass, 2006; Tencariu
et al., 2010 a,b etc.

2. THEORETICAL AND OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES

GPR is a worldwide useful tool, which unfortunatelly in Romania is less

used. (Daniels, 2004). GPR is efficient to detect objects at shallow depths. Best
results are obtained under a smooth topographic surface and dry soils: sandy soils
and gravels (Reynolds, 1998). Bad soils are muddy, clay or soils that contain salt
water. (Fig. 1).

442
 a. b.

Fig. 1. The difference between good soils (a) and bad soils (b) for scans

Tabel 1. Static conductivity and relative permittivity values for different materials - 100
MHz antenna (adapted after Conyers şi Goodman, 1997; Reynolds, 1997; Daniels, 2004)

Material Static conductivity, ơs (mS/m) Relative permittivity, Ɛave

Air 0 1
Clay – dry 1–100 2–20
Clay – wet 100–1000 15–40
Concrete – dry 1–10 4–10
Concrete – wet 10–100 10–20
Freshwater 0.1–10 78 (25°C)–88
Freshwater ice 1 – 0.000001 3
Seawater 4000 81–88
Seawater ice 10–100 4–8
Permafrost 0.1–10 2–8
Granite – dry 0.00 –0.00001 5–8
Granite – wet 1–10 5–15
Limestone – dry 0.001–0.0000001 4–8
Limestone – wet 10–100 6–15
Sandstone – dry 0.001–0.0000001 4–7
Sandstone – wet 0.01–0.001 5–15
Shale – saturated 10–100 6–9
Sand – dry 0.0001–1 3–6
Sand – wet 0.1–10 10–30
Sand – coastal, dry 0.01–1 5–10
Soil – sandy, dry 0.1–100 4–6
Soil – sandy, wet 10–100 15–30
Soil – loamy, dry 0.1–1 4–6
Soil – loamy, wet 10–100 10–20
Soil – clayey, dry 0.1–100 4–6
Soil – clayey, wet 100–1000 10–15
Soil – average 5 16

443
 Depth of investigation is limited by the relative permittivity (Ɛr) and the
frequency of the antenna selected for the scanning (Malå Easy Locator, Operator’s
Manual). Ɛr = permittivity of the material (Ɛ) / permittivity of free space (Ɛ0), where
the permittivity of free space is 8.8542 x 10-12 F/m. (Cassidy, 2000). (Tabel 1).
MALÅ Geoscience (Sweden) together with GSSI (USA) are world leaders
in projection and producing Ground Penetrating Radar systems (GPR). Engineer
first radar system since 1935, MALÅ Geoscience benefits by a professional
experience for over 70 years, developing products covering a wide range of
applications. They also developed softwares for data acquisition (GroundVision,
MIRASoft, Easy Locator Monitor), data processing (RadExplorer, WinTomo,
RadInter, Slicer) and data view (GPS Mapper, ObjectMapper, RoadWay Mapper).

Fig. 2. Electromagnetic energy propagation Fig. 3. Block diagram of generic radar

from the transmitter (Tx) to receiver (Rx) system

The relation between wave velocity and material properties is the basic
principle for scanning with GPR. In this case the velocity is different for materials
with other electric properties: a signal that has passed through two materials with
different electric properties, at the same distance, will arrive back at different time
intervals (Jeffrey, 2000). The GPR is capable to scan countinuously a significant
area, in a relative short time. In principal, this technique revaluates the reflection
produced and transfered in soil by the high-frequecy electromagnetic impulses.
(Fig. 2, 3).

3. REGIONAL SETTINGS

The Băiceni–Cucuteni Museum gully is located in the south-western part

of the Moldavian Plain, subdivision of the Moldavian Plateau. It cuts off the right
slope of Cucuteni brook (13 km2 surface of basin and 11 km in length), left affluent
of Bahluieţ river (551 km2 surface of basin and 41 km in length), at approximately
1 km NE from Cucuteni village, situated at 55 km from the city of Iaşi, 8 km NE
from the city of Târgu Frumos, 35 km from Paşcani (Fig. 4).
The main deposits belong to medium sarmatian (basarabian), with a
thickness of approximately 1000 m, monoclinal structure, a general pitch of

444
stratum of about 8-10 m/km NV to SE orientation. The basarabian sediments are
mainly composed from an alternation of marl, sands and clay, between are injected
layers of sand stone, oolithe limestone having a big thickness, especially in the
north part of the Cucuteni village and in the wesern part of Băiceni village also.

Fig. 4. Geographical location of study area

Analyzing the medium monthly rainfalls we find a raise of these values

from March (minimum) till July (maximum) followed by a decreasing. Here the
tremendous downpours are characteristic. They can induce floods, accelerate soil
erosion and snow ups during the winter. The air relatively humidity has an annual
average of 71%. Aridity de Martonne value is 24,9. The annual rainfalls media is
510,7 mm at Cotnari meteorological station.
The main soils are represented by preluvosoils and luvosoils (located on
the higher plateaus), followed by marnic phaeozems (with a high content of
CaCO3), chernozems and erodisoils (areas that are affected by landslides and
gully’s slopes).

4. DESCRIPTION OF FIELD EXPERIMENT

A RAMAC GPR X3M (Malå Geoscience) device and a Leica 1200 GPS.
Measurements were taken with the 100 MHz antenna and following settings were made:
Antenna 100 MHz / Medium (Fig. 6)
Time Window 400.0 ns (20.25 m, 456smp)
Velocity 100 m/S/soil velocity
Acquisition mode Wheel
Wheel type Measuring wheel 100 MHz
Point interval 0.020 m
Parametrii semnalului:
Sampling frequency 1065.08 MHz
Maximum time window Medium
Autostacks On.

445
 We made a 48 m lenght profile, on the left side of the secondary gully to
determine the depth of the ground-water level (according to topographic map scale
1:25000, 1983 edition, the ground-water level is situated at a depth of 4 meters near
the area where the scan was made and 5 meters near Cotacu brook, located on the
other side of the Tinos Hill) (Fig. 5).
After finishing the scan with GPR we used LEICA GPS 1200 (Global
Positioning System) to georeference the measurements. How does it works? GPS–
is using the satellites from the space as reference points to localize ground places.
System GPS 1200 is composed by a reference station that is positioned
either in a point that has coordinates (GCP – Ground Control Point), or in a point
that needs to be located and then radiates a strength signal for SmartRover. Leica
SmartRover contains ATX1230 antenna + GNSS (triple frequency) RX1250
controller. The system heights about 2,7 kg. Leica RX1250 controller includes
wireless technology (Bluetooth).
The reference was fixed on the GCP 2nd order Viteazul Hill (X =
645029.943, Y = 644429.686, Z = 340.000 m, STEREO 70 coordinates, Romania
official cartographic projection), that emites signal for Leica SmartRover. In this
way we could determine, with a high precision, the scan location.

Fig. 5. Details of ground-water level in 1984

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

After the scans made with GPR Malå RAMAC X3M with 100 MHz
antenna we obtained a 48 meters length profile and manage to determine de
ground-water level as being at a depth between 8 to 10 meters (Fig. 6). The
ground-water location can be distinguished in the scan image, but also on the photo.
The images were „overlapped” for a better distinction. Scan data were also processed with
red–blue filter and the results are the same as they were with the gray filter (Fig. 7).

446
 Measurements with Leica GPS 1200 have positioned the scanning between
following coordinates: X = 645659.657, Y = 644860.713 şi X = 645662.605, Y =
644908.865, STEREO 70 system and 47° 17´ 14.4933´´ Lat. N, 26° 55´ 32.9680´´
Long. E şi 47° 17´ 16.0496´´ Lat. N, 26° 55´ 33.1642´´ Long. E, in WGS 84.

Fig. 6. Ground-water location (gray)

One of the lowering ground-water explanations, unlike year 1983, could be

found in location, at about 200 meters from the gully slopes, of 3 tubes for water
captaion. Those tubes were placed there to reduce the amount of water that enters
into the gully. In this way the erosional process is controlled.

Fig. 7. Ground-water location (red – blue)

The ground-water level may vary depending on the season, and that’s why
we will take another measurements in each season for a long period of time.
This scan was made in November 2010 and it perfcts the measure and
monitoring system of the underground water resources.

447
 6. CONCLUSIONS

GPR is efficient to detect objects at shallow depths. Depth of investigation is limited

by the relative permittivity and the frequency of the antenna selected for the scanning.
The relation between wave velocity and material properties is the basic
principle for scanning with GPR.
After the scans made with GPR Malå RAMAC X3M with 100 MHz
antenna we obtained a 48 meters length profile and manage to determine de
ground-water level as being at a depth between 8 to 10 meters.

REFERENCES

1. Al-Nuaimy, W., Huang, Y., Nakhkash, M., Fang, M.T.C.,Nguyen, V.T., Eriksen,
A., 2000. Automatic detection of buried utilities and solid objects with GPR using
neural networks and pattern recognition. Journal of Applied Geophysics 43, 157–
165.
2. Băcăuanu, V., 1968. Câmpia Moldovei. Studiu geomorfologic. Ed. Academiei
Române, Bucureşti.
3. Beres, M., Haeni, F.P., 1991. Application of ground-penetrating radar methods to
hydrogeologic studies. Ground Water 29, 375–386.
4. Bristow, C.S. & Jol, H.M. (eds) 2003. Ground Penetrating Radar in Sediments.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 211.
5. Cassidy, N.J., 2000. Electrical and magnetic properties of rocks, soils and fluids in
Ground Penetrating Radar: Theory and Applications (ed. Jol, H.M.), pp. 41.
6. Cotiugă, V., Tencariu, A.F., Asăndulesei, A., Venedict, A.B., Balaur, Ş.R.,
Vornicu, M.D., Creţu, P.A., Nicu, I.C., 2010. Prospecțiuni geofizice în situri
eneolitice din România, Zilele Universităţii "Al. I. Cuza", Iași, octombrie.
7. Davis, J.L., Annan, A.P., 1989. Ground Penetrating Radar for high resolution
mapping of soil and rock stratigraphy. Geophys. Prospect. 37 (5), 531–551.
8. Doolittle, J.A., Jenkinson, B., Hopkins, D., Ulmer, M., Tuttle, W., 2006.
Hydropedological investigations with ground-penetrating radar (GPR): Estimating
water-table depths and local ground-water flow pattern in areas of coarse-textured
soils. Geoderma 131, 317–329.
9. Jeffrey, J.D., 2000. Ground Penetrating Radar Fundamentals. Prepared as an
appendix to a report to the U.S.EPA, Region V.
10. Lowry, S.C., Fratta, D., Anderson, P.M., 2009. Ground penetrating radar and
spring formation in a groundwater dominated peat wetland. Journal of Hydrology
373, 68–79.
11. Malå Easy Locator, Operator’s Manual.
12. Neal, A., 2004. Ground-penetrating radar and its use in sedimentology: priciples,
problems and progress. Earth-Sci. Rev. 66, 261–330.
13. Tencariu, F.A., Asăndulesei, A., Vornicu, D. M., Nicu, I.C., Bolohan, N., 2010.
Prospecţiuni geofizice în aşezarea din Epoca Bronzului de la Siliştea, jud. Neamţ,
Conferinţa Naţională “Oltenia. Interferenţe culturale”, Ediţia I, Craiova, 7–8
octombrie.

448
 STUDIES AND RESEARCH ON POLLUTION
OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN THE AREA
SC ROMPLUMB BAIA MARE
FROM ANTHROPOGENICAL ACTIVITY

COCIORHAN CAMELIA SIMONA1, MICLE VALER 1

ABSTRACT. The main ways of soil pollution are: on path air or atmospheric path
and on terrestrial path, pollution path of direct their. Sources of air pollution are
two categories: natural sources (volcanic eruptions, decomposition acts, etc.) and
artificial, resulting from human activities (mining and metallurgy, energy, etc.).
Solid air pollutants are those treated in the paper. They are dispersed in the air
from emissions of particles which containing heavy metal ions in the atmosphere
having a low sedimentation rate. Finest particles, dispersed in the air gets a
considerable stability, for which will persist for a much longer time in air, thereby
of increasing pollution. Direct pollution comes from direct deposit of minerals on
the soil as raw materials and hazardous waste, particle entrainment by deflation
surface dumps, infiltration of sewage from emplacement, accidental discharge of
sewage from the emplacement and crack pipes, etc. This paper shows how it is
influenced soil pollution and crack pipes, etc. from the perimeter intrauzinal and
extrauzinal of SC Romplumb SA by two of the factors leading to pollution,
conveying technological waste water and atmospheric emissions, respectivelly.

Keywords: technological wastewater, soils, atmospheric emissions, heavy metals.

1. INTRODUCTION

In Romania, there are many areas which face with problems of

environmental pollution, mono-or / and multi-industrial areas, Fistung (2002).
Two are the main pathways of pollution. One way is that atmospheric and
the second is the way land, direct path of pollution. Sources of air pollution are two
categories: natural sources (volcanic eruptions, decomposition acts, etc.) and
artificial, resulting from human activities (mining and metallurgy, energy, etc.).
Solid air pollutants are those treated in the paper. The air pollutants are dispersed in
the air from emissions of particles which containing heavy metal ions in the
atmosphere having a low sedimentation rate. Finest particles, dispersed in the air
gets a considerable stability, for which will persist for a much longer time in air,
thereby of increasing pollution. Direct pollution comes from direct deposit of
minerals on the soil as raw materials and hazardous waste, particle entrainment by
deflation surface dumps, infiltration of sewage from emplacement, accidental
discharge of sewage from the emplacement and crack pipes, etc. The main areas

1
„Technical University”, Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering,400641, Cluj-Napoca,
Romania, e-mail: ccociorhan@yahoo.com

449
which causing regional pollution in Romania are: petroleum exploitation, mining,
metallurgical and steel industries.
An area with remarkable high pollution problems is the area of Baia Mare.
It is strongly affected by the phenomenon pollution mainly due to industrial
activities from the metallurgical and mining sectors also to an inadequate
management of waste and sewage. Two of the main polluters of the environment
are companies SC Cuprom (ceased operations in early 2009) and SC Romplumb.

2. PARTICULARITIES OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION WITH

HEAVY METALS IN "BAIA MARE” AREA

The area affected most significantly in terms of environmental pollution by

atmospheric, from Maramures county is the area of Baia Mare. The pollution is
caused by emissions of pollutants from the atmosphere mainly from S.C.
Romplumb S.A. profile of non-ferrous metallurgy (primarily obtaining of decopper
lead). The specific activity of non-ferrous metallurgy is emit in the atmosphere
sulfur dioxide gas and dust containing lead, cadmium and other hazardous metals
consistent. To this is added the pollution caused by dust containing heavy metals,
driven from the ponds from the Baia Mare and the emission of pollutants into the
atmosphere from fuel combustion processes of thermal power stations to produce
heat and hot water and road traffic.
Tabel 1. Concentration of atmospheric emissions (Rap. Bilant II -SC ENV. C-TING 2006)
Pollutants Concentration1 [mg/m3]
Pb Cd As SO2
Particl
Emisions path es V.d. Dp. V.d. Dp. V.d. Dp. V.d. Dp.

Gas cart technology 2 - 9,352 1,87 0,253 1,265 0,026 - 6853 13

Exhaust granular slag
- 14,944 2,89 0,026 - 0,151 -
basket 3
Output bin MODULE
- 6,245 1,249 0,165 - 0,13 170 -
ANAG 1 4
Output bin MODULE
- 4,519 - 0,027 - 0,059 - 149
ANAG 1 5
1
–Concentration is expressed as Order MAPPM nr. 462/1993;2-H = 120 m, share+43m,
agglomeration+melting+hygiene agglomeration, 3–H = 18,5 m; 4–H = 8m; 5–H = 8m; Vd–values determined;
Dp–exceedances of the limit values on emission according to Order MAPPM nr. 462/1993

In other areas, such as the Sighetu Marmaţiei town or other towns in the
county main sources of pollutant emissions are consist by units of small thermal
power generation capacity, most homes use individual heating sources, fuel
combustion from economic agents and population taking into account the types of
fuels used (fuel oil, wood and wood waste). In these areas the development of
pollutant emissions is determined by the amount of fuel consumed, there are no
major sources of emissions from processes (Viable Development Strategy of Baia
Mare, 2009).

450
 From 2008 is made automatic monitoring of air quality in 5 monitoring
stations. Monitoring results for the period 2008-2010 shows that the air is affected
in the city center area (due to traffic) and Firiza-Ferneziu area due to factory
activity Romplumb. Lead pollution is determined from the particulate fraction
PM10 whereas lead is emitted into the atmosphere in the form of fine particles.
In terms of sources of air pollution in the process of obtaining decopper
lead, measurements made in 2006 are defined and presented in table 1.
Quantifying quantitative of the path atmospheric pollution result from the
results of measurements carried out on pipes at the bag type filters ANAG 1 and
ANAG 2. From these measurements that only values from the output of lead and
cadmium, on the filter ANAG 1 cause a significant air pollution, other pollutants
(dust, arsenic, SO2) fall within the limit values of Order 462/1993.
The amount of air pollutants is particularly significant. Thus, in 2007 total
emissions of lead in air was 4,09t, from which 98,45% came from Romplumb,
0,7% other sources of surface and 0,87% from traffic. In 2008 total emissions of
lead have dropped to 1,41 t from which 92,16 from Romplumb, 4,58% other
sources of surface and 3,27% from traffic. There is a trend of reduction of
emissions of lead from Romplumb and increasing the share of other sources of lead
pollution (Oros et. al. 2010).
SC Romplumb SA released into the atmosphere by 120 m high stack,
(tabel 1) gases from roasting of lead concentrates and the other technological
operations for the obtain primary lead bullion. In Figure 1 are presented as
histogram on the state of pollution emissions by the annual emissions of heavy
metals into the air in Baia Mare.

150

100
[t/year]

50

0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Year 17,13 101,2 25 18,5 17,5 21,8 20,1 20,6 12,52

Fig.1. Annual average of heavy metals (Viable Development Strategy of Baia Mare, 2009).

In the period 1980-1990 air pollution with lead remained at high value.
Deviations cma (at that time cma was 0,7µg/m3 in 24 hour average) had a
frequency 75,2% in 1981 and 96% in 1989. In the period 1989–1998 there has been
a reduction in pollution from 13,1µg/m3 (annual average in 1989) at 1,87µg/m3
(annual average in 1998). However permissible limit value 0,7µg/m3 remained

451
consistently exceeded frequency of daily average being 96% in 1989 and 75-76%
during 1997-1998 (Oros et. al. 2010).
When at the soil pollution contribute the sources of atmospheric pollution,
potentially polluted area is established based on dispersion modeling specific air
pollutants that can have an impact on the soil around the source. In the absence of
data to pollutant dispersion modeling, it is recommended that radius around the
source area considered to be at least 10-15 times greater than the height of
dispersion pimples (Order no. 184/ 1997).

3. PARTICULARITIES OF SOIL POLLUTION WITH HEAVY

METALS IN "BAIA MARE” AREA

The first way of soil pollution is through the surface waters. But the main
sources of soil pollution are those with the anthrophogenic consequences, such as:
temporary storage of waste, wastewater sewers, decommissioning activities and /
or demolition of buildings, unloading activities, storage and handling of chemicals,
lead batteries, repair and maintenance materials.
The soil is a cumulative receptor of the heavy metals pollution. A part of
the metals falling from the atmosphere in the soil is fixed on the organic phase or
mineral phase of the soil. Obviously, this thing leads to the accumulation of the
heavy metals in the soil. Some studies that were made in this respect during 1980’s
suggest a soil pollution gradient with maximum concentrations that appears near
the two smelting factories and a decrease of the pollution in a direct relation with
the increase of the distance from the polluting source, following the direction of the
wind to a distance up to 25 km (Oros et. al. 2010).
The majority of the polluting metals (some 70%) fall on a 7 km distance.
Measuring in depth, the majority of the polluting agents can be found in superficial
level, between 0 and 10 cm. They reported the following statement of the soil
pollution with heavy metals (Oros et. al. 2010).
Variation limits of heavy metals were analyzed by comparison to values
for less sensitive soils, according to Order no 756/1997, about environmental
pollution assessment. Soil sampling was done in accordance with reference
documents Order no. 462/1993, STAS no. 7184/1–84, Order no.184/ 1997.
Specific analysis on the determination of chemical elements were made by
mineralization with royal water and then by atomic emission spectrometry in
inductively coupled plasma (ICP–AES) were performed in specialized laboratories
of Research Institute for Analytical Instrumentation-ICIA Cluj–Napoca and of the
National Institute Research-Development for Soil, Agrochemistry and
Environmental Protection–ICPA Bucureşti.
Cadmium (fig. 2) shows high values for all soil samples taken, as its
concentrations both exceed the limits of alert threshold (5 mg/kg) and intervention
threshold (10 mg/kg) at all sampling depths. Cd concentrations are between 11.6 –
67.4 mg/kg s.u.

452
 Fig. 2. Concentrations of cadmium and copper depending on depth

Copper. Determined concentrations in soil samples taken shows high

levels of Cu with values exceedance of alert threshold (250 mg/kg) and the
intervention threshold (500 mg/kg) for all depths of sampling. The determined
values are increasing proportionally with depth (fig. 2).

Fig.3. Concentrations of lead and zinc depending on depth

Lead (fig. 3) is distributed to all depths of sampling as main pollutant. In

all investigated soil, concentration of lead exceeds the critical values for alert
threshold and intervention threshold. By analyzing the graph, it can be concluded
that the determined values are increasing proportionally with depth except the
sample taken from the depth 50-70 cm, which shows a slight decrease.

453
 Zinc. High concentration of Zn (fig. 3) from soil samples, forming small
solid particles, is due to metallurgical industry. Concentrations of zinc have high
values at all sampling depths, exceeding the alert threshold (700 mg/kg), and
intervention alert (1500 mg/kg), except sample from up to 10 cm depth where it
falls below the intervention threshold.

4. CONCLUSIONS

Air pollution by heavy metals is practically circulation of very fine

particles of such materials. Pollution sources are stationary in particular (eg.
metallurgical economic units) and also mobile (eg. road transport).
The particularity of this pollution type lies in the that fact she "acts" of soil
attributes on almost continuously, by their standing in the atmosphere at different
heights, amount of time (even when the emission sources ceases the activity). At
the same time are spread over large distances from their source.
They then get both on the ground as well as in soil at different depths,
especially being circulated by water.
Heavy particles get the pathways to greater depths than in the case of direct
pollution of the soil.
Pollution is made by physical human intervention, defining anthropic
phenomena. Polluting materials are relatively stable, can be easily monitored as a
manifestation in the pollution.
In these conditions and remediation methods are more efficient, more
diverse, more stable and within the reach of researchers.
Direct pollution of the soil is more easily quantifiable in terms of
concentration, namely the identification of all heavy metal pollutants.

Acknowledgements
The financial support provided by the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research,
PNCDI II Project RESOLMET no. 32161/2008 is greatly appreciated. This research was
conducted within PRODOC, Contract POSDRU/6/1.5/S/5 ID7676, project co-founded
from European Social Found through Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources
2007-2013.

REFERENCES

1. (2002), Fistung, D. Rodica Miroiu, Popescu, T. Premisele dezvoltării durabile a

regiunilor din România, Politică Regională, p.31-68.
2. (2010), Oros, V., Simona Roman, Mirela Coman, Anca Diana Oros, “Lead
Occurrence In Children`S Biological Fluids From Baia Mare Area.
3. *** (1984), Recoltarea probelor pentru studii pedologice si agrochimice, STAS
nr. 7184/1 – 84.

454
4. *** (1993), Ordinul pentru aprobarea Condiţiilor tehnice privind protecţia
atmosferică şi a Normelor metodologice privind determinarea emisiilor de
poluanţi atmosferici produşi de surse staţionare, cu completările şi modificările
ulterioare, Ordinul MAPPM nr. 462/1993
5. *** (1997), Ordinul pentru aprobarea Procedurii de realizare a bilanturilor de
mediu, Anexa A.3, nr.184/ 1997.
6. *** (2006), Raport la bilant de mediu, nivel II, S.C. Romplumb S.A. Baia Mare,
Elaborat de SC Envicons Consulting, Baia Mare.
7. *** (2009), Strategia de Dezvoltare Durabilă a Municipiului Baia Mare, Versiune
de aprobat în şedinţa Consiliului Local.
 CLIMATIC FEATURES OF THE AUTUMN 2010 IN OLTENIA

ION MARINICĂ1, IULIA LUP2, ANDREEA FLORIANA MARINICĂ3

Abstract. - Climatic features of the autumn 2010 in Oltenia. The autumn 2010
displayed two distinct parts in Oltenia: the first one was warm and dry, while the
second was rainy, but also marked by warm intervals. In November, there were
registered exceptional maximum thermal values. It was the 12th rainy autumn and
this feature of rainy autumn became quite frequent in Oltenia. In November, the
weather was generally warmer than in October and there were registered absolute
thermal records at many meteorological stations. The present paper aims at
thoroughly analysing the features of this autumn and at rendering a comparison
with the last 11 autumns. The paper is useful to researchers, experts in climate
field, PhD and master students.

Keywords: rainy autumn, heat waves, Hellmann criterion, warm autumn, record
maximum thermal values.

1. INTRODUCTION

The frequency of rainy autumns increased in Oltenia in the last 30 years

(Octavia Bogdan, Ion Marinică, Loredana-Elena Mic, 2009; Marinică, Andreea-
Floriana Marinică, 2010). Consequently, the frequency of cool autumns also
increased. The autumn 2010 was rainy and the warm and cool or even cold
intervals alternated. In November, there were registered exceptional maximum
thermal values. After a warm November, weather got cold rapidly and the winter
2010-2011 was early, not only in Oltenia, but also on the entire continent.
We quote M. Jarraud, the general secretary of WMO:
The period 2001-2010 reached a new record. This will be the warmest
decade ever registered. Temperatures at Earth’s surface exceeded the normal in
most of the world regions, specified WMO, but anomalies of extreme heat were
registered in two zones.
In Canada and Greenland, the mean annual temperatures exceeded the
normal by 3°C or even more in certain regions. The surface of the Arctic ice cap
decreased to a very, very reduced level, the third most decreased level ever
registered. In the northern part of Africa and South Asia up to the western part of
China, the mercury was 3°C above the normal within almost all the regions. There
have been registered many extreme meteorological events this year: an

1
National Meteorological Administration, Oltenia Regional Meteorological Centre, Craiova,
Romania, inmarinica@yahoo.com.
2
National Meteorological Administration, Oltenia Regional Meteorological Centre, Craiova,
Romania,lupliulia@yahoo.com.
3
Jacobs University, Bremen, gGmbH, seryblack@yahoo.com.

456
unprecedented heat wave in Russia (about 11,000 dead people) or devastating
floods in Pakistan, which affected millions of people. In numerous temperate
regions from the Northern Hemisphere, the winter was abnormally cold (i.e. the
winter 2009-2010), with a new record registered in Ireland and Scotland after the
'60. The meteorological year 2010 (December 1, 2009-November 30, 2010) was
the hottest in the last 130 years. Mean global temperature (on land and ocean)
reached 14.65°C (0.65°C > than the mean for the interval 1951-1980, a reference
period used by experts). The mean global temperature of 2005 was of 14.53°C,
while in 2010, it reached 14.85°C on land. Referring to November 2010, NASA
communicated that it was the warmest month since the start of measurements,
registering a global deviation of 0.96°C compared to the period 1951-1980
(Sources: Science Now, NASA, Vicky Pope director Met Office).
It is worth mentioning that for Romania, as well as for most of Central
Europe, the summer 2010 was close to the thermal normal and intense heat waves
affected only the Western and Eastern Europe.

2. DATA AND METHODS

We analyzed the data provided by the archives of RMC Oltenia, as well as

by the NMA. For the study of climatic features, we used Hellmann criterion. The
analysis of the data and satellite maps was useful for emphasizing the feature of the
heat wave registered in November.

3. PLUVIOMETRIC FEATURES OF THE AUTUMN 2010

3.1. Pluviometric features of September 2010.

According to the percentage deviation of the general mean of precipitation
for the entire region compared to the general mean (-31.6%), September was very
dry (VD).
The monthly precipitation amounts oscillated between 8.4 l/sq m at Băileşti
and 73.6 l/ sq m at Apa Neagră in Gorj County. The percentage deviations
compared to the multiannual mean values were comprised between -76.2% at
Calafat and +21.7% at Apa Neagră. According to Hellmann criterion, it was
excessively dry within most of the Oltenia Plain (ED), very dry (VD) in the hilly
region, and rainy (R) in the mountains and the Subcarpathian Depression (Parâng
and Apa Neagră).

3.2. Pluviometric features of October 2010

The deviation of the general mean of the precipitation amounts compared
to the multiannual mean was of 39.5 l/ sq m emphasizes a percentage deviation of
73.5%, which is an excessively rainy month according to Hellmann criterion (ER).
The monthly precipitation amounts oscillated between 67.0 l/ sq m at Rm.
Vâlcea and 221.8 l/ sq m at Apa Neagră, while the deviations compared to the
multiannual means were comprised between 15.4 l/ sq m in the Mehedinti Hills, at

457
Bâcleş, and 155.1 l/ sq m at Apa Neagră in the Subcarpathian Depression. The
percentage deviations compared to the multiannual means varied between 27.0% at
Bâcleş and 232.5% at Apa Neagră. According to Hellmann criterion, the
classification was from rainy (R) at Bâcleş within the Mehedinti Hills to
excessively rainy (ER) within most of the region. On small areas, within Gorj and
Vâlcea Hills, it was a very rainy month (VR). In the mountains, at Parâng, the
deviation of the precipitation amounts was negative (-35.3%), which means a very
dry month (VD).

3.3. Pluviometric features of November 2010

The deviation of the general mean of the precipitation amounts compared
to the multiannual mean was of 18.3 l/ sq m, while the percentage deviation of the
mean reached 31.9%, which allows us to classify November as a very rainy month
(VR). Within the territory, the monthly precipitation amounts oscillated between
37.7 l/ sq m at Bechet in Dolj County and 157.6 l/ sq m at Apa Neagră in Gorj
County.
Their deviations from the multiannual means were comprised between -
15.4 l/ sq m at Calafat and 70.5 l/ sq m at Apa Neagră, while the percentage
deviations compared to the multiannual means oscillated between -28.4% at
Calafat and 81.0% at Craiova.
According to Hellmann criterion, the pluviometric types varied from dry
(D) in the south-west of the Oltenia Plain (Calafat and Băileşti) to excessively
rainy (ER) within the hilly area.
The pluviometric deficit was characteristic to the area with altitudes ≤ 150 m.

3.4. Pluviometric features of the autumn 2010

The deviation of the general mean of the precipitation amounts compared
to the multiannual mean was of 43.0 l/ sq m, while the percentage deviation
reached 27.2%, which allows us to classify the entire autumn 2010 as rainy (R).
Thus, the precipitation registered in October and November compensated the other
months and contributed to the exceeding of the normal autumn amounts.
Seasonal precipitation amounts for the autumn 2010 oscillated between
134.3 l/ sq m at Bechet and 453.0 l/ sq m at Apa Neagră.
Within the territory, the quantitative deviations compared to the
multiannual means oscillated between -3.7 l/ sq m at Calafat and 238.7 l/ sq m at
Apa Neagră, while the percentage deviations were comprised between -2.6% at
Calafat and 111.4% at Apa Neagră.
Within the Oltenia Plain, the classification of the pluviometric weather
according to the criterion varied from normal (N) at Calafat and Bechet in the south
and south-west to very rainy (VR) within Băileşti Plain. In the hilly area and the
Olt Couloir, at la Rm. Vâlcea, it was normal, while in the Subcarpathian
depressions, it was very rainy (VR) and excessively rainy (ER).
In Figure no. 1, we render the spatial-temporal extension of the types of
pluviometric weather in Oltenia for the autumn 2010. We may notice that the rainy

458
weather (RW) rapidly increased, while the dry (DW) and normal pluviometric
weather (NW) types decreased rapidly.

Figure no. 1. Spatial-temporal extension

of the types of pluviometric weather in
the autumn 2010 in Oltenia in percents
of weather type
months /meteorological station (Source:
processed data).

4. THERMAL FEATURES OF THE AUTUMN 2010

4.1. Thermal features of September 2010

The temperature mean monthly values varied between 15.0°C at Polovragi
and 18.4°C at Calafat, while their deviations compared to the multiannual means
oscillated between -0.6°C at Polovragi and 1.1°C at Bâcleş. According to
Hellmann criterion, it means a thermal normal month at all the meteorological
stations.
The minimum monthly temperatures were comprised between 3.8°C at
Polovragi and Apa Neagră and 8.9°C la Dr. Tr. Severin, most of them being
registered in the last decade of the month (September 22, 24, and 30). Some of
them registered at the beginning of the month, on the 3rd.
The maximum monthly temperature values varied between 24.8°C at
Polovragi and 33.0°C at Bechet, most of them being registered by the middle of the
month, on the 16th, 17th, and 18th. Only two values registered in the first decade of
the month, on the 8th.
The graph of the variance of the daily means calculated for the entire
region – minimum, normal, and maximum daily mean, emphasizes two warming
intervals in the first and second decade and two cooling periods, the most
significant and sudden being registered by the end of the month (figure no. 3).
The decrease slope of the three temperature curves were smooth overall,
the daily means registering the most rapid decrease.

