NEED FOR NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

⋆ To meet the demand of fast production and precision

components, the researchers and equipment builders are looking
outside the bounds of conventional milling, drilling, turning, and
grinding, etc.
⋆ New cutting and machining processes continue to emerge along
with methods for modifying the conventional techniques.
⋆ Non traditional machining processes, are employed where
traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory or
economical due to special reasons such as the complexity of the
job profile, high hardness of the material, demand for smooth
surface finish, closer dimensional tolerance and higher accuracy.

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characteristics of conventional machining

⋆ The major characteristics of conventional machining are

1. Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation
2. Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces –
energy domain can be a mechanical
3. Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature and at
machining Conditions

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DEFINITION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

⋆ Non-conventional manufacturing processes are defined as a

group of processes that remove excess material by various
techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical
energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp
cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing
processes.
⋆ Material removal may occur with or without chip formation. For
example in AJM, chips are of microscopic in size and in case of
Electrochemical machining material removal occurs due to
electrochemical dissolution at atomic level.

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CHARECTERISTICS OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES

⋆ Very hard and brittle materials can be machined

⋆ Flexible or slender work piece can be machined, due to absence
of physical contact of tool and work (less cutting force)
⋆ Complex part geometries can be produced
⋆ Provides very good quality surface finish and dimensional
accuracy
⋆ Production of stress free components are possible
⋆ Tool wear is less due to the absence of contact between tool and
workpiece.

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⋆ Traditional machining is mostly based on removal of materials
using tools that are harder than the materials themselves.
⋆ New and novel materials are sometimes impossible to machine
using traditional machining processes because of their greatly
improved chemical, mechanical and thermal properties .
⋆ Traditional machining methods are often ineffective in machining
hard materials like ceramics and composites or machining under
very tight tolerances as in micro machined components.
⋆ The need to a avoid surface damage that often accompanies the
stresses created by conventional machining. Example:
aerospace and electronics industries.
⋆ They are classified under the domain of non traditional processes.

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CLASSIFICATION OF NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES

⋆ The non-conventional machining processes are classified mainly

based on principle of working and source of energy used to
generate machining action such as mechanical, thermal,
chemical and electrochemical.
⋆ Mechanical: Erosion of the work material is by high velocity
stream of abrasives or fluids (or both)
⋆ Thermal: The thermal energy is applied to a very small portion of
the work surface, causing that portion to be removed by fusion
and/or vaporization of the material. The thermal energy is
generated by conversion of electrical energy. Electrochemical:
Mechanism is reverse of electroplating.

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⋆ Chemical: Most materials (metals particularly) are susceptible to
chemical attack by certain acids or other etchants. In chemical
machining, chemicals selectively remove material from portions
of the workpart, while other portions of the surface are protected
by a mask.
⋆ The metal removal rates by ECM and PAM are respectively that
of conventional whereas others are only small fractions of it.
⋆ Power requirement of ECM and PAM is also very high ECM has
very low tool wear rate The capital cost of ECM is very high
whereas capital costs for AJM and PAM are comparatively low.
⋆ EDM has got higher tooling cost than other machining processes.
⋆ The metal removal efficiency is very high for EBM and LBM than
for other processes.

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CHARECTERISTICS OF ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESSES

Table: Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

S. Process Process Characteristics Process pa-

No rameters and
MRR or cutting
speed
1 Chemical Shallow removal on large 0.0025-0.1
machin- flat or curved surfaces; mm/min.
ing (CM) blanking of thin sheets; low
tooling and equipment cost;
suitable for low-production
runs.

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 Table: Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

2 Electrochemical
Complex shapes with V: 5-25 DC;
machin- deep cavities; highest A: 1.5-8
ing (ECM) rate of material removal A/mm2 ; 2.5-
among other nontraditional 12 mm/min,
processes; expensive depending
tooling and equipment; on current
high power consumption; density.
medium-to-high production
quantity.

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 Table: Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

3 Electrochemical
Cutting off and sharpen- A: 1-3 A/mm2 ;
grinding ing hard materials, such typically 25
(ECG) as tungsten-carbide tools; 3
mm /s per
also used as honing pro- 1000A.
cess; higher removal rate
than grinding.
4 Electrical- Shaping and cutting com- V: 50-380;
discharge plex parts made of hard A: 0.1-500;
machin- materials; some surface typically 300
ing (EDM) damage may result; also mm3 /min.
used as a grinding and
cutting process; expensive
tooling and equipment.

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 Table: Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

5 Wire Contour cutting of flat or Varies with

electric curved surfaces; expensive material and
discharge equipment. thickness.
machin-
ing
6 Laser- Cutting and hole making 0.50-7.5
beam on thin materials; very mm/min.
machin- small holes and slots; heat-
ing (LBM) affected zone; requires
a vacuum; expensive
equipment.

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 Table: Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

7 Electro- Cutting and hole making 1-2 mm3 /min.

beam on thin materials; very
machin- small holes and slots; heat-
ing (EBM) affected zone; requires
a vacuum; expensive
equipment.
8 Water-jet Cutting all types of non- Varies consid-
machin- metallic materials; suitable erably with ma-
ing(WJM) for contour cutting of flex- terial.
ible materials; no thermal
damage; noisy.

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 Table: Characteristics of Advanced Machining Processes

9 Abrasive Single-layer or multi-layer Up to 7.5

water-jet cutting of metallic and non- m/min.
ma- metallic materials.
chining
(AWJM)
10 Abrasive- Cutting, slotting, deburring, Varies consid-
jet ma- etching and cleaning of erably with ma-
chining metallic and nonmetallic terial.
(AJM) materials; tends to round
off sharp edges; can be
hazardous.

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Figure: Material removal rate in different non-conventional machining
processes

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ADVANTAGES OF UN-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
PROCESS

◦ Unconventional machining is useful when dealing with

particularly hard materials (such as tungsten carbide or titanium).
◦ Wear of tool is very less and no shape change effect of tool over
the work piece.
◦ Aoids direct contact between the tool and the workpiece, that
wear and damage is nonexistent.
◦ Delicate , brittle material can be machined without damage.
◦ Tool repair/ resharpening cost and time very less in comparison
to conventional machining process.

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DISADVANTAGES OF UN-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
PROCESS

⋆ High cost
⋆ complex set-up
⋆ skilled operator required
Conventional machining involves the direct contact of tool and work
-piece, whereas unconventional machining does not require the direct
contact of tool and work piece. Conventional machining has many
disadvantages like tool wear which are not present in
non-conventional machining. Disadvantages: Unconventional
machine tools are typically much more expensive than conventional
machine tools. These machine tools involve a complex set-up and
require specialized operators. These costs may not be justified when
working with softer materials.

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APPLICATION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES

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Chemical machining (CM)

⇒ Chemical machining (CM): Chemical milling is usually applied

where larger quantities of material is to be removed from large
plates or panels in the aircraft industry, space industry or cutting
in depths of up to 12 mm.
⇒ The process is used to make large aluminium alloy, etc. plates
and sheet-metal parts lighter.
⇒ Chemical blanking is used for manufacturing various scales,
dials, rulers, etc. in the instrument-making industry and fine
mechanical engineering industry as well as for manufacturing a
variety of thin component parts in the mechanical engineering
industry.

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⇒ The photo-chemical blanking is applied for manufacturing printed
circuit boards for the electronic industry, electrical wiring,
electronic chip sets and very thin component parts (depths of up
to 0.0025 mm) for the aero-space industry, optics,
microelectronics, instrument -making industry, printing industry,
crafts –engraving metal or other material articles.

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Electrochemical machining (ECM)

⇒ This is used in wide machining applications for high-alloyed rigid

steels and materials and also for manufacturing complex cutting
shapes –turbine propellers, tools –stamps, moulds, dies.
⇒ The technique is suitable for drilling small holes and cutting into
hard materials

⇒ The technique is applied in machining carbide tools and alloy

tools, carbide steel parts, etc. alloys featuring high strength
characteristics. Used for grinding, milling and drilling small holes.
Not suitable for manufacturing dies

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Electrical discharge machining (EDM)

⇒ The technique is applied for manufacturing tools and dies –for

machining cavities and contour shaping and cutting. Used to cut
and machine very hard and hardened conductor materials. Used
to manufacture complex dies, for example for extrusion of
aluminium component parts, etc.

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Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM)

⇒ WEDM is Used for contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces The

depth of the cutting plates is adjustable to up to 300mm. Mostly
used for grinding hard carbide alloys of titanium, tungsten etc and
for machining fragile and brittle small-size components, surgical
tools, optical devices etc.

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Laser-beam machining (LBM)

⇒ It is used for cutting, drilling, marking and for surface machining

and welding operations involving various materials: metals,
ceramics, plastics, leather, textiles, composite materials (in the
aircraft industry, etc.).

→ It is is used in similar applications to those described for LBM but

performed in a vacuum surrounding medium: precise cutting and
welding of various materials.

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Water-jet machining (WJM)

⇒ This technique is used for dynamic cutting and machining various

materials: plastic, rubber, foodstuffs, paper, leather, insulation
materials, composite materials of up to 25mm thickness. Finds
application in the food industry and the production of plastics

⇒ Applied for machining small holes, cleaning surfaces from

removing sand or scale in foundry applications, stamped forgings
and also for non-metal and fragile materials, as well as for
deburring operations. Dielectric fluid in EDM

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CONSIDERATIONS IN PROCESS SELECTION

⇒ To make effective utilization of advanced machining methods, it

is important to know the precise character of the machining issue.
It is to be comprehended that:
⇒ these methods cannot replace the conventional machining
processes and
⇒ a particular machining method found suitable under the given
conditions may not be equally efficient under different conditions.

⇒ A careful assortment of the procedure for a given machining

issue is fundamental.

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⇒ Before selecting the process to be employed, the following
aspects must be studied:
⇒ Physical parameters.
⇒ Properties of the work material and the shape to be machined.
⇒ Process capability.
⇒ Economic considerations.

⇒ When comparing the physical parameters of modern machining

processes, it may be noticed that both EDM and USM require
approximately the same power, whereas ECM consumes roughly
forty times more power than EDM. ECM consumes much greater
power, it is an excellent method for drilling long slender holes with
length/dia ratio > 20. It can be seen that for the machining of
electrically non-conducting materials, both ECM and EDM are
unsuitable, whereas the mechanical methods can achieve the
desired results.

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⇒ The economics of the various processes are analysed on the
basis of following factors and given in Table 7.
⇒ Capital cost
⇒ Tooling cost
⇒ Consumed power cost
⇒ Metal removal rate efficiency
⇒ Tool wear.
⇒ The capital cost of ECM is very high when compared with
traditional mechanical contour grinding and other
non-conventional machining processes whereas capital costs for
AJM and PAM are comparatively low.

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⇒ EDM has got higher tooling cost than other machining processes.
Power consumption is very low for PAM and LBM processes
whereas it is greater in case of ECM.
⇒ The metal removal efficiency is very high for EBM and LBM than
for other processes.
⇒ In conclusion, the suitability of application of any of the processes
is dependent upon various factors and must be considered all or
some of them before applying non-conventional processes.

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 Table: Economic Considerations in UCMP
Process Captial Total Power Material re- Tool
cost cost cost moval rate wear
efficiency
USM L L L H M
AJM VL L L H L
ECM VH M M L VL
CHM M L H M VL
EDM M H L H H
EBM H L L VH VL
LBM L L VL VH VL
PAM VL L VL VL VL

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Comparison of conventional and non-conventional machining
processes

⇒ Conventional machining usually involves changing the shape of a

work piece using an implement made of a harder material. Using
conventional methods to machine hard metals and alloys means
increased demand of time and energy and therefore increases in
costs; in some cases conventional machining may not be feasible.
⇒ Conventional machining also costs in terms of tool wear and in
loss of quality in the product owing to induced residual stresses
during manufacture. With ever increasing demand for
manufactured goods of hard alloys and metals, such as Inconel
718 or titanium, more interest has gravitated to non-conventional
machining methods.

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⇒ Conventional machining can be defined as a process using
mechanical (motion) energy.
⇒ Non-conventional machining utilizes other forms of energy.
⇒ The three main forms of energy used in non-conventional
machining processes are as follows:
⇒ Thermal energy
⇒ Chemical energy
⇒ Electrical energy

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S.No Conventional Manufac- Non-Conventional Man-
turing Processes ufacturing Processes

1. Generally macroscopic Chips are of micro-

chip formation by shear scopic size. example
deformation. in AJM, chips are of
microscopic size and in
case of Electrochemical
machining material
removal occurs due
to electrochemical
dissolution at atomic
level

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2. There may be a physi- 2.There may not be a physical tool
cal tool present. for ex- present. For example in laser jet
ample a cutting tool in a machining, machining is carried out
Lathe Machine by laser beam. However in Electro-
chemical Machining there is a physi-
cal tool that is very much required for
machining.
3. Cutting tool is harder No physical tool present in most pro-
than work piece at room cesses. For example in laser jet ma-
temperature as well as chining, machining is carried out by
under machining condi- laser beam.
tions

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4. Material removal takes Do not use mechanical energy to
place due to application provide material removal but uses
of cutting forces –energy different energy domains to provide
domain can be classi- machining. For example, USM,
fied as mechanical AJM, WJM uses mechanical en-
ergy, whereas in ECM electrochem-
ical dissolution constitutes material
removal.

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5. It involves the direct Whereas unconven-
contact of tool and tional machining does
workpiece not require the direct
contact of tool and work
piece.
6. Lower accuracy and Higher accuracy and
surface finish. surface finish.
7. Suitable for every type Not Suitable for every
of material economically type of material eco-
nomically
8. Tool life is less Tool life is more

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|p.5cm|p4cm|p4cm|
9. Higher waste of material due to high wear. Lower waste of material
due to low or no wear.
10. Noisy operation mostly cause sound pollutions Quieter operation
mostly no sound pollutions are produced.

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11. Lower capital cost Higher capital cost
12. Easy set-up of equip- Complex set-up equip-
ment. ment.
13. Skilled or un-skilled op- Skilled operator re-
erator may required quired.
14. Generally they are man- . Generally they are fully
ual to operate. automated process.
15. Can’t be used to pro- Can be used to produce
duce prototype parts prototype parts very ef-
ficiently And economi-
cally.

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ULTRASONIC MACHINING

⇒ Ultrasonic machining is changing the manufacturing industries

with its superlative performance.
⇒ It is also known as Ultrasonic impact grinding is an operation that
involves a vibrating tool fluctuating the ultrasonic frequencies in
order to remove the material from the work piece.
⇒ The main reason why this machining process is used in the
manufacturing area is because it evolves less heat in the process.
⇒ All the operations done with the ultrasonic machining method are
cost effective and best in results.

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WHAT IS ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)?

⇒ Ultrasonic machining is a nontraditional process. In this process

abrasives contained in the slurry are driven against the work by a
tool oscillating at low amplitude (25–100 microns) and high
frequency (15–30 kHz).
⇒ Ultrasonic refers to waves of high frequency above the audible
range of 20 kHz. Initially it was developed in 1945 for finishing of
electro spark machine parts.
⇒ The USM process consists of tool made of ductile and tough
material.

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⇒ Tool oscillates with high frequency, and the continuous abrasive
slurry is fed between the tool and workpiece.
⇒ The impact of the hard abrasive particles fractures the workpiece
thus removing the small particles from the work surface.
Ultrasonic machining is different from the conventional grinding
process as shown in Table 9.

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 Table: Difference between conventional machining and USM

PARAMETER CONVENTIONAL USM

GRINDING
Motion The motion of the grind- The motion of the abrasive part
ing wheel is tangential to is normal to the workpiece.
the workpiece.
Basic pro- Material removal is by Material removal occurs by s
cess pure shear deformation. deformation, a brittle fra
through impact (hammering),
tation and chemical reaction.

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 Table: Difference between conventional machining and USM

Abrasive Abrasive grits are Abrasives are supplied

grits bonded to the wheel. externally in the form of
a slurry.
Tool motion An abrasive wheel is ro- The tool is vibrated us-
tated by an electric mo- ing magnetostriction ef-
tor. fect which produces ul-
trasonic waves of high
frequency.

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⇒ Ultrasonic machining is an abrasive process which can create
any material into hard and brittle form with the help of its vibrating
tool and the indirect passage of abrasive particles towards the
work piece.
⇒ It is a low material removal rate machining process. The process
involves an abrasive slurry that runs between the tool and the
work piece. Due to this, the tool and the work piece never interact
with each other. The process rarely exceeds two pounds.
⇒ This method is the best choice for working with hard materials
such as ceramic matrix composites, ruby, piezo-ceramics, glass,
ceramics, Quartz, ferrite, diamonds, technical ceramics, alumina,
PCD, sapphire, CVD silicon carbide and similar ones.

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PRINCIPLE

⇒ It works on the same principle of ultrasonic welding.

⇒ This machining uses ultrasonic waves to produce high frequency
force of low amplitude, which act as driving force of abrasive.
⇒ Ultrasonic machine generates high frequency vibrating wave of
20000 to 30000 Hz and amplitude about 25-50 micron.
⇒ This high frequency vibration transfer to abrasive particle
contains in abrasive slurry.

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⇒ This leads indentation of abrasive particle to brittle work piece
and removes metal from the contact surface.
⇒ The machining time of the ultrasonic grinding depends on the
frequency of the vibration, material properties and grain size.
⇒ Ample static force is also required to hold the job against the
machining tool .
⇒ continues flow of abrasives suspension is also mandatory.

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Figure: Principle of Ultrasonic Machining

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ADVANTAGES OF USM

⇒ Ultrasonic machining is ideal for certain kinds of materials and

applications. Brittle materials, particularly ceramics and glass,
are typical candidates for ultrasonic machining.

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DISADVANTAGES

⇒ It can be proved slower than the conventional machining

processes.
⇒ Material removal rates are quite low, usually less than 50
mm3 /min.
⇒ Creating deep holes is difficult because of the restricted
movement of the suspension.
⇒ It is arduous to select the perfect tool geometry for creating hole
of certain dimension. The holes created may be of larger sizes
because of side cutting.

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⇒ The abrasive slurry also ”machines” the tool itself, thus causing
high rate of tool wear , which in turn makes it very difficult to hold
close tolerances.
⇒ The slurry may wear the wall of the machined hole as it passes
back towards the surface, which limits the accuracy, particularly
for small holes.
⇒ The machining area and the depth of cut are quite restricted

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APPLICATIONS

⇒ Hard and brittle materials can be machined like tungsten carbide,

diamond and glass. These are difficult to machine in conventional
machining process.
⇒ Wire drawing dies of tungsten carbide can be drilled by this
process.
⇒ The modified version of USM i.e., Rotary USM where the tool
rotates, ensures high metal removal rates, lower tool pressures
for delicate parts,improved deep hole drilling.

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 Figure: Rotary USM Configurations

⇒
⇒ During USM sinking, material removal is difficult for depth > 5 to 7
mm.
⇒ Under such conditions, the removal of abrasives at the interface
becomes difficult and hence the material removal process is
impossible. Moreover, manufacturing of such a tool is generally
complex and costly.

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 Figure: USM die sinking and Contouring

◦
⇒ Circular as well as non-circular holes can be done with straight or
curved axes.
⇒ It has been proved successful in machining geranium, silicon
quartz and synthetic ruby etc.
⇒ Rotary ultrasonic machining uses an abrasive surfaced tool that
is rotated and vibrated simultaneously can be used for drilling
holes and performing ultrasonic profile milling in ceramics and
brittle engineered materials that are difficult to machine with
traditional processes.

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⇒ Ultrasonic machining can be used to form and redress graphite
electrodes for electrical discharge machining.
⇒ It is particularly useful in micro drilling holes of up to 0.1 mm.
⇒ Ultrasonic Polishing by vibrating tool at ultrasonic frequency with
a relatively low amplitude removing high spots of size as low as
0.012mm.

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ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS AND RECENT
DEVELOPMENTS OF U S M

The USM process has the advantage of machining hard and brittle
materials to complex shapes with good accuracy and reasonable
surface finish. Considerable economy results from the USM of hard
alloy press tools, dies and wire drawing equipment. The power
consumption of USM is 0.1 W-h / mm3 for glass and about 5 W-h /
mm3 for hard alloys.

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RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN USM

⇒ Although the application of ultrasonic energy to produce or to

enhance a wide variety of processes have been explored since
about the middle of the 20th century, only a reduced number of
ultrasonic processes have been established at industrial level.
⇒ During the last ten years the use of ultrasonic machining
processing has revived particularly in industrial sectors where the
ultrasonic technology may represent a clean and efficient tool to
improve classical existing processes or an innovation alternative
for the development of new processes.

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⇒ The food industry, environment, pharmaceuticals and chemicals
manufacture, machinery, mining, etc the use of power ultrasound
is becoming an emerging technology for process development. In
the area of ultrasonic processing in fluid media and more
specifically in gases, the development of the stepped plate
transducers and other power generators with extensive radiating
surface has strongly contributed to the implementation at
semi-industrial and industrial stage of several commercial
applications, in sectors such as food and beverage industry ,
machinery and process for manufacturing (textile washing, paint
manufacture, etc).

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⇒ Ultrasonic vibrations (the harmonic red line) are being introduced
to the drilling and turning processes.
⇒ Mullard Research Laboratories have developed a process that
combines electrochemical reaction with ultrasonic abrasion. A
60W ultrasonic drill and abrasive suspended in an alkaline
electrolyte can be machined nine times faster than by ultrasonic
alone.

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Electro Chemical Grinding

⋆ Electro-chemical grinding (ECG) is a variant process of the basic

ECM.
⋆ Electrochemical grinding and electrochemical machining are
similar processes with a difference that a wheel substitutes the
tool used in ECM.
⋆ It is a burr free and stress free material removal process, wherein
material removal of the electrically conductive material takes
place through mechanical (grinding) process and
electro-chemical process.
⋆ The abrasive laden grinding wheel is negatively charged and the
workpiece is positively charged.
⋆ They are separated by an electrolyte fluid.
⋆ The fine chips of the material that is removed from the workpiece
(debris) stays in the electrolyte fluid, which is further filtered out.
⋆ The wheel shape is similar to the desired work shape.

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Figure: Electro Chemical Grinding

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Process of Grinding in ECM

⋆ The main feature of electrochemical grinding (ECG) process is

the use of a metallic grinding wheel which is embedded with
insulating abrasive particles such as diamond, set in the
conducting material.
⋆ Copper, brass, and nickel are the most commonly used materials
while aluminum oxide is a typical abrasive used while grinding
steels.
⋆ The commutator is an electrolytic spindle having carbon brushes
and holds the grinding wheel.
⋆ It receives a negative charge from the DC power supply and the
workpiece is given a positive charge.

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⋆ In ECG process, the grinding wheel slightly touches the
workpiece.
⋆ Electrolyte is supplied on-to the grinding wheel near the
workpiece such that the wheel carries it through the cutting
process thereby resulting in an electro-chemical action.
⋆ A nozzle similar to the one which carries coolant in a conventional
grinding process is provided, which enables the flow of
electrolytic fluid to the work-tool contact area.
⋆ The electrolyte along with wheel works simultaneously in the
process of cutting. The electro-chemical cells thus formed further
oxidize the surface of the workpiece.
⋆ The wheel carries away the formed oxides thereby exposing the
fresh metal layers beneath the workpiece.

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⋆ In this process of ECG, the major material removal activity takes
place by th e electrolytic action (around 90%). Rest of the metal
removal takes place due to the grinding action along with
abrasives used (embedded in the wheel).
⋆ This mechanical action contributes to around 1 0% due to
abrasive action of the conducting grinding wheel.
⋆ The pressure applied on the grinding wheel is also much lesser
than the conventional grinding process.
⋆ Thus the very basic necessity of frequent wheel dressings and
truing as in the case of conventional process is also eliminated.

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Process Characteristics

⋆ The life of grinding wheel in ECG process is very high as around

90% of the metal is removed by electrolysis action and only 10%
is due to the abrasive action of the grinding wheel.
⋆ The ECG process is capable of producing very smooth and burr
free edges unlike those formed during the conventional grinding
process (mechanical).
⋆ The heat produced in the ECG process is much less, leading to
lesser distortion of the workpiece.
⋆ The major material removal activity in ECG process occurs by the
dissolving action through the chemical process.

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⋆ There is very little tool and workpiece contact and this is ideally
suited for grinding of the following categories:
⋆ Fragile work-pieces which otherwise are very difficult to grind by
the conventional process
⋆ The parts that cannot withstand thermal damages and
⋆ The parts designed for stress and burr free applications.

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Applications

The applications of ECG process include the following:

⋆ In production of tungsten carbide cutting tools.
⋆ In burr-free sharpening of hypodermic needles.
⋆ In grinding of super-alloy turbine blades.
⋆ In form grinding of aerospace honeycomb metals.
⋆ In removal of fatigue cracks from steel structures that have been
used for underwater applications.
⋆ The ECG process can be applied to the following common
methods of grinding.
1. Face Wheel Grinding.
2. Cone Wheel grinding.
3. Peripheral or Surface grinding.
4. Form Wheel or Square grinding.

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ELECTROCHEMICAL HONING

⋆ ElectroChemical Honing process comes under the process of

ElectroChemical Machining process.
⋆ ElectroChemical Honing process is mostly employed for better
surface finish, accuracy and economic aspects too.
⋆ An ElectroChemical Honing Process consists of a tool, non
conducting abrasive honing stones, cylinder and an electrolyte. It
has a negative pole, a positive pole, electrolyte and a tool.