4.2. Thermal features of October 2010

The deviation of the monthly temperature mean for the entire region
compared to the multiannual mean was of -2.3°C, which according to Hellmann
criterion is a cold month (C), fact confirmed by the deviations of the monthly mean
temperatures registered at each meteorological station.
Monthly mean temperatures oscillated between 7.2°C at Polovragi and
9.4°C at Dr. Tr. Severin, while the deviations of the mean temperatures compared
to the multiannual means varied between -3.0°C at Polovragi and -1.8°C at Rm.

459
Vâlcea and Bâcleş. According to Hellmann criterion October 2010 was cold (C) at
all the meteorological stations.

Figure no. 2, Variance

of daily means of
minimum, mean
temperatures, and
maximum
temperatures
calculated for the
entire region Oltenia
in September

Minimum monthly temperatures varied between -5.4°C at Tg. Logreşti and

Apa Neagră and -1.0°C at Dr. Tr. Severin; all these values were registered on the
29th and 30th.
Maximum monthly temperatures varied between 16.5°C at Polovragi and
20.7°C at Calafat. The highest values (in the plain area) were registered on the 2nd,
in the hilly area between the 10th and the 13th, while in the mountains, on the 31st
(Parâng).
The graph of the variance of the daily means of the thermal minimum,
normal, and maximum values, calculated for the entire Oltenia, emphasizes warm
periods - October 1-3, October 12-21 and cooling intervals: October 4-9 and
October 22-31.
Of the three analysed thermal parameters (minimum, mean, and maximum
values), the most rapidly decreasing one was the minimum temperature (fig. no. 3).
At a global scale, October 2010 is the warmest month registered since
1880, the year when the first temperature measurements were performed (Source :
NASA).

4.3. Thermal features of November 2010

The temperature mean monthly values varied between 7.9°C at Apa
Neagră and 12.6°C at Bâcleş, being 1.3°C higher than the ones registered in
October for the entire region (Table no. 1).
The deviations of the monthly temperature means compared to the
multiannual means were comprised between 3.1°C at Apa Neagră and 12.6°C at
Bâcleş. According to Hellmann criterion, at most of the meteorological stations
from Oltenia, November was warm (W). There was an exception – the

460
meteorological stations Târgul Logreşti and Bâcleş, where the weather was very
warm (VW).
The monthly mean temperature for the entire region was of 9.5°C, while its
deviation compared to the multiannual monthly mean reached 4.5°C, which
according to Hellmann criterion, allows us to classify this month as warm (W)
within the entire region.
The minimum monthly temperatures oscillated between -4.4°C at Apa
Neagră and -0.1°C at Dr. Tr. Severin, namely higher than those registered in October.
The monthly maximum temperatures varied between 22.8°C at Polovragi
and 27.9°C at Bechet, namely higher than those registered in October.
In November 2010, we remark the registration of certain thermal records
for the last 50 years at 9 meteorological stations: Craiova, Bechet, Calafat, Băileşti,
Caracal, Tg. Jiu, Drăgăşani, Rm. Vâlcea, and Slatina.

Figure no. 3,
Variance of daily
means of minimum,
mean temperatures,
and maximum
temperatures
calculated for the
entire region Oltenia
in October 2010
(Source: processed
data).

Table4 no. 1 Thermal features of November 2010

Meteorological Stations Hm NXI MXI ∆=M-N CrH MinXI Data TMin MaxXI Data TMax
Dr. Tr. Severin 77 6,4 10,1 3,7 W -0,1 28.XI.2010 25,4+ 6.XI.2010
Calafat 66 6,0 10,0 4,0 W -0,3 1.XI.2010 26,2* 10.XI.2010
Bechet 65 5,6 9,8 4,2 W -0,3 1.XI.2010 27,9* 10.XI.2010
*
Băileşti 56 5,5 9,8 4,3 W -1,6 1.XI.2010 26,6 10.XI.2010
Caracal 112 5,5 9,8 4,3 W -0,2 25.XI.2010 26,5* 10.XI.2010
Craiova 190 5,5 9,7 4,2 W -1,0 1.XI.2010 25,6* 10.XI.2010
Slatina 165 5,6 9,7 4,1 W -1,5 25.XI.2010 25,0 10.XI.2010
Bâcleş 309 4,8 12,6 7,8 VW -0,8 2.XI.2010 23,8 10.XI.2010
Tg. Logreşti 262 4,8 10,2 5,4 VW -3,7 1;25.XI.2010 24,1 15.XI.2010

4
NXI= mean monthly multiannual temperatures (°C) of November (calculated for the period 1901-
1990); MXI= temperature means (°C) for November 2010; ∆=M-N deviation of mean monthly
temperature compared to the mean multiannual values (°C); MinXI= minimum monthly
temperature in November 2010 (°C); Data Tmin= date when monthly minimum temperature was
registered; MaxXI = maximum monthly temperature in November 2010 (°C). Data Tmax = date
when monthly maximum temperature was registered; Values with * became absolute maximum
thermal records for November for the respective meteorological stations.

461
Meteorological Stations Hm NXI MXI ∆=M-N CrH MinXI Data TMin MaxXI Data TMax
Drăgăşani 280 5,6 10,5 4,9 W -1,0 25.XI.2010 23,6* 5.XI.2010
Apa Neagră 250 4,8 7,9 3,1 W -4,4 1.XI.2010 24,6 6.XI.2010
Tg. Jiu 210 5,1 8,6 3,5 W -2,7 1.XI.2010 24,5 5.XI.2010
Polovragi 546 4,8 8,8 4,0 W -2,4 25.XI.2010 22,8 15.XI.2010
*
Rm. Vâlcea 243 5,2 9,6 4,4 W -1,0 25.XI.2010 25,2 15.XI.2010
Parâng 1585 0,4 4,8 4,4 W -7,4 25.XI.2010 16,5 3.XI.2010
Oltenia - Average 5,0 9,5 4,5 W

All the values were registered in the compact warm period November 4-
16. At the level of the entire country, in November 2010, there were registered
many thermal records, while in the southeast of the country, the extremely warm
weather was characteristic to November 23-24 and 29. We exemplify with the
maximum temperature of 25.4°C registered at Olteniţa on November 29, 2010,
which confirms that the month was warm within the entire country.
The extremely warm weather from November 2010 confirmed for
Romania the thermal record registered in 2010.
The graph rendering the daily mean values of the minimum, normal, and maximum
temperatures for the entire region emphasizes the aforementioned warm period.
The variance tendencies of the three curves were decreasing; the most rapidly
decreasing one was that rendering the daily minimum temperatures, which is
mainly induced by the progressive increase of the night duration (fig. no. 4) and the
gradual weather cooling on the entire continent.

Figure no. 4, Variance of

daily means of minimum,
mean temperatures, and
maximum temperatures
calculated for the entire
region Oltenia in November
2010 (Source: processed
data).

5. CONCLUSIONS
The autumn 2010 was generally rainy and warm. Rainy weather registered
in October and November. Even if September was nice and warm, drought
hindered the carrying out of agricultural works in due time, and it is especially
about sowing, but it favoured the harvest, transport and storing process of
agricultural products.

462
 In the first part of October, weather got cold and rainy, when moisture
excess in the soil and pool formation made specific agricultural works difficult.
Warm weather was characteristic to November, but it continued to rain,
and certain autumn sowing was delayed. Consequently, plants confronted with
winter weather insufficiently grown. The appearance of the winter thermal regime
and of winter phenomena characterized by an insignificant snow layer starting with
December 11 surprised autumn crops mostly unprepared for wintering.
November 2010 was the warmest in the last 50 years, but the old thermal
record for the entire country of 30.5°C (the only value ≥ 30°C since the beginning
of measurements at all the meteorological stations), registered the last century at
Călăraşi on November 1, 1926, was not exceeded. However, at numerous
meteorological stations, the maximum temperatures registered this month became
new thermal records.
The maximum temperatures registered at Calafat, Bechet, Băileşti, Caracal,
Craiova Drăgăşani, and Rm. Vâlcea became absolute maximum temperatures for
November, significantly exceeding those registered before.
The value of 27.9°C, registered at Bechet became the absolute maximum
temperature of November in Oltenia, the former maximum value being 27.5°C,
registered on November 1, 1926 at Băile Olăneşti in Vâlcea County. We also
remark that this value (27.9°C) was registered on November 10, (Table no. 1),
which emphasizes a significant 10-day delay of the heat waves in November. The
value registered at Olteniţa on November 29, 2010 indicates an even greater delay
and confirms the continuation of global warming.
The frequent warming in the south and especially the southeast of the
country registered this month confirms the thermal potential of the region.
The combination of the warm and excessively dry September with October
(excessively rainy - ER) and November (very rainy – VR or even excessively
rainy) represents a climatic and agroclimatic risk for autumn crops.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Octavia Bogdan, Ion Marinică, Loredana-Elena Mic (2009), Al doilea maxim

pluviometric de toamnă în România, Analele Universităţii Spiru Haret, Seria
Geografie, Nr. 12, 2009, ISSN 1453-8792, Fundaţia România de Mâine Bucureşti,
pp 91-98.
2. Octavia Bogdan, Ion Marinică, Andreea Floriana Marinică (2010), Frequency of
warm winters within Oltenia in 1999-2008 decade, în volumul Aerul şi Apa
Componente ale Mediului, dedicat Conferinţei Ştiinţifice cu acelaşi titlu 19-
20.III.2010 Cluj Napoca, Editori Gavril Pandi şi Florin Moldovan, Editura Presa
Universitară Clujană, pp 45-54, ISSN: 2067-743X.
3. Octavia Bogdan, Ion Marinică (2010), Perioadele ploioase din intervalul 2000-
2008. Studiu de caz – Oltenia, Revista Geografică T. XVII, 2010, Serie Nouă
(revistă acreditată CNCSIS), ARS DOCENDI Universitatea din Bucureşti, ISSN
1224 – 256 X, pp 16-28.

463
4. Ion Marinică, Andreea-Floriana Marinică, The Rainy Autumns in the Last Decade
in Oltenia-Index of Climatic Changes, Conference on water observation and
information system for decision support BALWOIS 2010 abstacts 27-31 may,
Ohrid, Reppublic of Macedonia, pp. 64, ISBN 978-608-4510-03-1, catalog CIP
556:551.58(062(048.3); 626/628(062)(048.3); 502.51(062) (048.3), edited by M.
Morell, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, France,
http://balwois.com/balwois/info_sys/publication2010.php.
5. *** http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/
6. *** http://www.nasa.gov/
7. *** http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/
 FLASH FLOODS IN THE ILIŞUA BASIN

G. HOGNOGI1, G. NICULA1, GABRIELA COCEAN1

ABSTRACT. – Flash Floods in the Ilişua Basin. The Ilişua Valley is a right
tributary of the Someşu Mare Valley and has its spring in the south-western part of
the Tibleş Mountains. It is a perennial river, and its maximum flow sometimes
exceeds the national multi-anual average. One manifestation of this high flow is
represented by two types of flash floods: the ones caused by heavy rainfall and the
ones caused by the both heavy precipitation and the melting of snow. These two
types of flash floods have specific characteristics not only in terms of causes but
also in the happening, the impact area and the scale or proportions of damage.
These features are further explained in the analysis of two flash floods that have
taken place on May 12-17, 1970 and June 20-21, 2006. The occurence of these
extreme hydrological phenomena in the basin and their impact upon nature, people
and infrastructure makes the need of more hydrological survey a fact.

Keywords: Ilişua Valley, flash floods, precipitation, causes, damage.

1. INTRODUCTION
Fig.1. The Ilişua Basin.
Hypsometric map (DAS-T)
The Ilişua Valley, with its lenght of
52 km, stands out as the Someşul Mare
Valley’s most important right tributary. Its
springs are situated on the southern side of
the Păltiniş Peak, Tibleş Mountains, at 1020
m of altitude, whilst the point of confluence is
located at 242 m of altitude, at Cristeşti-
Ciceu. (Cocean and Danciu, 1994). The 778
m difference in altitude between the source
and the mouth of the river, related to its
lenght, reveals an average slope value of 15
%. As the slope decreases down stream, the
values also decrease from 28% upriver, in the
central part of the Ţibleş Obcine to about 4%
in the medium-down stream, in the Suplai
Hills (subunit to the Someşului Mare Hills)
(Fig.1).
,,The Ilişua River, as a body of water,
reveals a dentritic network with major
tributaries (Răcăteş, Zâmbriţa, Hălmăsău,

1
“Babeş-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
gabriela.cocean@geografie.ubbcluj.ro

465
Sita, Dumbrăviţa, Dobricelului Valleys) perpendicular to the drainage direction,
and minor ones, of low drainage potential, dip or antidip, found on the front or
back of the cuesta, carved into Eocene-Oligocene formations” (Cocean. P, and
Gabriela Cocean, 2007) or Badenian formations (downstream the Dobric-
Dumbrăviţa line). It collects its waters from an area of 353 km².
Precipitation, the climatic element
30 % of highest interest for the studying of flash
25
25 floods has an average amount of 800 mm,
with different values between the upper
20
15
and lower basin (Agrieş 1000mm,
15
12
Cristeşti Ciceu 600mm). Snow is present
10
10 10
8 8
for 60-100 days/year.
4
6 The main soil orders, Luvisols
5
2 2
0
and Cambisols, support rich vegetation
0
Luna
associations such as natural grassland,
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII oak-beech forests and conifer forests
(spruce). The total area covered by forests
Fig. 2. Monthly peak flows in of the basin consists of 11200 hectares
percentages (DAS-T) (31.7% of the total land area), most of it
concentrated in the upper basin.
The spatial distribution of human settlements has been influenced by the
morfometric features of the landscape. Thus, the centres of villages have been
placed in the fossil flood plain upstream, and on the 2nd and 3rd terraces
downstream.

2. METHODOLOGY

The study of the flash floods that have occured in the area is based upon
lengthy observation of the manifestation of the processes, their impacts and the
antrophic response to these extreme natural phenomena. The circumstances and main
features of flash-floods where identified after analyzing data and conclusions of the
specialised departments of the The Someş – Tisa Water Directorate.
The analysis of the effects of these flash floods is based on the data supllied
by the same departments of The Someş – Tisa Water Directorate but also by local
officials as well as on the field survey done by the authors.

3. CONTINUITY OF EXTREME HYDROLOGICAL PHENOMENA

The geographical position acts like a conditional and amplifying factor for
the development and evolution of flash-floods. Eastern Carpathians, in general, and
Ţibleş Mountains as a constituent unit, due to their position that is transverse to the
dirrection of the movement of air mases that penetrate the Intra-Carpathian space,
favor the regeneration and long stagnation of atmospheric turbulences in the
Transylvanian Basin.

466
 The development and features of floods in the Ilişua Basin are influenced
by several factors, with different degrees of influence. Thus, morphometric
elements, spatial and temporal variation of regimen of the stream, litho-edaphic
stratum are all causal factors, whilst the distribution of vegetation and human
activity are factors of variable features, they can either favor the development of a
flood, but also prevent it from happening, or at least diminish the impact of such a
phenomenon. Meteorological elements like rainfall and melting snow act as the
triggers for flash floods.
The flash floods that took place in this area are included in one of the two
types known for the temperate continental climate: spring and winter floods,
caused by heavy precipitation associated with the suddent melting of snow, and
summer floods, caused by excesive rainfall. (Fig 2).
The ones that have taken place in 1875, July 1910 (Dobricului Valley, 23
casualties), May 12-17, 1970 and June, 20 th, 2006 are the most important floods in
the area.
Measurements of meteorological and hydrological parameters are made at
the only hydrometric station in the basin, located in Cristeşti –Ciceu, whilst in
Agrieş only measurement of precipitation are made. Up until 1990, pluviographs
were in function in both Spermezeu and Târlişua.

4. CAUSES

The flash flood of 12-17 of May, 1970. The hydro-meteorological context

of this flash flood is marked by the amount of precipitation fallen between January
1 to April 30, 1970 that exceeded 200 mm. By late April, precipitation was still
represented mainly by snow, due to low
temperatures. In May, temperatures
began to rise, reaching, between the 7th
and the 13th, 29ºC. The temperature
rising was due to the entering of tropical
maritime air moving from North Africa
passing over Italy and arriving into
Central Europe, including the
Transylvanian basin. (fig 3)
It then reached the mountain
area causing temperature increase at
higher altitude, up to the point of having
Fig. 3. T.A. 500 mb Map of May 12 positive temperature at night time,
(Anuarul meteorologic 1970) determining the sudden melting of
snow.
During this period, weather conditions were unstable, with heavy rainfall
accompanied by lightning. Since the beginning of May, up till the 12th, there was
an amount of precipitation almost equal to the entire month multi-anual average.

467
 On the 12th and 13th, a maritime polar air moved from the North Sea, and
met the warm tropical air, causing a deep cyclonic center that had a surface
pressure of about 995 mb. The great termic contrast between the two air masses
was 10-15 degrees at ground level as well as in higher altitudine. Associated to the
surface topography, it caused a strong vertical motion that formed large clouds.
The result was the fall of heavy rain accompanied by lightning, increasing wind
and hail, whilst in the mountains sleet and snow was reported.
On large areas, rain had a significant degree of torrentiality. Thus, in 72
hours (between the 11th and 13th of May) rain quantity increased up to 100,5 mm in
Târlişua and 83.5mm in Spermezeu (Anuarul meteorologic 1970).
These weather conditions, that have also led to the melting of snow, in the
context of soil moisture that had increased in the previous period and reduced
evapotranspiration, were the main meteorological factors that caused the flash
flood.
The flash flood of 20-21 of June 2006 was caused by abundant
precipitation. The days before the flood were characterized by unstable weather
conditions and a great amount of precipitation, especially between June 1st and
June 20th when the values were in the range
of 28 l/m² in the lowlands of the basin and
53 l/m² in the higher areas. Flow levels and
volumetric flow rate in the sections of
gauging stations were still close to the
average annual values of June.
On June 20th, hot air, accompanied
by high temperatures entered the Someş
basin area, causing an overcast sky, and
associated with the high nucleus of very
cold air, excesive rainfall unequally spread
upon the area. (Fig 4)
The strongest impact of the collision
between the two air masses was felt in the
north-western part of Bistriţa-Năsăud
County, especially in the Ilişua basin.
Thus, data from the two gauging
stations reveal the very high intensity of the
Fig. 4. Distribution of generating
phenomenon. At Cristeştii Ciceului, on the rainfall (DAS-T)
lower stream, on June 20th, 60 l/m² were
recorded, whilst on the upper stream, at Agrieş a similar amount was registred right
before the gear was detroyed by the flood wave. (Şerban et al,2010)
After the analysis of weather radar images, the estimated quantities have
reached up to 125 liters per square meter in isolated spots, and above 100 liters per
square meter in the upper section of the basin (DAS-T).

468
 5. DEVELOPMENT
The flash flood of 12-17 of May, 1970. The abundant rain fallen from
January up to April, resulted into the supersaturation of the soil. There has also
been produced a substantial layer of snow in late April, which melted due to the
positive temperatures in early May.
In addition, between the 10th and
th
Q
12 of May, the amount of precipitation was
350 of 47mm in Spermezeu and 52 mm in
300 Târlişua, half of them registered in the
250 afternoon of May 12th. Later on that night,
200
torrential rain fell, reaching even higher
150
values, of 59 mm in Târlişua and 63,8mm in
100
50
Spermezeu.
0
Under the above circumstances, an
5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 incresed flow was reported at the Cristeşti –
data Ciceu station, starting in the morning of
May 12th (11.6 m³/s), until 10am of the next
Fig. 5. The hydrograph day (294 m³/s).
for the 12-17 .V.1970 flash flood We can distinguish three stages of
the development of the flood:
1. the slow, primary stage – between 7am and 9pm, when the flow increased
by 45.7 m³/s;
2. the explosive, medium stage between 9pm şi 3am, when the flow increased
by 222.3 m³/s;
3. the slow, superior stage, between 3am şi 10pm, when the flow increased by
33.4 m³/s.
This last stage was followed by a decrease in flow for the next 56 hours,
down to the amount of 18 m³/s (May, 15th, 6pm), following similar steps, but in
reverse. Due to its features, the explosive, medium stage can be compared to a
flash flood caused by heavy precipitation.
The events of May 16th, had a similar pattern: heavy rainfall during the
night, especially in the upper basin, (20,7 mm at Târlişua), leading to an increase in
flow up to 41.1 m³/s. The next days, there was a decrease of flow, and the returning
to normal values for the period, 7 m³/s on June 22nd. (Fig. 5)
We must however underline the significant contribution of heavy rainfall
in the mountains, and generally in the upper basin, to the formation and evolution
of the flood. Correlations with values reported in the upper basins of nearby rivers,
at Suplai, on the Ţibleş river, or Groşii Tiblesului on the Lăpuş river, sustain the
idea that in the upper part of the basin, in Şendroaia, for instance, the values were
potentially much higher than the ones in Târlişua.
The flash flood of 20-21 of June 2006 was due to strong rainfall. Enhanced
convective cores (over 25 l/ m²/hr) were present in the northern part of the basin,
around 12.30am. They slowly moved southward, while others were forming
upstream, amplifying the effect of the first wave of precipitation.

469
 The result of this very heavy rainfall was the development of a flash flood,
characterized by a very sudden increase in flow of all the rivers in the basin. The
peak flow calculated for a median section was of 280 m³/s, corresponding to a
production probability p = 0.7% - 0.8% (DAS-T).
The hydrograph recorded at the Cristeştii Ciceului gauging station (Fig 6),
indicates a peak flow equal to 212 m³/s with production probability of 4%, while in
volume it reached 7.72 million m³. The maximum flow registered in the station’s
section is smaller than the one from the upstream section, because of the flow
reducing once the river discharged in the flood plain. (DAS-T)
Other features of this flash flood are
240
Q the massive drain on the slopes, torrents and
220 small valleys, strong erosion of topsoil and
200
180 carrying of trees, shrubs and wooden
160
140
material resulted from logging.
120 The movement of this
100
80
heterogeneous mass consisting of water,
60 wooden debris and silt was difficult in areas
40
20 of confluence, bridges or windings, where it
0 formed series of blockages. Behind them
19-Jun 20-Jun 21-Jun 22-Jun 23-Jun 24-Jun
large volumes of water gathered forcing and
data
tearing these blockages, and then advancing
Fig. 6. The hydrograph for the with increased flow downstream.
20.06.2006 flash flood

6. EFFECTS

The flash flood of 12-17 of May, 1970. In spite of the maximum flow of
this flood and the long period in which water has been stored (23 h and more than
213 m³), its effects were not perceived as being severe or impressive. The reasons
for this might be the following:
- higher degree of afflorestation (forests being very effective when long-
term rainfall occures);
- the dispersed character of the settlement (it was only after 1970 that the
concentration of the built houses towards the village center was imposed);
- modest economic development of the area, including of households;
- poor infrastructure and technical equipment.
The flash flood of 20-21 of June 2006 was major in terms of effects, being
perceived on several different levels:
- on a social level: casualties;
- on an economic level: from property damage to the destruction of houses,
of infrastructure and damage of the utilities;
- on an environmental level: impacts upon vegetation, soils, the
bacteriological and chemical changes of water;

470
 The total amount of damages has been estimated up
to approximately 94 500 000 RON. One can note the
Upper concentration of damage in the upper basin, which
basin corresponds broadly to the administrative area of
73%
Târlişua (Fig 7).
Lower
basin Among the social type of damage brought by floods,
27% there is also the severe stress the population has
confrunted, increased by the fact that both flash
Fig. 7. Distribution floods happened during the night. The state of stress
of damage in the basin has been compounded by the vulnerability of the
area to the risk of large landslides.

7. CONCLUSIONS

Due to the location of the Ilişua Valley, hydrological risks, like floods or
flash floods have a certain continuity in this area, proven by geomorphological
landcape, archaeological evidence, local memory and of course, hydrometric
measurements.
The two types of flash floods, the ones caused by abundant rainfall, and the
ones caused by heavy snow melting when combined with heavy rainfall have both
occured in the Ilişua basin.
In comparing the two flash floods, one can notice in regard to the causes
the multiple factors of the first, among which the water saturated ground, positive
temperatures that caused the snow melt, heavy rains of May 10-13 whilst the flash
flood of 2006 was the result of particular abundant rainfall in a short period of
time.
Although the first one had a more complex and prolong development, with
its three stages, and the later one was quite simple and developed in just a few
hours, their effects were very different, and very differently perceived. The
vulnerability of the communities to the second flash flood was much greater, and
so its effects were more destructive.
Given the continuity of hydrological extreme phenomena in the Ilişua
basin, there is the need of more hydrometric stations or points, for the better
supervision of the hydrological parameters, and thus for a better and a more
efficient warning system.

Acknowledgment. The authors wish to thank for the financial support

provided from programs co-financed by The SECTORAL OPERATIONAL
PROGRAMME HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT, Contract POSDRU
6/1.5/S/3 – „Doctoral studies: through science towards society".

471
 REFERENCES

1. Cocean, P., Danciu, Rodica (1994) Contribuţii la studiul proceselor geomorfologice

din bazinul Văii Ilişua, Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai, Geografia, XXXIX,1,
Cluj-Napoca.
2. Cocean, P., Cocean, Gabriela, (2007) Cauzele şi efectele viiturii catastrofale de la
Târlişua, Judeţul Bistriţa – Năsăud, din 20 iunie 2006, Studia Universitatis Babeş-
Bolyai, Geografia, LII,1, Cluj-Napoca.
3. Şerban, G., Selagea, H., Mathe, Emoke, Hognogi, G. (2010), Efectele produse de
viitura din bazinul râului Ilişua (Someşul Mare), Aerul şi apa componente ale
mediului, Cluj-Napoca.
4. *** (2006), Raport privind evenimentele hidrometeorologice din Bazinul
hidrografic al râului Ilişua din 20-21 iunie 2006, Direcţia Apelor Someş-Tisa,
Cluj-Napoca.
5. *** (1976), Anuarul meteorologic 1970, Institutul de Meteorologie şi Hidrologie,
Bucureşti.
6. *** (2007), Planul de amenajare şi acoperire riscuri din judeţul Bistriţa-Năsăud,
Inspectoratul pentru situaţii de urgenţă ,,Bistriţa’’ al judeţului Bistreţa-Năsăud,
Bistriţa.
 EUTROPHICATION PHENOMENA IN RESERVOIRS

D. TIMOFTI1, C. DOLTU2, M. TROFIN3

ABSTRACT – Eutrophication phenomena in reservoirs. If in the last few

decades eutrophication represented an isolated incident affecting only some small
lakes, now, dam projects have the potential to change the flow of nutrients and
energy flow in river systems. Often, they provide ideal conditions for algal
blooms, leading to eutrophication of the lake.
In this paper, the authors aim to provide the mass trophicity level assessment of
water in the Solesti lake, other issues and mitigation of eutrophication.

Keywords: eutrophication, trophicity level.

1. INTRODUCTION

The deteriorating quality of terrestrial water resources has been one of the
largest and most widespread environmental problems in the world. Eutrophication
is a particularly severe problem for reservoirs. It represents a focus of applied
ecology and ecosystem management in many parts of the world.
Many aquatic ecosystems have become more eutrophic over the past
decade due to increasing of anthropogenic inputs of nutrients, in particular
nitrogen and phosphorus. Typical symptoms of this process are the sudden bloom
of obnoxious algae species and the frequent occurrence of visible water coloration.
The "trophic status" of lakes is the central concept in lake management. It
is based on overall system productivity and is a function of physical features
(latitude and elevation as they affect sunlight and air temperatures, ratio of
watershed to water body areas, reservoir depth or hydraulic residence time),
chemical features (nutrients, oxygen) and biological responses (primary
productivity, zooplankton and biomass).
Table 1. Relationship between trophic levels and lake characteristics
Trophic Organic matter Mean total phosphorus Chlorophyll maximum Secchi depth
status mg/m3 mg/m3 mg/m3 m
Oligotrophic Low 8.0 4.2 9.9
Mesotrophic medium 26.7 16.1 4.2
Eutrophic high 84.4 42.6 2.45
Hypertrophic very high 750-1200 0.4-0.5

Therefore, eutrophication represents the process of change from one

trophic state to a higher trophic state by the addition of nutrient.

1,2,3
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University, Faculty of Hydrotechnical Engineering, Geodesy and
Environmental Engineering Iasi, Romania, e-mail: diana_timofti@yahoo.com

473
 2. TROPHICITY LEVEL EVALUATION IN SOLEŞTI LAKE

Figure 1. Soleşti lake satellite view

The Soleşti lake is situated at about 20 km from Vaslui, near the village
Soleşti, on Vasluieţ river. From this reservoir the Vaslui city is supplied with
drinking water. It has an area of 452 ha and a volume of 15.8 million cubic meters.
There are necessary two categories of analysis to determine the
phenomenon or the degree of eutrophication in reservoir:
 level of trophicity is characterized by chemical analysis of the main
nutrients; the acquired results may be affected for example by an accidental
discharge;
 assessing the quantitative development of phytoplankton.
In order to assess the level of trophicity water mass, a method that
determines an index trophicity based on the next relation is used:
IT  log RT (1)
where: IT - trophicity index; RT - trophicity ratio, which is calculed with:
RT = phytoplankton biomass (mg/l) / value (5 mg/l) (2)
The results are compared with values from trophicity scale in table 2.

Table 2. Trophicity scale

Trophicity class IT Value
Ultraoligotrophic Under –1,222
Oligotrophic -1,222…- 0,222
Mesotrophic -0,222…0
Eutrophic 0…1,000
Polytrophic 1,000…1,301
Hypertrophic Over 1,301

474
 This method is applied on Soleşti lake to obtain the results for the lake
eutrophication state in 2009 (table 3).

Table 3. The results for Soleşti lake

Collection point Phytoplankton (mg/l) RT IT Evaluation

Near dam 3.452 0.6904 0.1608 Mesotrophic
Outlet dam 3.032 0.6064 0.2172 Mesotrophic
50 m from dam 3.271 0.6542 0.1842 Mesotrophic

Phytoplankton density varies between 202.500 ex. / l and 1.33 million ex. /
l, the average value being 576 875 ex. / l and algal biomass between 0.82 mg / l
and 4.91 mg / l. The mean value of - 2.41 mg / l frames the accumulation in
oligotrophic lakes category. Total phosphorus ranges from 0.105 MGP/l and 0.329
MGP/ l, the mean value of - 0.185 MGP / categorise the accumulation in
hypertrophic lakes. Total mineral nitrogen varies between 0.13 MGN/l and 1.54
MGN/l, mean value of 0.346 MGN / framing the accumulation in oligotrophic
lakes.
The values of chlorophyll "a " is between 4.93 mg/l and 49.83 mg/l, mean
value of - 25.83 mg/l categorise the accumulation in hypertrophic lakes.
As indicators of the eutrophication degree, the Solesti reservoir fits in the
mesotrophic lakes.

Table 4. The characterization of Solesti reservoir function trophic state

Total Trophic
Total
Water mineral Chlorophyll Phytoplankton state
No Reservoir phosphorus
course nitrogen "a " (µg/l) biomass(mg/l)
(mgP/l)
mgN/l) 2009 2008
1 Solesti Vaslui H O H O M E
UO – ultraoligotrophic, O – oligotrophic, M – mesotrophic, E – eutrophic, H - hipertrophic

Therefore, in 2009, the Soleşti lake was framed in the mesotrophic

category, function of phytoplankton biomass and trophicity level.

3. THE IMPACTS OF EUTROPHICATION PROCESS

The problems derived from eutrophication affect the quality of water in

reservoirs used for irrigation and human consumption, but they also have an
adverse effect on the river and reservoir fauna.
The water body becomes anaerobic due to the decomposition of the dead
algae that can lead to excessive consumption of dissolved oxygen. The anaerobic
conditions can cause death of fish and other macro organisms.

475
 Figure 2. Various effects caused by eutrophication

The growth of phytoplankton influence water turbidity which reduces the

penetration of light in the reservoir. The reduction of light can interfere with
photosynthesis of submerged aquatic plants, and this way their growth is
affected.

Figure 3. The influence of high turbidity on the death of submerged vegetation

Eutrophication can also adversely affect a wide variety of water uses such
as water supply (e.g. algae clogging filters in treatment works), livestock watering,
irrigation, fisheries, navigation, water sports, angling and nature conservation.
When algal blooms increase in intensity and frequency, the results can
cause community concern, health problems and in some cases can be catastrophic
to the environment. The impacts are ecological, social and economic.
Eutrophication has been shown to cause competitive release by making abundant
an otherwise limiting nutrient. This causes shifts in the composition of ecosystems.