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Figure: Electrochemical Honing Process

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⋆ In this process, the tool inside the cylindrical parts moves in the
longitudinal as well as rotational direction.To obtain uniform flow,
the electrolyte is feed to the tool under pressure through the holes.
⋆ The abrasive honing stones are pushed forward to move in the
slots under equal pressure in all directions.These stones help to
assist the electrochemical action and also to scratch the left over
unfinished surfaces.
⋆ Thus, a clean finished surface is obtained.
⋆ In an electrochemical honing process, in order to obtain better
accuracy, the size of the tolerance on the diameter can be
provided at 0.01 mm and roundness can be maintained at lesser
than 0.05 mm.

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⋆ It provides the surface roughness in the range of 0.1 microns to
0.5 microns. To attain a specified roughness on the work surface,
the abrasive honing stones are required to keep on the work for a
few seconds after the power is cut off.
⋆ The surface finish of the electrochemical honing process
obtained is mostly based up on the following terms.
1. Size of the abrasive grains.
2. Speed of the rotation and reciprocation.
3. Duration of the run out period.

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Advantages of Electorchemical Honing process

1. ElectroChemical Honing process enhances the material removal

rate specifically for harder materials.
2. There is no presence of burrs on the finished surfaces.
3. ElectroChemical Honing process requires minimum amount of
work pressure on the tool and the work piece.
4. ElectroChemical Honing process reduces the noise level and
distortion while honing thin walled tubes.
5. ElectroChemical Honing process increases the accuracy without
damaging the materials due to the provision of cooling medium.

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Applications of Electro Chemical Honing process

1. Electro Chemical Honing process is used for machining small

size materials with greater accuracy.
2. Electro Chemical Honing process is applicable for the cylindrical
components where truing operation is performed on the interior
surfaces.

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ELECTROCHEMICAL DEBURRING PROCESS

⋆ Electrochemical deburring (ECD) also known as Electrolytic

Deburring is an adaptation of Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
process designed to remove burrs or to round sharp corners on
metal workpieces by anodic dissolution method.
⋆ Workpieces with complex geometries often contain machining
sectors that are difficult to get correct profile at undercuts,
intersecting drill holes etc. without burrs.

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Figure: Electro Chemical Deburring Process

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⋆ The hole in the workpart has a sharp burr of the type that is
produced in a conventional through-hole drilling operation.
⋆ The electrode tool is designed better to focus the metal removal
action on the burr.
⋆ Surface portions of the machining tool not being used for
machining are insulated.
⋆ The electrolyte material flows through the hole to carry away the
burr particles.
⋆ The same Electrochemical machining (ECM) principles of
operation also apply to Electrochemical deburring (ECD).

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⋆ Less material is removed in the Electrochemical Deburring (ECD)
machining process; cycle times are much shorter. A typical cycle
time in ECD is less than a minute. The cycle time can be
increased if it is desired to round the corner in addition to
removing the burr.
⋆ However, this changes drastically when it comes to the
necessary deburring, as the burrs on sections that are difficult to
reach must also be removed cleanly and without negative impact
on the material.
⋆ Medium size batch and mass production attach great importance
to high quality, and internal burrs and ridges can adversely affect
the functioning of a component.

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Process

⋆ ECD removes metal by non-contact, electrochemical action at

very fast and safe.
⋆ Using a low voltage direct current and non-toxic salt electrolytes
the burrs are dissolved away is a “reverse plating”action.
⋆ During electrolytic deburring the metal which is removed is
converted into fine metal hydroxide particles, which are flushed
out of the part by the electrolyte, and can be removed from the
electrolyte with filtration.
⋆ The process involves three principle elements: a fixture, the
machine, and the electrolyte.

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Fixtures

⋆ An ECD fixture starts with a base made from a conductive

material onto which a workpiece is mounted and precisely
located.
⋆ An electrode may be mounted stationary onto the base such that
it is correctly positioned relative to the feature being deburred
when the part is mounted onto the fixture, or electrodes may be
mounted on pneumatically actuated slides and positioned inside
the workpiece after it has been located onto the base.

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⋆ Tool design centers around the mask and the electrode. Masks
are made from nonconductive material and are bored out to cover
the electrode except in the work zone, plus additional space for
the flow of electrolyte.
⋆ The mask can also serve as a locating device for the workpiece.
The gap between the electrode and the workpiece at the work
zone is usually 0.5 –1.0 mm.
⋆ If the ECD machine’s power supply has a sufficient high current
rating, multiple identical fixtures can be mounted onto the
worktable and used simultaneously.

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Machines

⋆ An ECD workstation consists of a frame mounted sink, an

electrolyte tank and pumping system, and a DC power supply.
⋆ A worktable to hold fixtures is mounted in the sink. Backsplashes
are located at the rear and sides of the sink. Busbars for electrical
current, manifolds for electrolyte, compressed air, and rinse
water are mounted onto the backsplash for convenient access.
⋆ Pneumatic cylinders are frequently used both to clamp the
workpiece into the fixture, establishing electrical contact, and also
to index electrodes into internal workpiece features.
⋆ The electrolyte tank is separated by an internal divider into two
compartments (for clean and dirty electrolyte) sits under the
frame, and has a capacity of approximately 60 gallons.

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⋆ Electrolyte flow is provided by a stainless steel centrifugal pump
to a manifold mounted to the frame behind the back splash;
flowrates to fixtures are set by individual needle valves.
⋆ The Power Supply is a 30 VDC switching type power supply and
provides excellent quality DC with less than 3% ripple. Pulsed
output can be provided down to 50 millisecond pulse width.
Power supply cooling can be either by forced air or cooled water.
⋆ All production ECD machines require an electrolyte filtration
system with its own pump; bag filters, filter presses, and, for
ultimate electrolyte cleanliness, nanofiltration membrane filters
are used.
⋆ Most machines also include an electrolyte chiller to maintain
electrolyte temperature, and an electrolyte Conductivity Monitor &
pH Controller to monitor the salt concentration and to maintain
the neutral pH of the electrolyte by pumping a mildly acidic
solution, such as citric acid solution, into the electrolyte tank.

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Electrolyte

⋆ The electrolyte is a simple conductive solution of a salt dissolved

in water.
⋆ The most common electrolytes use sodium chloride or sodium
nitrate as the salt.
⋆ For most applications, we recommend an electrolyte made with 2
pounds of sodium nitrate per gallon of water. Keeping the
electrolyte chilled below 21o C improves the surface finish in the
work zone and reduces the evolution of hydrogen gas (from the
formation of metal hydroxides).
⋆ Some metals, such as titanium, require blends of several salts to
achieve the best results.
⋆ The electrolyte can be used for several months With good
filtration, maintaining the correct salt concentration and pH
adjustment.

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MRR IN ELECTROC CHEMICAL MACHINING

⋆ Material removal rate (MRR) is an important characteristic to

evaluate efficiency of a non-traditional machining process.
⋆ In ECM, material removal takes place due to atomic dissolution of
work material.
⋆ Electrochemical dissolution is governed by Faraday’s laws.
⋆ FIRST LAW: It states that the amount of electrochemical
dissolution or deposition is proportional to quantity of electricity
(i.e., amount of charge) passed through the electrochemical cell.
Hence

m∝Q (1)

where m = mass of material dissolved or deposited

Q = amount of charge passed

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⋆ SECOND LAW : It states that the amount of material deposited
(or dissolved further) depends on Electrochemical Equivalence
(ECE) of the material which is the ratio of atomic weight and
valency.

A
m ∝ ECE ∝ (2)
Z

◦ An electrochemical equivalent (ECE) is the amount of a

substance in grams produced or consumed by the passage of
one coulomb of electricity in an electrochemical reaction.

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 ⋆ Thus
QA
m∝
Z
1 QA
m=
F Z
MRR = Material removed per unit time
m
M RR =
t
Hence
1 1 QA 1 Q A 1 A I A
M RR = = . . = .I. = .
tF Z F t Z F Z F Z

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where
I = current (amps)
F = Faraday’s constant= 96500 A-s/mol (or 26.801 A·h/mol)
t = time
m = mass in grams
A = Atomic weight of material
Z = Valency of dissolution

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The above equation can also be written as
I A IE
MRR = F .Z = F

Where
E = gram equivalent weight of material = A/Z
If we take current efficiency into account

ηIE
M RRg =
F

∗g stands for grams

η = current efficiency
The material removal rate in terms of volume is

ηIE
M RRv =
F.ρa

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Problem 1

Calculate the MRR when copper is electrochemically machined

under following conditions:
gm
V= 18volt; I= 500A; Atomic weight= 56; Valency = 2 ; ρ = 7.8 3
cm

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 ηIE
M RR =
F ρa
Here
E = atomic weight/valency= 56/2= 28
F = 96500
consider η = 1
Hence
(500 ∗ 28)
M RR = = 0.0186cm3 /s
(96500 ∗ 7.8)

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Problem-2

In electrochemical machining of pure iron a material removal rate

of 600 mm3 /min is required. Estimate current requirement.

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Given

M RR =600mm3 /min
=600/60mm3 /s
=10mm3 /s = 10x10−3 cc/s
ηIE
M RRg = 10X10−3 cc/s
F
ηIE
= 10X10−3
F.ρa
ηI(A/Z)
= 10X10−3
F.ρa

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 ηIA)
=
F.ρa Z
F or iron A =56
Z =2 and
ρ =7.8
F =96500(constant)
10X10−3 .F ρa X2
I=
ηA
−3
10X10 X96500X7.8X2
=
1X56
=268.8A

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Problem 3

Calculate the MRR when copper is electrochemically machined

under the following conditions:
Voltage V = 18 volts; Current I = 500 A ; Automic weight A = 56;
Valency = 2; ρ = 7.8 gm/cm3

EI
W e have : M RR =
Fρ
(A/Z)I
=
Fρ
(56/2)X500
=
96500X7.8
= 0.0186 cm3 /s (Ans)

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Problem 4

Electrochemical machining is performed to remove material from

an iron surface of 20mm*20mm under the following conditions:
Inter electrode gap,l = 0.2 mm
Supply voltage, V = 12 volt
Specific resistance of electrolyte,ρs = 2Ω cm
Atomic weight of Iron,A=55.85
Valency of Iron, Z = 2
Faraday’s constant, F = 96540 coulombs
Find MRR

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Solution
We have

Given
V =12
U se R = ρs l/A
V = IR
HereM RR = eI/F ρ
N ow, R = (2 ∗ 10−1 ∗ 0.2)/(20 ∗ 20) = 10−4 Ω
W eget I = 12 ∗ 104 A
Again e = 55.85/2 = 27.925
HenceM RR = (27.925 ∗ 12 ∗ 104 )/96540 = 34.725 gm/s

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Problem 5

Calculate the MRR when copper is electrochemically machined

under the following conditions:
Voltage V = 18 volts; Current I = 500 A ; Automic weight A = 56;
Valency = 2; ρ = 7.8 gm/cm3

Solution
EI
W e have : M RR =
Fρ
(A/Z)I
=
Fρ
(56/2)X500
=
96500X7.8
= 0.0186 cm3 /s (Ans)

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Problem - 6

Calculate MRR of Nimonic alloy(Co-Ni-Cr) with the following

composition

Element % Automic weight Valency

Co 18 58.93 2
Ni 62 58.71 2
Cr 20 51.99 6

I=500A; ρ=8.28 gm/cm3

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solution

1/E = Σ % composition X (valency/automic weight)

2 2 6
= (0.18X ) + (0.62X ) + (0.20X )
58.93 58.71 51.99
= 0.0061 + 0.0211 + 0.02308
= 0.05028
E = 1/0.05028
= 19.888
EI
M RR =
Fρ
19.888X500
=
96500X8.28
9944
=
799020
3
= 0.0124 cm /sec (Ans.)

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Short answer questions review

Q-1 Define AJM? It is the material removal process where the

material is removed or machined by the impact erosion of the
high velocity stream of air or gas and abrasive mixture, which is
focused on to the work piece.
Q-2 How does AJM differ from conventional sand blasting process?
AJM differ from the conventional sand blasting process in the
way that the abrasive is much finer and effective control over the
process parameters and cutting. Used mainly to cut hard and
brittle materials, which are thin and sensitive to heat.

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Q-3 What are the advantages of AJM process?
1. Low capital cost
2. Less vibration.
3. Good for difficult to reach area.
4. No heat is generated in work piece.
5. Ability to cut intricate holes of any hardness and brittleness in the
material.
6. Ability to cut fragile, brittle hard and heat sensitive material without
damage.

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Q-4 What are the applications of AJM?
1. For abrading and frosting glass, it is more economical than acid
etching and grinding.
2. For doing hard suffuses, safe removal of smears and ceramics
oxides on metals.
3. Resistive coating etc from ports to delicate to withstand normal
scrapping
4. Delicate cleaning such as removal of smudges from antique
documents.
5. Machining semiconductors such as germanium etc.
Q-5 Write the Disadvantages of AJM process?
1. Low metal removal rate.
2. Due to stay cutting accuracy is affected.
3. Parivles is imbedding in work piece.
4. Abrasive powder cannot be reused.

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Q-6 Give the formula for find the material remove rate for brittle metal?

M V 3/2
M RR = 1.04 (3)
ρ1/4 H 3/4

MRR = 1.04 ( MV3/2 / ρ1/4H3/4 )

Q-7 Give a summary of the abrasive of their application for different
operation?
1. Aluminum Cleaning, Cutting and Debar
2. Silicon Carbide. Faster cleaning, Cutting.
3. Glass Heads Matt polishing, cleaning
4. Crushed glass Peening and cleaning.
Q-7 Write the formula for find the MRR for ductile materials?

MV 2
M RR = 0.5 (4)
H

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 Q-8 What are the Process parameters affecting the MRR in AJM?
1. Gas Pressure.
2. Velocity of Particles.
3. Abrasive mass flow rate.
4. Mixing ratio.
5. Nozzle Tip Distance.
Q-9 What are the disadvantages of using abrasives again and again?
1. Cutting ability of the abrasives decreases after the large
2. Contamination of wears materials clogging the nozzle and the
cutting unit orifices.
Q-10 What are the different types of nozzles heads used in AJM?
1. Right angle head.
2. Straight head.
Q-11 Why oxygen should not be used in AJM?
Oxygen should not be used because of fire hazard problem.

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Q-12 What are the different types abrasives used in AJM?
Aluminum oxides, silicon carbides, Crushed glass, Sodium
bicarbonate, Dolomite.
Q-13 Reuse of abrasives is not recommended in AJM. Why?
Reuse of abrasives is not recommended since the cutting ability
of abrasive decrease after the usage and also the contamination
of wear materials clogging the nozzle and the cutting unit orifice.

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 WATER JET MACHINING

Q-14 What are the properties of water jet machining about effect
cutting action?
High pressure, high velocity jet of water.
Q-15 What are the types of units and its purpose used in water jet
cutting system?
1. Pump – to generate high pressure
2. Machining unit– to actually cut the material with the jet nozzle.
3. Filtration unit – to clear the water after use.
◦ Why we are using the diamond nozzle?
1. High hardness metal
2. Working life is more compared to other jewel nozzle such as ruby
or sapphire.
Q-16 Why do you select proper cutting fluid in WJM? Cutting fluids
mainly depends on the operation requirement, quality of finish,
cutting speed and overall cost

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Q-17 Does there is any environmental effects while using the water jet
machining? There is no environmental pollution such as dust
suspended in the air because the water jet drains any dust
simultaneously when cutting.
Q-18 What are the advantages of WJC over conventional cutting
methods?
1. Because of point cutting WJC is able to cut materials almost any
pattern. b. Material loss due to machining is minimum.
2. WJC will not burn surfaces or produces a heat an affected zone.
3. No environmental pollution.
Q-19 What are the applications of WJM?
1. Aero space
2. Automobile
3. Paper pulp industries

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Q-20 What are the commonly used additives in WJM?
1. Crlycerine
2. Polyethylene oxide
3. Long chain polymers
Q-21 What is optical tracing system?
It employs an optical scanner that traces a line drawing and
produces electronic signals that control the X-rays.

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High-Energy-Beam Machining Processes

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ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING: INTRODUCTION

◦ Electron Beam Machining (EBM) is a non-traditional machining

process in which no physical tool is used.
◦ EBM is a thermal process in which a stream of high speed
electrons impinges on the work surface so that the kinetic energy
of electrons converts into work, producing intense heat.
◦ This heat energy melts and vaporize metal from work piece
depending upon the intensity of heating.
◦ The process of heating by electron beam is used for metal
cutting, annealing, welding.
◦ Very high velocity of 228,478 km/sec can be obtained by using
voltage of 1,50,000 V and it is focused on 10 –200 µm diameter.

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◦ Power density can go up to 6500 billion W/sq.mm and such a
power density can vaporize any substance immediately.
◦ Complex contours can be easily machined by maneuvering the
electron beam by using magnetic deflection coils.
◦ EBM process takes place in vacuum chamber to avoid a collision
of the accelerating electrons with the air molecules.
◦ So EBM is not suitable for large work pieces.
◦ Process is accomplished with vacuum so no possibility of
contamination.
◦ No effects on work piece because about 25-50 μm away from
machining spot remains at room temperature and so no effects of
high temperature on work.
◦ Electron beam machining is same as laser beam machining
process in which except laser, high speed electron beam
impinges on work piece.
◦ EBM is mostly used to drill holes of any shape.

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PRINCIPLE

◦ EBM process works on basic principle of conversion of kinetic

energy of electron into heat energy.
◦ When a high speed electron impinges on a work piece, they
convert its kinetic energy into heat energy.
◦ This heat energy is used to vaporize material at contact surface.
◦ This process should be carried out in vacuum otherwise the
electron will collide with air particle and loses its energy before
impinging on the work material.

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EBM Process

Figure: Principle of EBM process

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PARTS OF EBM:1.ELECTRON GUN
◦ It is called heart of electron beam machining.
◦ The electron gun consists of
▶ A current carrying self heating filament called cathode, made up
tungsten or tantalum strip heated to a temperature of 22500o C is
the source of electrons.
▶ Negatively biased grid cup
▶ An anode, kept at ground potential and through which the high
velocity electrons pass.
◦ The filament i.e., cathode emits electrons due to thermionic
emission
◦ The electron gun is simply a cathode ray tube which generates
electrons and accelerate them to sufficient velocity and focus
them at small spot size.
◦ In this gun cathode is made by tungsten or tantalum. This
cathode filament heated up to 2500 degree centigrade which
accelerate to electron emission by thermionic reaction.
◦ There is very low vacuum in the chamber
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2.ANNULAR BIAS GRID

◦ It is next element of EBM.

◦ It is just after the electron gun.
◦ It is a anode which is connected by the negative bias so the
electron generated by the cathode do not diverge from its path
and approach to the next element.
◦ When the electrons leave this section, the velocity of electron is
almost half the velocity of light.

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3. MAGNETIC LENSES

◦ After the anode, magnetic lenses are provided which shape the
beam and does not allow to diverge electron or reduce the
divergence of beam.
◦ These lenses allow to pass only convergent electron, thus a high
focused beam is obtained.
◦ They also capture low energy electron, thus increase the quality
of beam.

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4. ELECTRONIC LENS AND DEFLECTION COIL

◦ Electromagnetic lens is used to focus the electron beam at a spot.

◦ They use to focus beam at a spot on work piece so a high intense
beam reaches at work surface, which produces more heat and
improve machining.
◦ The defecting coil does not allow to beam deflect and take care of
all electrons moves in series thus form a high intense beam.

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5. WORK PIECE AND WORK HOLDING DEVISES

◦ It can machine both metallic and non-metallic material.

◦ The work piece is hold by suitable fixture which is mounted on a
CNC table.
◦ This table can be move in all three direction which control the
shape of machining.

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WORKING PROCESS OF EBM

◦ The EBM works same as laser beam machining. its working can
be summarize into following points.
◦ First electron gun produces high velocity electron particles.
These electron particles move towards anode which is placed
after cathode tube.
◦ Now this high intense electron beam passes through magnetic
lenses. There are a series of lenses which take care of only
convergent electron passes through it.
◦ It absorb all divergent electron and low energy electron. It
provides a high quality electron beam.

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◦ This electron beam now passes through electromagnetic lens
and deflecting coil. It focus the electron beam at a spot.
◦ The high intense electron beam impinges on the work piece
where kinetic energy of electrons convert into thermal energy.
◦ The material is removed from contact surface by melting and
vaporization due to this high heat generated by conversion of
kinetic energy into thermal energy.
◦ This whole process take place in a vacuum chamber (10−5 mm of
Hg, otherwise these electron collide with air particle between
path and loses its kinetic energy.

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APPLICATIONS

◦ It is used to produce very small size hole about 100 micro meters
to 2 millimeter.
◦ It is used to produce holes in diesel injection nozzle.
◦ EBM is used in aerospace industries for producing turbine blade
for supersonic engines and in nuclear reactors.

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ADVANTAGES

◦ It can be used to produce very small size hole in any shape.

◦ It can machine any material irrespective its hardness and other
mechanical properties.
◦ It provides good surface finish.
◦ No surface finishing process is require after EBM.
◦ Highly reacting material can be machine easily because
machining is done under vacuum.
◦ No tool wear as there is no direct contact between tool and work
piece.
◦ Metal and non-metals (e.g plastics and rubbers) irrespective of
their brittleness and hardness can be machined.

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◦ The electron beam melting process reduces residual stresses in
a variety of ways.
◦ Electron beam melting technology eliminates sintering, enabling
users to gain precise control over porosity. EBM operators further
minimize porosity issues by adjusting beam parameters.

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Disadvantages

◦ The initial cost is very high and lifespan of the flash lamp is short.
◦ High skill operator required.
◦ Regular maintenance is required
◦ Material removal rate is very low compare to other conventional
process.
◦ It is difficult to produce perfect vacuum.
◦ Maintaining perfect vacuum is very difficult.
◦ The machining process can’t be seen by operator.
◦ The safety procedures are needed to be followed very strictly.
◦ Material removal rate is not up to the mark.
◦ Too deep holes are not possible to drill.
◦ Machined holes are not round shaped or straight .
◦ Overall efficiency is very low . (0.3 0.5 %)

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Operating Parameters

◦ Power: EBM operations are performed at voltage ranging from

50-150 kV. The beam current is usually between 0.1-1.0 mA.
Power requirements are on the order of 0.5-60 kW. Beam
intensity ranges between 1.55X105 to 1.55X109 W /cm2 .
Electron bean equipment is employed in a wide variety of
production applications. By varying the power density, many
different jobs can be performed using EB techniques.
◦ Cut characteristics: The narrowest cut attainable with EBM
operations is on the order of 0.03 mm when cutting material of
0.03 mm thickness. The maximum depth of cut is usually about 6
mm.

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◦ Material removal: Material removal rates are a function of the
power applied and work piece material. Generally, penetration
rates up to 0.25 mm/s have been achieved.
◦ Tolerances: Electron beam machining is capable of holding
tolerances on hole size to about ±0.03 mm, although in special
cases, tolerances of ± 0.005 mm can be held.
◦ Surface characteristics: The heat-affected zone developed by
EBM is generally less than 0.25 mm deep. The heat-affected
zone consists of a thin layer of recast material, which may
diminish the structural integrity of work pieces, which are highly
stressed. Surface roughness is usually about 1.02 mm Ra,
although surface roughness as low as 0.13 mm Ra has been
achieved.

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MRR in EBM
The MRR can be calculated by using the equation
P P
M RR = η = (5)
W Cps (Tm − Ti ) + Cpl (tb − tm ) + Hf + Hv
where
η = cutting efficiency
P = Power
W = Specific Energy (J/cm3 )
where
Cps =
Tm =
Ti =
Cpl =
tb =
tm =
Hf =
Hv =
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LASER BEAM MACHINING
INTRODUCTION
◦ Laser processing utilizes the energy from coherent beams of light
to melting, cutting or welding of the metals.
◦ A laser beam
◦ As the name implies, Laser beam Machining user LASER (Light
Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation) as source of
energy for machining
◦ The laser beam focuses optical energy on the surface of the
workpiece.
◦ A laser beam can be so powerful when used with lens system
that it can melt and vaporize diamond as the energy density can
be of the order of 105 kW/cm2 .
◦ This huge amount of energy is released due to some specific
atoms having higher energy levels at particular frequency.

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PROPERTIES OF LASER BEAM

◦ Ordinary light consists of many wave lengths but the laser light
consists of only one wave length and hence only one color.
◦ Laser light is Monochromatic (emit only one wave length)
◦ Laser light is coherence (all in same phase-improve focusing )
◦ Laser light is polarized (in one plane-easy to pass through media)
◦ Laser light is collimated (in one direction & non spreading )
◦ Laser light is high energy (Intensity measured by Watt J/s)

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Laser Beam Machining

WORKING PRINCIPLE of LBM

◦ Different types of lasers are used in Laser beam machining
(LBM). For example –solid state, gas and semiconductor.
◦ High power lasers are required for machining and welding and in
those cases solid state lasers can be used. Ruby-laser or
crystalline aluminium oxide or saphire is the most commonly used
solid state laser.
◦ Generally these lasers are fabricated in rods having length about
150 mm. Their ends are well furnished to close optical
tolerances. Figure below shows a schematic view of laser beam
machining process.

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Figure: (a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b)
and (c) Examples of holes produced in nonmetallic parts by LBM.