476
For instance, an increase in nitrogen might allow new and more competitive
species to invade and out compete original species.
Some algal blooms, otherwise called "nuisance algae," are toxic to plants
and animals. Therefore, this toxicity can lead to decreased biodiversity or it can
manifest in primary producers, influencing the food chain. As a result of these
toxic algae, animal mortality has been observed.
Therefore, the data collected from water quality monitoring allow the early
detection of changes and trends in water quality, the evaluation of alternative
remediation strategies and contribute to the advancement of the fundamental
understanding of the behavior of these water bodies.

4. MEASURES TO REDUCE THE EUTROPHICATION PROCESS

Eutrophication poses a problem not only to ecosystems, but to humans as

well. Reducing eutrophication should be a key concern when considering future
policy and a sustainable solution for everyone.
The primary step in the reduction of eutrophication of a lake or reservoir is
to limit, divert or treat inputs of nutrients and associated particles. However,
because lakes and reservoirs can trap and recycle nutrients and organic matter,
reduction in loading from the watershed may not reverse the impact of
eutrophication. Therefore it may be necessary to modify internal chemical,
biological and physical processes. It is suggested that the prediction of changes of
physical, chemical, and biological processes should be based on available
information on the lake and reservoir.
In some cases, measures for reducing or removing nitrogen and/or
phosphorus in eutrophic reservoirs were taken to improve water quality, but they
had no effect. This is largely due to the enormous amounts of nutrients stored in
sediments being constantly released into the water. Therefore it is shown the need
to avoid nutrient loading into the water bodies as early as possible by proper
management and planning practices.
New monitoring technologies employing robotics and advanced probes or
sensors open new horizons in water quality protection. Also, the last two decades
have seen a dramatic increase of numerical simulation models in a variety of large
water bodies.
Prevention is certainly easier than treatment. This principle is perfectly
valid in the water domain, being important to prevent pollution of rivers and lakes.
When preventive measures came too late or had no effect, the authorities have to
appeal to water treatment. This can be extremely costly, complicated and may
present risks and unwanted side effects.
Evaluation of eutrophication, particularly in developing countries, must
balance benefits gained from increased fertility of lakes or reservoirs against
problems associated with the degraded quality of water used for domestic and
industrial purposes.

477
 5. CONCLUSIONS

As consequences, eutrophication produces a general reduction of

possibilities of water use, this way the importance of reservoirs can be
compromised seriously as primary resources for socio-economic development.
Thus, coherent actions are needed to eliminate the causes that generate the
problem of water availability and quality caused by eutrophication, using large
scale integrated water management in order to protect and preserve water
resources.

REFERENCES

1. “A Coordinator’s Guide to Volunteer Lake Monitoring Methods”, Carlson,

R.E. and J. Simpson, North American Lake Management Society, 1996
2. “Eutrophication: causes, consequences and control”, Abid A. Ansari, Sarva-
jeet Singh Gill, Guy R. Lanza, Walter Rast, Springer Science+Business Media
3. “Impactul ecologic al lucrărilor hidrotehnice”, Tobolcea Viorel, Cretu V.,
1995
4. “The protection of reservoir water against the eutrophication process”, W.
Balcerzak, Polish Journal of Environmental Stud., vol. 15, no. 6 (2006)
5. http://www.epm.ugal.ro/ – Curs de hidro-biologie
6. http://www.greenagenda.org

478
 USING GIS TO IDENTIFY POTENTIAL AREAS SUSCEPTIBLE
TO FLOOD. CASE STUDY: SOLONEŢ RIVER

V. TIPLEA 1, S. TODICĂ1, IOANA SIMEA2,

T. ANGHEL2, IONELA GEORGIANA GAVRILĂ2

ABSTRACT. – Using GIS to Identify Potential Areas Susceptible to Flood.

Case Study: Soloneţ River. In this study, we aim to analyze the impact of different
peak flows in territory and also a better understanding of the dynamic of a river
flow. The methodology used for flood zone delimitation is based on a quantitative
analysis model which requires the use of mathematical, physical and statistical
operations in order to emphasize the relations between the different variables that
were implied (discharges, grain size, terrain morphology, soil saturation, vegetation
etc.). The results cannot be expected to be completely accurate but can provide a
good representation of the process. Validation of results will inevitably be difficult
and should be measured in the field. The information resulting from this study
could be useful for raising awareness about both hazards and possible mitigation
measure, a key component of disaster risk reduction planning.

Keywords: peak flow, discharges, quantitative model, hazard, GIS.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Soloneţ river, which is the right tributary of the Suceava river, crosses
from west to east the morphological contact between Obcinele Bucovinei and
Sucevei Plain (also known as Piemontul Marginea-Ciungi). Our study area is
located in the lower sector of the river, at the confluence with Suceava river, near
the Parhauti locality.
Characteristic of this area are narrow and deep river beds in which
meander phenomena often occur. The erosion in this sector is increased, the flow
of sediments being noteworthy especially during floods. At the contact with the
Suceava Plain, the sudden decrease of the river bed slope generates a high quantity
of sediments. Another interesting aspect of this area is the fact that although floods
have a high frequency, the river beds remain constant in their direction.
In the case of Soloneţ river the analysis of runoff slopes requires a better
understanding of the sediments transport features (volume, granulometry), as well
as the way in which important tributary (Hotari, Hinata) directs the rivers course.
The formation of meanders is the result of an intense lateral erosion
process, in terms of sediments transport with small granulometry. In this way a
1
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Romania, e-mail:
vasiletiplea@yahoo.com, todica_sandu@yahoo.com
2
"Babeş-Bolyai" University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail:
ioana_simea@geografie.ubbcluj.ro, anghel_titu@geografie.ubbcluj.ro, ionela_gavrila@geografie.ubbcluj.ro

479
state of equilibrium is created between the runoff slope (which directly influences
the flow rate), the liquid and solid flow, the resistance to erosion of the banks and
the contribution of the tributaries.
The sinuosity coefficient of the Soloneţ river varies, between 1,2 in the
upper sector (flysch zone) and 1.62 right after the confluence with the Hotari river.
After this it grows progressively at values over 2, downstream of the confluence
with the Cajvana river.
During the last decades analysis indicates that the sinuosity parameter of
the Soloneţ river grew significantly between 1961 and 1978 (from 1.55 to 1.88),
followed by a decrease between 1978 and 2005 (from 1.88 to 1.76).
The hydric factors determine the start and evolution of the slope modelling
through the value of hydrodynamic and hydrostatic forces. The hydrologic
conditions of the rivers from Marginea-Ciungi Piedmont has a torrential character
as a result of its position in an area with a temperate climate and continental
influences.
The summer flow is characterized by values situated well below the
multiannual average. The uniformity of the runoff regime is interrupted by floods,
which determine an increase in annual flow values.
During the high summer floods (july-august), the action of rivers waters is
stronger because of the increased flows, that sometimes are up to a 100 times
higher than the multiannual average.
The highest water flows recorded on the Soloneţ river took place during the
years 1991 (298m/s on the 28th of July) and 2005 (149 m/s on the 19th of August).
In order to analyze the maximum flows recorded on the Soloneţ river we
used the Log-Pearson Type III Distribution method. We also determined the
reccurence period and the probability of exceeding the maximum flows in the near
future (Tabel 1).
Thus a flow of 298 m/s, that occured on the Soloneţ river during the year
1991, can only be equaled or exceeded, in average, once every 27 years. For
example a flow of 2.9 m/s (double the multiannual average) can be equaled or
even exceeded once a year (the annual probability of exceeding being 96.3%).
On the Soloneţ river we can estimate that a maximum flow of 490 m/s can
only be reached once every 200 years.

2. METHODOLOGY

Our study aims to determine the areas affected by floods on Soloneţ river.
Therefore, we have simulated 6 floods with flows between 2.9 cm/s and 298 cm/s.
First, we have generated a high resolution DEM, using topographic map
sheets (at a scale of 1:5000). Operating at a medium resolution of 1-5 m is fine
enough to allow the channel to span several cells instead of operating within one,
generating a more detailed fluvial representation. This resolution may also allow
representation of different grainsizes, slope and hydrological processes to operate
within the same framework for an area.

480
 Tabel 1. The reccurence period and the probability of exceeding maximum flow
Return Period Exceedence Probability
Rank Year of peak flow Peak flow value Q(m³/s)
(years)
1 1991 298 27.00 0.037
2 2005 149 13.50 0.074
3 1984 121 9.00 0.111
4 2002 91.5 6.75 0.148
5 1981 88.5 5.40 0.185
6 1988 83.6 4.50 0.222
7 1985 73.1 3.86 0.259
8 2001 72.4 3.38 0.296
9 2004 69.1 3.00 0.333
10 1998 51.4 2.70 0.370
11 1996 42.2 2.45 0.407
12 1993 39.8 2.25 0.444
13 2003 37.5 2.08 0.481
14 1982 33.2 1.93 0.519
15 1989 33 1.80 0.556
16 1983 27.3 1.69 0.593
17 1997 26.2 1.59 0.630
18 1992 25.1 1.50 0.667
19 1980 24.1 1.42 0.704
20 1999 23 1.35 0.741
21 2000 13.1 1.29 0.778
22 1987 7.58 1.23 0.815
23 1986 6.16 1.17 0.852
24 1995 4.6 1.13 0.889
25 1994 4.42 1.08 0.926
26 1990 2.9 1.04 0.963

There are several commercial packages available for creating DEM’s, but
in this instance, the TOPOGRID command in ARC-INFO was used. This function
is designed specifically for the interpolation of a hydrological DEM from contour
data. It identifies areas of maximum local curvature and slope to create a network
of streams and ridges, ensuring hydrogeomorphically correct output. TOPOGRID
also removes topographic sinks and hollows. This is necessary as many artificial
sinks are produced by errors interpolating the DEM from contour data (Goodchild
and Mark, 1987; Hutchinson, 1989).
A problem of our study was represented by the exact configuration of
major and minor river beds in the previously generated DEM. For this, a series of
cross sections were created along the Soloneţ river bed, those results being
integrated in the DEM. Thus, we can say that the resulted DEM fairly showed the
reality from field.
The DEM is represented by an array of uniform square grid cells. Each
grid cell has properties like initial values for elevation, water discharge, water
depth and grainsize fractions. For each timestep or iteration, these values are
updated in relation to the immediate neighbours according to laws applied to every
cell. These laws fall into four groups covering hydrological, hydraulic, erosion and
slope process modelling.

481
 The next step of our study consisted in simulating floods by introducing
real or fictional volumes of water from upstream to downstream. The insertion of
fictional flows was done in order to simulate only the extreme flows that could lead
to floods. This was possible through the creation of a model implemented using
GIS techniques (ArcGis, ArcInfo, GRASS and different scripts).
With the help of this model, the soil saturation for an individual cell (Jt) is
calculated. The saturation for the next time-step is then calculated (Jt+1), but for this
an additional parameter is carried over, jt, which before each calculation is set to the
previous iterations jt+1. Then, if the rainfall rate ( r ) equals 0, Jt+1 is calculated
according to next equation.
ji
jt 1 
1   jT
m


J t 1  Tm log 1 
jt T
m

If rainfall is not equal to 0, next equation is used.
j
t 1   r  jt 
r
 ( 0  r )T  
  exp    1 
 jt   m  

m  ( r  jt )  jt exp  rTm  
J t 1  log   
T  r

 
Within these expressions, m is the key variable, controlling the rise and fall
of the soil moisture deficit, effectively the exponential soil water parameter in
TOPMODEL (Beven and Kirkby, 1979). The runoff is multiplied by the grid cell
size to obtain discharges which is added to every cell.
Thus, for quick response flow, such as saturation excess overland flow
produced on a variable contributing area, the duration of flow is likely to be critical
only in small basins. Indeed, for larger ones where channel routing effects become
increasingly important, overland flow may be treated as effectively reaching the
channel within one time step. It is, however, very important to accurately model the
quantity of quick response flow and the time at which it is produced. This will
involve modelling the dynamic response of a variable characterizing the surface
soil layer.
The overall timing of infiltration will certainly be important, but the
characteristics of the infiltration store will be less important than those of the
subsurface store, which may directly shape the overall hydrograph.

482
 The exact structure of the model must necessarily reflect the types of
hydrological characteristics that are quick, convenient and economic to measure for
a particular basin. These include the topographic structure together with infiltration
rates, overland and channel flow velocities, a small number of discharge
measurements and some simple measurements of the soil hydrological
characteristics.
Then, for each grid cell, a runoff threshold is calculated which is based
upon the amount of water that will infiltrate through the soil, a balance of the
hydraulic conductivity (K), the slope (S) and the horizontal spacing (Dx).

Threshold  KS Dx 
2

This is then subtracted from the soil saturation produced from first two
equations and the proportion above is treated as runoff, that below as subsurface
flow. This subsurface flow is routed using a multiple flow algorithm as described
by Desmet and Govers (1996).
S inx
Qi  Q 0
 S ix
Here Qi is the fraction of discharge delivered to the neighbouring cell i from
the total cell discharge (Qo) in m³ /s, according to the slope S between the cell and
its relative neighbours I, numbering from 1-x (x ranging from 3 to 8 depending on
the number of neighbours).

3. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

In order to simulate a flood we can either use the real data recorded that
year or we can just insert a fictitious value for the flow. By inserting the daily
values of the flows recorded along recent years on Soloneţ river, we obtained the
simulation of the runoff process in normal parameters.
The simulation starts with the entering of values from upstream to
downstream in order to fill the minor river bed progressively. Depending on the
circulated flow, on each sampling, the value of the cells updates corresponding to
the inserted flows.
The results that were obtained after the simulation of 6 floods are presented
as follows. Once we insert fictitious flows the river starts to flood the lower areas
of the minor river bed (small depressions, abandoned courses etc.). As the flow
increases, so does the flooded surface of the river bed (fig. 1).

483
 Fig. 1. Spatial distribution of flooded areas
for 6 fictitious values proposed on Soloneţ River

The importance of this simulation is that we can identify the areas which
will be affected if the proposed values of the flow occur naturally on Soloneţ river.
For our analysis, the potentially endangered surfaces vary between 11 230 m² ( at a
flow of 13 m3/s) and 125 775 m² (at an extreme flow of 298n3/s) (fig.2).

484
 The model we used is perfectible, the outlook of the study consisting in
validating results in the field and correcting software deficiencies. The damage
from the floods may be reduced in two ways: either by modifying the hazard itself
or by reducing the human susceptibility to it.

Fig. 2. The size of flooded areas at different values on Soloneţ river

Both ways require a mapping of the floods susceptibility. Such maps

normally aim at providing a document that depicts the likelihood or possibility of
new floods occuring on this river, and therefore helping to reduce future damages.

4. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by Investing in people! PhD scholarship, Project co-
financed by the SECTORAL OPERATIONAL PROGRAMME HUMAN
RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 2007 – 2013 Priority Axis 1 "Education and training
in support for growth and development of a knowledge based society" Key area of
intervention 1.5: Doctoral and post-doctoral programmes in support of research.
Contract POSDRU 6/1.5/S/3 – „DOCTORAL STUDIES: THROUGH SCIENCE
TOWARDS SOCIETY" Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania and Ph.D.
scholarship, Project co-financed by the Sectoral Operational Program for Human
Resources Development 2007 – 2013. Priority Axis 1. "Education and training in
support for growth and development of a knowledge based society". Key area of
intervention 1.5: Doctoral and post-doctoral programs in support of research. Contract
No.: POSDRU/88/1.5/S/60185 – “Innovative Doctoral Studies in A Knowledge Based
Society” Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.

485
 REFERENCES

1. Beven, K. J., Kirkby, M. J., (1979), A physically based, variable contributing area
model of basin hydrology, Hydrol. Sci. Bull., 24, 43–69.
2. Beven, K. J., Wood, E. F., Sivapalan, M, (1988), On hydrological heterogeneity –
catchment morphology and catchment response, J. Hydrol., 100, 353–375, 1988.
3. Desmet, P.J.J., Govers, G., (1996), Comparison of routing algorithms for digital
elevation models and their implications for predicting ephemeral gullies,
International Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 10, 311-331.
4. Desmet, P.J.J., Govers, G., (1997), Two-dimensional modelling of the within-field
variation in rill and gully geometry and location related to topography, Catena,
29, 283-306.
5. Hutchinson, M. F. (1988), Calculation of hydrologically sound digital elevation
models, Paper presented at Third International Symposium on Spatial Data
Handling at Sydney, Australia.
6. Hutchinson, M. F., (1989), A new procedure for gridding elevation and stream line
data with automatic removal of spurious pits, Journal of Hydrology, 106: 211–
232.
7. Nico G., Rutigliano P. (2005), Terrain modeling by kinematical GPS survey,
Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, nr. 5.
8. Guzzetti F., Tonelli G., (2004), Information system on hydrological and
geomorphological catastrophes in Italy (SICI): a tool for managing landslide and
flood hazards. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 4(2):213–232.
9. Carbonneau Patrice E., Lane Stuart N., Bergeron N., (2006), Feature based image
processing methods aplied to bathymetric measurements from airborne remote
sensing in fluvial environments, Earth Surface Processes and landforms, vol.31.
10. Todica S., (2009), Morfodinamica actual in zona de contact Obcinele Bucovinei-
Podisul Sucevei, Teza de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca.
11. Goodchild, M. F., D. M. Mark, (1987) The fractal nature of geographic
phenomena. Annals of Association of American Geographers. 77 (2): 265-278.

486
 USE OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION
FOR DROUGHT SEVERITY ASSESSMENT

I.C. STÂNGĂ1

ABSTRACT. – Use of logarithmic function for drought severity assessment.

Due to the multiplicative and cumulative effect of various risk events, the use of
logarithmic function can provide satisfactory results in the analysis of risks. Based
on the monthly values of climatic parameters from fourteen stations in the eastern
part of Romania (1961-2006), the author uses the logarithmic function to evaluate
and interpret the severity of droughts. With this function, deficient rainfall periods
are diagnosed and classified according to three levels (moderate, high and extreme
droughts). On these bases, the mathematical modeling allows to assess and
evaluate the susceptibility to drought phenomena and the degree of continentalism
in the eastern part of Romania.

Keywords: rainfall, logarithm, drought, continentalism.

1. INTRODUCTION

Dryness and drought phenomena evaluation is based on a very broad

methodology, allowing a diagnosis more or less precise. Wide range of drought
assessment indices and methods can be grouped into several categories, depending
on the calculation procedure or the considered type of drought: rainfall indices and
criteria, hydric balance and complex indices, diagrams and climograms, indices
determined on the basis of satellite images (Stângă, 2009c). In this article, we focus
on statistical and mathematical processing of rainfall data with direct reference to
the first category of indices. Among these, we mention: the Hellman criterion,
Topor rainfall index (Topor, 1964), deciles method (Gibbs and Maher, 1967),
drought index Bhalme-Mooley, standardized precipitation index (McKee et al.,
1993), effective drought index (Byun şi Wilhite, 1999), Gaussen xerothermic index
(Gaussen and Bagnouls, 1953) etc.
Much of these indices and charts serve to a climatic diagnosis, being
especially useful in studies of regional climatology. However, with some
exceptions, their use in assessing the real significance of the severity of drought is
blurring. In some cases, the reason is that these indices evolve linearly between the
minimum and maximum values in relation to climatic elements included in the
calculation equation. However, the relationship between a climate element and the
its risk status may be expressed by a linear function only in very isolated cases.
Most times, the effects of risk events are cumulative and/or multiplicative, for
which the relationship between these effects and the considered variables are much
better described by the exponential or power function (Stângă, 2009a, 2009b).
1
"Alexandru Ioan Cuza" University, Faculty of Geography, 700505, Romania, e-mail: catiul@yahoo.com

487
 2. PRACTICAL USE OF LOGARITHMS

The logarithm of a number to a given base is a power to witch the base

must be raised in order to obtain that number (logax). A logarithmic function is a
function of the form f(x)=logax, where a is a positive real number (a≠1). The most
important is the natural logarithmic function: f(x)= ln x. A logarithmic growth
describes a phenomenon whose intensity can be described as a logarithmic function
of some imput. The logarithmic scale is a scale of measurement that use the
logarithm of a physical unit instead the unit itself. Data representation on a
logarithmic scale can be appropriate when input data cover a large range of values.
In addition, the logarithms can be used for standardization and normalization of
statistical variables. In statistics, logarithms are frequently used in logistic
regression and logit function. Logistic regression is a variation of ordinary
regression which is used when the dependent variable is a dichotomous variable (0
and 1) and the independent variables are continuous.
Logarithms, logarithmic functions and logarithmic scales are frequently
used to describe different phenomena or probabilities. Thus, the Richter magnitude
scale (local magnitude) is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the
logarithm of the maximum amplitude of the seismic wave measured on a particular
type of seismometer. In chemistry, pH is a negative base-10 logarithm of a molar
concentration of dissolved hydronium ions; thus, a high pH indicates a low
concentration of hydronium ions, while a low pH indicates a high one. The decibel
is a logarithmic unit that indicates the ratio of a physical quantity relative to a
specified reference level. The Palermo Technical Impact Hazard Scale is a
logarithmic scale used by astronomers to rate the potential hazard of impact of a
near-earth object, combining the probability of impact and estimated kinetic yield.
Based on the monthly values of climatic parameters from fourteen stations in
the eastern part of Romania (1961-2006), the present paper shows the results of
using the logarithmic function to evaluate and interpret the severity of droughts.

3. DROUGHT SEVERITY ASSESSMENT

Generally, when the effect of causal factors is multiplicative, logarithms of

measurement data (e. g. monthly or annual values of rainfall or river flow) are
characterized by a log-normal distribution (Giurma, 2009). The accuracy of the
distribution is more significant if the logarithm is applied to a standardized value
(standard deviation, for example) and if the string of data is enough long to be
relevant (at least 40 years). Log-normal distribution has zero as lower limit, is
unimodal (has only one maximum) and density distribution equation does not depend
on the logarithm base, that interfering with a constant. Yet, the analysis of the normal
distribution of values in a string of data is not the objective of this paper.
The multiplicative effect of the logarithmic function can be fully exploited to
quantify this effect by the construction of certain risk indicators. In a previous study
(2009a) we presented a methodology for calculating a rainfall index. Also, in that

488
paper we have discussed a case study on the southern part of the Moldavian Plateau.
The working methodology was based on the ratio between rainfall of a particular
month (Ri) and the mean rainfall of that month (Rm): K=Ri/Rm.
Thus, the positive values correspond to periods when recorded rainfall is
higher than mean rainfall, while the negative values correspond to periods of poor
rainfall compared with the average. This ratio is very easy to be calculated for any
region and any period of time (decade, month, growing season, year), but its
relevance strongly depends on the extent of the data string. Although it has only a
diagnosis character, this index allows comparisons between different climatic regions
or between different time intervals. Subsequently, at that time, we had proceeded to
calculate the 10-base logarithm of the ratio Ri/Rm.
For this article, we are testing now the natural logarithm, to obtain more
suggestive results by the rainfall logarithmic index (RLI). The relation has the form:
Ri
RLI  ln( )  ln K
Rm
Getting the K ratio logarithm has as a consequence the fact that subunitary
values, with deficit character, become negative, while the values above one remain
positive. The zero value of index corresponds to a period in which actual rainfall is
equal to the mean rainfall of that interval. The Rainfall Logarithmic Index (RLI)
based on the natural logarithm is more suggestive in the analysis of risk events, due
to the exaggeration of the extreme values. That is why RLI allows to emphasize more
clearly the periods of excess and deficient in terms of rainfall.
In the eastern part of Romania, the mean values of the RLI range between -
0.20 (Rădăuţi) and -0.33 (Tecuci). In this small amplitude, regional differences are
not very well captured. However, both the annual values and the monthly ones reveal
an essential feature of temperate continental climate: the poor distribution of
precipitations accompanied by the high frecuency of dry periods (Table 1). Although
RLI can drop to values below -0.50 for September-October in the southern part of the
Moldavian Tableland, it may be noted that negative values are characteristic as well
for the wettest months of the year (June, for exemple).

Table 1. Rainfall logarithmic index (1961-2006)

Station I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII AN
Adjud -0.46 -0.31 -0.28 -0.21 -0.22 -0.17 -0.20 -0.26 -0.43 -0.48 -0.41 -0.37 -0.32
Bacău -0.25 -0.15 -0.26 -0.15 -0.21 -0.11 -0.15 -0.22 -0.39 -0.39 -0.26 -0.23 -0.23
Bârlad -0.40 -0.27 -0.37 -0.17 -0.22 -0.12 -0.15 -0.29 -0.53 -0.47 -0.38 -0.33 -0.31
Botoşani -0.23 -0.27 -0.29 -0.21 -0.19 -0.15 -0.17 -0.20 -0.45 -0.35 -0.24 -0.30 -0.25
Cotnari -0.23 -0.29 -0.30 -0.16 -0.21 -0.14 -0.15 -0.19 -0.48 -0.42 -0.21 -0.26 -0.25
Focşani -0.49 -0.33 -0.40 -0.19 -0.21 -0.14 -0.22 -0.32 -0.37 -0.41 -0.50 -0.29 -0.32
Galaţi -0.48 -0.28 -0.35 -0.18 -0.23 -0.19 -0.42 -0.22 -0.47 -0.46 -0.36 -0.32 -0.33
Iaşi -0.25 -0.23 -0.34 -0.15 -0.27 -0.16 -0.14 -0.27 -0.52 -0.36 -0.24 -0.23 -0.26
Piatra Neamţ -0.26 -0.20 -0.23 -0.15 -0.16 -0.10 -0.10 -0.18 -0.39 -0.36 -0.22 -0.28 -0.22
Rădăuţi -0.20 -0.19 -0.24 -0.12 -0.17 -0.11 -0.13 -0.16 -0.35 -0.28 -0.21 -0.26 -0.20
Roman -0.28 -0.28 -0.33 -0.16 -0.18 -0.11 -0.12 -0.20 -0.49 -0.38 -0.22 -0.28 -0.25
Suceava -0.24 -0.20 -0.24 -0.16 -0.19 -0.13 -0.21 -0.20 -0.34 -0.28 -0.17 -0.27 -0.22
Tecuci -0.43 -0.28 -0.36 -0.17 -0.22 -0.16 -0.20 -0.30 -0.46 -0.55 -0.46 -0.34 -0.33
Vaslui -0.30 -0.25 -0.36 -0.19 -0.31 -0.12 -0.14 -0.36 -0.54 -0.38 -0.33 -0.27 -0.30
AVERAGE -0.32 -0.25 -0.31 -0.17 -0.21 -0.14 -0.18 -0.24 -0.44 -0.40 -0.30 -0.29 -0.27

489
 Given the specific values presented in table 1, their validation by
comparative analysis has been considered appropriate. To this purpose, it was
calculated Penman-Monteith reference evapotranspiration (PM-ET0) based on its
correlation with air temperature (T):
PM-ET0 = 0,0048·T2 + 0,0678· T + 0,4888 (Păltineanu ş.a., 2007).
Subsequently, we have proceeded to calculate the evapotranspiration/rainfall
ratio (ET/R) and its correlation with RLI. In figure no. 1, is shown the correlation
between the mean values of the ratio ET/R and of the RLI for the fourteen
meteorological stations in research area. These two variables (ET/R and RLI) are
directly proportional and the statistical relevance of the correlation is more than
significant (R2=0.78). The fact that the value “one” of the ratio ET/PP corresponds to
a negative value of RLI has already been explained by the poor rainfall distribution,
that the proposed index can illustrate.

1.50
y  =  3.288x  +  1.886            R ²  =  0.779
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
‐0.35 ‐0.3 ‐0.25 ‐0.2 ‐0.15

Fig. 1. Correlation between ET/R ratio (vertical axis) and RLI (horizontal axis)

However, the usefulness of this index is much higher in the analysis of case
studies to quantify the severity of the different periods of drought. In this situation,
index values are not dimmed by mediation and the logarithm properties can be
effective exploited. RLI values were grouped into six classes (four of them are
considered dry, one is considered normal in terms of rainfall and the last belongs to
rainy periods):
1. Excessive drought (RLI< -1.00; K < 0.37); critical drought (RLI< -2.0; K< 0.135);
2. Severe drought (-1.00 ≤ RLI < -0.70; K ≈ 0.37-0.50);
3. Medium drought (-0.70 ≤ RLI < -0.40; K ≈ 0.51-0.67);
4. Dry period (-0.40 ≤ RLI < -0.10; K ≈ 0.68-0.90);
5. Normal period (-0.10 ≤ RLI ≤ +0.10; K ≈ 0.91-1.10);
6. Rainy periods (RLI > +0.10; K > 1.10).
On the basis of this index, we find that in the eastern part of Romania, 50%
of months have a deficit character, 10-15% of the them are normal in terms of
rainfall and for 35-40% months rainfall is higher than average (Table 2).

490
 Table 2. Weight of monthly rainfall rating according to RLI classes (1961-2006)
Type of drought 1 2 3 4 5 6
Adjud 19.93 9.96 9.78 12.68 13.59 34.06
Bacău 11.96 9.42 14.67 15.58 13.77 34.60
Bârlad 18.12 7.25 12.86 13.59 11.05 37.14
Botoşani 15.94 7.97 13.22 15.22 12.14 35.51
Cotnari 16.85 7.79 11.96 14.49 14.49 34.42
Focşani 19.61 8.29 12.71 9.39 14.92 35.08
Galaţi 20.47 7.97 10.14 15.04 12.50 33.88
Iaşi 16.12 8.51 11.23 16.12 13.95 34.06
Piatra Neamţ 12.14 10.51 11.78 16.49 13.04 36.05
Rădăuţi 12.68 7.61 13.22 15.40 15.58 35.51
Roman 15.04 6.34 13.95 17.57 10.87 36.23
Suceava 13.77 8.51 11.05 17.21 13.04 36.41
Vaslui 18.48 7.97 11.59 14.67 11.41 35.87
Average 16.24 8.32 12.17 14.88 13.10 35.29

Taking into account the multiplicative character of the logarithmic function

and the other mathematical properties of the logarithms, the graphic representation of
data becomes more suggestive to emphasize the frequency and the severity of
excessive drought (Fig. 2).

2.00 0.00
1 21 41 61 81 101
1.00 -0.50
-1.00
0.00
1 61 121 181 241 301 361 421 481 541 -1.50
-1.00 -2.00
-2.00 -2.50

-3.00 -3.00
-3.50
-4.00
-4.00
-5.00 -4.50
-6.00 -5.00

Rădăuţi Galaţi Rădăuţi Galaţi

Fig. 2. Ascending distribution of RLI (1961-2006) for Galaţi and Rădăuţi

(all values to the left and the excessive drought to the right)

As a specific feature of the Moldavian Plateau climate, it is clear that RLI

has a general asymmetry of the left, with the predominance of negative values. For
the positive values, the threshold of +2.0 is never touched (the maximum value was
+1.72 for January 1966 in Adjud). For the negative ones, however, there are extreme
situations (3.4%) when the index value may fall below the critical threshold of -2.0.
To this threshold, rainfall does not exceed 13.5% compared with mean value of that
period. Below this threshold, drought affect the river flow, the soil water reserves, the
groundwater aquifers etc. These are the critical droughts which, overlapping the
growing season, completely compromise the agricultural crops and the natural
ecosystem. Overall, the severe and the excessive droughts account for about 25% of
the time; these are the two classes with high and very high risk.

491
 4. RAINFALL ASSIMETRY INDEX

In this context, for regional studies, another index was calculated as the ratio
between the sum of negative RLI (deficient rainfall) and the sum of positive RLI
(excess rainfall). Changing the sign is to obtain the positive values of the index. This
index has been originally named “continentalism index” (Stângă I. C., 2009a) by
correspondence with Angot ratio. However, this synthetic index can be also used to
describe other types of climate (boreal climate, oceanic climate). That is why, for
general use, the expression “rainfall assimetry index” seems to be more appropriate.
The general formula for calculating the index is:
 RLI
RAI   RLI 0
 RLI
RLI 0

For eastern Romania, the RAI values are comparable with those of the
Angot ratio, with roughly the same meaning. Higher values of the index indicate
more pronounced continental influences, while lower values (≤ 2.20) show climate
without any continental influence. This index can be correlated with the altitude (Fig.
3). Its values move inversely with the altitude, decreasing gradually to the mountains.
It should be noted that the threshold value 2.2 correspond to altitudes of 300-400 m.
From these altitudes up, the natural setting of climatic elements occurs. Extending
the research area, other factors must be taken into account (latitude, position on the
continent or in relation with the mountain chains or the wide opening to the plains
and plateaus of the Eastern Europe etc.).
This correlation with altitude is not possible for the Angot ratio. The higher
altitudes stimulate the convective processes in the warm semester and therefore the
value of Angot becomes greater. This could lead to the conclusion that continental
features increase with altitude (that is false as can be).