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◦ A small amount of chromium oxide is added to dope the ruby
crystal.
◦ A flash of high intensity light , generally Xenon-filled flash lamp is
used to pump the laser.
◦ To fire the xenon lamp a large capacitor is required to be
discharged through it and 250 to 1000 watts of electric power is
needed to do this.
◦ The intense radiation discharged from the lamp excites the
fluorescent impurity atoms (chromium atoms) and these atoms
reaches a higher energy level.
◦ After passing through a series of energy levels when the atoms
fall back to original energy level , an intense beam of visible light
emission is observed.

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◦ This beam is reflected back from the coated rod ends and make
more and more atoms excited and stimulated and return to
ground level.
◦ A stimulated avalanche of light is obtained which is transmitted
through the coated part ( 80% reflective).
◦ This light which is highly coherent in time and space has a very
narrow frequency band, is highly in phase and quite parallel.
◦ If this light is focused in association with ordinary lenses on the
desired spot of the w/p, high energy density is gained which helps
to melt and vaporize the metal.

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Material removal Mechanism

◦ The mechanism by which a LASER beam removes material from

the surface involves a combination of melting as well as
evaporation processes.
◦ The radiant energy delivered to the surface is consumed in four
ways. They are
▶ A part is reflected and lost
▶ Major part used for melting of metal
▶ Small part as for evaporation of liquid metal
▶ Very small part of energy conducted into the base material.

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Figure: Working Principle of LBM

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◦ The magnitude of energy consumption in the above four areas is
dependent mainly on properties of material being worked and the
intensity and pulse duration of the laser beam.

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Thermal analysis of LASER beam machining

◦ In case where the material being worked is both melting and

evaporating, the steady temperature distribution is given by
{ }
T − T1 −Vab x
= exp (6)
Tm − T1 β

Where
- T= Temperature at distance x below the material being worked
- T1 = Initial temperature (uniform) of the material being worked
- Melting point of the material being worked
- Vab = Steady ablation velocity
- β = ρcSp Thermal diffusivity of material being worked
- S = Thermal conductivity of the material
- ρ = density of the material
- cp = specific heat of the material
▶ x = Distance measured from the moving boundary

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◦ Under steady conditions the heat contained in the solid is given by
∫ ∞
H
( )o = ρ cp (T − T1 ) dx
A 0
S (Tm − T1 )
=
Vab
where (H/A0 ) is the heat per unit area contained in the solid
beneath the ablating surface.
◦
f ′ = Vab ρH
or
f′
Vab =
ρH
where
- f’ = net heat flow rate per unit area
- H = heat per unit weight of material required for melting and
vaporizing

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Cutting speed and accuracy of cut

◦ The latest commercially available laser unit of 800 W capacity

can cut most metal plates up to 3 mm thick at speeds of about 1
to 1.25 m/min.
◦ The general cutting accuracy of this unit is claimed to be written
0.8 mm. A feature of the cutting process is that a sequence and
straight edge is obtained.

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 THERMAL METAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

⋆ The application of very intensive local heat for machining have

come into use in recent year.
⋆ Thermal energy usually applied to small portion of work surface,
causing that portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization.
⋆ The source of energy used is amplified light, ionized material and
high voltage.
⋆ The spark of short duration and high frequency for machining and
if the discharge is submerged in dielectric, the energy can be
concentrated in a small area.
⋆ Examples are laser beam machining (LBM), ion beam machining
(IBM), plasma arc machining (PAM), and electric discharge
machining (EDM).

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 ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

⊗ EDM is a thermal material removal process

⊗ The material is removed by local melting or vaporizing small
areas at the surface of workpiece.
⊗ The EDM process removes material by controlled erosion by
repetitive electric sparks between the work and tool.
⊗ The heat energy is liberated by means of short duration electrical
impulses
⊗ The tool and work is submerged in dielectric oil.
⊗ EDM finds its application in machining of hard metals which
cannot be machined easily by conventional metal cutting
processes.
⊗ The products include dies, tools made of tungsten carbide,
stellite, hard alloy steels, hastalloy, nimonic, etc.

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 Facts About Lightning & Thunder how lightning works

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 ADVANTAGES OF EDM
◦ Conventional EDM machines can be programmed for vertical
machining, orbital, vectorial, directional, helical, conical,
rotational, spin and indexing machining cycles.
◦ This versatility gives Electrical Discharge Machines many
advantages over conventional machine tools.
◦ Any material that is electrically conductive can be cut using the
EDM process.
◦ Hardened workpieces can be machined eliminating the
deformation caused by heat treatment.
◦ X, Y, and Z axes movements allow for the programming of
complex profiles using simple electrodes.
◦ Complex dies sections and molds can be produced accurately,
faster, and at lower costs.
◦ The EDM process is burr-free.
◦ Thin fragile sections such as webs or fins can be easily machined
without deforming the part.
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 ◦ L/D ratio as high as 20 can be achieved.
◦ There is no contact between tool and workpiece so no forces
acting in machining.
◦ No residual stresses are generated in machining.
◦ Among all non-conventional machining processes, EDM gives
highest MRR
◦ The mechanical properties of work piece material will not affect
the material removal rate (MRR).
◦ Good surface finish.

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 DISADVANTAGES

◦ Used for electrically conductive materials only.

◦ Electrode wear rate is more.
◦ Re-hardening occurs due to heat generated during machining.
◦ No possibility for making exact square corners.

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 Applications of Electric Discharge Machining process

◦ Blind cavities and narrow slots in dies, minimum diameter hole

can be produced is 0.13 mm.
◦ For production of small holes, orifices, slots in diesel fuel injection
nozzles, airbrake valves and aircraft engines etc.
◦ Delicate parts
◦ Hole drilling
◦ Machining of hard metals.
◦ Tooling for many mechanical processes
◦ moulds for plastic injection moulding
◦ extrusion dies
◦ wire drawing dies
◦ forging and heading dies

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 DEFINITION, EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS OF EDM

Electrical discharge machining (EDM), also known as spark

machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking, wire burning or wire
erosion, is a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is
obtained by using electrical discharges (sparks).

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 PRINCIPLE AND MECHANICS OF MATERIAL REMOVAL

⇒ EDM is based on the erosion of metals by spark discharge.

⇒ The electric spark with emission of electrons is produced when a
potential difference is applied between anode and cathode.
⇒ When a pulsating (ON/OFF) electrical charge of high-frequency
is applied through the electrode to the workpiece, removes
(erodes) very tiny pieces of metal from the workpiece.

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 ⇒ The emitted electrons during the spark collide with the dielectric
fluid particle and break them into electrons and ions.
⇒ These liberated electrons again break the particles into electrons
and ions and form a channel of plasma.
⇒ The intense heat generated melts and evaporates the work
material at spark zone.
⇒ The effectiveness of the process can be improved by submerging
the workpiece and the tool in dielectric fluid.

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 Figure: Electric Discharge Machining

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 ⇒ The most common dielectric fluids are mineral oils, although
kerosene and distilled and ionized water may be used in
specialized applications.
⇒ If both the electrodes made of the same material, the electrode
connected to the positive terminal erodes at a faster rate and so
the workpiece is made as anode.
⇒ The dielectric fluid acts as:
1. Insulator until the potential is sufficiently high
2. Flushing medium and carries away the debries on the gap
3. Provides a cooling medium
⇒ The gap between the tool and the workpiece (called overcut) is
critical and the downward feed of the tool is controlled by a
servomechanism which automatically maintains a constant gap.
⇒ The tool is shaped to the form of the cavity to reproduce. The
formed electrode is fed vertically down and the reverse shape of
the electrode is eroded (burned) into the solid workpiece.
◦ The commonly used electrode materials are copper, brass, zinc,
tungsten, and graphite.
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 ◦ The Metal removal is ∝ the amount of energy applied during the
on-time of pulse time.
◦ Longer the pulse time, larger the melting away of workpiece
material and resulting with larger crater and poor surface finish.
⇒ A continuous traveling vertical wire electrode having diameter of
a small needle or even less, is controlled by the computer to
follow a programmed path to erode or cut a narrow slot through
the workpiece to produce the required shape.
⇒ Since the process doesn’t involve mechanical energy, the
hardness and toughness of the workpiece material do not
necessarily influence the removal rate.
⇒ The electrodes for EDM are usually made of graphite, although
brass, copper or copper- tungsten alloy may be used.

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 Figure: Electric Discharge Machining

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 Figure: Power Circuit for for EDM

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 THERMOELECTRIC MODEL

Stage-1

Stage-2
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 Stage-3

Stage-4

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 Stage-5

Stage-6

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 Stage-7

Stage-8

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 Stage-9
Figure: Stages in Machining Cycle of EDM process

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Stage 1 A charged electrode is brought near the workpiece separated by
an dielectric fluid like kerosene, mineral oils or distiled and
ionized water.
Stage 2 The number of ionic (charged) particles increases and the
insulating properties of the dielectric fluid begin to decrease along
a narrow channel at shortest distance of the field. Voltage
reaches its peak, but current is still zero.
Stage 3 A current is established as the fluid becomes less of an insulator
and the Voltage begins to decrease.
Stage 4 Heat builds up rapidly as current increases and the voltage
continues to drop. The heat vaporizes some of the fluid,
workpiece, and electrode, and a discharge channel begins to
form between the electrode and workpiece.
Stage 5 A vapor bubble tries to expand outward, but its expansion is
limited by a rush of ions towards the discharge channel. These
ions are attracted by the extremely intense electromagnetic field
that has built up. Current continues to rise, voltage drops.
Stage 6 Near the end of the on-time, current and voltage have stabilized,
1.
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 UNIT IV

High-Energy-Beam Machining Processes

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 ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING

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 ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING: INTRODUCTION

◦ Electron Beam Machining (EBM) is a non-traditional machining

process in which no physical tool is used.
◦ EBM is a thermal process in which a stream of high speed
electrons impinges on the work surface so that the kinetic energy
of electrons converts into work, producing intense heat.
◦ This heat energy melts and vaporize metal from work piece
depending upon the intensity of heating.
◦ The process of heating by electron beam is used for metal
cutting, annealing, welding.
◦ Very high velocity of 228,478 km/sec can be obtained by using
voltage of 1,50,000 V and it is focused on 10 –200 µm diameter.

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 ◦ Power density can go up to 6500 billion W/sq.mm and such a
power density can vaporize any substance immediately.
◦ Complex contours can be easily machined by maneuvering the
electron beam by using magnetic deflection coils.
◦ EBM process takes place in vacuum chamber to avoid a collision
of the accelerating electrons with the air molecules.
◦ So EBM is not suitable for large work pieces.
◦ Process is accomplished with vacuum so no possibility of
contamination.
◦ No effects on work piece because about 25-50 μm away from
machining spot remains at room temperature and so no effects of
high temperature on work.
◦ Electron beam machining is same as laser beam machining
process in which except laser, high speed electron beam
impinges on work piece.
◦ EBM is mostly used to drill holes of any shape.

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 PRINCIPLE

◦ EBM process works on basic principle of conversion of kinetic

energy of electron into heat energy.
◦ When a high speed electron impinges on a work piece, they
convert its kinetic energy into heat energy.
◦ This heat energy is used to vaporize material at contact surface.
◦ This process should be carried out in vacuum otherwise the
electron will collide with air particle and loses its energy before
impinging on the work material.

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 EBM Process

Figure: Principle of EBM process

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 PARTS OF EBM:1.ELECTRON GUN

◦ It is called heart of electron beam machining.

◦ The electron gun consists of
▶ A current carrying self heating filament called cathode, made up
tungsten or tantalum strip heated to a temperature of 22500o C is
the source of electrons.
▶ Negatively biased grid cup
▶ An anode, kept at ground potential and through which the high
velocity electrons pass.
◦ The filament i.e., cathode emits electrons due to thermionic
emission

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 ◦ The electron gun is simply a cathode ray tube which generates
electrons and accelerate them to sufficient velocity and focus
them at small spot size.
◦ In this gun cathode is made by tungsten or tantalum. This
cathode filament heated up to 2500 degree centigrade which
accelerate to electron emission by thermionic reaction.
◦ There is very low vacuum in the chamber

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 2.ANNULAR BIAS GRID

◦ It is next element of EBM.

◦ It is just after the electron gun.
◦ It is a anode which is connected by the negative bias so the
electron generated by the cathode do not diverge from its path
and approach to the next element.
◦ When the electrons leave this section, the velocity of electron is
almost half the velocity of light.

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 3. MAGNETIC LENSES

◦ After the anode, magnetic lenses are provided which shape the
beam and does not allow to diverge electron or reduce the
divergence of beam.
◦ These lenses allow to pass only convergent electron, thus a high
focused beam is obtained.
◦ They also capture low energy electron, thus increase the quality
of beam.

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 4. ELECTRONIC LENS AND DEFLECTION COIL

◦ Electromagnetic lens is used to focus the electron beam at a spot.

◦ They use to focus beam at a spot on work piece so a high intense
beam reaches at work surface, which produces more heat and
improve machining.
◦ The defecting coil does not allow to beam deflect and take care of
all electrons moves in series thus form a high intense beam.

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 5. WORK PIECE AND WORK HOLDING DEVICES

◦ It can machine both metallic and non-metallic material.

◦ The work piece is hold by suitable fixture which is mounted on a
CNC table.
◦ This table can be move in all three direction which control the
shape of machining.

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 WORKING PROCESS OF EBM

◦ The EBM works same as laser beam machining. its working can
be summarize into following points.
◦ First electron gun produces high velocity electron particles.
These electron particles move towards anode which is placed
after cathode tube.
◦ Now this high intense electron beam passes through magnetic
lenses. There are a series of lenses which take care of only
convergent electron passes through it.
◦ It absorb all divergent electron and low energy electron. It
provides a high quality electron beam.

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 ◦ This electron beam now passes through electromagnetic lens
and deflecting coil. It focus the electron beam at a spot.
◦ The high intense electron beam impinges on the work piece
where kinetic energy of electrons convert into thermal energy.
◦ The material is removed from contact surface by melting and
vaporization due to this high heat generated by conversion of
kinetic energy into thermal energy.
◦ This whole process take place in a vacuum chamber (10−5 mm of
Hg, otherwise these electron collide with air particle between
path and loses its kinetic energy.

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 APPLICATIONS

◦ It is used to produce very small size hole about 100 micro meters
to 2 millimeter.
◦ It is used to produce holes in diesel injection nozzle.
◦ EBM is used in aerospace industries for producing turbine blade
for supersonic engines and in nuclear reactors.

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 ADVANTAGES

◦ It can be used to produce very small size hole in any shape.

◦ It can machine any material irrespective its hardness and other
mechanical properties.
◦ It provides good surface finish.
◦ No surface finishing process is require after EBM.
◦ Highly reacting material can be machine easily because
machining is done under vacuum.
◦ No tool wear as there is no direct contact between tool and work
piece.
◦ Metal and non-metals (e.g plastics and rubbers) irrespective of
their brittleness and hardness can be machined.

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 ◦ The electron beam melting process reduces residual stresses in
a variety of ways.
◦ Electron beam melting technology eliminates sintering, enabling
users to gain precise control over porosity. EBM operators further
minimize porosity issues by adjusting beam parameters.

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 Disadvantages

◦ The initial cost is very high and lifespan of the flash lamp is short.
◦ High skill operator required.
◦ Regular maintenance is required
◦ Material removal rate is very low compare to other conventional
process.
◦ It is difficult to produce perfect vacuum.
◦ Maintaining perfect vacuum is very difficult.
◦ The machining process can’t be seen by operator.
◦ The safety procedures are needed to be followed very strictly.
◦ Material removal rate is not up to the mark.
◦ Too deep holes are not possible to drill.
◦ Machined holes are not round shaped or straight .
◦ Overall efficiency is very low . (0.3 0.5 %)

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 Operating Parameters

◦ Power: EBM operations are performed at voltage ranging from

50-150 kV. The beam current is usually between 0.1-1.0 mA.
Power requirements are on the order of 0.5-60 kW. Beam
intensity ranges between 1.55X105 to 1.55X109 W /cm2 .
Electron bean equipment is employed in a wide variety of
production applications. By varying the power density, many
different jobs can be performed using EB techniques.
◦ Cut characteristics: The narrowest cut attainable with EBM
operations is on the order of 0.03 mm when cutting material of
0.03 mm thickness. The maximum depth of cut is usually about 6
mm.

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 ◦ Material removal: Material removal rates are a function of the
power applied and work piece material. Generally, penetration
rates up to 0.25 mm/s have been achieved.
◦ Tolerances: Electron beam machining is capable of holding
tolerances on hole size to about ±0.03 mm, although in special
cases, tolerances of ± 0.005 mm can be held.
◦ Surface characteristics: The heat-affected zone developed by
EBM is generally less than 0.25 mm deep. The heat-affected
zone consists of a thin layer of recast material, which may
diminish the structural integrity of work pieces, which are highly
stressed. Surface roughness is usually about 1.02 mm Ra,
although surface roughness as low as 0.13 mm Ra has been
achieved.

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 MRR in EBM
The MRR can be calculated by using the equation
P P
M RR = η = (7)
W Cps (Tm − Ti ) + Cpl (Tb − Tm ) + Hf + Hv
where
η = cutting efficiency
P = Power
W = Specific Energy (J/cm3 )
where
Cps =
Tm = Melting temperature of metal
Ti = Initial temperature of metal
Cpl = Specific heat of metal at liquid state
Tb = Boiling temperature of liquid material
Hf = Latent heat of fusion
Hv = Latent heat of vaporization

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 LASER BEAM MACHINING

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 INTRODUCTION

◦ Laser beam machining (LBM) is a non-traditional subtractive

manufacturing process, a form of machining, in which a laser is
directed towards the work piece for machining.
◦ This process uses thermal energy to remove material from
metallic or nonmetallic surfaces.
◦ The high frequency of monochromatic light will fall on the surface
then heating, melting and vaporizing of the material take place
due to impinge of photons.
◦ LBM is best suited for brittle materials with low conductivity, but
can be used on most materials.
◦ Laser processing utilizes the energy from coherent beams of light
to melting, cutting or welding of the metals.

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 INTRODUCTION............CONT..

◦ A laser beam
◦ As the name implies, Laser beam Machining user LASER (Light
Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation) as source of
energy for machining
◦ The laser beam focuses optical energy on the surface of the work
piece.
◦ A laser beam can be so powerful when used with lens system
that it can melt and vaporize diamond as the energy density can
be of the order of 105 kW/cm2 .
◦ This huge amount of energy is released due to some specific
atoms having higher energy levels at particular frequency.

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 PROPERTIES OF LASER BEAM

◦ Ordinary light consists of many wave lengths but the laser light
consists of only one wave length and hence only one color.
◦ Laser light is Monochromatic (emit only one wave length)
◦ Laser light is coherence (all in same phase-improve focusing )
◦ Laser light is polarized (in one plane-easy to pass through media)
◦ Laser light is collimated (in one direction & non spreading )
◦ Laser light is high energy (Intensity measured by Watt J/s)

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 WORKING PRINCIPLE of LBM
◦ Laser means Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
◦ In this process, the Laser Beam is called as monochromatic light,
which is made to focus on the work piece to be machined by a
lens to give extremely high energy density to melt and vaporize
any material.
◦ Different types of lasers are used in Laser beam machining
(LBM). For example –solid state, gas and semiconductor.
◦ Ruby-laser or crystalline aluminium oxide or saphire is the most
commonly used solid state laser.
◦ The Laser Crystal (Ruby) is in the form of a cylinder with flat
reflecting ends which are placed in a flash lamp coil of about
1000 W.
◦ Generally these lasers are fabricated in rods having length about
150 mm. Their ends are well furnished to close optical tolerances.

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 ◦ The Flash is simulated with the high-intensity white light from
Xenon.
◦ The Crystal get excited and emits the laser beam which is
focused on the work piece a by using the lens.
◦ The beam produced is extremely narrow and can be focused to a
pinpoint area with a power density of 1000 kW/cm2. Which
produces high heat and the portion of the metal is melted and
vaporizes.
◦ High power lasers are required for machining and welding and in
those cases solid state lasers can be used.

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 Figure below shows a schematic view of laser beam machining
process.

Figure: (a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b)

and (c) Examples of holes produced in nonmetallic parts by LBM.

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 ◦ A small amount of chromium oxide is added to dope the ruby
crystal.
◦ A flash of high intensity light , generally Xenon-filled flash lamp is
used to pump the laser.
◦ To fire the xenon lamp a large capacitor is required to be
discharged through it and 250 to 1000 watts of electric power is
needed to do this.
◦ The intense radiation discharged from the lamp excites the
fluorescent impurity atoms (chromium atoms) and these atoms
reaches a higher energy level.
◦ After passing through a series of energy levels when the atoms
fall back to original energy level , an intense beam of visible light
emission is observed.

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 ◦ This beam is reflected back from the coated rod ends and make
more and more atoms excited and stimulated and return to
ground level.
◦ A stimulated avalanche of light is obtained which is transmitted
through the coated part ( 80% reflective).
◦ This light which is highly coherent in time and space has a very
narrow frequency band, is highly in phase and quite parallel.
◦ If this light is focused in association with ordinary lenses on the
desired spot of the w/p, high energy density is gained which helps
to melt and vaporize the metal.

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 APPARATUS

◦ The most important part of the laser apparatus is the crystal

◦ Calcium fluoride crystals doped with neodymium (Ca + F2 + N d)
and glass doped with various rare earths.
◦ The most commonly used laser crystal is a man-made ruby
consisting of aluminium oxide into which 0.05 percent chromium
has been introduced (Al2 O3 + Cr2 ).
◦ The crystal rods are usually round and the end surfaces are
made reflective.
◦ The laser rod is excited by the xenon filled flash lamp which
surrounds it.
◦ Both are enclosed in a highly reflective cylinder which directs the
light from the flash lamp into the rod.
◦ The chromium atoms in the ruby are excited to high energy levels
and releases energy (photons) while returning to normal state.

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 Material removal Mechanism

◦ The mechanism by which a LASER beam removes material from

the surface involves a combination of melting as well as
evaporation processes.
◦ The radiant energy delivered to the surface is consumed in four
ways. They are
▶ A part is reflected and lost
▶ Major part used for melting of metal
▶ Small part as for evaporation of liquid metal
▶ Very small part of energy conducted into the base material.

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 Figure: Working Principle of LBM

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 ◦ The magnitude of energy consumption in the above four areas is
dependent mainly on properties of material being worked and the
intensity and pulse duration of the laser beam.

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 Thermal analysis of LASER beam machining

◦ In case where the material being worked is both melting and

evaporating, the steady temperature distribution is given by
{ }
T − T1 −Vab x
= exp (8)
Tm − T1 β

Where
- T= Temperature at distance x below the material being worked
- T1 = Initial temperature (uniform) of the material being worked
- Tm =Melting point of the material being worked
- Vab = Steady ablation velocity
- β = ρcSp Thermal diffusivity of material being worked
- S = Thermal conductivity of the material
- ρ = density of the material
- cp = specific heat of the material

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 ◦ Under steady conditions the heat contained in the solid is given by
∫ ∞
H
( )o = ρ cp (T − T1 ) dx
A 0
S (Tm − T1 )
=
Vab
◦
f ′ = Vab ρH
or
f′
Vab =
ρH
where
- (H/A0 ) = Heat per unit area contained in the solid beneath the
ablating surface.
- f’ = Net heat flow rate per unit area
- H = Heat per unit weight of material required for melting and
vaporizing
- Vab = Ablation velocity(i.e material removal velocity)

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 Depth of cut

◦ The cutting depth of a laser is directly proportional to the quotient

obtained by dividing the power of the laser beam by the product
of the cutting velocity and the diameter of the laser beam spot.
P
t∝ (9)
vd
where
▶ t = Depth of cut
▶ P = Laser beam power
▶ v = Cutting velocity
▶ d = Laser beam spot diameter

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 Cutting ability of different lasers

Material CO2 laser- Nd:YAGlaser-

10.6 1.06
ceramics well poorly
plywood very well fairly well
polycarbonate well fairly well
polyethylene very well fairly well
Titanium well well
Gold not possible well
Copper poorly well
Aluminium well well
steel very well

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 Cutting speed and accuracy of cut

◦ The cutting speed must be balanced with the gas flow rate and
the power. As cutting speed increases, the cutting time
decreases and less time for the heat to diffuse sideways and the
narrower the HAZ.
◦ The kerf is also reduced due to the need to deposit a certain
amount of energy to cause melting. However, striations on the cut
edge become more prominent, dross is more likely to remain on
the underside and penetration is lost.
◦ When the cutting speed is too low, excessive burning of the cut
edge occurs, which degrades edge quality and increases the
width of the HAZ.
◦ In general, cutting speed for a material is inversely proportional to
the thickness.

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 ◦ The latest commercially available laser unit of 800 W capacity
can cut most metal plates up to 3 mm thick at speeds of about 1
to 1.25 m/min.
◦ The general cutting accuracy of this unit is claimed to be written
0.8 mm. A feature of the cutting process is that a sequence and
straight edge is obtained.

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 Metallurgical effects

The heat affected zone is relatively narrow, about 1 mm for 3 mm

thickness metal. It is reported that at these thin sheets, very little
melting occurs and there is almost instantaneous vaporization.
Therefore, there is no significant effect on properties of work material.

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 ADVANTAGES

◦ Any Material can be machined including non-metal.