2.9
y  =  ‐0.001x  +  2.758   R ² =  0.738
2.7

2.5

2.3

2.1

1.9

1.7

1.5
0 100 200 300 400 500

Fig. 3. Correlation between the rainfall assimetry index (vertical axis)

and the altitude (horizontal axis)

492
 Moreover, this index reflects better the natural environment conditions,
given that, on the one hand, it is based on the monthly values, and, on the other hand,
it has a more complexe calculation method. This one takes into account both the
number of deficient months, respectively excess months and the amount rainfall
expressed by the deviation from the average. The rainfall assimetry index has the
following values: Adjud: 2.69; Bacău: 2.31; Bârlad: 2.62; Botoşani: 2.39; Cotnari:
2.42; Focşani: 2.70; Galaţi: 2.78; Iaşi: 2.48; Piatra Neamţ: 2.29; Rădăuţi: 2.08;
Roman: 2.43; Suceava: 2.24; Tecuci: 2.72; Vaslui: 2.40. The interpolation of these
values and their correlation with altitude allow mapping of results, emphasizing the
some regional differences in eastern part of Romania (Fig. 4). The latitude and the
distance from the Carpathian mountains are not included in the equation.

Fig. 4. The Rainfall assimetry index in the Moldavian Tableland (1961-2006)

493
 The proposed RAI is suitable for the analysis of monthly values. The
continental influences are felt differently throughout the year, being more
pronounced in winter (especially in January) and much lower in the warm season,
when, in April-Juny, the Atlantic is strongly felt. This monthly analysis is not an
objective of the present article, but some references could be useful. Thus, the
rainfall assimetry index varies in June between 1.79 (Rădăuţi) and 2.24 (Galaţi),
while in October, values range between 2.46 (Rădăuţi) and values above 3.0 in
Southern Moldova.

5. CONCLUSIONS
Due to the multiplicative and cumulative effect of various risk events, the
use of logarithmic function can provide satisfactory results in the analysis of risks.
In this case, the two cantitative indices (RLI and RAI) should be illustrative and
should lead to further research on this direction.

Acknowledgement
The financial support was provided by the Sectorial Operational Programme Human
Resources Development through the project „Innovation capacity development and the
increasement of research impact by post-doctoral programmes” POSDRU/89/1.5/S/49944.

REFERENCES

1. Byun H.R., Wilhite D. (1999), Objective quantification of drought severity and

duration, Journal of Climate, vol. 12, Issue 9, American Meteorological Society,
pp. 2747–2756
2. Gaussen H., Bagnouls F. (1953), Saison sèche et indice xérothermique, Bulletin de
la Sociète de Science Naturelle Toulouse, 61, 193–239
3. Gibbs, W.J., Maher J.V. (1967), Rainfall deciles as drought indicators, Bureau of
Meteorology Bulletin No. 48, Commonwealth of Australia, Melbourne
4. Giurma I., Crăciun I., Giurma-Handley Raluca (2009), Hidrologie, Ed.
Politehnium Iaşi, 394 pp.
5. McKee, T.B., Doesken N.J., Kleist J. (1993), The Relationship of Drought
Frequency and Duration to Time Scales, 8th Conference on Applied Climatology,
17-22 January, Anaheim, California, 179-184.
6. Păltineanu Cr. (2007), Ariditatea, seceta, evapotranspiraţia şi cerinţele de apă ale
culturilor agricole în România, Ovidius University Press, Constanţa
7. Stângă I. C. (2009a), Quantifier la sécheresse: durée, intensité, fréquence, Analele
ştiinţifice ale Universităţii „Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi, tom LV, s. II-c, Geografie, pp. 31-46
8. Stângă I. C. (2009b), The Number of Equivalent Drought Days and the Synthetic
Index of Drought Intensity, Studia Universitatis Babeş-Bolyai Cluj-Napoca, vol.
54, no. 3/2009, 130-136
9. Stângă I. C. (2009c), Bazinul Tutovei. Riscurile naturale şi vulnerabilitatea
teritoriului, Teză de doctorat, Universitatea „Al.I.Cuza” Iasi, 242 pp.
10. Topor, N. (1964), Ani ploioşi şi secetoşi în R.P.România, Institutul meteorologic,
Bucureşti

494
 THE NITROGEN REGIME OF THE SASAR RIVER,
IN BAIA MARE SECTION, THE PERIOD 2000-2010

ADRIANA MUNTEAN1, MIRELA COMAN2

ABSTRACT – The Baia Mare city - the residence of Maramures county, is

known as one of the most polluted cities from Romania, following a long history
of mining activities and ores processing. The improper treatment of wastewater
from flotation and treatment with cyanide ores and their discharge into the river
Sasar led, slowly, but surely destroying the ecosystem. In addition to mining
activities have contributed of course, and the metallurgical activities in the area.
One of constant pollutions is and disposal of sewage waste water (treated poorly or
not at all) in the mass water of the Sasar river. The nitrogen regime may provide
clues as to the possibility of developing various forms of life, being an indicator of
the nutrient regime of aquatic life. This study aims at assessing the quality of the
nitrogen regime of Sasar river, in the section upstream and downstream of Baia
Mare, in the period 2000-2010, with reference to the Order 161/2006 - regarding
the classification of surface water quality to determine the ecological status of
water bodies .

Keywords: river, pollution, ecosystem, nitrogen regim, classification, quality water.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Baia Mare town - the residence of the Maramures county,one of the
most important urban center in northwestern of Romania, situated at the foot of the
Carpathians, it was developed historically as a result of mining process and ore
processing the gold-silver and nonferrous ores.
The Baia Mare town it was first time documented in 1329, as "Ladies
River" (Rivulus Dominarum) in an act of the chancery of King Charles and was
developed as a center of gold-silver processing ores, in the XIV-XV centuries.
Exploitation of the ores was done by digging galleries in the shaped of
wells; the extracted ore has was crushed in fulling mills, grinding and washing.
However, the native gold ore was found both in solid form, "quite clean and pure
from nature" and same time, in ores.
The washing operations of gold sand in riverbeds from region was preponderant
activity undertaken by women, the wives of miners. This "image" has been captured by
foreign tourists and historians who visited the Baia Mare, and was the basis for awarding
the name "River of the Ladies " of river who crossing the town; today the name is Sasar
river, at the last village crosses before the junction with Lapus river. [1]

1
Adriana Muntean - Maramures Water Management System, street Aleea Hortensiei, no. 2, Baia Mare,
email: adriana1567_muntean@yahoo.com.
2
Mirela Coman -University of Baia Mare, Faculty of Mineral Resources and Environment, Victoriei
street no. 62 A, Baia Mare.

495
 In the second half of the twentieth century, mining process became
unprofitable, but the communist regime decided to subsidize the sector. After the
fall of (in 1989) and under the terms of accession to EU structures, mining process
has ceased; all mining perimeters entering into conservation.
Almost all rivers situated in vicinity of major industrial sites, have exceeded
allowable concentrations of metals of the first quality grade of surface water; the
industrial development has led to an increase in active population in the area and,
then related activities. As a result, discharges into the Sasar river (the main river that
crosses the city) are not only with metal loading. Discharges of domestic sewage
water, untreated or treated improperly are present today. All these activities leave
their mark in the structure and functioning of ecosystems in the region. The
permanent or temporary pollution of water bodies, the life, in whole ecosystem
suffers; some species can not tolerate the large variations of the abiotic factors.
This study will present the evolution of the indicators of nitrogen regime
(ammonium, nitrate and nitrite) of the river Săsar in the section upstream of Baia
Sprie and downstream of Baia Mare, the sector who was most intensively exploited.

2. MATERIAL AND METHOD

 
The Sasar river springing from the Gutii Mountains, from the altitude of
1005 m, with the following geographic coordinates at the springing : 47º41’28"
north latitude and 23º48’31" east longitude. The shedding quota in Lapus River (155
m) reveals the difference from altitude - 850 m, and develop so, an catchment of 306
km2, strongly asymmetric. [2]
The lenght a 31 km of the river Sasar allows crossing by four cities (listed
from upstream to downstream): Baia Sprie, Tautii de Sus, Baia Mare and Sasar
village, and collecting the waters of rivers Firiza and Chiuzbaia, St. John, Racos
and Borca. In each of the above mentioned cities, the river Sasar collect, directly
and indirect wastewater from mining activities (from preparation ores or storage of
tailings), but and waste water from production units as well as from individuals.
Modernization and extension of the sewage and the treatment plant of
wastewater of the city, should be reflected directly in changes in concentrations of
nitrogen regime indicators, mainly ammonium indicator.
Nitrogen is one of the main elements for supporting life on our planet,
intervening in various of life phases of plant and animal life. Because the
indicators: ammonium, nitrites and nitrates are important steps of the presence the
nitrogen in his biogeochemical cycle from the nature and water, only these
parameters were considered in this study.
All forms of the nitrogen who present results from 2000 were determined
by molecular absorption spectrometry using the spectrometer Hach – DR 2000
type, and in 2010, using the spectrophotometer Agilent - type 8453; both devices
were checked and calibrated, in accordance with legal metrology provisions. As a
result, this study consider that the results is reproducible.

496
 The monthly values of the indicators considered were reported at the 5 quality
classes of the Order no. 161/2006 approving the "Norms on surface water quality
classification to determine the ecological status of water bodies" and were plotted.

2.1. The ammonium parameter

The ammonium indicator is one of parameters who indicating a recent
pollution (hours-days) of the waters. His presence in water is due to incomplete
degradation of organic substances containing nitrogen or may originate from soil,
as a result of inappropriate agricultural activities. [4]
In 2000, the chemical analysis of ammonium indicator was made in
accordance with the standard in force, at that time: STAS 8683/70 - Surface water
and wastewater. Determination of ammonium indicator with Nessler reagent.
Since 2001, the romanian standard STAS 8683/70 has been replaced by
european standard SR ISO 7150-1/2001 - Water quality. Determination of
ammonium. Part 1: Manual spectrometric method.
From the analysis of data obtained for 2000 [8], we can say that:
- in the upstream section of Baia Sprie, the minimum of value is 0.365 mg
N-NH4/l in February,and the maximum is 0.823 mg N-NH4/l in June, the annual
average value being 0.604 mg N-NH4/l;
- in the downstream section of Baia Mare, the minimum value is 0.839 mg
N-NH4/l in July, the maximum is 2.671 mg N-NH4/l in December, and the annual
average value being 1.343 mg N-NH4/l
For 2010 year [9], the comments reflect that:
- in the upstream section of Baia Sprie the minimum value is 0.068 mg N-
NH4/ l in January, the maximum is 0.738 mg N-NH4/l in October, and the annual
average value being 0.339 mg N-NH4/l;
- in the downstream section of Baia Mare the minimum value is 0.680 mg
N-NH4/l in February, maximum is 2.019 mg N-NH4/l in November, and the
annual average value being 0.756 mg N-NH4/l.
The variation of ammonium indicator in this two sections and and in the
two moments, is shown in the following graphs (fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The variation of ammonium indicator of the Sasar river in Baia Sprie upstream
section (2000 and 2010) and in Baia Mare downstream section (2000 and 2010)

497
 2.2. The nitrites parameter
The nitrites are an important stage in the metabolism of the nitrogen
compounds and intermediate stage between ammonia and nitrate, in the
biogeochemical cycle of nitrogen. Their presence is due either the reactions of
bacterial oxidation of the ammonium or of the reduction reactions of the nitrates.
In 2000 the analysis of nitrites from water were performed in accordance
with standard ISO 6777/1996. In 2010, the principle of chemical analysis
remained the same, but the standard has undergone a transformation and
notification - SR EN 26777/2002 + C91/2006 – Water quality. Determination of
nitrite. Molecular absorption spectrometric method.
Analyzing the results obtained in 2000 [8] I can say that:
- in the section upstream of Baia Sprie the minimum value is 0.009 mg N-
NO2/l in August, and the maximum is 0.016 mg N-NO2/l in May; the annual
average value was 0,008 mg N-NO2/l;
- in the section downstream of Baia Mare the minimum value is 0,007 mg
N-NO2/l in March, the maximum is 0.064 mg N-NO2/l in September, the annual
average value was 0.020 mg N-NO2/l.
For 2010 [9], the results shows that:
- in the upstream section of Baia Sprie the minimum value is 0.005 mg N-
NO2/l in January, the maximum is 0.010 mg N-NO2/l in May and July, and the
annual average values is 0.011 mgN-NO2/l;
- in the downstream section of Baia Mare the minimum value is 0.003 mg
N-NO2/l in February, the maximum is 0.157 mg N-NO2/l in August, and the annual
average value is 0.035 mg N-NO2/l.

Fig. 2. The variation of nitrite indicator of the Sasar river in Baia Sprie upstream section
(2000 and 2010) and in Baia Mare downstream section (2000 and 2010)

The monthly evolution of the nitrites indicator for Sasar river in the section
upstream of Baia Sprie and downstream of Baia Mare, in 2000 and 2010, is shown
in the graphs from figure 2.

2.3. The nitrates parameter

The nitrates come mainly from soil, after mineralization of organic
substances (eg. protein), from fertilizers and/or pesticides containing nitrogen.
They can be a factor in the development of algae and aquatic flora.

498
 The nitrates represent the final stage of decomposition of organic substances
containing nitrogen in their molecule, indicating an old pollution, even dangerous.
The standard of analysis is the SR ISO 7890-3/2000 – Water quality.
Determination of ammonium. Part 1: Manual spectrometric method.
The results obtained in 2000 [8] are defining:
- in the upstream section of Baia Sprie the minimum value is 0.14 mg N-
NO3/l in August and October, the maximum is 0.52 mg N-NO3/l in July, with
annual averaging of the 0.30 mg N-NO3/l;
- in the downstream section of Baia Mare the minimum value is 0.27 mg
N-NO3/l in September, the maximum is 1.29 mg N-NO3/l in July, and the annual
average value is 0.71 mg N-NO3/l.
For 2010 [9], the results reflect that:
- in the upstream section of Baia Sprie the minimum value is 0.44 mg N-
NO3/l in June, the maximum is 1.45 mg N-NO3/l in February, and the average
value is 0.828 mg N-NO3/l ;
- in the downstream section of Baia Mare the minimum value is 0.29 mg
N-NO3/l in July, the maximum is 2.19 mg N-NO3/l in September, and the average
value is 1.01 mg N-NO3/l.

Fig. 3. The variation of nitrates indicator of the Sasar river in Baia Sprie upstream
section (2000 and 2010) and in Baia Mare downstream section (2000 and 2010)

The monthly evolution of the nitrates indicator for Sasar river in the section
upstream of Baia Sprie and downstream of Baia Mare, for 2000 and 2010 is shown
in the graphs in figure 3.

3. CONCLUSIONS

The Order no. 161 of 16.02.2006 approving the "Norms on surface water
quality classification to determine the ecological status of water bodies", in
paragraph C of table no. 6 - „Elements and Standards of Biological Quality,
chemical and physico-chemical to determine the ecological status of surface
waters”, for nutrient regime - at the point C3, provid following limits:

499
 Table 1. Extract from the table no. 6 - „Elements and Standards of Biological Quality,
chemical and physico-chemical to determine the ecological status of surface waters”
Quality class
No. Quality indicator UM
I II III IV V
C.3. Nutrient
1. Ammonium (N-NH4+) mg N/l 0.40 0.80 1,2 3.2 >3.2
2. Nitrites (N-NO2-) mg N/l 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.3 >0.3
3. Nitrates (N-NO3-) mg N/l 1 3 5,6 11,2 >11,2
Source: Order no. 161/2006 approving the "Norms on surface water quality classification
to determine the ecological status of water bodies"

Analyzing the average of values for the years 2000 and 2010 in both
sections of the Sasar river and relating to the provisions of Order no. 161/2006, the
classification is as follows:

Table 2. The quality class in the both section considered of Sasar river, in 2000 and 2010
Quality class in the Baia Sprie Quality class in the Baia Mare
Indicator upstream section downstream section
year 2000 year 2010 year 2000 year 2010
Ammonium II I peste II II
Nitrites I II II III
Nitrates I I I II

From data presented we conclude that:

- the concentration of the ammonium declined in both sections, water
quality has returned from the class II in the first class quality, in upstream
section of Baia Sprie and almost from the third class of quality, in the second
class of quality in downstream section of Baia Mare;
- the concentration of nitrites shows an increase, reflecting an involution of
the quality class; in 2010 the upstream section of Baia Sprie is framed in class
II of quality and in class III of the quality in the section downstream of Baia
Mare. This increase may be related and to decreased concentrations of
ammonia (ammonium), which in the presence of oxygen in water, is converted
by bacteria (Nitrosomonas) into nitrites.
- the concentration of nitrate in the section upstream of Baia Sprie
remained constant; that which, can not be said for the section downstream of
Baia Mare; the value of the annual average concentration in 2010 made be
framed in class II of the quality the section downstream of Baia Mare;
- the concentration of ammonium and nitrates shows large seasonal
variations; the higher values are in winter, probably due to reduced self-
purification capacity of water;
- decrease the concentration of ammonium, can be linked to the permanent
concern of local authorities about modernization the plant of wastewater
treatment and expansion of the sewage system of Baia Mare.

500
 REFERENCES

1. (1972), Monography of the Baia Mare city, chapter IV - „Foreign travelers

about Baia Mare”, vol. I, Popular Council of Baia Mare; Aurel S. Wicks,
John I. Pintilie, John I. Codariu John V. Sabau, Valeriu Achim, coordinator
Assoc. dr. Mitrofan Boca, p. 567;
2. (1992), The Cadastral Atlas of Waters in Romania, Bucharest, Ministry of
Environment, p. 85;
3. *** (2006), Order no. 161 of 16.02.2006 approving the "Norms on surface
water quality classification to determine the ecological status of water
bodies" , Official Monitor, part I, no. 511 from 06/13/2006;
4. (1978), The Chemistry of Environmental Health, S. Manescu, M. Cucu, M.
Diaconescu - Medical Publishing House, Bucharest, p. 134;
5. *** (2001), SR ISO 7150-1/2001 – Water quality. Determination of
ammonium. Part 1: Manual spectrometric method.
6. *** (2006), SR EN 26777 (ISO 6777) + C91/2006 – Water quality.
Determination of nitrite. Molecular absorption spectrometric method.
7. *** (2000), SR ISO 7890-3/2000 – Water quality. Determination of nitrate.
Part 3: Spectrometric method using sulfosalicylic acid.
8. *** (2001),The annual synthesis of the quality waters in the basin river Somes-
Tisza, 2000,The Water Management System from Maramures county;
9. *** (2010),Quarterly report of waters quality status for 2010, The Water
Management System from Maramures county.

501
 ISSUES CONCERNING OCCURRENCE OF FLOODS
ON THE VEDEA RIVER

TOMA FLORENTINA-MARIANA1 , BARBU ION2

ABSTRACT. Aspects of flood occurrence on the Vedea River. This study

addresses several aspects of floods on the Vedea River, located in the Central Romanian
Plain, located between Olt and Argeş rivers. Data recorded in the most important
hydrological stations (Buzeşti, Văleni, Alexandria) along the Vedea River were used, for a
period of 40 years (1970-2009). Flood generating conditions, their typology and parameters
were analyzed. Cavis software developed by specialists from INHGA Bucharest was
employed, in order to draft the flood hydrographs and calculate the floods parameters. Also,
we calculated the multi-annual and seasonal frequencies of flood occurrence. There are two
main conclusions emerging from specific analysis. First, the most floods occur in late
winter and early spring while the least are specific to autumn season. Second conclusion is
that the highest flash floods recorded along the Vedea River are associated to heavy rainfall
periods and they occurred in late spring and early summer.

Keywords: highflood, frequency, Cavis software,Vedea River.

1. INTRODUCTION

Although aspects on the floods on the Vedea River itself have not been
analyzed, some studies covering the whole country (Mustăţea, A 2005), the
Romanian Plain (Haraga St., Niţulescu, M.1973) or only of the large river in
southern Romania as Olt (Dumitrescu, V. 1976) or Ialomiţa (Lăzărescu, D., Ţuca,
I. 1976) were made. Some authors studied exceptional highfloods as case studies:
1972 (Trufaş, V. and Vrabie, C. 1973, Diaconu, C., Lăzărescu D., Mociorniţa, C.,
1972), 1975 (Zăvoianu, I., Podani, M. 1977).
Located in the central part of the Romania Plain, between the Olt and
Arges rivers (Teleorman Plain), Vedea springs from Piedmond Cotmeana
(Morăreşti). The superior course of the river goes through the lower hills while the
middle and inferiour course flows through the plains. It crosses the counties of
Arges, Olt and Teleorman, having a total length of 224 km. After passsing through
Pietroşani village it flows into the Danube River.
Vedea Basin was the sbject of many points of view papers:
morphologically (Vâlsan,G 1914,1917), hydrological characteristics (Mociorniţa,C.
and Popovici, V.1979, Zaharia,L. 1993, 2004) or impact of deforestation and
environmental pollution (Marin,I. 1997).

1
Drd Facultatea de geografie Universitatea Babeş Bolyai Cluj Napoca/ Liceul Pedagogic ,,Mircea
Scarlat” Alexandria, florentinatoma01@yahoo.com
2
Director Sistemul de Gospodărire a Apelor Teleorman, Str. 1 Mai , Nr. 124, Cod poştal : 140074 –
Alexandria, jud. Teleorman

502
 Since the Vedea River was less studied, both in terms of water issues and
aspects of floods occurrence, we considered appropriate to study in this paper the
floods generating conditions, their frequency and floods hydograph characteristics.

2. DATA AND METHODS

2.1. Data
Hourly and daily data from the three main hydrological stations along the
Vedea River (Buzeşti, Văleni and Alexandria) were used in order to identify the
highest floods in the area. The period considered covered 40 years (1970-2009).
Data were provided by the Vedea and Argeş Water Branch

Fig 1. Vedea River

2.2. Methods
In order to draw the flood hidrograph and to calculate the parameters of the
singular floods the CAVIS softwere developed by researchers in the National
Hydrology and Water Management Institute in Bucharest was employed. The
separation of singular floods from composite floods was made using the same
application.
CAVIS softwere is an application developped under Windows, with two
main modules: input data management module and calculation of singular flood
wave specific elements module.
Parameters of the flood waves: maximum discharge flow of direct flow
(QmaxV (m3/s)), maximum discharge of the flood - Qmax (m3/s), the discharge at
t moment Q(t), the base discharge of the flood flow at t moment Qb(t), time of

503
growth-Tc (hours), time of decreasing Td (hours), total time of the flood Tt
(hours), initial base flood discharge flow Qbi (m3/s), final discharge flow of the
flood Qbf (m3/s), minimum and maximum threshold variation of the basic flow
Qbmin, Qbmax, maximum discharge of direct flow QmaxV (m3/s), maximum
discharge flow of the flood Qmax (m3/s), the growth volume of direct flow WcV
(mil. m3), the growth volume of the flood Wc (mil. m3), the decrease volume of
the direct flow WdV (mil. m3), the decreasing volume of the flood Wd (mil. m3);
- total volume of the direct flow WtV (mil. m3), computed as:
WtV = WcV + WdV
- total volume of flood Wt (mil. m3):
Wt = Wc + Wd
- shape coefficient of the direct flow hydrograph (  V):
 V = WtV / (QmaxV • Tt)
- shape coefficient of the flood (  ):
Gamma = Wt / (Qmax • Tt)
-HsV(mm) elapsed layer (layer drained volume equivalent) of direct flow,
computed as:
HsV = WtV / S
-Hs (mm) - layer drained since the flood beginning, computed with:
Hs = Wt / S
There are five models available with this softwere one can choose from, in
order to determine the flow of single flood :
-constant model Qb(t) = Qbi;
- model with constant slope Qb(t) = Qb(t- ∆t) + ∆Qbc

- concave model:
Qb(t  t )  Qbd , t  [QbiTime, QmaxTime ]
Qb(t )  
Qb(t  t )  Qbc, t  (QmaxTime, QbfTime ]

- recursive model: Qb(t )  A  Q(t )  (1  A )  Qb(t  t )

- generalized-model
( t ) (t A  Q
QbQb t )(t )Qbd
(1 , A
t) [Qb ( t  t, )QbminTime ]
QbiTime

Qb ( t )  Qb ( t   t )   Qbc , t  (QbminTime , QbmaxTime ]
Qb ( t   t )   Qbd , t  (QbmaxTime , QbfTime ]

where
-QmaxTime, QbiTime, QbfTime, QbminTime, QbmaxTime – is the time of
Qmax, Qbi, Qbf, Qbmin şi Qbmax;
-∆Qbc, ∆Qbd – increase or decrease the rate of basic discharge flow;
A – coefficient; ∆t – time step.

504
 To make delimitation of the monowave flood from a multiwaves flood, an
exponential realtion is used , both for growth and decreasing periods of the flood. It
suggests the input and the output of water in the hydrographic basin.
For the growth branch:
Ac
Qb ( t )  Q ( t   t )  e
For the decreasing branch:
 Ad
Qb ( t )  Q ( t   t )  e
where:
- Ac is the power of the basic exponential function (Euler number with an
approximate value e = 2,71828).

3. RESULTS
Flash floods are considered as risk phenomena due to the destroying force
they develop. It is manifested by a sudden increase of the flow of the river in a
short period of time. They are caused by melting snow, heavy rains or the
combination of both causes.
Both peak flow and flood duration depend on the physical and
geographical conditions that generate flow: amount, duration and intensity of
rainfall, basin slope, area and topography as well as geology (Fig.2).

12 10.94
10.26
10
8
m3/s 6 5.58 5.96 5.96
4.92
4 3.48
2.38
2 1.22 1.72
0.87 0.49
0
Spring Summer Autumn Winter
Season
Buzeşti Văleni Alexandria

Figure 2. Seasonal average flow

Generally, topography influences the flood parameters by its features:

massiveness, slope and altitude. However, in the analyzed region, low slopes of
the relief gives the flow a little speed. It affects the time for concentration and
propagation of the flood. On the other hand, the high rate of infiltration allows
partially the absorption of the rain water and causes the mitigation of the flood
volume. In addition to this, as a result of high temperature regime, intense
evaporation adds, especially during the warm season (April-September).

505
 Analyzing seasonal flood frequency it was revealed that most floods
occured in spring (40.19%) and winter (37.25%). The lowest frequency was
specific to summer (12.37%) and autumn with only 9.80% of total flood occurred
on the Vedea River( Table 1,Fig.3).

Table 1. Frequency of seasonal floods occurred on the Vedea River

Nr crt Hydrometric Season

station
Spring Summer Autumn Winter

1. Buzeşti 8 14 4 3
2. Văleni 12 13 4 4
3. Alexandria 18 14 5 3
4. Total 38 41 13 10
5. Frequency 37.25% 40.19% 12.73% 9.80%

An analysis of the
45 40.19
floods produced along the
40 37.25 Vedea River highlights
35
that the most numerous
30
winter floods were
25
%
20
recorded at Alexandria
15
12.73
9.80
station (18 floods), while
10 during spring the numbers
5
of floods recorded were
0
Wint er Spring Summer Aut umn equal at Alexandria and
S e a son Buzeşti stations (14 cases).

Figure 3. Frequency of seasonal floods

Summer and autumn floods had the lowest frequencies (5 and respectively,
3 cases). During autumn, floods are diminished due to the small amounts of
rainfall associated with summer drought.
Another issue of this study was the analyze of the floods typology
according to the type of the hydrograph. Thus, 73 monowave flood events
representing 71.56% of the total number of floods, and 29 multiwaves floods,
representing 28.43% of the total number of floods occurred on the Vedea River,
were identified (Table2).

Table 2. The total duration of the floods occurred on the Vedea River
Nr. River Hydrometric Number of flood duration in hours
crt. station
0-5 h 5-12 h 12-100 h 100-450 h
1 Vedea Văleni 1 8 16 -
Buzeşti - 1 28 2
Alexandria 1 4 22 4

506
 The highest number of simple floods (32 out of 73) was recorded at
Alexandria observation point located in the lower part of the river, where the plain
is wide and floods are diminishing due to existing facilities along the River. The
most numerous multiwave floods were identified at Văleni station, located on the
middle course of the Vedea River, 12 out of 29 (Fig.4).

35 32
30

25
20 21
20 Buzeşti
nr. Văleni
15 12
9 Alexandria
10 8

0
Simple Compound

Figure 4. Types of floods according to the hydrograph

Considering the suddeness, generally floods are classified as slow,

fast or torrential (Loat, R.Petrascheck, A., 1997).
Most floods occurring on the Vedea River belong to the slow category (72
floods), specific to low areas, and have a relatively long growth time, resulting in
significant water flows and volumes. A large number of such floods were recorded
at Văleni station, and the lowest at Buzeşti station. At Buzeşti, where characteristic
are the fast and torrential floods were specific generally with the growth time less
than 12 hours.
The most important aspects of floods occurred on the Vedea River are
those that analyze the characteristic elements of the flood. For a better illustration
we chose the largest flood flow at each station. Thus, the flood recorded at the
Alexandria station in 1972, that recorded at Buzeşti station in 1995, and that
recorded at Văleni station in 2005. (Table 3)
At Buzeşti station, during 23-24 may 1995 flood, the maximum discharge
flow was 345 m3 /s and it was 3.75 times higher than danger threshold (92 m3 /s)
(Fig.5).
At Alexandria, in 1972, during the flood occured from 4 till 13 october
1972, the highest historical discharge flow was recorded (935 m3 /s). It was more
than 2 times higher than danger threshold (462 m3 /s).
At Văleni station, the danger threshold (807 m3 /s) was not reached during
the highest flood recorded from 2 till 5 july 2005.
The total water volume of each of the three highfloods varies from 14.04
mil.m3, at Buzeşti, and 83.48 mil. m3, at Văleni, up to 373.86 mil. m3 at Alexandria.

507
 Considering flood time parameters, one can see that at Buzeşti, time of
growth and time of decreasing are almost similarly (15h and respectively, 17 h),
while at Alexandria in 1995, where, because of the multiwave characteristic, the
time of growth (118h) was longer compared to that of decrease (86 h). The total
time of the highfloods also varied very much in the area, from 32 h at Buzeşti till
204 h, at Alexandria.

Table 3. The characteristic elements of the great flood of waves

Nr. Characteristic Hydrometric Hydrometric Hydrometric
crt. elements station station station
Buzeşti Văleni Alexandria
1. Year 1995 2005 1972
2. F (m) 495 1724 3246
3. Qmax (m3 /s) 345 751 935
4. Wc (mil. m3 ) 3.2 2.9 213
5. Wd (mil. m3 ) 10.8 60.5 160.8
6. Wt(mil. m3 ) 14.0 83.4 373.8
7. Hs (mm) 28.3 48.4 118.7
8. Gamma 0.35 0.44 0.56
9. Qbi (m3 /s) 0.96 5.16 12.5
10. Qbf (m3 /s) 24.4 63.5 153.5
11. Tc (h) 15 18 118
12. Td (h) 17 51 86
13. Tt (h) 32 69 204

Analysis of the specific features of flood waves has revealed the occurence
of the highest floods at Alexandria station, located in the lower course of Vedea
River. The station is located about 40 km before the river flows into the Danube,
and the flow rate is high, after collecting all the tributaries. The duration of the
floods is long since the slope of the river is reduced and the area of the basin is
large (3246 km2).
Q (m3/s)

350 345
325
300
275
250
225
200
m 3/s

175
150
125 Danger discharge flow
100
75
50 Flood discharge flow
25
0
1 8 15 22 29 36

Figure 5. 1995 flood hydrograph station hidromertica Buzesti-Vedea

508
 4. CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions to be drawn from the study of floods occurred on the

Vedea River during the analyzed period are the following:
- most floods occur in winter and spring seasons when the huge amounts of
precipitations cause higher flow rates.
- simple floods are much more numerous than compound floods (more than
double).
- in terms of duration, most are slow, similarly to other plain area;
- the most important floods were recorded at Alexandria located downstream;
- The highest floods that occurred in the analized period of 40 years were
recorded in 1972, 1995 and 2005.