◦ There is no direct contact between tool and work.
◦ There is no tool wear.
◦ Soft materials like Rubber, Plastic can be machined.
◦ Extremely small holes can be machined.
◦ No Mechanical force on the work.
◦ Heat affected zone is very small.
◦ Heat treated and magnetic materials can be machined, without
losing their properties.

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 DISADVANTAGES

◦ The Overall efficiency of the machining is very low.

◦ It is limited to thin sheets.
◦ It’s having a high cost.
◦ A very low rate of metal-removing.
◦ Life of the flash lamp is short.
◦ It is not possible to remove a large number of metals.
◦ The Machined holes are not round and Straight.
◦ Not able to drill too deep holes.

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 APPLICATIONS

◦ Lasers can be used for welding, cladding, marking, surface

treatment, drilling, and cutting among other manufacturing
processes.
◦ It is used in the automobile, shipbuilding, aerospace, steel,
electronics, and medical industries for precision machining of
complex parts.
◦ Laser welding is advantageous in that it can weld at speeds of up
to 100 mm/s as well as the ability to weld dissimilar metals.
◦ Drilling and cutting with lasers is advantageous in that there is
little to no wear on the cutting tool as there is no contact to cause
damage.
◦ In heavy manufacturing laser beam machining is used for
cladding and drilling, spot and seam welding among others.

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 APPLICATIONS

◦ In the medical industry it is used for cosmetic surgery and hair

removal.
◦ Complicated welding of non-conductive and refractory materials.
◦ Mass macro machining production.
◦ Selective heat treating of materials.
◦ This is used in surgery, Micro-drilling operation, Photography in
medical science, Spectroscopic Science, etc.

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 UNIT V

PLASMA ARC MACHINING PROCESS

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 INTRODUCTION

◦ Plasma or arc cutting, developed around 1950, is a process that

uses a high-velocity jet of ionized gas ejected from a constricting
orifice to the work piece.
◦ The plasma stream mechanically blows the molten metal away,
severing the material.
◦ Plasma arc was initially employed to cut metals that are difficult to
machine by conventional methods
◦ Materials in nature exist in one of four different states: solid,
liquid, gas, or plasma. Plasma is very rare on Earth because of its
very high temperature; however, most of the matter in the
universe is plasma. The Sun, stars, and galaxies are made of
plasma.

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 Figure: Naturally occurring plasma

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 ◦ Plasma is a state of matter that is often thought of as a subset of
gases, but the two states behave very differently. Like gases,
plasmas have no fixed shape or volume, and are less dense than
solids or liquids. But plasmas are made up of atoms in which
some or all of the electrons have been stripped away and
positively charged nuclei, called ions, roam freely.
◦ On Earth, you will find naturally occurring plasma in lightning and
a few other places
◦ Neon tubes and florescent lights generate low-temperature
plasma. It is the energy from ionization that you are actually
seeing.
◦ Plasma arc machining is one of the thermal machining processes.
◦ The plasma arc machining process was introduced to the
industry in 1964 as a method of bringing better control to the arc
welding process in lower current ranges.
◦ Plasma-arc machining (PAM) employs a high-velocity jet of
high-temperature gas to melt and displace material in its path.

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 ◦ The plasma arc or tungsten inert gas arc torch produces a high
velocity jet of high-temperature ionized gas (called plasma) that
cuts by melting and removing material from the workpiece.
◦ Temperatures in the plasma zone range from 20,000o to
50,000o F (11,000o to 28,000o C).
◦ It is used as an alternative to oxyfuel-gas cutting, employing an
electric arc at very high temperatures to melt and vaporize the
metal.
◦ In this process, an inert gas (in some units, compressed air) is
blown at high speed out of a nozzle; at the same time an electrical
arc is formed through that gas from the nozzle to the surface
being cut, turning some of that gas to plasma.
◦ The plasma is sufficiently hot to melt the metal being cut and
moves sufficiently fast to blow molten metal away from the cut.
◦ PAM retains the original advantages it brought to industry, even
today due advanced level of control and accuracy of the process.

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 ◦ It employs a high-velocity jet of high-temperature gas to melt and
displace material in its path Called PAM, this is a method of
cutting metal with a plasma-arc, or tungsten inert-gas-arc, torch.
◦ Plasma is an effective means of cutting thin and thick materials
alike.
◦ Hand-held torches can usually cut up to 2 in (48 mm) thick steel
plate, and stronger computer-controlled torches can cut steel up
to 6 inches (150 mm) thick.
◦ Since plasma cutters produce a very hot and very localized
”cone” to cut with, they are extremely useful for cutting sheet
metal in curved or angled shapes

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 WORKING PRINCIPLE

◦ Unlike laser cutting, which is capable to cut any material, even

not electrically conducting, and unlike oxyfuel cutting, which can
cut material consisting iron, plasma arc cutting can cut any
electrically conducting metal.
◦ In Plasma Arc Machining process, gases are heated and charged
to plasma state.
◦ Plasma state is the superheated and electrically ionized state of
gases at approximately 5000o C. These gases are directed on the
workpiece in the form of high velocity jet to cut mild steel, alloy
steels, aluminum, copper, and other conductive materials.
◦ Working principle and process details are shown in Figure 19.

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 Figure: Plasma arc cutting process

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 Figure: Schematic of main components of PAM

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 Plasma Spray Setup

(source:Venkatramani N. Industrial plasma torches and applications. Current Science. 2002 Aug 10:254-62.)

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 Figure: Different stages of an arc ignition : a. Pilot arc is ignited. b. Pilot arc
is blowing downstream c. Pilot arc loop touches the work piece d. Main arc
is on, pilot arc is off

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 ◦ This process uses a concentrated electrical arc which melts the
material through a high-temperature plasma beam.
◦ Plasma cutting units with cutting currents from 20 to 1000
amperes can cut the plates from 5mm to 160 mm thickness.
◦ Plasma gases are compressed air, nitrogen, oxygen or argon/
hydrogen.
◦ Because of the high temperature the plasma expands and flows
with supersonic velocity speed to the work piece (anode).
◦ The stability of arc is keeping the plasma jet in desired form. It is
possible to be provided by a) Shape of Plasma Torch, b)
Streaming Jet, c) Water.
◦ The important parameters to be monitored are a) Temperature
and electrical conducting, b) Density of plasma jet,c) Diameter of
plasma beam,) Degree of the plasma beam focusing in output
from nozzle.

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 ◦ For the cutting process first of all a pilot arc ignition by high
voltage between nozzle and cathode takes place.
◦ This low- energy pilot arc prepares by ionization in parts the way
between plasma torch and work piece.
◦ When the pilot arc touches the work piece (flying cutting, flying
piercing), the main arc will start by an automatic increase in
power.
◦ The basic principle is that the arc formed between the electrode
and the work piece is constricted by a fine bore, copper nozzle.
◦ This increases the temperature and velocity of the plasma
emanating from the nozzle.
◦ The temperature of the plasma is in excess of 20 000o C and the
velocity can approach the speed of sound.
◦ When used for cutting, the plasma gas flow is increased so that
the deeply penetrating plasma jet cuts through the material and
molten material is removed in the efflux plasma.

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 ◦ The power source required for the plasma arc process must have
a drooping characteristic and a high voltage.
◦ Although the operating voltage to sustain the plasma is typically
100 to 160V, the open circuit voltage needed to initiate the arc
can be up to 400V DC.
◦ On initiation, the pilot arc is formed within the body of the torch
between the electrode and the nozzle.
◦ If the gas flow is too low for the current level, or the current level
too high for the nozzle bore diameter, the arc will break down
forming two arcs in series, electrode to nozzle and nozzle to work
piece. The effect of ‘double arcing’is usually catastrophic with
the nozzle melting.
◦ The air/water can be used for cooling the torch.

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 PARAMETERS IN PAM
The parameters involved in PAM are:
◦ Current: Up to 500 A
◦ Voltage: 30-250 V
◦ Cutting speed: 0.1-7.5 m/min.
◦ Tolerance of± 0.8 mm for thickness less than 25 mm and±3 mm
for thickness more than 25 mm
◦ Plate thickness: Up to 200 mm
◦ Power require: 2 to 200 KW
◦ Material removal rate: 150 cm3 /min
◦ Velocity of Plasma: 500m/sec
◦ Surface finish : 5-75 µ
◦ Width of cut : 2.5 mm to 9 mm
◦ cutting taper : 5-7o

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 COMPONENT PARTS OF PLASMA ARC MACHINING
1. Plasma Gun
◦ Gases used to create plasma are nitrogen, argon, hydrogen or
mixture of these gases.
◦ The plasma gun consists of a tungsten electrode fitted in the
chamber.
◦ The electrode is given negative polarity and nozzle of the gun is
given positive polarity.
◦ Supply of gases is maintained into the gun. A strong arc is
established between the two terminals anode and cathode.
◦ There is a collision between molecules of gas and electrons of the
established arc.
◦ As a result of this collision gas molecules get ionized and heat is
evolved.
◦ This hot and ionized gas called plasma is directed to the work
piece with high velocity.
◦ The established arc is controlled by the supply rate of gases.

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 2. Power Supply and Terminals
◦ The power source (DC) required for the plasma arc process must
have a drooping characteristic and a high voltage.
◦ The electrode has a negative polarity and the workpiece a
positive polarity so that the majority of the arc energy
(approximately two thirds) is used for cutting.
◦ A tungsten electrode is inserted to the gun and made cathode
and nozzle of the gun is made anode.
◦ Heavy potential difference is applied across the electrodes to
develop plasma state of gases.
◦ Although the operating voltage to sustain the plasma is typically
50 to 60V, the open circuit voltage needed to initiate the arc can
be up to 400V DC.
◦ On initiation, the pilot arc is formed within the body of the torch
between the electrode and the nozzle.
◦ For cutting, the arc must be transferred to the workpiece in the
so-called ’transferred’ arc mode.

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 3.Cooling Mechanism
◦ As hot gases continuously comes out of nozzle so there are
chances of over heating of nozzle. So, water jacket is used to
surround the nozzle to avoid its overheating.

◦ There is no direct visible tool used in PAM. Focused spray of

plasma state gases works as a cutting tool.

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 4.Workpiece
◦ Workpiece of different materials can be processed by PAM
process. These materials are aluminium, magnesium, stainless
steels and carbon and alloy steels.
◦ All those material which can be processed by LBM can also be
processed by PAM process.

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 Depth of cut

◦ When cutting metals with PAC, walls of the cut are never vertical
◦ The width of the kerf of the cut is wider at the top than at the
bottom of the plate.
◦ The angle of declination of the walls from the vertical is called the
bevel angle.
◦ The value of the bevel angle depends on the cutting speed. It is
low at low cutting speeds and increases as the cutting speed
increases.
◦ Developing cutting conditions is, therefore, a compromise
between productivity and quality of the cut.
◦ Better cut quality demands a relatively low speed whereas high
productivity demands a higher cutting speed.

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 bevel angle

Figure: Schematic of a cut showing bevel angle

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 TYPES OF TORCHES IN PAM

1. Non-transferred arc torches

1.1 Turbulent mode flame torches
1.2 Laminar mode flame torches
1.3 High power torches
2. Transferred arc torches
2.1 cutting torches
2.1.1 Single flow torch
2.1.2 Dual flow torch
2.1.3 Multiport nozzle torch
2.1.4 Qxygen plasma cutting torch
2.2 Welding torches
2.3 Micro torches or Needle torches

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 Non-transfered torch

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 Non-transfered torch

◦ In this torch, the D.C power source is connected directly across

the cathode and the nozzle, thus ionizing a high velocity gas that
is streaming towards the workpiece.
◦ The anode dissipation is lost in useless heating of the nozzle.
◦ The electro thermal efficiency is about 65-75%

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 Transferred plasma torch

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 Transferred plasma torch

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 ◦ The plasma arc in PAM is not initiated by the conventional touch
start method but it heavily depend on use of high frequency unit.
◦ The cathode is connected directly to the negative of the D.C.
source, while the anode nozzle is connected to the positive of the
supply through a suitable resistor to limit the current through the
nozzle to about 50 amps.
◦ Plasma is generated using two cycles approach
▶ a) Very small high-intensity spark (pilot arc) within the torch body
▶ b) transferred arc flowing between electrode and job
◦ When the metal workpiece to be processed is connected to the
positive of the supply and ignited by HF unit, initially a pilot
plasma flame is established between the cathode and nozzle,
which provides a conducting path for a high current constricted
arc between the cathode and workpiece. Once the conducting
path developed, the pilot flame circuit is disconnected
automatically.
◦ This method is limited to cutting, welding and having electro
thermal efficiency is about 85-90%
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 Turbulent Mode Flame Torches
◦ When high velocity flames are required for material removal by
melt blasting or spraying, high gas flow rates, which give rise to
turbulent jets, are used.
◦ These flames are short in length and are rather cold outside the
nozzle.
◦ These are used for cutting , low quality welding and spraying.
Laminar mode flame torches
◦ These torches have low velocities, lengths as long as 1 meter
and the flame is emitted with a soothing hum. The cathode
diameters are small and the nozzle throats are large upto 125
mm. The flame is used for spherodizing and melting ceramics

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 Frame Title

High power torches

◦ These torches are made of high temperature arc tunnels and are
operated at very high currents (2000 amp).
◦ To avoid electrode erosion, special magnetic fields are used at
the nozzle.