REFERENCES

1. Diaconu, C., Lăzărescu D., Mociorniţa, C., (1972) Aspecte hidrologice ale
viiturilor pe unele râuri interioare, din primăvara anului 1970, Simpozionul
Cauze şi efecte ale apelor mari din mai-iunie 1970, Bucureşti
2. Dumitrescu, V. (1976) Apele excepţionale din iulie 1975 în bazinul râului
Olt, Studii şi cercetări, partea a II-a, hidrologie XLV, Bucureşti
3. Haraga,Şt., Niţulescu, M.(1973) Consideraţii privind viitura din octombrie
1972 pe râurile din sudul ţării, Studii de hidrologie, XLI, Bucureşti
4. Lăzărescu, D., Ţuca, I. (1976) Apele excepţionale din iulie 1975 în bazinul
hidrografic Ialomiţa ,Studii şi cercetări, partea a II-a, hidrologie XLV,
Bucureşti
5. Loat, R., Petrascheck, A., Consideration of Flood Hazards for Activities with
Spatial Impact, FOWM, FOSP, FOEFL Berna,1997 (http://www.bafu.admin.ch)
6. Marin, I.,(1997) Impactul defrişare-poluare asupra mediului în Bazinul
hidrografic Vedea, Comunicări de geografie, Bucureşti
7. Mociorniţa, C., Popovici, V., (1979) Aspecte deosebite privind
caracteristicile hidrologice din spaţiul Olt-Vedea-Teleorman, Studii şi
cercetări, partea a II-a, hidrologie, XLVII, Bucureşti
8. Mustăţea, A., (2005) Viituri Excepţionale pe Teritoriul României, Editura
Onesta 94, Bucureşti
9. Trufaş,V., Vrabie, C., (1973) Viiturile din octombrie 1972 pe râurile din
Oltenia, Analele Universităţii Bucureşti, seria Geografie, anul XXII, Bucureşti
10. Vâlsan, G.,(1914) Evoluţia Câmpiei Române între Olt şi Argeş, Buletinul
Societăţii Române de Geografie, Bucureşti
11. Vâlsan, G.,(1917) Influenţele climatice în morfologia Câmpiei Române,
Institutul de Geologie, Bucureşti
12. Zaharia, L.,(1993), Câteva observaţii asupra scurgerii medii a unor râuri tribu-
tare Dunării româneşti, Analele Universităţii Bucureşti, Geografie, Bucureşti
13. Zaharia, L.,(2004), Water resources of Rivers in Romania, Analele Universităţii
Bucureşti, Geografie, Bucureşti
14. Zăvoianu, I., Podani, M., (1977) Les inondations catastrophiques de l’année
1975 en Roumanie-Considerations hydrologiques, Revue roumaine de
geologie, geophysique et geographie, tome 21, Bucureşti

509
 CONSIDERATIONS ON THE MINERAL WATERS
FROM COUNTY OF BRASOV, SPA AND RECOVERY

RODICA MEREȚ 1

ABSTRACT. - The essential element of the existence of life on earth is water.

This ensures that the body needs nutrients and water while still eliminated from the
body have become useless or toxic elements to it. In terms of mineral waters, it
may be a true ”oasis” of charity for Brasov county, since the particular climate that
predisposes people to various diseases could be treated by exploiting these mineral
waters. We believe therefore extremely important that a knowledge of typology
mineral water in the county and their therapeutic characteristics, it would mean a
possible spa development in the county of Brasov. Natural potential of any region
must be known and properly valued above all.
Keywords: knowledge, origin, type, therapeutic potential, sustainable development.

INTRODUCTION
Mineral waters are those natural waters that contain more than 1g a
dissolved solid substances at 1kg or containing CO2, Radium or rare substances in
certain concentrations. Mineral waters are those that have a temperature over 20C
(international definition by Congress in Bad Nauheim 1912). According Vernescu
(1988), mineral waters are natural waters, groundwater or surface water, with a
mixture of salts, chemicals, gases, radioactive substances, whose concentration
exceeds at least a minimum set of values for certain characteristics indicators, of
which most important are: total mineralization ≥ 1.000 mg / l , CO2 (free or bound
in dicarbonate ) ≥ 1.000 mg / l, iron≥ 10 mg, iodine≥ 1 mg / l, sulfur (titratable) ≥ 1
mg / l, H2S≥ 1 mg / l, arsenic ≥ 0,7 mg / l, radioactivity≥ 80Um/l.
Mineral waters, depending on the particular physico-chemical, have been
used successfully to treat diseases since ancient times, the curative powers of
various minerals in nature proved healing really.
Hippocrates, outlined in his famous treaty of medicine, the importance they
have sun, water, sewage on the human body, their effects when a person comes
into contact with these
This paper aims to highlight the main types of mineral springs in the
county, and how they are exploited within the framework of the local spas or
national interest.
The paper is based on information collected from bibliographical sources
exploitation, derived from field investigations conducted during 2008 - 2010:
mapping, observations, discussions with local people and local authorities.
Although the Brasov county, is not a county of ”spa resorts”, but rather of
the ”climate”, a county with mountain resorts, to protect us from the effects of

1
Școala Gen. Nr. 19, Brașov, România, e-mail: kanord2908@yahoo.com

510
stress or aggression city, or aggression of small screen, yet it has its own ”ex” or
”present” resorts, the lower-right, but a great therapeutic importance.

1. ASPECTS OF ORIGIN OF MINERAL WATERS AND THEIR

SPREAD IN THE BRAŞOV COUNTY

Over the years there have been plenty of controversy about the origin of
mineral waters, which could be considered meteoric origin, juvenile, or mixed
deposits. Their formation is explained by the existence of deep faults, the existence
of mountains formed by volcanic eruptions, and the existence within the crust of
oil, gas, coal and salt.
Therefore, in order to explain the presence of mineral waters in the county
of Brasov, required references to the geological conditions in this area.
According to the Romanian Geographical Encyclopedia (1982), the county
is mentioned four units of geological importance, three belonging to the Carpathian
Mountains (crystalline-Mesozoic unit, flysh Carpathian Mountains and the
volcanic area) and a Transylvanian Depression.
Crystalline-Mesozoic unit, composed of crystalline rocks, which formed a
cover over Mesozoic sedimentary rocks (limestone, conglomerate, clay, marl,
sandstone), is specific Fagaras mountains, Leaota, Persian, National Park, Bucegi,
Piatra Mare and Postăvaru.
Cretaceous flysch unit (conglomerates, sandstones, marly-limestone, marl,
clay, etc.) is found in massifs east of the Prahova Valley.
Structural unit volcanic eruptions formed from Neogene. Harghita
Mountains are an extension of the Depression Homoroade, by hills composed of
andesite and basaltic rocks in the mountains NE Perşani. Inside the Carpathian arc
is a part of the Brasov Depression consists of fluvial-lacustrine sedimentary
formations, Quaternary upper Levantine.
Unit belonging to the Transylvanian Basin consists of sedimentary
formations (sand, gravel, marl, clays, conglomerates, tuffs) of Miocene fluvial
formations plus Quaternary age. They are disposed over a crystalline foundation, at
over 1000 m deep.
Existence in the basement of Brasov county of several types of mineral
waters, is thus determined by different types of rocks present here: lava (mainly
basalt), sedimentary, metal mineralization. These waters are located within the
perimeter of towns such as Zizin, Persani, Grid, Venetia de Jos, Rupea, Homorod
Rodbav. To these may be added under mesothermal springs and the Magura Codlei
Hoghiz (karst spring). (Source: Brasov Prefecture).

2. BRASOV COUNTY SPAS

Brasov County, has a potential spa characterized by diversity of potential

natural healing factors, their therapeutic value and large reserves.

511
 Fig. 1. Harta localităților cu ape minerale din județul Brașov

Spa touring resources are therefore crucial components of the spa offer in
the county by quantitative and qualitative characteristics.

2.1. Homorod Resort

Homorod City is situated in a

picturesque area of 35 km from Sighisoara and
65 km from Brasov, where you can reach the
national road DN 13 Brasov-Targu Mures. In
this area, at a distance of 1km from the village
center there has been a spa resort of local
interest Homorod spa at an altitude of 460m.

Fig. 2. Homorod Resort - today

Although no longer in operation

since 1975, some locals still remember it. It
was made by Johann Weiss, a Saxon
Homorod 1900. People remember that the
place attracts thousands of tourists annually.
”Patients came on crutches and left on their
feet, so good is mud in these parts.
Fig. 3. Basin with sulfured water.

512
 There were 78 valve treatment, sulfur pools” recalls John Thomas, a
Homorodean who knows the history of the place.
Weiss airlock heirs claimed the land. ”The land became the property of
Emilia Binder, in Bucharest, a survivor of the owner. She, in turn, sold to an Italian
investor. Now it’s private property”the mayor told us (June 2009).
Mineral water and mud from the mud volcanoes (Fig. 3) with a high
content of sulfur have been used with great success in the treatment of rheumatic
diseases, dermatological diseases, endocrine disorders, neurasthenia, gall and liver
disorders, digestive disorders. Curative qualities of the sulfur water and mud are
recognized both at home and abroad, as evidenced by specialists from the interwar
period.

2.2. Rodbav Resort

Rodbav spa resort, situated in the
valley Rodbav at 480m altitude, is
surrounded by deciduous forests (Fig. 4).
The benefits of the thermal waters of
Rodbav enjoyed both villagers and people
from around the country. Throughout the
ages, the resort has expanded by building
pavilions with rooms for bathrooms,
swimming pools, etc. Once upon a time,
there was a hotel, villas and apartments in
the village and even a restaurant.
Fig. 4. Rodbav Resort – today

Carbonated water sodium chloride effectively treats: enterocolitis, ulcers,

gout, diabetes and other,and external we can remember, locomotor disorders,
rheumatic, degenerative, gynecological, cardiovascular (hypertension), endocrine.
Treatment can be done with good results in the period June 5 to October
15, in a temperate climate, depression.

2.3. Perșani Resort

Perşani Baths are located in the

European road E68 Perşani village about 25 km
from Brasov. The existence of these baths date
back over 200 years, being mentioned
documentary since Empress Maria Theresa, as
the property of village communities, but their
period of ”peak” was in especially after the
Second World War. Fig.5. Perșani Resort

513
 Here is a basic treatment basins with warm salt water, with mud, a medical
office.
The sludge was analyzed at the
University of Neuchâtel, in Switzerland and
found that the properties of rheumatic have
better curative effects than Techirghiol.
After fire of 1950, the base has not been
restored (archive Gazette Express 19/07/2006).
Offer resort is in represented by mineral springs
with bicarbonate-sodium-chloride, slightly
ferruginous (Fig. 5), hypertonic, atermale, silt,
peat (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Perșani – Peat mud

As regards external cure these waters are shown in musculoskeletal

disorders, peripheral nervous system, chronic gynecological diseases, debility,
limfatism and season of treatment can be between 1 June and 1 October.

2.4. Zizin Resort

Zizin spa resort is situated at the foot of Ciucaş and Piatra Mare, a wooded
area, crossed the river with the same name. Zizin mineral waters are known and
used since 1773 both locally as therapeutic substances, as well as the mineral water
bottling.
The first description of the sources here was made by I. Wagner (1773),
and the first chemical analysis of Belteky in 1818 (Balasz Orban).
Zizin was declared on 4 March 1927, ”Balneomineral small institution”
and had one of the most popular resorts in the interwar period. The resort was
recognized in Transilvanya on the fourth place after Vâlcele (Elopatak), Borsec and
Tuşnad. Moreover, as he wrote in one of his works, Orban Balazs Hungarian
researcher, their effect healing and their beauty, bathing the Zizin resort rivaled
those of Vary Karlovic. Hungarian researcher traveled throughout Transylvania, at
the beginning of last century,talking with people and describing wonderful places.
He gathered notes on 18 books of memoirs. They found their place and Zizin
which Orban Balazs describes it in detail focusing on the miraculous mineral water
springs here.
By the beginning of last century, Zizin have three mineral water springs,
which, for their wealth, people were baptized with the name of kings. This spring
was Ferdinand, who had the highest rate, Francis, who ”comes from the ground
with bubbles”, and finally, Lajos.
”Few of the springs in Europe can compare with them” Orban Balazs wrote
that evidence and then brings about the chemical composition of water each spring,
”based on studies of key scientists, namely Dr. Schnell and Dr. Greissing” (
”Museum Box Memories” - Zizin).

514
 Ferdinand spring water (Fig. 7), was recommen-
ded for treating respiratory diseases, and the spring
Lajos (Ludovic) to treat stomach and bowel diseases,
gynecological diseases and disorders of the nervous
system (as obtained for studies of Schnell, Greissing).
Today, mineral water springs are either closed
or captured by the factory, are contaminated by
droppings that residents who have septic tanks - and
there are plenty straight to Zizin. Only three sources are
out of reach of people who carry around water in all
villages, with tens of Bottles. Around their facilities
were destroyed, and the mud around the springs is full
of traces of hoofs, a sign that animals in the village all
their thirst there.
Fig. 7. Ferdinand spring

2.5. Veneția de Jos Resort

Former resort is located on the Olt Valley in the foothills of the Persani at
450m altitude, the area belonging to the village stream. Water-sodium chloride-
iodo-bromide and ferric sludge are shown here for the same conditions as those of
Rodbav. The nature is very picturesque. Sources confluence in an area where there
is a mineral mud is often used by locals for treatment of bone pain. Baths Veneția
de Jos were arranged during the Austro-Hungarian Empire around 1890. Near the
river and the treatment is composed of nine cabins with 11 baths. Unfortunately,
these baths administered by the village mayor of Veneția, as the Homorod or
Rupea were abandoned.
2.6. Bran Resort
Bran is a climate resort, situated at the foot of the Bucegi mountains 28 km
from Brasov, at an altitude of 750-800m. The climate is shelter, away from drafts.
Here is a fugitive mineral spring with water-sodium chloride, sulfur, indicated mild
anemia, repiratorii disease, convalescence, rest cures. The treatment period can be
between 15 July and 15 September.
3. CONCLUSIONS
By analyzing and summarizing mineral localities of the county, it follows
that this county has important therapeutic potential, but unfortunately not
capitalized or even totally unknown to those who have this potential. Bath Case of
the Persani is eloquent, and at Zizin although there is an extensive project planning
area, mineral water recovery issue was not taken into account, motivating the fact
that being close to the surface crust.
By far, however, the situation is incomprehensible Homorod. The
therapeutic potential and geological reserve ”mud volcanoes” are left to decay,
although tourists are put back into service would be a ”breath of oxygen” for
sustainable development in the locality.

515
 REFERENCES

1. Airinei, Șt., Pricăjan, A., (1997), Ape minerale de consum din România, Editura
Științifică și Enciclopedică, București
2. Berlescu, E., (1996), Mică Enciclopedie de Balneoclimatologie a României,
Editura All, București
3. Pisota I., Zaharia Liliana, (2002), Hidrologie, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti
4. Pricăjan, A., (1972), Apele minerale și termale din România, Editura Tehnică,
București Vernescu M., (1988),- Apele Minerale, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti
5. *** (1982), Enciclopedia Geografica a Romaniei (1982) , Editura Stiințifică și
Enciclopedică, București
6. *** arhiva muzeului ”Căsuța Amintirilor” Zizin
7. *** pliante, ziare locale
8. *** fotografii – muzeul ” Căsuța Amintirilor” Zizin, arhivă personală
9. http://www.prefecturabrasov.ro/upload/files/prezentare%20generala.htm
01.02.2011
10. http://articole.famouswhy.ro/isoria_apelor_minerale_in_romania 01.02.2011
 PROBLEMS OF SEA-GOING NAVIGATION IN KERCI STRAIT

M. ŞTEFAN1, G. ROMANESCU2

ABSTRACT. Kerch Strait was the main passage between the Azov Sea and the
Black Sea.The passage of ships through the strait is hampered by several physical
and geographical factors: emerged and submerged morphology, the climatic and
hydrological parameters. As a result of the extremely low depths of the strait, for
the safety of navigation, authorities have been forced to dredge a canal for passage
of the vessels with a medium draft, to make a properly hydrographical develop-
ment of the fairway and of the shores, and to establish a favorable anchoring
area etc. Ice, which occurs in winter, makes the navigation very difficult, which
takes place in convoys, preceded by ice breakers. Fog, frequent in the transitional
seasons, hampered navigation; many accidents happened because of this
inconvenience. Most accidents due to weather conditions (fog, wind) are specific
to smaller vessels, sea-river type, which are sailing in the area and which, due to
their construction, are not able to deal with exceptional weather conditions at sea. The
existence of surface currents, with the dominant direction north-south, from the
Sea of Azov to the Black Sea, affects navigation only around the heads where cau-
ses circular currents. In this case are affected only pleasure boats and low powered
vessel. With all these impediments to navigation, the Kerch Strait is an important
waterway, especially for the countries bordering the Sea of Azov: Ukraine and the
Russian Federation, and also for the countries from the Black Sea basin.

Keywords: straits, shipping, hydrological risk, morphology, hydro-climatic conditions

1. INTRODUCTION

Although the Azov Sea is considered an inland sea, navigation is extremely intense
because the bordering countries: Ukraine and the Russian Federation, runs a large
part of the commercial transports through the Kerch Strait. In this context, the strait
acquires a special importance and local authorities are working to maintain and
keep it operational, at maximal potential.
In geographycal, physical and human terms, the strait has been extremely
well studied, but the interdisciplinary connection, between natural conditions and
navigation, was only vague studied. This research attempts to highlight certain
links between natural environment and navigation, especially the difficulties
created to the naval traffic, by the existence of risk factors.

1
Naval Academy „Mircea cel Bătrân” Constanta, Faculty of Merchant Marine, Fulgerului Street, No. 1,
Tel. 0722.231034, E-mail. stefanmarius60@yahoo.com.
2
University „Al.I.Cuza” of Iasi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Department of Geography,
Bd.Carol I 20A, 700505, Iasi, Romania, Tel.0040-744774652, Fax.0040232-201481, E-mail.
geluromanescu@yahoo.com.

517
 The great difficulty in the finalization of this work, is the fact that most of
the dates required in the conduct of this study are not concentrated on a single
customer, but at several authorities who are very reluctant to provide informations.
For this reason it has been used only material obtained via mapping and
interpretation of raw data from meteorology and hydrology.
For navigation in the Black Sea, Azov Sea and the strait were printed
materials with a general and especial character by United Kingdom Hydrografic
Office, 2006, 2009-2010, Direcţia Hidrografică Maritimă Constanţa, 2006 and
Service Hydrographique et Oceanographique de la Marine, 2004. In this direction
can be used the reference works edited by: Penck, 1919; Brătescu, 1942; Gâştescu,
2005; Romanescu, 2007; Ştefan and Romanescu, 2010 a,b etc.

2. REGIONAL SETTING

Kerch Strait link the Black and Azov Sea. To the west the strait is bounded
by the Kerch peninsula (belonging to the Autonomous Republic of Crimea,
Ukraine), and eastwards from the Taman peninsula (belonging to the Russian
Federation). This mean that at present times, the border between these two states,
is established in the middle of fairway. South Entrance, from the Black Sea, lies
between the heads Panagiya and Takil and the north, from the Sea of Azov,
between heads Akhilleon and Khroni (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Sea of Azov – Satellite image, after NASA, 2004

Kerch Strait length is 22 Nm and the width is less than 2 Nm. Although its
width can be considered satisfactory, a large number of sand banks, shoals and
other hazards required the dredging of a canal, to allow the navigation at the ships
with a medium draft (Kerch-Yeni Kale Canal).

518
 There is an obvious difference between the coasts of west and east of the
Strait. West coast is higher, bordering Komish-Burun and Kerchenska bays, while
the east is lower, showing sand spits (Tuzla, Chushka) that border the Gulf Taman.
The strait’s route is sinuous and narrow. Hydrographic factors, in addition
to the natural morphologie, are extremely variable and misleading, making
navigation very difficult due to busy traffic along and across the strait. Despite
these difficulties, Kerci Strait remains very important for navigation, being the
single waterway linking the Black and Azov Sea.
Coordination of shipping movement in the area is provided by the Ship
Movement Control Service located at the Cape Zmeinyy (on the Ukrainian coast),
which regulates navigation in Kerch Strait, Kerch-Yeni Kale Canal and Sea of
Azov.

3. METHODS, TECHNIQUES, MATERIALS

For such action is necessary a labor team, from which to obtain and analyze
information from different sources and different areas.
The most important information was taken from the cartographic material
used in navigation, and also from studies developed by geologists,
geomorphologists, hydrologists, meteorologists, etc..
The details of the manouevers to be carried out, in difficult conditions for
navigation were taken from nautical publications and also from a personal
experience at 25 years, of deck officer and master on board of sea-going vessel.
At the same time were consulted informations from media, regarding the
accidents occurred in the Kerch Strait area, or the Black and Azov Sea basin.
Kerch hydrological and meteorological stations have provided the most
important data about currents, waves, fog, strong winds etc. All these are
published in a brut style in the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office publications.

4. RESULTS

Azov Sea is considered, by many geographs, an adiacent lagoon of the

Black Sea, named Don lagoon, which communicate via the Kerch Strait (United
Kingdom Hydrografic Office, 2006). It has an area of 38,000 km2 and a maximum
depth of 14 m, and is known as the shallowest sea of the world. Its shape is
elongated, with major axis oriented NE-SW direction. Maximum length is 400
km. Maximum width of 200 km, on the Berdyansk meridian, and average width is
95 km.
Navigation is allowed in this basin, for small and medium draught vessels
(up to 8 m) and a displacement of up to 12,000 tdw. The main reason is due to very
low depths. Navigation is also strongly impeded because the lenses are aligned
perpendicular in profile sedimentation, (Scherbacov et al., 1979).
The shores are sandy, with numerous spits and coastal belts of sand,
leaving few areas favorable for the arrangement of ports. Therefore the only ports

519
capable of receiving vessels with medium-draught, are in Ukraine, Berdyansk and
Mariupol (Zhdanov old name) ports, having a maximum depth of 8m. Russian
ports situated in eastern and north-eastern side of this sea (Temryuk, Eysk,
Taganrog, Rostov on Don) have lower depths, and here is operating only low
draught vessels (sea-river, river type vessels and barges).
Bordering areas have rich mineral and agricultural resources. There are
large deposits of coal and iron in the Don River basin and large oil reserves in the
Kuban River basin.
Azov Sea waters are muddy green color and are opaque due to high
content of silt brought by rivers . At the same time are also large quantities of
plankton, and in late summer sea surface is almost completely covered with green-
brown algae.
In the Kerch Strait area, topography is the most important factor which
endangering shipping. Emersion and submerged topography of the Kerch Strait
presented numerous hazards to navigation. At the entrance area from the Black
Sea, near the capes are numerous reefs, banks and underwater obstacles. Near the
Tuzla Cape, are underwater rocks, benches and pillars, and south of the Yeni-Kale
Cape are Tserkovni Banks. Numerous impediments are on both sides of the Kerch-
Yeni Kale Canal, especially in the east part of the canal. The hazards located on the
faiway, near the dredged canals, or near passes are marked by lighted or unlighted
buoys and spars.
Depths in the Kerch Strait are reduced. Greater depths are at the entrance
in the strait from Black Sea and Azov Sea. In the middle of the strait,
depths fall gradually, and south of the Cape Yeni Kale are less than 5 m. Due to
this situation, was necessary to dredge a canal in this area. In the middle of the
Strait draft vessels can navigate only through this canal.
Kerch-Yeni Kale Canal is dredged in the north part of Kerch Strait and
serves for the passage of vessels with a medium draught (until 8 m). On both sides
of the Canal coast is usually high. On its west side the coast is indented by bays
and inlets. On the east side, sandy spits are extending near the coasts. It has a
length of 18.5 Nm, a general direction NE-SW, and is buoyed. The canal have four
sections (from the Black Sea): Pavlovskoye, Burunskoye, Yeni Kale and
Chushkynskoye. It has a minimum depth of 8 meters and a width of 120m (Tab. 1).

Section Minimum depth (m) Width (m)

Pavlovskoye 8,3 120
Burunskoye 8,3 120
Yeni Kale 8,0 120
Chushkynskoye 8,2 120
Table 1. Depths in different sections of the Kerch-Yeni Kale Canal,
after the Black Sea Pilot Book, 2006.

Latest information on minimum depths can be obtained only from the

Ukrainian authorities, who manage this canal. They always perform dredging

520
operation, to maintain the officially declared depths. Legal and material they are
liable in case of an accident due to water level.
On the entire length of the canal, near its edges, there are a great number
of hazards to navigation, so it must be carried out only in the middle of the fairway.
It deviates outward only on head-to-head meeting with another vessels (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Morphology of the Kerch Strait and passage routes

Map by Russian Maritime Hydrographic Office , 2008

The canal is marked by pairs of lighted and unlighted buoys, numbered

sequentially from the southern entrance, from 1-2 to 51-52, signaling port and
starboard part of canal. Each section of the channel is marked also by cardinal
buoys. Anchorages are clearly established by local authorities and marked on
navigational charts (Fig. 3).
Most important hydroclimatic factors are: ice, currents, water level, fog,
winds.
During the winter (second part of December to March) navigation in Kerch
Strait and Sea of Azov is often obstructed by the appearance of ice. In this
case, navigation is carried out using icebraker. The ice cover can be broken also
under the influence of currents or winds. In hard winters the entire area is covered
by a compact cover of ice. Ice normally disappears in the second half of March.
Azov Sea ice under compact form or enter into the Kerch Strait up on spits
Chushka and Tuzla. It can also penetrate up to the southern part of the strait.

521
 Kerch Strait currents are influenced by wind direction and the flow of
water in the Sea of Azov. Due to the predominance of winds from the N direction,
current have usually the direction S. A stream of N direction, from the Black Sea,
occurs more frequently when prevailing winds from S direction. Average current
speed is between 0.1 and 0.5 Kn, but in narrow places where the wind speed
increases, can reach 3 Kn.
Water level in the strait decreases, while winds from the direction N
prevailing, and increases, during strong winds from the direction S. The maximum
amplitude may be about 1 m.

Poziții de ancoraj în nordul

Strâmtorii Kerci

Fig. 3. Kerch Strait – Electronic navigational chart, after Tsunamis, 2002

In the past, the most important impediment to coastal navigation in the

Strait of Kerch was represented by fog. Due to the new facilities, the radar survey
equipment and also the appropriate signals, this phenomenon is now greatly
diminished. Fog is now a hazard only for small or fishing vessel without proper
radar equipment. The frequency of fog is higher in the transitional seasons (spring,
summer) and in winter times, in the morning. There is a certain connection
between phenomena of the occurrence of fog and shipping accidents in the strait,
but not very obvious.
Winds have the entire year, a general NE-SW direction, focusing along the
corridor, easy favoring navigation on south direction, preventing it from the
opposite direction. SW winds occur in summer and beat normally during the

522
day. When lateral winds are in force, vessels must be positioned as to respect the
mandatory route and fuel consumption, and attention is increasing. Small tonnage
ships can strand at strong side winds, but have a little influence on large tonnage
ships. Strong winds have a common NE direction in autumn and winter. They
have produced over the years, many naval disasters. In the last years, the worst
naval accidents in the Kerch Strait took place in November 2007, after a severe
storm. These events have terrified the European Community and led to special
measures for maritime safety.Studying the media of the time, I could make a
complete description of the severity of accidents occurring and their adverse
influence to the marine environment.
A very strong storm, with winds from the NE direction, force 8 / 9
Beaufort Scale (17-24 m / s) and sea grade six ("very agitated", with waves up to 6
meters, according to the sea scale depending on the height of the wave), caused a
first disaster , on 11 November 2007 at 4.45 local time (3.45 Romania), in the
Kerch Strait, where the Russian tanker "Volga-Neft 139" was torn in two, front
drifting, according RiaNovosti. The tanker was carrying 4,000 tons of oil, and it
was estimated that over 1300 tons of oil leaked into the Black Sea.
Shortly after the first incident, the cargo ship "Volnogrosk", loaded with
2,000 tons of sulfur, and the tanker "Volga-Neft 123" were damaged by the same
storm, near the Russian port of Kavkaz, also in Kerch Strait. Crew members were
rescued from the ship’s lifeboat, which floated on the sea for several hours. A final
assessment of the consequences of the storm of November 11, 2007, recorded a
total of 13 ships damaged.

5. DISCUSSIONS

Most accidents occurred in the Kerch Strait were caused by human

negligence or due to unfavorable hydro-climatic conditions.
The riparian countries, must to take special measures for improvement of
maritime safety and for prevention of marine pollution. In this regard it is
necessary a proper regulation of traffic, improving of hydrographic assurance for
navigation and hydro-meteorological information in the area.
To regulate traffic were adopted traffic separation schemes at the entrance
to the north and south of the strait, anchorage areas, avoiding areas, etc. (Fig. 2,3).
For the safety of navigation, in the Kerch Strait, deck officers are required
to make a permanent navigational and radio watch, for immediate notification of
any changes in the operational environment. This permanent watch is made, on the
sea, to: avoid areas with bad weather, prevent difficult situations that can find the
ship in a storm, choose the best courses in relation to wind and wave direction
depending of loading situation, prepare for the maneuvers of the vessel at a given
time; on station at anchor for : timely preparation of maneuver to heave up the
anchor, quickly leaving of the anchorage place, preparing the voyage to outer road
or open sea; and at the quay, to: multiply the shore lines for the safety ; stop or
restrict the loading operation, etc.

523
 6. CONCLUSIONS

Kerch Strait is the only link which connects the Azov Sea with Black Sea
and planetary Ocean, and riparian countries (Ukraine, Russian Federation) must to
use only this sealane. Due to this fact, the strait has a high strategic, economic
and geopolitic importance for this countries and also for countries from south-east
of the EU. Morphografical and morphometrical characteristics, climatic conditions
and sea currents, are natural factors, that can positively or negatively influence
the navigation through strait.
As a result of the natural conditions (sinuous shores, low depths, many
navigational hazards), and of the adverse hydro-meteo factors (surface currents,
ice, fog), navigation is difficult and sometimes dangerous. For this reason, the
Strait technical equipment must to be modern and efficient, and the dredging
permanent. Despite of all facilities owned by the infrastructure of the strait,
catastrophic accidents still happened and navigation is often interrupted because
of hydro-meteorological risk phenomena.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Many information was obtained from the logs of the training merchant
vessel “Albatros”, owned by Naval Academy "Mircea cel Bătrân” and from the
notes of the captain Marius Stefan.
Processing and interpretation of data was performed in the Laboratory
of Geo-Archeology of the Faculty of Geography and Geology at the University
"Alexandru Ioan Cuza", Iaşi.

REFERENCES

1. Brătescu C. (1942), Oscilaţiile de nivel ale apelor şi bazinului Mării Negre,

Buletinul Societăţii de Geografie, Bucureşti, LXI: 1-112.
2. Gâştescu P. (1996), Marea Neagră – trăsături geografice de bază, starea
actuală, preocupări de monitoring şi management, Revista Terra, a.XXVI-
XXVIII, Bucureşti.
3. Marigny T.M. (1930), Portulan de la Mer Noire et de la Mer d’Azov, ou
description des cotes de ces deux mers a l’usage des navigateurs, Odessa.
4. NASA (2004), Imagini satelitare.
5. Popescu I. (2002), Analyse des processus sédimentaires récents dans
l’éventail profond du Danube (mer Noire), Thèse de doctorat, Université de
Bretagne Occidentale, Université de Bucarest.
6. Romanescu Gh. (1997), Oceanografie (Geografia oceanelor). Edit. Univ.
“Ştefan cel Mare”, Suceava.
7. Romanescu G. (2008), Oceanografie, Editura Azimuth, Iaşi.
8. Scherbacov F.A., Korenova E.V., Zabelina E.K. (1979), Stratigraphy of the
Late-Quaternary deposits in the Black sea. In: Late-Quaternary history and
sedimentogenesis in marginal and inland seas, Nauka Press, Moscow.
9. Tsunamis (2002), Hărţi electronice de navigaţie,

524
10. Direcţia Hidrografică Maritimă Constanţa, Cartea Pilot a Mării Negre, ed.
2006.
11. Service Hydrographique et Oceanographique de la Marine (2004),
Instructions nautiques. Mer Noire, Mer d’Azov, Volume D7, Fascicule 7,
Service Hydrographique et Oceanographique de la Marine, Paris.
12. Ştefan M., Romanescu Gh. (2010a), Problems of seagoing navigation in
Bosphorus Strait, Aerul şi Apa. Componente ale Mediului, Presa Universitară
Clujeană, ISSN 2067-743X, pag.178-187.
13. Ştefan M., Romanescu Gh. (2010b), Curenţii şi navigaţia maritimă în
strâmtorile Bosfor şi Dardanele, Resursele de apă din România. Lucrările
primului simpozion naţional, 11-13 iunie 2010, Târgovişte, Editura
Transversal, Târgovişte, pag. 453-459.
14. United Kingdom Hydrografic Office (2006), Black Sea and Sea of Azov Pilot,
NP 24, United Kingdom Hydrografic Office, London.
15. United Kingdom Hydrografic Office (2009-2010), Admirality List of Radio
16. Signals, vol.3 – NP 283, United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, London.
 COMPLEX USE OF RESOURCES IN THE REGIONAL WATER
SUPPLY SYSTEMS

S. A. ALEXANDRESCU1, F. TĂMĂŞANU2

ABSTRACT. – Complex use of resources in the regional water supply systems.

Regional water supply systems have expanded the range from county to regional
level. These are complex works meant to serve the customers from several
counties. Viable sources of underground water have become lower in number,
quality and volume, due to pollution. Also, the quality indicators of surface water
have downgraded because of the pollution. This paper will analyze a typical case
of regional system, the water supply system of Iasi, which lately has expanded on
the territory of three counties: Iasi, Botosani and Vaslui. This system takes water
from underground and surface sources.

Keywords: surface source, underground, complex usage, maintaining water quality.