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 Comparison Between Gas cutting and PAM

S.No Gas cutting PAM

1 Oxidation of the work Plasma is generated by subjecting
piece melted will gen- a volume of gas to electron bom-
erates heat to melt the bardment of an electric arc. The
metal for (e.g) in cutting anode heating due to direct elec-
steel, fuel gas is used tron bombardment plus convective
to heat it to 760-870 heating from the high temp plasma
o C at while steel reacts raises the metal to the molten point
rapidly with oxygen to and the high velocity gas stream ef-
form iron oxide. The heat fectively blows the metal away.
generated by the burning
iron is sufficient to melt
the iron oxide.

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 2 Oxy-fuel gas cutting is Because of the high temp involved,
mostly limited to only the process can be used on almost
ferrous metal especially all metal including those white are
plain carbon steels. resistant to oxy- fuel gas cutting
3 Cutting speed are lower Cutting speeds are higher and
for (e.g) in cutting mild leave a narrower kerf. They can cut
steel 19mm thick can be mild steel 19mm thick at the rate of
cut at 500 mm /min. 1775mm /min.
4 Operating costs are Operating costs are lower.Ratio of
higher savings in favor of PAM is about 3:1
5 Limited to the max. tem- Seems to be unlimited. The greater
perature of the chemical the power used, the greater the
reaction (burning) vol.of kerf metal that can be re-
moved.

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 6 Cost of equipment is High initial cost of the equipment.
lower.
7 Surfaces are less Surfaces cut by plasma torch are
smoother than those smooth
cut by PAM

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 Advantages

◦ In Plasma Arc Machining, hard as well as brittle metals of almost

all types of metals can be machined easily.
◦ Small cavities can be machined with good dimensional accuracy.
◦ Operating costs are less when compared to oxy-fuel cutting
◦ Smooth cuts, free from contaminants are obtained in the process
◦ Uniformly effects the material irrespective of its hardness or
refractory nature since there is no connection between the tool
and work piece.
◦ The cutting rates are high enough to assist the PAM technique on
all the materials.
◦ It can be applied to almost all types of metals.
◦ The best part of this process is that we get high cutting rate.
◦ It is a simple process to carry out and a very efficient process.

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 Disadvantages

◦ Burr is often produced

◦ Taper on the workpiece may occur
◦ Surfaces contain metallurgical alterations,
◦ It requires secondary machining on the surfaces.
◦ Operators require eye shielding and noise protection.
◦ Its initial cost is very high.
◦ Inert gas consumption is high.
◦ The process requires over safety precautions which further
enhance the initial cost of the setup.
◦ Some of the workpiece materials are very much prone to
metallurgical changes on excessive heating so this fact imposes
limitations to this process.
◦ It is uneconomical for bigger cavities to be machined.

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 Applications of PAM

◦ Plasma Arc Machining is most commonly used to prepare ends

of a section before the welding has been one.
◦ CNC types PAM systems are used for performing operations
such as punching and shape cutting.
◦ This system is suitable for machining materials such as stainless
steel, aluminum and copper.
◦ The operations which are complicated to turn or cut the material
is done by using PAM method.
◦ In tube mill application.
◦ cryogenic, aerospace and high temperature corrosion resistant
alloys applications.
◦ Nuclear submarine pipe applications.
◦ High quality metal and ceramic covers with thickness 0,1 mm
which are steady against corrosion, temperature and wear out.
◦ It takes a big part in automatic repair of jet engine blades.

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 MATERIAL REMOVAL MECHANISM IN PLASMA BEAM
WELDING

◦ The metal to be removed gets heated both by direct electron

bombardment and also due to the convection heating from the
high temperature plasma.
◦ The heat that is produced has the capacity to raise the
temperature of the work piece above its melting point.
◦ The molten metal is blown away by the high velocity gas stream.
◦ It is possible to remove the metal if 45% of the electrical power is
supplied to the torch.
◦ The arc heat is concentrated on a localized area of the work
piece and it raises it to its melting point.
◦ The quality of cut is affected by the heat flow distribution and
uniform heat supply throughout the thickness of the material
produces a cut of excellent quality.

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 ◦ The metal removal mechanism involves the quality of cut with
which the metal is removed depends upon the distribution of heat
flow.
◦ If the heat is supplied uniformly trough out the thickness of the
material then a better quality of cut can be obtained.
◦ The speed with which the metal is cut out also depends upon the
distribution of heat flow.

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 CHEMICAL MACHINING

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 Chemical Machining

Introduction
◦ Chemical machining also known as photo chemical machining is
a process through which metal is removed from a workpiece by
immersing it in a chemical solution.
◦ It is Carried out by chemical dissolution using reagents or
etchants, such as acids and alkaline solutions.
◦ Chemical machining is a well known nontraditional machining
used for producing decorative metal items and precision metal
parts.
◦ In CM the controlled dissolution of workpiece material (etching) is
done means of a strong chemical reagent (etchant).

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 ◦ The preferred properties of etchant are
1. Easy removal after chemical machining etching
2. High etch rate
3. Good surface finish
4. Minimum undercut
5. Compatibility with commonly used Maskants
6. High dissolved-material capacity
7. Economic regeneration
8. Easy control of process.
9. Personal safety maintenance

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 Figure: (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical-machining process. Note
that no forces or machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in
producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining; note the undercut.

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 ◦ In CM material is removed from selected areas of workpiece by
microscopic electrochemical cell action, as occurs in corrosion or
chemical dissolution of a metal.
◦ This controlled chemical dissolution will simultaneously etch all
exposed surfaces even though the penetration rates of the
material removal may be only 0.0025–0.1 mm/min.
◦ The basic process takes many forms:
▶ chemical milling of pockets, contours, overall metal removal,
chemical blanking for etching through thin sheets;
▶ photochemical machining (pcm) for etching by using of
photosensitive resists in microelectronics.
▶ chemical or electrochemical polishing where weak chemical
reagents are used (sometimes with remote electric assist) for
polishing or deburring and chemical jet machining where a single
chemically active jet is used.

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 ◦ Different parts produced in CM

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 Steps involved in CM
Chemical machining process has several steps for producing machine
parts. These are given below:
◦ Workpiece preparation: The workpiece material has to be
cleaned in the beginning of chemical machining process.
▶ The cleaning operation is carried out to remove the oil, grease,
dust, rust or any substance from the surface of material.
▶ A good cleaning process produces a good adhesion of the
masking material.
▶ There are two cleaning methods:
▶ mechanical and chemical methods , the most widely used cleaning
process is chemical method due to less damages occurred
comparing to mechanical one.
▶ Ultrasonic cleaning machine is applied with using special cleaning
solution and heating is beneficial during the cleaning process.
◦ Coating with masking material: The next step is the coating
cleaned workpiece material with masking material.

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 ◦ The selected masking material should be readily strippable
mask, which is chemically impregnable and adherent enough to
stand chemical abrasion during etching.
◦ Scribing of the mask: This step is guided by templates to expose
the areas that receive chemical machining process.
◦ The selection of mask depends on the size of the workpiece
material, the number of parts to be produced, and the desired
detail geometry.
◦ Silk-screen masks are preferred for shallow cuts requiring close
dimensional tolerances.

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 Etching
◦ This step is the most important stage to produce the required
component from the sheet material.
◦ This stage is carried out by immerse type etching machine.
◦ The workpiece material is immersed into selected etchant and
the uncovered areas were machined.
◦ This process is generally carried out in elevated temperatures
which are depended on the etched material. Then the etched
workpiece is rinsed to clean etchant from machined surface.
Demasking - Cleaning masking material (the maskant is removed
from the part)
◦ Final step is to remove masking material from etched part. The
inspections of the dimensions and surface quality are completed
before packaging the finished part.
◦ Masking material which is called maskant is used to protect
workpiece surface from chemical etchant.
◦ Polymer or rubber based materials are generally used for
masking procedure.
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 MASKETS

Maskant Material
◦ Masking material which is called maskant is used to protect
workpiece surface from chemical etchant.
◦ Polymer or rubber based materials are generally used for
masking procedure.
◦ Butyl rubber, Neoprene, PVC, etc., are used as maskants in CM
Properties of Maskant material
◦ Tough enough to withstand handling
◦ Well adhering to the workpiece surface
◦ Easy scribing
◦ Inert to the chemical reagent used
◦ Able to withstand the heat used during chemical machining

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 Types of masks used in C M

1. Cut and peel masks.

◦ Film of chemically resistant material is applied to the work piece
by dipping, spraying or flow coating. Vinyl, styrene and buta
diene are used. Rubbery film is then cut & peeled away
selectively. Manual scribing of mask material usually achieves an
accuracy of ±0.13 mm to ±0.75 mm.
2. Screen resist masks.
◦ Mask material is applied to the work piece surface by printing,
using stencils and a fine polyester or stainless steel mesh screen.
Relatively thin coatings with tolerances held to ±0.05 to ±0.18
mm are obtained by screen printing. Etching depths are
restricted to about 1.5 mm because of thinness of the coating.

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 3. resist masks.
◦ Photo resist mask is quite widely used & is often referred to as
photochemical machining. Produces intricate & finely detailed
shapes using a light activated resist materials. WP coated with
photo resist material & a master transparency is held against the
WP, while exposure to UV rays takes place. Light activates the
photo resist material in those areas corresponding to opaque
parts. Tolerances of ±0.025 to 0.005 mm can be produced.

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 Other Chemical Machining Processes
1. Chemical milling
◦ In chemical milling, shallow cavities are produced on plates,
sheets, forgings and extrusions.
◦ The two key materials used in chemical milling process are
etchant and maskant.
◦ Etchants are acid or alkaline solutions maintained within
controlled ranges of chemical composition and temperature.
◦ Maskants are specially designed elastomeric products that are
hand strippable and chemically resistant to the harsh etchants.
◦ Chemical milling is used in the aerospace industry to remove
shallow layers of material from large aircraft components missile
skin panels extruded parts for airframes.
◦ The Various etchants used in chemical machining are
▶ Ferric chloride (FeCl3)
▶ Cupric chloride (CuCl2)

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 2. Chemical blanking
◦ Chemical blanking is used to etch entirely through a metal part.
◦ In chemical blanking, holes and slots that penetrate entirely
through the material are produced, usually in thin sheet materials.
◦ Used to produce fine screens, flat springs, etc…
◦ Very cheap but efficient.
3. Chemical engraving
◦ Chemical Engraving is the practice of incising a design on to a
hard, usually flat surface, by cutting grooves into it. The result
may be a decorated object in itself, as when silver, gold, steel or
glass are engraved, or may provide an printing plate, of copper or
another metal, for printing images on paper as prints or
illustrations; these images.
◦ The different types of engraving are
▶ Wood Engraving
▶ Copper and Steel Engravings
▶ Laser engraving

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 ADVANTAGES OF CM

◦ Components are produced burr-free.

◦ Process is relatively simple.
◦ Can be applied to almost any material. Thin sections.
◦ Several components can be produced simultaneously.
◦ The process does not distort the machined components.
◦ Most difficult to machine material can be processed.
◦ High surface finishing is possible.
◦ Easy weight reduction
◦ No effect of workpiece materials properties such as hardness

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 ◦ Simultaneous material removal operation
◦ No stress introduction to the workpiece
◦ Low capital cost of equipment
◦ Requirement of less skilled worker
◦ Low tooling costs
◦ Using decorative part production
◦ Low scrap rates (3%).

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 Disadvantages of Chemical Machining

◦ Metal removal rate is slow.

◦ Metal thicker than 2 mm can not be usually machined.
◦ High operator skill is required.
◦ Corrosive etchant damages the equipment.
◦ Required the handling of dangerous chemicals.
◦ Disposal of potentially harmful byproducts.
◦ Difficult to get sharp corner
◦ Etchants are very dangerous for workers
◦ Etchant disposals are very expensive

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 Applications of Chemical Machining

◦ Engraving metals and hard stones, in deburring, and in the

production of printed-circuit boards (PCB) and microelectronic
devices
◦ Aircraft wings doors and engine shields
◦ Space craft heat shilds
◦ Casting industry
◦ Electronic components
◦ Micro machining for hydraulics
◦ Fuel cell manufacturing
◦ Springs for automotive industry
◦ Decorative items
◦ color Television shadow masks
◦ Name plates

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