1. INTRODUCTION

Water is very important because it takes part in almost all of the processes
that form and shape the Earth. Also, the water is essential to support all ecosystems
(Lerner and Lerner, 2005). Everyone must have access to clean water for drinking,
hygiene and energy production. In order to satisfy these basic needs, the water
supply should be done in plentiful quantities, with reasonable costs and in harmony
with nature (Gabor and Tecuci, 2005).
Water is the subject of numerous treaties, laws and agreements between
nations, states and communities. Because water is an increasingly important
resource, there are often complex political and legal issues regarding the use of
water. There have been many wars and court cases over who owns a body of water,
who has a right to use it, how water should be divided and used among those who
claim it (Lerner and Lerner, 2005).
After income, the availability of water ranks as the second most important
factor in surveying the welfare of different countries. The lack of water, of
satisfactory quality and quantity, is a major factor in poverty, disease, economic
development and in geopolitical conflict (Hoffmann, 2009).
To illustrate the differences in the distribution of water to people who live
in various parts of the world, in figure 1 is shown the average water use per person
in one day in 2006, for some of world’s countries.

1
"Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University, Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Geodesic and Environmental
Engineering, 700050 Iasi, Romania, e-mail: alexandrescuadina@yahoo.com
2
"Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University, Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Geodesic and Environmental
Engineering, 700050 Iasi, Romania, e-mail: tamasanufabian@yahoo.com

526
 Fig. 1. Average water use per person per day

„Water business is the third largest industry in the world, behind oil and
gas production and electricity generation. Water is transitioning to an economic
good, but it is also a resource with paramount ecological significance” (Hoffmann,
2009). At this stage it is necessary to change the attitude toward water. It must be
considered a raw material that includes a lot of energy and it must be managed with
the same care as other energy-intensive raw materials (Sarbu, 1997).
To ensure a sufficient water supply and to meet the needs of people
throughout the world, long term plans must be created for the conservation of water
sources and to improve their quality (Lerner and Lerner, 2005).
This paper aims to present the evolution of water quality from the river
basins located in Iasi County, in recent years. It will also describe the regional
water supply system of Iasi County, how it has been extended, and the variation of
water quantity distributed to population and industry, in the last few years.

2. EVOLUTION OF WATER QUALITY IN SIRET AND PRUT

RIVER BASINS

The report on water quality in Romania during 2009 states: “water quality
in Romania is monitored according to the methodological principles of Integrated
Monitoring System in Romania, restructured in accordance with the requirements
of European Directives”. Figure 2 illustrates the variation of surface water quality
in Romania in recent years. Compared with the water situation in 2005, in 2009 has
been a considerable improvement in its quality. Depending on their quality, there
are assigned categories of quality to surface waters according to Order no. 161 of

527
16 February 2006. The 1st category means that water quality is very good, and the
5th category means that water quality is the worst.

Fig. 2. Evolution of surface water overall quality in Romania

Figures 3 and 4 present the evolution of water quality of Siret and Prut
river basins (r.b.). It may be noted that in Siret r.b., water quality remains relatively
constant between 2004 and 2009, with an improvement in 2006. But in Prut r.b.,
surface water quality has increased in recent years.

Fig. 3. Variation of surface water quality in Siret r.b.

Fig. 4. Variation of surface water quality in Prut r.b.

528
 Water quality variations of Siret (Lespezi), Moldova (Timisesti) and Prut
Rivers, in recent years is shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7. On Siret (Lespezi), the
monitored river length has increased by 23 km in 2009. There is a general tendency
to improve its water quality in recent years. Moldova (Timisesti) maintains good
water quality in the last three years (Category I). The monitored length of rivers
from Prut r.b. in Iasi County has increased by 303 km. In this case there is an
improvement of water quality.

Fig. 5. Evolution of surface water quality in Siret (Lespezi), Iasi County

Fig. 6. Evolution of surface water quality in Moldova (Timisesti), Iasi County

Fig. 7. Evolution of surface water quality in Prut r.b., Iasi County

529
 On the Romanian territory there are 142 groundwater bodies. These can be
classified according to quantitative and chemical status in two grades: good and
poor. According to the report on Romania’s water quality in 2009, to assess
groundwater chemical status, the concentrations determined in the established
monitoring points are compared with the threshold values. To do this, the following
indicators must be measured: NO2, NH4, chlorides, sulfides, lead, cadmium,
mercury, arsenic, etc., where appropriate, for each body of water considered.
To highlight how groundwater quality has evolved in the country in recent
years, there are presented as a percentage from total number of stations monitored
the cases where they have exceeded the permitted maximum thresholds for nitrates,
phosphates, organic substances and ammonium (Figure 8). From this one can be
deduced that from 2005 until 2009, the amount of organic substances and
ammonium in groundwater has declined significantly.

Fig. 8. Evolution of underground water quality from Romania

Qualitative and quantitative assessment of water bodies made in 2009 for

river basins of the Siret and Prut rivers has led to the following conclusions: in
Siret r.b. 5 out of 6 bodies of water and in Prut r.b. 5 out of 7 bodies of water were
in good condition.
Among the causes of groundwater contamination there are mentioned the
surface water pollution, excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in
agriculture, lack of sanitary facilities in some regions and poor operation of
irrigation systems. These and many others must be prevented and combated in the
future, to ensure a good quality groundwater.
Romania must reach by 2015, a good water quality, according to the
commitments with the European Union. This means that all water bodies form the
Romanian territory must be at least in the 2nd quality category by 2015.

530
 3. REGIONAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM OF IASI COUNTY

"The county strategy for accelerating development of public utilities

services" on 2010 stated that the regional water supply system distributes water to
people and industry from Iasi County in all 5 cities and in 47 out of the 93 villages.
The main sources of Iasi water supply system are the groundwater and river water,
collected near Timisesti village, from Moldova River, the Prut River which
supplies the cities of Iasi, Targu Frumos and Podu Iloaiei, water boreholes from
Motca for Pascani city and Lake Parcovaci for Harlau.
Timisesti intake is made of two drains located in the lower terrace from the
right bank of Moldova River, upstream from Timisesti village. The old drain is a
900/1200 ovoid of 1631 m length and nominal flow rate of 300 l/s. The new drain
is a visitable gallery of 1250X2800 section, 4000 m length and with the nominal
flow rate of 1200 l/s. Another groundwater intake is represented by the 20
boreholes drilled along a length of 4000 m located near the town Verseni. Water
catchment from Prut River is realized by pumping the water from two caissons,
near Tutora village.
Water is transported from Timisesti intakes to the city of Iasi by two
adductions and from Tutora water catchment by 5 pipelines which feed Chirita
Lake and the water treatment complex Sorogari. The water supply system has 8
water treatment plants: Moldova and Chirita which are cleaning the water for Iasi,
Targu Frumos, Podu Iloaiei cities, Harlau water treatment plant for the town with
the same name and other plants which treat water for the water supply systems of
Belcesti, Gorban, Tibanesti, Victoria and Vladeni. In figure 9 is illustrated the
water supply system of Iasi County.

Fig. 9. Water supply system of Iasi County

From 2000 to 2009, the length of Iasi County water supply network had
been increased from 832.9 km to 1433.89 km. Also, from only 16 villages supplied
in 2000, 158 villages were being supplied in 2009. In 2010, 372000 out of 814000

531
inhabitants were connected to the water network. However, the volume of water
distributed has decreased from 52066620 m3 in 2006 to 25700300 m3 in 2009.
"County strategy for accelerating the development of public utilities
services of Iasi" for 2010 states that “in 72 out of 93 villages the nitrate level
measured in public wells is above the legal limits. In order to conform to the water
supply regulations, all these villages must have adequate water supply systems by
2015”. Thus, it is required that the regional water supply system of Iasi County to
be extended.

4. CONCLUSIONS

In general, Romania’s water quality, the groundwater and the surface

water, has improved in recent years. But, in order to comply with the European
Union’s regulations, all water bodies form the Romanian territory must be at least
in the 2nd quality category by 2015.
Although the regional water supply system has been expanded, the volume
of distributed water is lower than in previous years.
To comply with regulations on water supply, all villages where the nitrate
level measured in public wells is above the legal limits must have water supply
systems by 2015.

REFERENCES

1. Gabor, O., Tecuci, I. (2005), Calitatea apelor-problemă esenţială a secolului XXI,

Revista Hidrotehnica. Vol. 50, Nr. 2-3, 20-31.
2. Hoffmann, S.J. (2009), Planet Water Investing in the World’s Most Valuable
Resource. Ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, SUA.
3. Lerner, L., Lerner, B.W. (2005), Encyclopedia of water science Volume 1. Ed.
Thomson Gale, SUA.
4. Sârbu, I. (1997), Optimizarea energetică a sistemelor de distribuţie a apei. Ed.
Academiei Române, Bucureşti.
5. ***(2010), Strategia judeţeană privind accelerarea dezvoltării serviciilor
comunitare de utilităţi publice Iaşi.
6. ***(2006) Ordin nr. 161 din 16 februarie 2006 pentru aprobarea Normativului
privind clasificarea calitatii apelor de suprafata in vederea stabilirii starii
ecologice a corpurilor de apa.
7. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR06-complete.pdf accesat în data de Februarie,
01, 2011.
8. http://www.mmediu.ro/gospodarirea_apelor/rapoarte_ape.htm accesat în data de
Februarie, 02, 2011.
9. http://apmis.anpm.ro/files/APM%20Iasi/Rapoarte%20anuale/ accesat în data de
Februarie, 02, 2011.
10. http://www.apavital.ro/ accesat în data de Februarie, 02, 2011.
This paper was supported by the project: "Studii doctorale pentru performante europene in
cercetare si inovare (CUANTUMDOC)" ID 79407.

532
 ASPECTS REGARDING THE METHODS OF SOIL AERATION

A. UNGURAŞU1, A. UNGUREANU2

ABSTRACT. – Aspects regarding the methods of soil aeration. Soil aeration is

a process to be carried out continuously the gas exchange between soil and
atmosphere. The process is done mainly by the movement of water inside and
outside him. There are three major gases in the soil (nitrogen,oxygen and carbon
dioxide). Soil air composition differs from that of air by higher CO2 content (0,3 to
0,5%). The air in the soil is very important for the dynamics of soil. Soil aeration
is accomplished through mass flow and diffusion. In this paper the authors present
these methods of soil aeration.

Keywords: soil aeration, diffusion, mass flow, soil gases.

1. INTRODUCTION
The air in the soil is very important for the dynamics of soil and plant
growth. The air of soil contains the same gases as atmospheric air, but in different
proportions (table 1) . Thus, soil air has practically the same ground of nitrogen as
the atmosphere, is low in oxygen and rich in carbon dioxide, water vapour and
ammonia. The content of CO2 is always higher in soil air compared to atmosphere.
In case of insufficient ventilation of the soil, aerobic soil microorganism
are affected; also reduced ventilation prevents root growth in length, and soil
nutrients are not available for plants, such as: nitrates suffer denitrifications process
and part of gaseous nitrogen loss.
Soil aeration is achieved by two methods: mass flow and diffusion. Mass
exchange taking place between the atmosphere and soil air (during the day, the soil
has a higher temperature than the atmosphere and soil gases into the atmosphere
quickly go through the process of evaporation) .
At night the ground is cooler than the atmosphere and absorbs gas flow
from the atmosphere. Most exchanges take place in the soil gas diffusion
mechanism. Each carries its own atmosphere gas partial pressure in relation to the
volume of air.
Depending on the factors leading to soil aeration (porosity, water regime)
can be done in ground a poor, excessive or balanced air system. Conditions of poor
air meets in excessively wet soils, especially in the regular or permanent swampy.
Soils with excessive aeration are sandy with unstructured content and low air
humidity.

1,2
"Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University, Faculty of Hydrotechnical Engineering, Geodesy and
Environmental Engineering, 700050, Iaşi, România,
e-mail: ana_25_is@yahoo.com, adryanaa_luv@yahoo.com

533
 Balanced system of air takes place in well structured soils glomerulus,
where the proportion of capillary porosity and non capillary is optimal. For the
settings of the air in the soil are used to determine soil porosity throughout the
profile and water content at short intervals, for at least a year. Soil aeration is
conditioned primarily by soil moisture regime that is common to speak of a
aerohidric soil regime.

Tabel 1. Atmospheric air and soil composition (volume %)

Components Atmospheric air (%) Soil air (%)
Oxygen 20,87 11,5-19
Nitrogen 78,31 79,0
Carbon dioxide 0,03 0,3-3
Argon 0,76 0,76
Other gases 0,03 traces
Water vapor 1-2 1,5-2

2. GAS EXCHANGE BETWEEN SOIL AND ATMOSPHERE

Gas exchange between soil and atmosphere is crucial for the quality of
metabolic reactions that take place under the soil surface, especially in agricultural
ecosystems, where the degree of aeration of the soil is strongly correlated with
plant vegetative state, having repercussions on the quality and quantity of crops.
Due to the porous medium properties of soil gas exchange between it and
the atmosphere is possible by the aeration process, through which atmospheric
oxygen enters the soil and soil carbon dioxide is emitted to the atmosphere, these
two flows being generated due to concentration gradients.
The magnitude of the flow of oxygen in the atmosphere is dependent on
soil texture and structure and the degree of pore filling with water, it is possible to
quantify the aeration process as both direct measurements and numerical modeling.
Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the
kinetic theory of gases, there is also collision between molecules. In soil, a
concentration gradient causes net movements of molecules from high concentration
to low concentration, this gives the movement of gas by diffusion. Numerically it is
explained by Fick’s law of diffusion.
Diffusion is the principle process that drives gas exchange between soil air
and the atmosphere. Diffusion is defined as the random thermal movement of ions
or molecules that tends to bring about their uniform distribution within a
continuous system.
During a period of accelerated biological activity, the levels of soil CO2
can exceed atmospheric CO2 levels. This difference in CO2 concentration causes
the CO2 to diffuse from the soil to the atmosphere. Similarly reduced O2 levels in
soil produce diffusion of O2 from the atmosphere into soil. The rate of diffusion is

534
greatest when a large concentration differential (gradient) exists and conductance
capacity (permeability) is high.
Measurements of the rate of gaseous transport in soil are of two types:
diffusion and convection. Measurements of soil aeration based on convection of
gas use simple flow parameters to accurately measure mass flow through soil
directly, or to measure the total air pressure or the difference in air pressure
between the atmosphere and soil. Convection of soil air arises from spatial
differences in air pressures due to abrupt changes in air pressure of the atmosphere,
the effects of temperature differences on gas properties, infiltration and
redistribution of water in the soil profile, and microbial production of gases as CO2,
NO,N2O and CH4.
Diffusion is a response to the concentration gradient formed between the
oxygen rich atmosphere and the oxygen poor wastewater infiltration site.

3. MASS FLOW (CONVECTION) IN SOIL

This mechanism is dependant upon overall pressure gradients and is thus

affected by soil water content, wind, and changes in barometric pressure.
Additional phenomena affecting the pressure of soil air are the penetrations of
water during infiltration, causing displacement (and sometimes compression) of
antecedent soil air, the fluctuations of a shallow water table pushing air upward or
drawing air downward, and the extraction of soil water by plant roots. Short-term
changes in soil air pressure can also occure during tillage or compaction by
machinery.
Convection can in certain circumstances contribute significantly to soil
aeration.
The convective flow of air in the soil is similar in some ways to the flow of
water, and different in other ways. The similarity lies in the fact that the flow of
both fluids is usually impelled by, and it is proportional to a pressure gradient.
The dissimilarity results from the relative incompressibility of water in
comparison with air, which is highly compressible so that its density and viscosity
are strongly dependent on pressure (as well as temperature). The gravitational
potential gradient, where it exists, is directly important in causing water to flow,
but is hardly involved in air flow.
Quite another difference is that water has a greater affinity with the
surfaces of mineral particles and is thus drawn into narrow necks and pores,
forming capillary films and wedges.
Therefore, air tends to occupy the larger pores. The two fluids-water and
air-coexist in the soil by occupying different portions of the pore space having
different geometric configuration. For this reason, the soil exhibits toward the two
fluids different conductivity or permeability functions, as these relate to the
different effective diameters, tortuosity, and interconnections of the pore sets
occupied by each fluid.

535
 Only when the soil is completely permeated by one or the other, water or
air, should either fluid encounter the same transmission coefficient of the medium
as the other. Quite a different mechanism of convective movements of gases in the
soil is the transfer of dissolved gases by rain or irrigation water infiltrating into and
percolating through soils.

4. AERATION METHODS FOR BIODEGRADABLE SOILS

Psysical and biological processes have a major influence on the process of

soil aeration due to: transport of oxygen, humidity and heat of air flow and
diffusion, oxygen consumption and water by microorganisms and heat generated
by bioreaction. The factors that are affecting soil aeration are draining excess
water, the coefficient of soil respiration, soil profile, soil pH.
Efficiency of biodegradation based on the degree of soil respiration can be
calculated as the product of CO2 accumulated over a period of time (Ururahy
Adriana, 1998). Biodegradation efficiency can be assessed by reducing the
concentration of hydrocarbons.Intensification of soil aeration leads to improvement
of biodegradation efficiency of hydrocarbons, because it emphasizes soil microbial
activity resulting in increased oil consumption by the microorganism (Monica
Alina Nedelcu, 2010).
(1) EB (%) =CO2bio x 100/Ci
(2) CO2 bio =2 x CO2 total –CO2 control
Where: EB-biodegradation efficienty (% µmoles/µmoles) ;
CO2bio -1CO2 produced by microbial activity (µmoles) ;
CO2total –CO2 total accumulated (µmoles) ;
Ci - initial carbon equivalent (µmoles) ;
CO2 control -gained control of CO2 (µmoles).
A soil aeration method is “ biopile “ method (this method of aeration of the
soil has been studied and researched in "Studies on polluted soil aeration systems
to improve efficiency in the treatment of soil remediation using the "biopile"
method by Monica Alina Nedelcu, V. Micle, Monica Ioana Berar, 2010).
Method "BIOPILE" consists on excavating soil and the formation of piles
of contaminated soil in order to improve conditions for biodegradation.
For the aeration of the pile of contaminated soil is provided a system of
perforated pipes installed at the base of the heap in a permeable gravel layer that
allows regular and uniform air distribution throughout the whole heap. The proper
growth conditions in the method “biopile” ,the speed and the degree of degradation
may increase (Monica Alina Nedelcu, 2010).
Extracted air can be treated to remove volatile compounds using a system
such as activated carbon filtration (Micle V., 2009).
Operation Method "biopile" is due to physical and biological processes.
Source of oxygen increases with increasing air filter, heat and water loss are
intensified.

536
 Therefore stimulate the flow of air does not lead to an improvement in terms
of biodegradation in the ambient temperature is lower than that needed for
optimum biodegradation in soil pile. In order to optimize rehabilitation system
must understand how increasing the flow of air will change the internal
temperature and moisture content of the soil pile. In turn, the moisture content and
temperature are also affected by microbial activity.
In general, are used two aeration systems : aeration system with horizontal
pipes and aeration system with vertical pipes.
Horizontal tube aeration system usually includes fans who will be attached to
the aeration pipe system except when soil aeration is done manually (Rusu T., 2007).
Most ventilation systems are based on horizontal perforated pipes placed at random.
Vertical tube aeration system consists of perforated pipes placed vertically
with wind turbines and it has been compared with a standard structure with two
piles of perforated pipes placed horizontally (Micle V., 2009).
Both piles were composed of a similar mix of soil contaminated with diesel
fuel, wood chips, compost, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Hydrocarbons
were recovered using solvent extraction, and is determined both gravimetrically
and by gas chromatography.
Each soil pile was built using 3 m3 of soil contaminated with diesel, 1.26
m of soil in which: chips 0.21 m3 and compost 1.05 m3. Soil hydrocarbon
3

concentrations were between 18,000 and 25,000 ppm. Contaminated soil was
stacked in piles about a 1 m height, 2 m wide and 3 m in length.
The results are reducing the hydrocarbon content of both piles and are
presented in tables 2 and table 3.

Table 2. Variations in time of diesel content in the piles

Pile with standard aeration
Day Diesel mg/kg Percentage (%)
0 20,318 17
3 20,153 2
6 15,261 13
15 15,800 27
23 16,517 12
30 15,497 21

Table 3. Variations in time of diesel content in the piles

Pile with new system of aeration
Day Diesel mg/kg Percentage(%)
0 20,318 17
3 20,153 2
6 15,261 13
15 15,800 27
23 16,517 12
30 15,497 21

537
 The results confirmed that the excessive loss of water is due to
intensification of aeration inducing a negative impact on the process of
biodegradation. (Monica Alina Nedelcu, 2010)

CONCLUSION

Worldwide the most common method of soil aeration is the horizontal tube
method. After elaborating the study it shows that method biopile is an effective
method for maintaining an optimum balance in case of soil aeration, providing
ventilation system using a uniform vertical flow aeration.
To control the flow of air that affects the water content is necessary for
continuously monitoring the soil moisture.
This study was to compare systems in soils contaminated with
hydrocarbons to highlight the efficiency of biodegradation of organic pollutants.

„Gheorghe Asachi” Tehnical University of Iaşi

The Faculty of Hydrotechnics, Geodesic and
Environmental Engineering
e-mail:ungurasuadriana@gmail.com
This works was supported by project POSDRU, CUANTUMDOC, ID 79407

REFERENCES

1. *** (1994), Alexander M. , Biodegradation and Bioremediation, San Diego,

CA: Academic Press
2. *** (2004), Lia L., C.J. Cunningham, Valerie Pasd, J.C. Philpd, D.A. Barryc,
P.Andersonc, Field trial of a new aeration system for enhancig
biodegradation in a biopile, Waste Management 24, 127-137
3. *** (2009), Micle V., G. Neag, Procedee si Echipamente de depoluare a
solurilor si a apelor subterane, Editura U.T. Press, Cluj-Napoca
4. *** (1998), Ururahy Adriana F. P., M. D. M. Marins, R. L. Vital,Irene
Therezinha Gabardo, Nei Pereira Jr., Effect of aeration on biodegradation of
petroleum waste,Rev. Microbiol., vol. 29 (4) Sao Paulo,254-258
5. *** (2010),URS (Nedelcu) Alina Monica,V. Micle, Ioana Monica Berar(Sur),
Studii privind sistemele de aerare a solului poluat in vederea imbunătătirii
randamentului de depoluare in cazul tratării solurilor prin metoda “Biopile”
6. ***Statescu F., Monitoringul calitatii solului, Editura “Gh. Asachi” , Iasi
7. ***(2007) Rusu T., Laura Paulette, H. Cacovean, V. Turcu, Fizica,
hidrofizica, chimia si respiratia solului-Metode de cercetare, Editura
Risoprint,Cluj-Napoca
8. http://www.Crcnetbase.com
9. http:// www.greenhouse.gov.au
10. http://www.books.google.ro

538
 HEAVY METAL ANALYSIS IN WASTE WATER
SAMPLES FROM VALEA ŞESEI TAILING POND

I. L. MELENTI1, E. MAGYAR2, T. RUSU1

ABSTRACT. – Heavy metal analysis in waste water samples from Valea Şesei
tailing pond. The mining of ore deposits and the processing and smelting of
copper at Roşia Poieni have resulted in an increase of the toxic elements
concentration within all components of the environment in the area. Valea Şesei
tailing pond is a waste deposit for the Roşia Poieni open-pit and is the biggest
tailing pond in Romania. In October 2009, we determined 8 heavy metals (Cd, Co,
Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn) in 10 waste water samples. This water flows under the
tailing dam, through the Valea Şesei stream, into the Arieş River, the water’s pH
varies between 3 and 4. The heavy metals concentration exceeds with orders of
magnitude. In the stream the concentrations are much lower, but still exceed the
admitted levels. The results show that the tailing pond is a pollution hot spot in the
area affecting the environment.

Keywords: heavy metals, tailings, waste water, mining, environment

1. INTRODUCTION

Located in the Apuseni Mountain area, the biggest tailing pond in Romania
is called Valea Şesei. Since 1986, it is used for tailings deposit from the Roşia
Poieni ore, which is the biggest exploitation of copper ore in the country, and the
second in Europe with over one billion tones ore, with 0.36% Cu (Milu et al,
2002). The geological structure is formed of a crystalline base at the intersection
of 2 tectonic-magmatic alignments which correspond to 2 major dislocations
oriented NW-SE between Roşia Montană-Corabia-Boteş and N-S on Roşia Poieni-
Conţiu-Corabia-Arama direction. The volcanic edifice from Roşia Poieni area
distinguishes by the presence of quartzite andesite (andesite of Poieni). This one is
cut through by a volcanic body of amphibolites andesite (andesite of Fundoaia)
(Duma, 1998). The mineralization is formed by chalcopyrite, pyrite, magnetite,
bornite or molibdenite. Due to the exploitation, the Roşia Poieni landscape area has
been modified by the transport of a big mass from a positive landscape form to a
negative one and by the formations of dumps and tailing ponds. All of these
changes induced intense erosion processes, landslides and earth falls, found in the
zone’s morphology through slopes precarious stability. Roşia Poieni mining zone
includes 3 waste piles: Valea Cuibarului, Geamăna and Obârşia Muntari and 3
tailing ponds: Valea Ştefancei I, Valea Ştefancei II, Valea Şesei.

1
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Deparment of
Environmental Engineering, 400641 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail: Laura.Melenti@im.utcn.ro
2
Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Deparment of
Environmental Sciences, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

539
 Valea Şesei tailing pond is the main one, located on Geamăna village
territory, where some of the buildings are still visible, being partially covered in
tailings. The dam was build of rolled rock fill extracted from a nearby limestone
quarry. The rolled rock fill contains limestone blocks and gravel. The dam is
situated 1.2 km far from Şesei Valley and Arieş River confluence. The dam’s
height is 118 m, between 565 m and 683 m altitude (Duma, 1998), and the dam’s
inclination is 33º.
The geology under the tailing pond is based on 2 types: the east side is
made of crystalline limestone and the west side is made of sedimentary rocks. The
water circulation under the tailing pond is known to be at maximum 8 m, being
affected by the acid water seepage. Valea Şesei tailing pond is situated in the valley
with the same name, right affluent of Arieş River. Waste water from the tailing
pond is acid due to origins from the waste piles, from flotation tailings and from
rain. Near the sludge bed appeared sloughing phenomena as a result of phreatic
level uplift, and landslides due to humidity excess. In dry periods, the wind
remodels the sludge bed’s surface involving dust. The surroundings vegetation is
represented by beechwoods and coniferous forests, grasslands and shrubbery. The
copper from the soil is absorbed by the plants, injuring them by reducing its
respiration intensity and slaking the photosynthesis process, as well as lagging
some microorganisms’ activity.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The waste water samples were

Fig. 1. Sampling points in Valea Şesei
tailing pond
collected in October 2009, when there
was no activity at the mine. A number
of 10 samples (figure 2) were taken
from Valea Şesei tailing pond
(samples P1A, P2A, P3A, P4A, P6A,
P7A, and P8A), upstream (sample
P5A), downstream (sample P9A) and
before the confluence with the Arieş
River (sample P10A). Each sample
was acidified with muriatic acid, in
order to get a pH lower than 2. The
location of the samples is shown in
figure 1.
Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni
and Zn were determined by
inductively coupled plasma-optical
emission spectrometry ICP-OES
Optima 2100DV (Perkin-Elmer).
Wavelengths were selected, to which
were measured the atoms emissions.

540
 Fig. 2. Waste water samples taken from Valea Şesei tailing pond

Spectrometer’s operating parameters were set, as well as the size,

concentrations of used standards and units. Standard’s preparations were made of -
1000 ppm of standard solution (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). Calibration curve
was constructed using standards, calibration blank and standards (1.50, 100 ppm)
were read. Each reported result was the average value of the three analyses.
Determination of samples’ pH was done with the device InoLab pH / Cond 720.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS

The comparisons between the samples taken according to heavy metal

contamination are shown in table 1.

Table 1. Heavy metals concentration in waste water samples, from Valea Şesei tailing pond
Overview
Element concentration (mg/l)
No. of the samples
Aspect
pH Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Mn Ni Zn
(after agitation)
P1A opalescent 1,25 4,85 20,78 0,39 1411,5 3689,5 1806 1,83 377
colorless with
P2A 1,69 4,76 21,53 0,36 1570 4015,5 2045,5 1,80 436,8
sediments traces
colorless with
P3A 1,55 4,66 20,26 0,36 1620,5 4575 2110,5 1,74 454,65
sediments traces
colorless with
P4A 1,25 4,21 18,69 0,36 1527,5 4712,5 2235,5 1,65 430
sediments traces
colorless with
P5A 1,24 - 0,08 - 0,28 6,89 2,99 - 0,13
sediments traces
P6A colorless 0,80 0,04 1,06 - 22,54 327,6 82 - 20,81
P7A slightly yellow 0,72 19,6 70,65 5,75 7699 14050 7083 7,54 2962,5
opalescent- 17,0
P8A 0,84 62,56 5,25 6828 12380 6436 6,61 3052,5
yellow 6
P9A colorless 0,80 3,85 19,35 0,40 1312,5 4832 2450,5 1,84 1389
P10A colorless 0,83 2,33 11,40 0,32 663 1104,5 1381,5 0,99 305,8

Pb and Ag were below standard limits in all of the samples. In the table
where is no value, means that the values were between limits. All underlined
numbers are over the acceptable values, from Romanian Government Decision
352/2005 regarding wastewater discharge conditions into the aquatic environment.
The selected elements are associated with sulphide minerals in the Roşia
Poieni area. Their concentrations within the tailing pond show a different
distribution of elements than the samples outside of Valea Şesei. In this study the

541
highest contents of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn occur in the P7A and P8A
(figure 3). The high acidity (figure 4) is caused by near surface oxidation of the
sulphide fraction of the tailings. Fe, Ni, Cu, Co and SO42- are released when
pyrrhotite, pyrite, pentlandite and chalcopyrite are altered to iron hydroxides and
oxides (Schwartz and Kgomanyane, 2007). The lowest heavy metals values are at
the P5A sample, which is upstream of the tailing pond and P6A sample, where the
tailings have settled and stream waster is over them.

16000
Cd
14000
12000 Co
10000 Cr
8000 Cu
6000 Fe
4000 Mn
2000
Ni
0
Zn
P1A P2A P3A P4A P5A P6A P7A P8A P9A P10

Fig. 3. Chart representation of the heavy metals distribution

14
12
10
8
pH
6
4
2
0
P1A P2A P3A P4A P5A P6A P7A P8A P9A P10A

Fig. 4. Samples’ pH before the acidification

Seepage water from tailings mixes with mine water after being discharged
into the Arieş River. The result has a pH of 4.03 (sample 9) under the tailing dam
and a pH of 5.16 (sample 10) near the influx into the Arieş River, which flows into
the Mureş River, Tisa and finally arrives to the Danube River. Both values are
under limit of Government Decision 352/2005 (6.5-8.5).
Samples P1A, P2A, P3A and P4A are in a more homogenous area, where
values of trace element and pH are very similar. Sample P5A was taken outside the
tailing pond, in a stream that flows into the sludge bed. Due to the sedimentation
process, in sample P6A the water is not so contaminated and the pH is slightly
alkaline (8.59). Samples P7A and P8A however, are highly contaminated through

542
the leakage from waste piles, where it started the bacterial leaching phenomena
(figure 5). The situation is exacerbated by the fact that this section is bordered by
gardens, courtyards (figure 6).

Fig. 5. Valea Şesei tailing pond Fig. 6. Houses near the tailing pond

The trace elements in the tailings waste water are above all level of
allowable concentrations. The pH increases gradually, and the resulting dilution of
heavy metals, in the stream before flow to Arieş River, is greatly reduced, but the
values still exceed the permissible levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The toxic metal-rich leachates are an important environmental problem in

metal mining regions worldwide. In those areas where tailings are located near or
within communities, this issue becomes not just an environmental problem, but a
matter of public health concern.
Using the water samples of a relatively big scale in study area, an
estimation of eight heavy metal concentrations in Valea Şesei tailing pond and
downstream were tested. Most of the samples have heavy metals concentration
over the admitted level, with higher values in samples 7 and 8 due to the leakage
from waste piles.
The heavy metals concentrations exceed with orders of magnitude. In the
stream the concentrations are much lower, but still exceed the admitted levels. The
results show that the tailing pond is highly polluted, being a threat for the Arieş River
and the surrounding environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been financed by PRODOC Project, contract
POSDRU/6/1.5/S/5 ID7676.The author thanks to “Raluca Ripan” Chemistry
Research Institute and Sapientia University from Cluj-Napoca for their help with
chemical analysis.

543
 REFERENCES

1. Duma S. (1998) Studiul geoecologic al exploatărilor miniere din zona sudică

a Munţilor Apuseni, Munţilor Poiana Ruscă şi Munţii Sebeşului, Ed. Dacia,
Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 379 p. ISBN 973-35-0738-5
2. Milu V., Leroy J.L., Peiffert C. (2002): Water contamination downstream
from a copper mine in the Apuseni Mountains, Romania, Environmental
Geology, 42, 773–782
3. Schwartz M. O., Kgomanyane J.,(2008) Modelling natural attenuation of
heavy-metal groundwater contamination in the Selebi-Phikwe mining area,
Botswana, Environmental Geology, 54, 819-830
4. *** (2005), Hotărârea nr. 352 din 2005 ce modifică şi completează
Hotărârea Guvernului nr. 188/2002 pentru aprobarea unor norme privind
condiţiile de descărcare în mediul acvatic a apelor uzate. HG 352/2005
 IDENTIFICATION AND RISK ASSESSMENT OF CENTRAL
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS – CASE STUDY

ANCA ELENA GURZAU1, CRISTIAN POP1,

OVIDIU TRAIAN POPA1, IRINA DUMITRASCU1

ABSTRACT. - Risk assessment of central water supply systems - a case study.

This paper presents methods for identification and risk assessment of central water
supply systems, exemplified by a case study of the central water supply system in
Luna locality, Cluj county during 2009-2010. System assessment was performed
by means of previous data on water quality monitoring and water samples analysis
for the parameters imposed by Law 458/2002 (audit monitoring) in the
laboratories of the Environmental Health Center. The main risk identified at
source was the significant water contamination with nitrates, in this regard results
did not show significant change of the raw water quality (drain) over time.
Occurence of nitrates in excess is of mixed origin in Luna water source,
predominantly telluric net and accentuated anthropogenic due to agricultural
practices in the area. In this respect, evolution of bacterial load was significantly
related to the drain positioning in an intensively exploited agricultural area, the
important increase of contamination being due to manure application on upstream
lands. Two kinds of hazards were identified at the water treatment plant output and
in the distribution network, as well as at the water source: contamination with
nitrates and bacteriological contamination of faecal origin, the latter as a
consequence of a completely inadequate chlorination. Water in the distribution
network of Luna locality represents low health risks for small population groups
(risk score 8), as characterized qualitatively on the basis of monitoring. The
compliance plan for preventing effects targets the water source, treatment process,
distribution network and health status indicators.

Keywords: drinking water, risk identification, risk assessment

1. INTRODUCTION

Central water supply of localities represents an activity accompanied by

risks, and maintaining them within the limits of acceptability requires sustained
efforts and additional costs justified by the prevention of diseases and avoiding
environmental damage. Any definition of risk includes the idea of exposure to a
potential loss, of "probability of an undesirable result" of minor importance up to a
catastrophic one. The safe water expresses the accordance to the maximum
admissible limits of the relevant water parameters for human health.
In accordance with the Bonn Objective for obtaining "sanogenic drinking
water, in which consumers trust" the water safety plans (PSA) have major

1
Environmental Health Center Cluj Napoca, Romania, www.ehc.ro, tel.+40 264 432979,
(e-mail: ancagurzau@ehc.ro)

545
requirements represented by the risk identification in each stage of the water
production process from the water catchment to consumer tap and by the risk
assessment, that is the probability that a hazard causes health effects or determines
an unacceptable water quality. (WHO 2005, Ritter et al.2002, Summerhill ey
al.2010, Schmoll et al. 2006).
A water safety plan combines elements of a “hazard analysis and critical
control point” (HACCP) approach, quality management and the “multiple barriers”
principle, to provide a preventive management approach specifically developed for
drinking-water supply. It can provide a framework for evaluating microbial control
measures by helping to focus attention on process steps such as coagulation,
filtration and disinfection, which are important for ensuring the microbial safety of
water. (LeChevallier MW and Au K-K 2004).
Rules of good practice state that sanitary surveillance is organized when a
water source does not meet a requirement of the law that regulates it. This refers
mainly to microbiological contaminants and prevention of possible water-related
diseases, but also to certain chemicals (arsenic, fluorine or nitrates) when present in
high concentrations.
This paper presents methods for identification and risk assessment of
central water supply systems, exemplified by a case study of the central water
supply system in Luna locality, Cluj county.

2. MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study was conducted in 2010. The raw water source for Luna water
treatment plant is groundwater collected by a drain from 6 drillings. Luna water
treatment plant processes water by chlorination. The assessment of the central
water supply system in Luna locality, Cluj county was based on type HACCP
inspection (Hazard Analysis and Control in Critical Points). Previous data of water
quality monitoring were also considered in the study (laboratory of the water
supplier) as well as water samples analysis for the parameters imposed by Law
458/2002 regarding drinking water quality (audit monitoring) in the laboratories of
the Environmental Health Center. Risk assessment was performed by risk scores
determination based on a specific matrix.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Water source location

The drillings are located in the western part of Luna locality, upstream the
stables of the former cooperative farm, between the road linking the military base
with the airport and the group of houses “Bazil”.
The catchment front area is slightly sloping from V to E and from S to N,
drillings being surrounded by agricultural lands exploited only for cereal crops.
These lands belong to an agricultural association and they are treated with
herbicides. Due to the small depth of the drillings and soil structure, but especially

546
due to its location in the area of agricultural holdings, the collected water layer is
highly vulnerable to pollution.
Sanitary protection areas are limited to the area with strict sanitary
protection regime, established on an area of 610 m in length (slightly larger than
the drain length) and 63 m in width. Under these conditions, water quality in the
aquifer is influenced by the external factors from the soil surface, the collected
water quality varies and depends mainly on the chemical and physical structure of
the soil.
3.2. Water quality exiting Luna water treatment plant and in the
distribution network – control monitoring
In order to assess the water treatment plant efficiency and the supplied
water quality, the analysis results were interpreted (color, odor, pH, conductivity,
turbidity, free residual chlorine and bound chlorine, ammonia, nitrites, nitrates,
oxidability, total hardness, iron, E.Coli, enterococci, coliform bacteria, faecal
coliforms) as part of the control monitoring during June 2009 - September 2010.
Among the analysis provided by the laboratory from Luna water treatment plant,
find below the parameters considered relevant for the water quality
characterization.
During 2009, the oxidability average values framed within the normal
limits, being very low. Instead, the nitrates average value in the three types of
monitored water (source-drainage basin, reservoir and Luna village network)
recorded average values above the maximum admitted by legislation (50 mg/l),
ranging between 52-59 mg/l. Chlorination was performed at extremely low levels,
well below the standard ones for microbiological safety, and the free residual
chlorine averaged between 0.04-0.07 mg/l.
During 2010, nitrates, the major contaminant of Luna water supply
system, kept at elevated levels above the admitted standard, the highest value of
71.4 mg/l being measured in the reservoir.
The average values for nitrates were higher in 2010 than in 2009 both at
the level of the collector tank and the reservoir (Table 1).
Table 1. Comparative levels of nitrates in Luna water supply system

Nitrates 2009 2010

Collector basin 52.71 58.22
Reservoir 55.87 65.29

During 2009 a constantly increasing bacteriological contamination has

been observed at the level of the collector tank starting in August (16
Enterococci/L and 16 Coliforms/L) with a maximum in November (149
Enterococci/L, 415 Coliforms/L and 346 E.coli/L). Evolution of the bacterial load
is significant in relation to the drain positioning in an intensively exploited
agricultural area, the important increase of contamination being probably due to the
application of natural fertilizers (manure) on upstream lands. Bacteriological

547
contamination is severe even more because chlorination is practiced in the drainage
basin. It is to be noted that during November 2009 the highest concentration of
nitrates in water was recorded in the collector tank. Insufficient chlorination is
reflected by the bacteriological contamination in the reservoir, enterococci being
known as germs with a higher resistance to chlorine.
During 2010, the bacteriological contamination of water in the drainage
basin was more reduced although chlorination followed the same procedure, the
free residual chlorine level being very low. During this period the nitrates level was
increased and higher than in 2009. Regarding the bacteriological examination of
water in the distribution network, it was performed only once in 2009 and it was
negative. Other two bacteriological examinations of water at school show
contamination with total coliforms in a sample, the other one being negative.
During 2010, also a single water sample was analyzed in the distribution network,
and it was contaminated with total coliforms.
According to the control monitoring, during the period January 2009 -
August 2010, on the whole, water in Luna supply system was 100% undrinkable in
terms of the free residual chlorine, 81% in terms of nitrates and 51%
bacteriological.
3.3. Water quality at the output of Luna water treatment plant and in
the distribution network – audit monitoring
In order to assess the water quality at the source and in the distribution
network we collected water samples on 13.09.2010. We mention that starting on
07.09.2010 at Luna water treatment plant an automatic chlorination station with
sodium hypochlorite solution and a denitrification station (filters) were put into
operation next to the reservoir near the school, thus the manual chlorination at
source being interrupted (collector drainage tank). The following samples were
collected: raw water at collector drainage tank (treatment station input), drinking
water at Luna water treatment station output - Luna network.
Raw water is characterized by a higher concentration of nitrates and
bacteriological contamination of faecal origin. Water contamination with
Salmonella, a dangerous pathogenic intestinal germ common to man and warm-
blooded animals, in the collector tank represents a special situation. In this case,
given the drain location, the faecal contamination of human origin is unlikely, but
possible due to application of manure, especially of poultry origin.
Like in the previously analyzed period, i.e. January 2009 - August 2010,
concentration of nitrates, very low levels of free residual chlorine and
bacteriological contamination of faecal origin remain as major problems of water
quality at the output of the water treatment plant. Subsequently, water quality in the
distribution network has the same deviations from the quality standards, with the
mention that the level of nitrates in the network records a significantly higher value
(78.25 mg/l). Hazardous substances (toxic) were not identified in the collected
water, other than nitrates, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene,
pesticides, heavy metals, etc. The results allow us to appreciate that at the time of
sampling, water was chemically and bacteriologically undrinkable and the

548
efficiency of the denitrification station was null (unchanged value of nitrates
exiting the water treatment plant compared to the raw water), as well as that of
chlorination. Reproducing the water analysis for nitrates after regeneration of the
denitrification filters shows that the level of nitrates decreases by 15.1% after the
denitrification process, the value at the output of the water treatment plant framing
within normal limits.
3.4. Risk assessment
A. Water source – drain
Risk identification
The following parametric risks were identified at Luna catchment front:
nitrates and bacteriological contamination.
Health risk assessment
Characterization of the source and catchment – The drain location in an
exploited agricultural area long before drilling is a major hazard. In the given
situation, the hydrogeological survey shows that soil is not a protective barrier for
the drain that captures the raw water. The sanitary protection areas are not formed
properly, on the basis of professional studies, as the perimeter with restriction
regime is lacking.
Data resulting from water monitoring
The risk generated by the chemical and bacteriological contaminants at
Luna catchment front is determined by different risks for each contaminant: risk of
nitrate poisoning and epidemiological risk regarding occurrence of waterborne
infectious diseases.
On the basis of the risk assessment matrix, a risk score 20 (major
consequences) was set for the water source, which implies an urgent operational
action and a probable capital investment necessary at the water treatment plant.
B. Treatment process
Risk identification depending on the treatment steps
Denitrification and chlorination are the water treatment methods at Luna
water treatment plant. Denitrification has a variable efficiency. Chlorination is too
low related to the water bacteriological quality and standards in force that provide
0.5 mg/l free residual chlorine at the output of the water treatment plant. There
have not been identified high levels of THM. Bacteriological contamination is
present inconstantly.
Health risk assessment
High levels of nitrates were found inconstantly, having the possibility of
generating acute and chronic poisoning. Periodical bacteriological contamination
can cause the occurrence of waterborne infectious diseases.
On the basis of the risk assessment matrix, a risk score 8 (minor
consequences) was set for the water treatment plant, which implies an operational
action and a probable capital investment necessary at the water treatment plant.

549
 C. Distribution network
Risk identification
The following parametric risks were identified: nitrates si bacteriological
contamination, both inconstant.
Health risk assessment
The risk score is 8 (minor consequences), which implies an operational
action and a probable capital investment necessary at the water treatment plant.
In individual or social context, homeostasis requirements impose risk
management, that implies adoption of measures either for reducing or accepting an
undesirable outcome (Jardine et all 2003).
Thus, by means of modern risk management, they are transferred from the
"minimum area" in the "optimal acceptability area”, where risks are slightly higher
and the overall social costs are kept to more acceptable levels. In a growing extent,
however, public training and participation are necessary for the compliance with
the legislation process, prevention of diseases and avoiding environmental damage.
3.5. Aspects of noninfectious and infectious water-related pathology
Among the chemicals possible present in the drinking water, some
represent special interest, such as those having toxic or carcinogenic effects.
Nitrates are inorganic compounds characterized by high solubility in water.
Major sources of nitrates in drinking water are fertilizers, sewage and animal
manure. Nitrates also occur naturally in the environment, mineral deposits, soil, sea
water, fresh water systems and in the atmosphere (Shuval et al. 1992). Sufficient
high concentrations of nitrates in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia in
infants, also called "blue baby syndrome". Healthy adults do not develop
methemoglobinemia at levels of nitrates in drinking water that place infants at risk.
The only non-carcinogenic effect known determined by nitrates is
methemoglobinemia. No other non-carcinogenic effect following chronic exposure
has not been demonstrated and there is no valid evidence that nitrates and nitrites
can cause cancer in the absence of amine-containing substances (ATSDR 2010,
Ritter et al. 2002, Mesinga et al. 2003).
In 2004-2007, considering the requirements of the EC Directive,
delimitation of vulnerable areas imposed the extension of areas declared as
vulnerable, including potentially vulnerable areas, to 58% of the country’s surface
(European Commission 2010). Studies performed in Transylvania showed that
nitrates pollution of the groundwater in Niraj River Basin is a major concern and an
important issue, in 43% of the sampled wells nitrate concentrations exceeded EU
standards (50 mg/l), the main cause of groundwater pollution with nitrates being
due to agricultural practices and untreated household water (Hajdu 2007).
The vast majority of water-related diseases are transmissible (LeChevallier
and Au K-K 2004, Craun et al. 2006). Diarrheal disease alone amounts to an
estimated 4.1% of the total disability-adjusted life years of the global burden of
disease and is responsible for the deaths of 1.8 million people every year (WHO
2004, Havelaar et al. 2003). It was estimated that 88% of that burden is attributable

550
to unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene and is mostly concentrated in
children in developing countries (WHO, 2004). In Romania also, the major risk
deriving from the drinking water quality is the microbiological one, and consists
essentially in causing water-related diseases - epidemics, endemics or isolated
diseases of causes associated with ingestion of water contaminated with human and
animal excrements.
3.6. Compliance plan for preventing effects
Subsequent to hazard identification and risk assessment the compliance
plan for preventing effects targets the source, treatment process, distribution
network and health status indicators:
 Organizing the sanitary protection perimeter with restriction regime.
 Technical maintenance of drain manholes in perfect condition in order to
avoid the aquifer contamination
 Reconsidering the water treatment process. With reference to the
chlorination station that does not operate/is not properly exploited.
Maintainance of denitrification filters in proper operation (washing for
regeneration) so that the filter efficiency is at least 40%
 Monitoring of health indicators related to water quality as the incidence
and spatial distribution of acute diarrheal disease

CONCLUSIONS

The main risk identified at source was the significant water contamination
with nitrates, the results did not show temporally changes of the raw water quality
(drain) in terms of nitrates. Presence of nitrates in excess in Luna water source is of
mixed origin, predominantly telluric net and accentuated anthropogenic due to
agricultural practices in the area. In this sense, evolution of bacterial load was
significantly related to the drain positioning in an intensively exploited agricultural
area, the important increase of contamination being due to manure application on
upstream lands.
Similar to the source, two hazards were identified at the output of the water
treatment plant and in the distribution network: contamination with nitrates and
bacteriological contamination of fecal origin, the latter as a consequence of a
completely inadequate chlorination.
As qualitatively characterized on the basis of monitoring, water in the
distribution network of Luna locality represents low health risks for small
population groups (risk score 8).
The risk assessment and management cannot be based on epidemiological
data, which are not sufficiently conclusive, following intervention through special
actions, provided by law, in case of source quality deterioration or contamination
incidents in the network sectors.
The compliance plan for preventing effects targets the source, treatment
process, distribution network and health status indicators. Changing the water
source is not required but adjustment of the water treatment process is.

551
 Also, actions are required in terms of public relations (social marketing
activities) and risk communication.

REFERENCES

1. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2010) Case Studies in
Environmental Medicine Nitrate/Nitrite Toxicity, available at
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/nitrate/
2. Craun GF, Calderon RL, and J. Wade TJ. (2006). Assessing waterborne risks:
an introduction, Journal of Water and Health, 04.Suppl.2.2006.
3. European Commission (2010) Commission staff working document on
implementation of Council Directive 91/676/EEC concerning the protection of
waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources based on
Member State reports for the period 2004-2007. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
water/water-nitrates/pdf/swd.pdf
4. Hajdu Z, Füleky G, (2007) Distribution of nitrate pollution in the Niraj (Nyarad)
River Basin, Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2, 2, 57 - 72
5. Havelaar AH,Melse JM (2003) Quantifying public health risks in the WHO
Guidelines for drinking-water quality: A burden of disease approach. Bilthoven.
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM Report
734301022/2003).
6. Jardine C, Hrudley S, Shortreed J, Craig L, Krewski D, Furgal C, McColl S,
(2003)- Risk management frameworks for human health and environmental risks. J
Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev, 6, 569-720.
7. LeChevallier MW, Au K-K (2004) Water treatment and pathogen control:
Process efficiency in achieving safe drinking-water. Geneva, World Health
Organization and IWA.
8. Mensinga TT, Speijers GJA, Meulenbelt J. (2003) Health implications of
exposure to environmental nitrogenous compounds. Toxicol Rev; 22(1):41-51.
9. Ritter L, Solomon K, Sibley P, Hall K, Kenn P, Mattu G, Lindon B, (2002)
Sources, pathways, and relative risks of contaminants in surface water and
groundwater: a perspective prepared for the Walkerton inquiry. J. Toxicol.
Environ. Health. A, 11, 65, 1-142
10. Schmoll O et al. (2006) Protecting groundwater for health: Managing the quality
of drinking-water sources. London, IWA Publishing, on behalf of the World
Health Organization.
11. Shuval HI, Gruener N. (1992) Epidemiological and toxicological aspects of
nitrates and nitrites in the environment. Am J Public Health; 62(8):1045-52
12. Summerhill C, Smith J, Webster J and Pollard S, (2010) An international
review of the challenges associated with securing buy-in for water safety plans
within providers of drinking water supplies, Journal of Water and Health, 8, 387–
390.
13. WHO (2004) Water Sanitation and Health (WSH). Burden of diseases and cost-
effectiveness estimates. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/
diseases/burden/en
14. WHO (2005) Water Safety Plans Managing drinking-water quality from
catchment to consumer.

552
 GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
ON THE PHREATIC AQUIFER OF THE TARNAVA MICA RIVER
FLOOD PLAIN AND TERRACES

E. RADU1, M. RADESCU, C. RADU, A. PANDELE, M. MINCIUNA

ABSTRACT. – Geological and hydrogeological considerations on the phreatic

aquifer of the Târnava Mică river flood plain and terraces. The project
„Enhancement of Water Resources Management in Mureş River Basin" target is
the development of an instruments set and of a methodology on a sustainable
management of surface and groundwater resources from the Mureş river basin.
Thus, there has been selected as a pilot area, the Târnava Mică river basin (as sub-
basin of the Mureş river basin), for which it was developed a mathematical
hydrological integrated model.The phreatic aquifer located in the flood plain and
terraces alluvial deposits of the Târnava Mică river basin represents a source for
the localities water supplies (fountains) and for the economic agents (wells) from
the area. Because of this reason, the groundwater from this aquifer is an important
element in the balance of water, and also for the integrated management of the
water resources from the study area.The paper presents some geological features
(lithology, facies variations) and hydrogeological (hydrostatic level variation,
dynamics, etc.) of the phreatic aquifer, as elements of a better knowledge of the
phreatic aquifer from the Tarnava Mica flood plain and terraces.

Keywords: lithology, facies variations, hydrostatic level variation.

1. INTRODUCTION

The Târnava Mică river basin (as sub-basin of the Mureş river) was
selected as pilot area within the „Enhancement of Water Resources Management in
Mureş River Basin" project, for developing a mathematical hydrological integrated
model. Within the integrated management of water resources from the study area,
the phreatic aquifer located in the flood plain and terraces deposits of the Târnava
Mică river (groundwater body ROMU 04) is an important element of the water
balance, because of its important source for the localities water supplies (fountains)
and for the economic agents (wells) from the area.

2. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

From geomorphological point of view the Târnava Mică river basin

belongs to the Târnăvenilor Hills, as a sub-unit of the Târnavelor Plateau, except
the eastern area which is part of the Transylvanian Plateau, and also the eastern

1
National Institute of Hydrology and Water Management, 13086, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail:
emil.radu@hidro.ro

553
part which overlaps the Târnavele Subcarphatians and the western peaks of the
Gurghiului Mountains [2].
From geological point of view, in the most part of the Târnava Mică
river basin there are developing Sarmatian deposits (marls, clays, sands, and
tuffs) and Pannonian (marls, clays, sands, subordonated sandtones and tuffs)
belonging to the Neogene filling of the Transylvanian Depression. To this,
there are added Pannonian sedimentary volcanic deposits (pyroclastic breccias,
conglomerates, microconglomerates, tuffs) which occupy a small area in the
eastern part of the basin and Quaternary alluvial deposits, developed along
watercourse [1].

3. THE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE PHREATIC AQUIFER

FROM THE TARNAVA MICA FLOOD PLAIN AND TERRACES

The flood plain and terrace alluvial deposits in which the phreatic aquifer
is located, forms an area quite narrow of each side of the Târnava Mică, in the
Sovata and Pradid localities area until its confluence with Târnava Mare (Blaj).
Information regarding the lithological and hydrogeological characteristics
of this aquifer are provided by the wells of the 9 first order hydrogeological
stations from the National Hydrogeological Network for phreatic aquifer layers
(from upstream to downstream) Chibed, Sângeorgiu de Pădure, Bălăuşeri, Bahnea,
Găneşti, Seuca, Adămuş, Jidvei and Blaj Vest.(figure1).

Fig. 1. The Târnava Mică river basin with the location of the phreatic aquifer
and the first order hydrogeological stations

554
 The aquifer horizon has thicknesses of 2 – 10 m, having an impermeable
bed of Sarmatian and Pannonian marls and clays. The biggest thicknesses, around
10 m, are located in the Bălăuşeri – Bahnea – Seuca area, in the central areas of the
flood plains or in the Târnava Mică left bank flood plain. The thicknesses are
decreasing from 1-4 m in the marginal areas.
From the developed hydrogeological sections (figure 2) the terrace
deposits have a discontinous development on each side of the Târnava Mică, being
intercepted only be the wells of the Sângeorgiu de Pădure, Bălăuşeri and Blaj Vest
hydrogeological stations.
From lithological point of view, the flood plain alluvial deposits are quite
homogeneous in the inferior part of the sequence, formed by sands and gravels
and sands with gravels and boulders (Găneşti, Adămuş, Jidvei). Sometimes these
contain sands, as thin intercalations (Bahnea), or as a lateral variation of facies
(Jidvei). The biggest variation of facies is at Seuca, where the sands with gravels
and boulders have a lateral passing to sands with gravels (right bank) or at sands
(left bank) at which it is added a marls intercalation with lens-shaped aspect
(right bank).
In the case of the flood plain alluvial deposits there is a decreasing of
the deposits granulometry toward the upper part of the sequence through the
appereance of the sands, and rarely of the sands with gravels. A characteristic
of these deposits is represented by the presence on the upper side of some
horizons with lens-shaped development made by clays, sandy clays, silty clays,
sandy argillaceous silts, clays with calcareous concretions, which often have a
lateral passing to sands, sandy silts (Adamus), clay slits, sandy argillaceous
slits (Seuca).
From lithological point of view, the flood plain alluvial deposits are mainly
made from sands with gravels and boulders, sands with gravels, sandy argillaceous
silts, clays with calcareous concretions, sometimes sandy silts (Sângeorgiu de
Pădure).
The researches conducted previously showed that, on certain sectors the
alluvial deposits are clogged in a variable proportion by a fine clay material [3].
From the hydrogeological parameters point of view, the phreatic aquifer is
characterized by average values, the hydraulic conductivity having values of 40 –
50 m/day, while the transmissivity doesn’t surpass 400 – 500 m2/day.
The aquifer gets its supplies from precipitations, and the general flow
direction of the phreatic groundwater is from north-est to south-west.
Regarding the river–aquifer relation, generally the flow direction is from the
aquifer toward the river, but on certain sectors, according to the level on the
river, it supplies the phreatic aquifer (Adămuş). The conducted researches have
shown that the connection between the aquifer and river is weaker in the
Sângeorgiu de Pădure area [3].

555
Fig. 2. Hydrogeological cross sections
556
 Generally the hydrostatic level of the phreatic aquifer is free, but in the
areas of the cover where there are developing clays and silts deposits, the level is
slightly increasing.
The systematic measurements program of the phreatic groundwaters
levels in the wells of the hydrogeological stations from this area started in the
year 1972. Currently there are level series of more than 30 years to 22
observation wells [3].
From the analysis of the levels recorded in the 28 wells of the
hydrogeological network, results that the average multi-annual depths for all the
observation period were, at most wells, in the interval 3,00 – 4,00 m.
The average multi-annual depths of the level which are lower than 1.00 m
have been recorded at the wells Chibed F2 (0.59 m), Bălăuşeri F1 (0.74 m) and
Găneşti F4 (0.55 m) drilling.
The maximum depth of the average multi-annual hydrostatic level was
recorded to the Blaj Vest F2 well (5.51 m).
In Figure 3 is presented the frequency of the depth of the average multi-
annual levels in the Târnava Mică river basin, for the period 1972 – 2008.

45
40
35
30
25
P(%)

20
15
10
5
0
0,0 -1,0 1,0-2,0 2,0-3,0 3,0-4,0 4,0-5,0 >5,0
Interval of the hydrostatic level depth

Fig. 3. The frequency of the groundwater levels average multi-annual depth

in the Tarnava Mica river basin

The variation graphics of the annual characteristic levels show a

decrease tendency of the phreatic groundwaters, more obviously in the northern
part of the area, the Chibed F1 well (Figure 4), and more shallow in the
southern and central part of the area Jidvei F1 (Figure 5) and Bahnea F1
(Figure 6) wells.

557
 -0.50
Hydrostatic level depth (cm) 0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Annual maximum hydrostatic level Annual average hydrostatic level
Annual minimum hydrostatic level Multiannual average hydrostatic level

Fig. 4. The annual maximum, annual average, annual mimimum

and multiannual average hydrostatic level at Chibed F1 well

-1.00
Hydrostatic level depth (cm)

0.00

1.00

2.00
3.00

4.00
5.00
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Annual maximum hydrostatic level Annual average hydrostatic level
Annual minimum hydrostatic level Multiannual average hydrostatic level

Fig. 5. The annual maximum, annual average, annual mimimum and

multiannual average hydrostatic level at Jidvei F1 well

-1.00
Hydrostatic level depth (cm)

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

Annual maximum hydrostatic level Annual average hydrostatic level

Annual minimum hydrostatic level Multiannual average hydrostatic level

Fig. 6. The annual maximum, annual average, annual mimimum

and multiannual average hydrostatic level at Bahnea F1 well

558
 4. CONCLUSIONS

The Târnava Mică river basin was selected as pilot area within the
„Enhancement of Water Resources Management in Mureş River Basin"project, in
order to develope an integrated mathematical hydrological model.
The phreatic aquifer located in the flood plain and terraces deposits of
the Târnava Mică river, has an important role in the water balance, also being
an important water supply source for the localities and the economic objectives
in the area.
The hydrogeological sections accomplished through the wells of the first
order hydrogeological stations belonging to the national hydrogeological Network
for phreatic aquifer layers, have shown that, from lithological point of view, the
alluvial deposits which quarter the phreatic aquifer from the Târnava Mică flood
plain and terraces, are generally made from sands with gravels and boulders, sands
with gravels, sands, clays and slits. It is noticed that the deposits granulometry
decreases from the basis toward the upper part of the lithological sequence, and
also the frequent presence at the upper part of some fine clayey silt deposits. This
aspect leads to an ascending hydrostatic level in some areas.
The variation graphics of the annual characteristic levels show a decreasing
tendency of the phreatic groundwaters, more obvious in the northen part of the
area, the Chibed F1 well and more shallow in the southern and central part of the
area, the Jidvei F1 and Bahnea F1 wells.
The knowledge of the lithological development and of the groundwaters
regime, where at the basis of the conceptual model on groundwater flow in the
phreatic aquifer and at its integration in the mathematical hidrological model
developed for the study area.

REFERENCES

1. Marinescu, Fl., Popescu, A. (1968) – Harta geologică a României, sc.

1:200.000, foaia Târgu Mureş. Com. St.Geol., Inst. Geol., Bucureşti
2. Soneriu, I., Mac, I. (1973) – Judeţul Mureş. Col. Jud. Patriei, Ins. Geografie,
Ed. Acad. RSR, Bucureşti
3. **** - Arhiva INHGA – Laboratorul de Studii şi Cercertări Hidrogeologice

559
 THE FLASH FLOODS ANALYSIS,
REPRESENTATIVE FOR NIRAJ RIVER BETWEEN 1970-2008

ROŞCA SANDA1

Abstract. The flash floods analysis, representative for Niraj River between
1970-2008.  The need to know the characteristics of the flash floods is derived
from the number and the intensity of floods occurred in the drainage basin of the
Niraj river. Therefore, there were analyzed only the flash floods representatives for
the years: 1970, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2008.  
The classification of the floods was realized according to the genesis and the
flash flood hydrograph shape for the period 1970-2008, before and after the
completion of the drainage basin planning/management depending on climatic,
morphometric and morphological factors.

Keywords: flash floods, floods, Niraj River, maximum flow.

1. INTRODUCTION

Maximum flow is the most important moment of the river flow because of
the potential negative effects it might induce. Thus, for the economic and water
management activities it's important to take into account the qualitative and
quantitative flow characteristics, their way of occurrence, natural and
anthropogenic factors which contribute to their appearance and evolution.
Forecasts predict that the frequency and intensity of floods will be
constantly growing both in case of flash floods which are specific to summer
season but also of mixed genesis floods (snow melt and spring rain) which are
specific to spring season.2 This is noticeable for Niraj River, subject of this article,
which despite continuous development works continues to represent a flood risk
for settlements nearby.
By „flash flood” we understand a sudden growth of both discharge and
level of a river followed by a slow decrease of it (Pandi, G., 2010).

2. DRAINAGE BASIN DESCRIPTION

 
Niraj River drainage basin with an area of 651 km² is located in the center
of the country, overlapping to western slope of the Gurghiu Mountains, to the area
of transition from the mountain unit to the plain unit (represented by the piedmont
accumulation of Gurghiu River), to the Târnava Subcarpathians (represented by the

1
Babeş Bolyai University, Cluj Napoca, rosca_sanda@yahoo.com
2
Arghiuş, V., Studiul viiturilor de pe cursurile de apă din Estul Munților Apuseni și riscurile asociate,
Editura Casa Cărții de Știință, 2008

560
Mureş and Niraj hills) and to the Eastern Transylvanian Plain, with an average
altitude of 539 m.
Niraj river drainage basin is at risk of flooding as a result of specific
morphological and hydrological characteristics (its limit begins at an altitude of
1517 m and it decrease until 221 m at the confluence with Mureş River).
Niraj Valley has been an attractive demographic area since ancient times
because of natural resources (wood, stone, clay, salt), the possibility of engaging in
subsidence activities (livestock due to grazing and grassland extension); the valleys
and fluvial terraces provided favorable conditions for human settlements, giving
them a strategic position due to the roads that cross the region. Since then the
inhabitants of these villages are exposed to floods that have induced damages and
even loss of lives.
Niraj River has a length of 82 km and a significant number of tributaries
(e.g. Săcădat, Hodoșa, Vărgata, Timirna, etc) with an asymmetry for right side
tributaries until the confluence with Nirajul Mic and a left asymmetry downstream
of The Miercurea Nirajului (Fig.1). Thus Niraj River receives a significant water
quantity due to tributaries which have their origin in the mountains which have a
specific power system.
 

Fig. 1. Niraj drainage basin location

561
 3. SEASON FREQUENCY OF FLOODS DURING 1950-2006
 
To this end we statistically processed flow values recorded at Cinta
hydrometric station during 1950-2006.
Seasonal flood frequency reveals predominance of mixed spring floods
(with a frequency of 52%) due to a combination of factors such as: snow melting
from the mountains associated with the spring rains, filling beds in conditions of
low evaporation, soil saturation and the reduced development of vegetation. Thus
specific floods of this period overlap with the spring high waters.
Rain floods arise as a result of advection of the air masses in the western
sector which reactivate themselves after they exceed the Western Carpathians
where it causes significant precipitation in quantitative terms. For the winter
months there were registered 11% of cases, but for the summer months the
frequency increased to 32% of cases. In the summer months due to strong thermal
advection it was recorded heavy rainfall with high intensity that can not be
absorbed by the substrate thus leading to the emergence of specific floods.
Mixed origin floods which occurred in winter months (with a frequency of
5%) are due to Mediterranean influences that lead to temperature increase and
heavy rainfall. Thus, because of the high temperature the snow is melting and the
river flow increase more if in that period rainfall is recorded.

Table 1. Flash floods quantitative parameters

 
 
The increased frequency of high waters and that of the spring flash floods
(March - May) are due to the maximum pluviometric of the spring and to its
overlapping over the specific thermic growth period; winter flash floods (October –
December) are due to overlapping a warm period accompanied by rainfall.
The analysis of the flash floods shows that the majority of those kinds of
floods occurs in the spring season, followed by summer, autumn and winter in the
last place.

562
 4. FLASH FLOODS QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS
ANALYSIS
 
In the study of Niraj River flash floods recorded between 1970 – 2006 we
chose one significant event for every type of flood depending on its genesis:

- 1970 pluvial flash floods (9 V-22V); 1975 (2VII-6VII) and 1998

(13 VI-1 VII);
- 1995 (20 XII 1995-1 I 1996) mixed origin flash flood;
- 2001 (18 VI-30 VI) and 2008 (20V-1VI) mixed origin flash floods;
 
4.1. Flash flood hydrograph analysis
Flash flood hydrograph analysis method it's an active method by which we
can determine the quantitative characteristics of flash floods. The hydrograph
shows the flow and level variation depending on time.
 

Fig. 2. The pluvial flash flood of 1998 (13VI-1VII) 

Analyzing the relationship between the growth and decrease volume of the
flash flood that occurred in 1998, we can observe the slow development of the
flash flood, expressed by the value 1.43 of the ratio.
The development of this flash flood has occurred slowly and it was
expressed by the value 1.07 of the volume ratio. 
From the flash floods analyzed above that of 1970 stands out because that
year flash floods occured almost on every flow causing great floods. The triggering
factor was the heavy rainfalls caused by the penetration of some air masses of
tropical origin.
Târgu Mureş meteorological station recorded 103.5 mm quantity of
precipitation between 12 – 15 May. Before this, i.e between 1 February – 10 May
had rained a lot; that is why the riverbeds were almost full of water when the heavy

563
rainfalls begun on 12 of May. Because of this, the flash flood shockwave could not
be diminished. On 13 of May, at 5 A.M. it has been registered the biggest flow of
329.46 m³/s. 
 

 
Fig. 3. The mixed origin flash flood of 1995 (20XII-1 I)
 
 
 

 
Fig. 4. The mixed origin flash flood of 2001 (18 VI-30VI)
 

564
  
Fig. 5. The mixed origin flash flood of 2008 (20V-1VI)
 
 
 

 
 
Fig. 6. The pluvial flash flood of 1970 (9V-22V)

565
 The 1970 and 1975 flash floods registered a ratio volume of 0.13,
respectively 0.61, i.e. the speed of the flash flood was high.
For the 2001 and 2008 flash floods, therefore after the improvement
program of the drainage basin, which consisted in the construction of a catchments
area at Valea, the ratio volume reveals a decrease in the speed of the flash floods
with values between 0.65, respectively 0.97.
Regarding the report between the period of growing and that of decreasing
of the flow, it can be observed through its short growing period, compared with the
decrease of flow in the three classes of genetic / genetic types of floods. For the
pluvial flash floods the difference between the growth and the decrease period is
small; higher values are registered for mixed origin flash floods. The explanation
lies in the drainage basin characteristics at the time of flash floods: soil saturation,
vegetation, the rainfall length and intensity.
In most cases, the report of the volumes shows a growing volume lower
compared to the decreasing volume, which is influenced by the intensity of genetic
factors, as it can be seen from the hydrograph shape factor.
Flash flood shape coefficient (γ) is defined as the ratio between the flash
flood volume and the volume equivalent to the size of the rectangle flash flood
circumscribed (on the hydrograph):

γ=Vt/(Qmax-Qb)*Tt

The lowest values were recorded for the 1975, 2001 and 2008 flash floods,
i.e. in the case of the mixed origin flash floods. The greatest value of the shape
coefficient (0.51) was recorded for the 1995 mixed origin flash flood.
Today there are two channels with an important role in diminishing the
flash flood wave: the Vetca channel, which operates for more than 300 years and a
newer one, the Valea Lake from 2004; so, the flash flood propagation time has
increased.

Table 2. The chart reports between the flash floods lengths and volume

However, for the settlements located downstream of the Cinta station

(Gheorghe Doja, Leordeni, Ungheni) the danger of flooding remains high, because
of the many of the river development projects (dams, bridges) which led to

566
handcuff phenomenon and which is affecting the spread of the high waters and of
the flood waves. This is also exacerbated by the slope decrease.
The previous flash floods analysis and the features of the current drainage basin
will help us to identify the most efficient works for controlling and diminishing
critical situations.

REFERENCES

1. Arghiuş, V., (2008), Studiul viiturilor de pe cursurile de apă din estul

Munţilor Apuseni şi riscurile asociate, Ed. Casa cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj Napoca
2. Bilaşco, Şt., (2008), Implementarea G.I.S. în modelarea viiturilor de versant,
Ed. Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj Napoca
3. Diaconu C., Şerban P., (1994), Sinteze şi regionalizări hidrologice, Ed.
Tehnică, Bucureşti
4. Grecu, Florina, (1997), Fenomene climatice de risc, Ed. Universităţii,
Bucureşti
5. Mustăţea, A., (2005), Viituri excepţionale de pe teritoriul României:geneză şi
efecte, Institutul de Geografie, Bucureşti
6. Pandi, G., (2010), Undele de viitură şi riscurile asociate, în Riscuri şi
catastrofe, nr. 8, editor Sorocovschi, V., Ed. Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj
Napoca

567
 ASSESSMENT OF TORNADOS
WITH THE ENHANCED FUJITA SCALE IN ROMANIA

C. NUCUŢĂ 1, C. TIMIŞ 2, C. BUŢIU 3, O. SCRIDONESI 1

ABSTRACT. Assessment of tornadoes with the Enhanced Fujita Scale in

Romania. An analysis of the damage caused by a tornado, in order to determine
the maximum wind speed that was reached, is important both in terms of
documenting the phenomenon and to make improvements to the evaluation
method which is used, especially if this method is not specific for the analyzed
territory. An overview of the way the tornado from Silivaşu de Câmpie, on the 26th
of May 2010, was termed EF2 is done to summarize the difficulties that arise in
the assessment of tornadoes occurring in Romania with the Enhanced Fujita scale.
The lack of correlation between damage indicators, different construction styles
and building materials between those in the United States and those selected in this
case study are the main issues addressed. Solutions for these issues are discussed
as a starting point for the adjustment of Enhanced Fujita scale for Romania.

Keywords: Tornado, Evaluation, Enhanced Fujita Scale, Silivaşu de Câmpie.

1. INTRODUCTION

On 26 May 2010, in the Silivaşu de Câmpie village, located at the

southernmost end of Bistriţa-Năsăud country, on account of severe convective
activity, there was a tornadic storm that generated a tornado labeled on the
Enhanced Fujita tornado assessment scale with the maximum wind speed of about
201.16 to 217.26 km/h, equivalent to an EF2 (Buţiu C. and Nucuţă C., 2010). In
conducting the evaluation there have been encountered a number of issues based on
the difference between the U.S. and the Romanian buildings. The main purpose of
this article is to present the problems that occurred. Of course, finding possible
solutions to this situation is important, but for the moment solutions are left on the
background because there are currently not enough people with experience in using
this methodology in order to propose viable solutions. Motivated by a desire to
overcome this stage, we are determined to make further assessments of tornadoes,
so that in future we can propose solutions to bring changes to the Enhanced Fujita
Scale so that it can be applied precisely in our country. For this goal to be achieved,
a collaboration between people specialized in the field of meteorology and civil
engineering is absolutely necessary.

1
“Babeş Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania,
e-mail: calinnucuta@gmail.com;
2
“Politehnica” University, Faculty of Constructions, 400114, Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
3
“Babeş Bolyai” University, Faculty of Physics, 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania

568
 2. ASSESSMENT OF THE TORNADO EVALUATION WITH THE
ENHANCED FUJITA SCALE

In any analysis of such extreme weather, accurate determination of its

intensity is vital. To determine what wind speeds are reached in a tornado, the
Fujita scale was used. It was introduced by Dr. Ted Fujita and it is based on
observations on the damage the wind in a tornado has done. In June 2004 the
department of Wind Science and Engineering Center in the Texas Tech University
proposed a new scale for measuring tornados intensity, more complex, derived
from the old Fujita scale. When using the Enhanced Fujita Scale there are
considered certain damage points of the affected area, known as damage
indicators (DI). For every damage indicators there is assigned a certain estimated
wind speed, depending on their degree of destruction (DOD). If there are elements
of the damage indicators (construction materials, technical quality or age) that
could increase or weaken the structural strength, there is an upper and a lower limit
of wind speed, between which, the assessor may increase or decrease the average
speed, for that degree of destruction. The highest wind speed of a damage
indicator will set the rating of the tornado.
In our tornado evaluation case study, following investigations on the
ground added with the witness accounts, it was concluded that the tornado passed
through the villages Silivaşu de Câmpie, Urmeniş, Fînaţe and Câmp. It had a trail
of about 7,2 km and a lifetime of about 20 minutes between 17:40 P.M. and 18:00
P.M. local time. It touched the ground in the west of Silivaşu de Câmpie, travelled
roughly parallel to the main road through a park of the village, it crossed the
national road, DN 16, at the 37th kilometer, and went in the forest in the
northeastern part of the village, in the area were the greatest damage was
done. Furthermore, there are descriptions of local authorities which state that minor
damage to the roofs of some houses and some barnes are also found in several
villages east of Silivaşu de Câmpie: Urmeniş, Fînaţe and Câmp.
For the evaluation of this tornado we considered six damage indicators,
represented on a map in Fig. 1, representative because they are areas with the
highest values of the damage from the tornado path.

569
 Fig. 1. The damage indicators map

a) The first
damage indicator is
represented by an
barn. Due to the predo-
minance of wood as
building material we
considered it to be in
the Small Barns or
Farm Outbuildings
category. Destruction of
the supporting walls
Fig. 2. The DI – Barn that has
(Fig. 2), betrays the the supporting walls collapsed
sixth degree of
destruction of this damage indicator, whit wind speeds of around 97 mph or 155.2
km/h. The age and poor quality of construction has led us to choose the lower
bound of wind speed for this degree of destruction, 81 mph or 130.3 km/h.
In terms of building materials this construction fits perfectly into the
chosen category, however there are certain construction elements that could
increase the resistance of the walls and the roof so the wind speed that can produce
the same damage should be higher. This is the first problem we have
encountered. Thus, all these elements that increase the resistance of a construction
represented by certain elements of construction, techniques and materials used,
must be identified. The same should be done for the elements that reduce the
strength of a construction, such as age, improper equipment or building materials
that are not of good quality. These factors should be identified for each damage
indicator, because are different from one building to another.

570
 b) In the center of
the village there is a natural
reservation represented by a
park. This is the next
damage indicator.
According to the local
authorities, the park was
affected at a rate of 30-
40%. A chestnut tree trunk,
about 20 cm in diameter,
was snapped at about half of
meter above the ground
level (Fig. 3), indicating
wind speeds up to 105 mph
Fig. 3. The second DI – A snapped chestnut tree trunk - 168.98 km/h. This is
equivalent to the fourth
degree of destruction for the Trees: Hardwood damage indicator. Since this tree is
the only one which had this degree of destruction, and the other trees in this
location are just uprooted or suffered smaller degrees of destruction, we considered
the lower limit of this indicator of damage, 93 mph or 149.66 km/h.
Of all damage indicators, the categories of vegetation: Trees: Hardwood
and Trees: Softwood are the damage indicators that do not need adjusting and can
be used as they are, because in both countries there are the same species of
deciduous and resinous, and the degree of destruction can not be differentiated
( Almaşan, H. et al., 1981).
c) The next damage
indicator is a stable. Although
recently built (1996), with the
resistance structure consisting
of reinforced masonry walls
(brick or concrete blocks), the
roof structure composition
(roof structure with rafters) is
disregarding the standards for
bearing and joining, with
wood shingle roofing of
average quality, it can not be
classified in another category
than the Small Barns or Farm Fig. 4. The Third DI – Uplift of roof structure
Outbuildings. Uplift of roof of an stable
structure is corresponding in
the sixth degree of destruction, with estimated wind speeds up to 93 mph - 149.66
km/h.

571
 d) The last construction affected by the tornado is a household annexes in
the garden of a house, located at the 37th km of the national road DN 16 and it is in
the same category as the damage indicator above, Small Barns or Farm
Outbuildings because of the predominance of wood as building material. Lifting
the roof structure or destruction of parts of the walls indicate the sixth degree of
destruction, with wind speed of 93 mph - 149.66 km/h.
We treat the two damage indicators together in order to highlight another
problem encountered in the evaluation. Even if they are used for the same purpose
in terms of used construction materials these damage indicators are very different.
The fourth damage indicator fits well into the category where it was assigned, but
the third damage indicator may fall slightly in the category One- or Two-Family
Residences. Thus, in selecting the category where to place a damage indicator we
should consider first the structure type, materials and technique and the use of the
building.
e) The next
damage indicator is
centered on an electricity
pole which is made of pre
-stressed concrete and was
broken at about 1 m above
the ground. It was
considered to be in the
Electrical Transmission
Lines category. The wind
speed that could cause
this damage is about 138
mph, the fifth degree of
destruction. We have
taken into account the fact
that this post was placed Fig. 5. The fifth DI - Broken electrical transmission lines
in the forest and the trees
that fell over it could cause damage to the structural strength. Thus, a wind speed
of around 125 mph - 201.16 km/h is more probable.
Along with the vegetation category damage indicators, those of
the Electrical Transmission Lines, Free-Standing Towers and Free-Standing Light
Poles, Luminary Poles, Flag Poles do not require changes, since both structures in
the United States and Romania and have the same construction materials. The
problems encountered are the factors that can affect the strength of pole like
structures, exemplified by this case.
f) The last damage indicator is represented by an area of 3 hectares of a
beech forest, where over 90% of trees were flattened. It falls under the Trees:
Hardwood category and in addition to trees which the vast majority fall within the
fourth degree of destruction broken trunks, there are trees debarked with only stubs
of largest branches remaining, falling in the highest degree of destruction, the fifth,

572
which corresponds to wind speeds of 143 mph. Since there is only one example of
this degree of destruction, we did not consider the average value for this level of
destruction, but a lower value of 135 mph - 217.26 km/h.

Fig. 6. The last DI - Broken trunks in a deech forest

Fig. 7 presents
280 260.2 the evolution chart of
260
240 Wind speed chart the wind speed in mph
220 240.9
200 179.2 179.2 179.2 and km/h along the
156.1
180 tornado path, speed
Wind speed

160
140
120
determined by the
125 135
100
80
degree of destruction of
60
81
93 93 93
Mph the damage indicators.
40
20 Km/h The EF
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
intensity is determined
Damage indicator individually for each
damage indicator and
Fig. 7. The wind speed chart along the six damage finally the tornado is
indicators
assigned the maximum
value of all indicators. In this case it can be clearly seen that the wind reached
speeds of 125 - 135 mph or 201.16 - 217.26 km/h at the last two damage indicators.
This means that the tornado was an EF 2.

573
 In the Silivaşu de Câmpie tornado evaluation the following issues have
been identified:
- The existence of elements that reduce or increase the strength of
constructions for each type of indicator of damage.
- Constructions with the same way of using are not built after the same
pattern in terms of structural strength.
- Factors that may affect the structure of the resistance of poles like
structures.
- Difficulties in translation of technical terms.
In this evaluation we have used only three damage indicators of the total
of 28, so we conclude that possible problems may arise in the use of other
indicators, problems can be identified only when these damage indicators will be
used in an assessment of an tornado.

3. PROPOSED SOLUTIONS

The first step in adapting the Enhanced Fujita Scale for Romania is the
translation of the document "A Recommendation for an ENHANCED FUJITA
SCALE (EF-Scale)" proposed in 2004 by the Wind Science and Engineering Center
from the Texas Tech University, which led to the implementation of the Enhanced
Fujita Scale. The most important element of this translation, for each damage
indicator, is the typical construction section where construction materials and
techniques are described.
Also important in terms of translation and adaptation of damage indicators
is a good translation of the degree of destruction. Most indicators in the same
categories (buildings or vegetation) have the same degree of destruction. For
example, all types of buildings have the same first level of destruction: Threshold
of visible damage, but some indicators have specific owner, for example the first
degree of destruction of the Trees: Hardwood is Small limbs broken (up to 1” -
2.54 cm diameter).
After the translation we can determine which damage indicators are not
found in Romania, or if they are found and they belong to a category by use, if they
meet the criteria of the typical construction. For example, if a building that is used
as an animal shelter meets the criteria of One- or Two-Family Residences; it won’t
be taken into account as a Small Barns or Farm Outbuildings, as the use indicates.
Elements that increase or decrease the strength of construction and factors
that may affect their structural integrity must also be found for each damage
indicator in hand. Knowing them is necessary in order to adjust the main wind
speed between the upper and lower limits.

574
 4. CONCLUSIONS

An adaptation of the Enhanced Fujita scale is a problem that has a solution,

but it is a process that can not be rushed. We, as the authors of this article, all the
members of the Association for Monitoring of Severe Weather Phenomena, will
continue to analyze this problem and hope to draw into this issue as many
specialists from both construction and meteorology fields as we can. Once the issue
presented in this article, we will continue to carry out evaluations of tornadoes that
will occur in Romania and to find solutions to problems that will arise until a final
version of the Enhanced Fujita scale, adapted to the buildings in our country, will
be completed.

REFERENCES

1. Almăşan, H., Apostol, A., (1981), Pădurile României: studiu monografic, Editura
Academiei Republicii Socialiste România.
2. Buţiu C.,Nucuţă C., (2010), Severe meteorological phenomena in Romania – The
tornado from Silivaşu de Câmpie, ERAD 2010 – European Conference on Radar in
Meteorology and Hydrology - Advances in Radar Technology - Proceedings, 453
– 458.
3. *** (2004), A Recommendation for an ENHANCED FUJITA SCALE (EF-Scale),
Wind Science and Engenering Center, Texas Tech University
4. www.spc.noaa.gov/efscale/

575
 ROMANIAN TERMINOLOGY IN THE METEOROLOGY
OF SEVERE WEATHER – CASE STUDY OF THE SUPERCELL
FROM ARAD COUNTRY ON THE 14TH OF JUNE 2010

O. SCRIDONESI 1, C. BUŢIU 2, C. NUCUŢĂ 1, S. LEAHU 1

ABSTRACT. Romanian terminology in the meteorology of severe weather –

Case study of the supercell from the 14th of June 2010. Using the ingredients-
based methodology, the low precipitation supercell storm from the 14th of June
2010 in the Arad county is analyzed in terms of conditions of development,
evolution and structure. To address such a topic an important issue is the lack of
meteorological terms in the Romanian language to enable the completion of such
analysis of supercell storms or other severe weather phenomena. Finding terms
that correspond to the best of the English language during the analysis is
performed either by direct translation into romanian, either by replacing the terms
that best fit the context and the use of each term is motivated.

Keywords: low precipitation supercells, Romanian terminology, analysis.

1. INTRODUCTION

Low precipitation supercells (which, translated into Romanian, is the

equivalent of ”Supercelulele cu precipitaţii slabe” Aurora Stan-Sion, 2007) is a
relatively rare phenomenon in our country and, as the name suggests, it is a special
type of supercell which has the particularity to produce some abnormal amounts of
low precipitation. As far as dynamics is concerned, it maintains the classic
structure of a supercell: the mezocyclone which is well differentiated from the
rainfall. Because the quantity of precipitation products is low, it allows to visually
observing the constituent parts in detail, including the rotating updraft, making
them most times extremely photogenic. Unfortunately there is still no
documentation of this type of weather events in Romania, even if the possibility of
its production in our country is not officially denied. The causes behind this
situation are on the one hand, the lack of a network of weather observers
(something like "storm spotters" in the U.S.) and, on the other hand, the recent
implementation (2002) of national system of radar observations. Since their echoes
in the radar reflectivity field are weak, being hard to distinguish them from simple
convective cells, low precipitation supercells detection can be done only using
Doppler radars in the velocity field, or with the naked eye, but the weather station
network is not nearly dense enough to cover this hypothetical requirement. This
explains the lack of specific terminology in the Romanian language. This article

1
“Babeş Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, 400006, Cluj-Napoca, Romania,
e-mail: calinnucuta@gmail.com.
2
“Babeş Bolyai” University, Faculty of Physics, 400084, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.

576
refers to such a low precipitation supercell observed by the team of the Association
for Monitoring Severe Weather Phenomena - RoMetEx near Ineu (in the Bihor
County) on 14 June 2010. As there are not any equivalent terms in the literature for
all English terms which are associated with this meteorological phenomenon, we
resorted on using our own translations: direct translation (word by word) or use of
appropriate equivalent Romanian expressions.

2. THE SYNOPTIC SCALE SITUATION

On 14th of June 2010, at European level, the synoptic situation was

characterized by the presence of a deep through in Western and Central Europe
(Fig. 1), with a cut-off (a local minimum geopotential in altitude at 500-200 hPa),
centered in the Netherlands (Fig. 1). The presence of a strong Azores anticyclone
in the Atlantic Ocean basin, to west of the Iberian Peninsula, has favored the
expansion of the trough’s amplitude, while limiting the wavelength, which allowed
it to penetrate to the very low latitudes in northern Africa, where it raised a tropical
ridge on the south-west branch, which affected the South - Eastern Europe by light
advection of a hot air mass with temperatures above 20 °C at 850 hPa (Fig.
2). Romania, Hungary and Serbia were in full advection on 14 June 2010.

Fig. 1. 500 hPa geopotential and sea level Fig 2. Temperature at 850 hPa at 12:00 UTC
pressure at 00:00UTC on 14 June 2010 on 14 June 2010
Sursa: www.wetterzentrale.de Sursa: www.wetterzentrale.de

The advected air mass was warm and dry in elevation, being of North
African origin. In middle and low troposphere, however, the humidity was very
high because of abnormally warm Mediterranean Sea at that time and the African
mass of air has gained a tremendous amount of moisture, increasing surface dew
points up to 20 - 25 ° C (Fig. 3). Ciclogenesis processes occurred at the left exit of
the jet streak associated to the tropical ridge, explaining the occurrence of a local
depression in the Pannonian Plain in that day (Fig. 4), depression which has driven
polar air mass stationed in Central Europe. This created a border region in Hungary
(between cold air mass and tropical air mass), along which convection was
initiated. Since convective potential energy was extremely high for Europe (up to
3000 J/kg and even more, according to http://weather.uwyo.edu/upperair/

577
europe.html ), due to the combination of cold dry air at altitude and very humid and
warm air from the surface, the convective system in Hungary had the same
intensity while advancing towards Romania and it affected large areas of the
Western Plain and Transylvania.

Fig. 3. Surface observations map Fig. 4. Synoptic scale situation at 12:00 UTC
at 15:00 UTC on 14 June 2010 on 14 june 2010
Source: www.estofex.org/ Source: www.met.fu-berlin.de

3. MESOSCALE ANALYSIS

The mesoscale situation took a decisive role in the emergence and

evolution of the studied supercell. The factors that have played an important role in
the events are the presence of a high altitude jet due to the coupling between the
European central through and the tropical ridge positioned over Romania, Serbia
and the Pannonian Plain, at the same time with the genesis of a depression in the
surface area of Hungary, as revealed in the synoptic conditions section. During the
day of 14 June 2010, the northern half of West Plains has been crossed by several
convective systems. The first one occurred in the morning (Fig. 5), it was triggered
dynamically, by quasi-geostrofic forcing, with the decrease in geopotential height,
loss caused also by the synoptic wave moving eastward and ciclogenesis processes
in the area of Hungary.

578
 Fig. 5. VIS satelite image at 10:00 UTC Fig. 6. CAPE at 15:00 UTC on 14 June 2010
on 14 June 2010 Source www.estofex.org/
Source: www.sat24.com

This convective system, produced under conditions of low shear levels

between 0-6 km (maximum 10 m/s), had a short life cycle, but has contributed to
the over damping of the boundary layer and the following few hours of sun
exposure have built a very unstable area, with convective potential energy values
of more than 3 MJ/kg (Fig. 6). Initiation of thermal convection, however, was
impossible because the unstable air mass was blocked by the dry air of altitude,
which has maintained a significant convective inhibition (Fig. 7), and also because
of the absence of other mechanisms to initiate convection.
At the same time, the situation was quite different in Hungary, where,
along the border between the two air masses with contrasting properties, cloud
formations with great vertical development appeared, which eventually were
organized into a linear convective system or squall line. Shear up to 15 m/s in the
0-6 km layer was located at the boundary, helping to separate upward currents in
the rain storms only in the anvils area, where the exhaust stream was more active
with the increase of wind speeds in altitude. The factors that influenced more the
duration of the squall line’s life were its linear structure and especially the high
values of convective potential energy (H. Bluestein, 2005). Thus, the convection
system quickly crossed the Western Plain; it has increased orographically above
the Apuseni Mountains and then swept Transylvania. Mesoscale conditions on the
West Plains area changed after the crossing of the squall lines (compare the
soundings in Fig.7 and Fig. 8).

579
 Fig. 7. Sounding from Bihor County Fig. 8. Sounding from Bihor County
at 12:00 UTC on 14 June 2010 at 18:00 UTC on 14 June 2010
Before the sqall line During the Ineu low precipitation supercell
First, the effects of cooling on
the ground level caused by
strong rain that had fallen in the
mountains in conditions of dry
air at altitude, and also the
positive baric anomaly behind
the convective system led to the
creation of a gust front to travel
from east to west. The forward
direction of the gust front (east
to west, almost against shear
vector) did not favor further
development of convective cells Fig. 9. VIS satelite image at 16:00
until it met a barrel gradient on 14 June 2010 Source: www.sat24.com
border in Hungary, close to the
Timisoara County border. Here, the multidirectional convergence induced by the gust
front has initiated a multicellular system with supercell at the southern tip (Fig. 9),
given that when the event occurred in the evening, the shearing currents were already
more intense in altitude (about 20 m/and between 0-6 km and 10 m/s 0-2 km).

580
 While moving to the Nord - East, this new convection system started in
Hungary (Fig. 9) loses its intensity quickly when meeting the mass of cold air
camped at ground level. On the second sounding (Fig. 8) convective potential
energy decreases clearly with the increase in the convective inhibition in Bihor
area, immediately after crossing the storm line. Dynamically, the new situation was
not favorable to free convection, repeated changes in wind direction and wind
intensity at altitude causing the pairing of opposite sign vortexes on the air column,
with the consequent
emergence of down-
ward movements.

The only thing

that has kept it’s inten-
sity was the supercell
(the subject of this case
study), because there
were conditions that
favored the persistence
of a mesoscale mesocy-
clone. The movement of
the supercell relative to
the direction of the
Fig. 10. Surface observations map at 18:00 mountain gust front, fed
on 14 June 2010 Source: www.estofex.org/ by the continuously
active cells in the
Poiana Rusca, and Zarand areas, favored streamwise vorticity (Ro. "vorticitate
directă”) entering its updraft (Fig. 10) and established strait local heliciy, relative to
the storm (Fig 8). Thus, since the currents rising from the rotation mezocyclon
have not significantly reduced activity, the supercell managed to advance further in
the West Plains area, turning the classic supercell into a low precipitation supercell.
In the area near Ineu, all the ingredients necessary to support such a supercell type
were accomplished, namely reduced atmospheric instability (Fig. 10), limited
amount of available precipitable water (Fig. 8) - much of the water precipitated was
eliminated by passing squall line and not least the existence of a mechanism to
override dynamic (JR Holton, 2004) (Fig. 10).

3. EVOLUTION OF THE SUPERCELL

Supercell appeared and developed in the southern extremity of a line of

convergence at about 19:00, local time, in Hungary, near the border with our
county. In the next hour the storm enterd in Romania, while retaining in the classic
form of supercell both on the radar (Fig. 11) on the satellite imagery (Fig 12).

581
 Fig. 11. Radar images from the WSR 98 S band from Oradea on 14 June 2010
a) velocity fields at 17:20 UTC b) reflectivity field at 17 17:31 UTC
On the Doppler Radar images,
in the velocity fields (Fig. 11 a.), a
coupling of 8 / -16 m/s at the first
elevation (1000 m) and another
coupling of 8 / -12 m/s at the second
elevation (2200 m) have been
observed. These couplings are not very
intense, low precipitation supercells
being more photogenic than violent.
The anvil was stretch over 80-
100 km to the north of the current
Fig. 12. VIS satelite image at 18:00
upward, due to both shear and the right
on 14 June 2010 Source: www.sat24.com
deviation movement of the supercell
from the average elevation movement
(Fig.12).

582
 Around 21:00, local time, the supercell was intercepted by the RoMetEx
team, near the city Ineu (Fig. 13). Already at this time the storm’s intensity was

Fig. 13. Picture of the low precipitation Supercell at 17:45 UTC on 14 June 2010
taken by the team of Association for Monitoring Severe Weather Phenomena - RoMetEx
diminished. In the next image (Fig. 14) we can clearly observe a mezocyclon and
the lack of a rain curtain, so we definitely have a low precipitation supercell.
In the mezocyclon’s area, it is noted the presence of a upward rotating
current materialized in a wall cloud (Ro. "nor-zid"). Above an overshooting top (Ro.
"vârf supraînălţat") was still raising (Fig. 13). The curtain of precipitation is very thin
(Fig. 11 b.) and positioned in two areas: the main precipitation core (right of the
mezocyclon) and in the rear front downdraft (Ro. " nucleul de precipitaţii lateral”).
These are all defining features of this type of low precipitation supercell. The inflow
tail (Ro. "formaţiune de influx”) has become increasingly prominent, with a length
estimated at about 3-4 km
(Fig. 14). When passing
over the RoMetEx team, the
storm produced a moderate
downpour, and the electrical
activity was weak, as usually
happens in this kind of
supercelule. When reaching
a higher area of the West
Hills, poor rotation move-
ment of the mezocyclons
quickly dispersed, and the Fig. 14. Picture of the low precipitation Supercell
at 18:00 UTC on 14 June 2010
storm disappeared.

583
 4. CONCLUSIONS. CHOICE OF TERMS
As noted before, the absence of Romanian terminology in this field have
made it necessary to translate some English equivalents. Some of the terminology
was taken from the updated specialized literature written in Romanian (Aurora
Stan-Sion, 2007), but for a series of concepts it has been imposed its own
translation. In this sequence it will be revise the terms translated:
- low precipitation supercell (Ro. "supercelulă cu precipitaţii slabe"): a
supercell producing low quantities of precipitation (Aurora Stan-Sion, 2007);
- Streamwise vorticity, crosswire vorticity (Ro. "vorticitate directă/
indirect”): the way the ground vorticity is captured in the upward current of the
storm: directly, when the horizontal vorticity vector is parallel to the average
altitude wind, and indirectly, when the horizontal vorticity vector is perpendicular
to the average altitude wind (Aurora Stan-Sion, 2007);
- Wall-Cloud (Ro. "nor-zid"): a low cloud base, which is a large, lowering,
and rotating base of a cumulonimbus cloud that potentially forms tornadoes
(Glossary of Meteorology from AMS);
- Overshooting top (Ro. "vârf supraînălţat"): the rise of the cumulonimbus
cloud with vertical development above the anvil’s balance level, usually associated
with severe storms and supercells;
- Rear front downdraft (Ro. "nucleu de precipitaţii lateral”): expression
used to describe the secondary area of precipitation in a supercell located
tangentially to the updraft mezociclon area and created due to the effects of the
rotation of a supercell;
- Inflow tail (Ro. "formaţiune de influx”): Bands of low clouds, formed
tankes to a lower condensation level, arranged parallel to the low-level winds and
moving into or toward a thunderstorm.

REFERENCES

1. Bluestein H., (2005), Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles

of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. I.fds
2. Holton J.R., (2004), An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, Fourth Edition,
The International Geophysics Series.dfs
3. Robert A.Houze Jr., (2007), Cloud Dynamics, International Geophysics Volume.gfs
4. Stan-Sion Aurora, Antonescu, B., (2006), Mesocyclones in Romania –
characteristics and environmen, 23rd Conference on Severe Storms St. Louis.
5. Stan-Sion Aurora, (2007), Fenomene de risc climatic asociate circulaţilor
atmosferice din sudul Românie, Academia Română.fgd
6. www.amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary
7. www.comet.ucar.edu
8. www.lightningwizard.com
9. www.met.fsu.edu
10. www.sat24.com
11. www:weather.uwyo.edu/upperair/europe.html
12. www.wetterzentrale.de

584