Ultrasonic testing

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An example of Ultrasonic Testing (UT) on blade roots

of a V2500 IAE aircraft engine.
Step 1: The UT probe is placed on the root of the
blades to be inspected with the help of a special
borescope tool (video probe).
Step 2: Instrument settings are input.
Step 3: The probe is scanned over the blade root. In
this case, an indication (peak in the data) through the
red line (or gate) indicates a good blade; an indication
to the left of that range indicates a crack.
Principle of ultrasonic testing. LEFT: A probe sends a
sound wave into a test material. There are two
indications, one from the initial pulse of the probe, and
the second due to the back wall echo. RIGHT: A defect
creates a third indication and simultaneously reduces
the amplitude of the back wall indication. The depth of
the defect is determined by the ratio D/Ep

Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-

destructive testing techniques based on
the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the
object or material tested. In most common
UT applications, very short ultrasonic
pulse-waves with center frequencies
ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally
up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into
materials to detect internal flaws or to
characterize materials. A common
example is ultrasonic thickness
measurement, which tests the thickness
of the test object, for example, to monitor
pipework corrosion.

Ultrasonic testing is often performed on

steel and other metals and alloys, though
it can also be used on concrete, wood and
composites, albeit with less resolution. It
is used in many industries including steel
and aluminium construction, metallurgy,
manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and
other transportation sectors.

History
On May 27, 1940, U.S. researcher Dr. Floyd
Firestone of the University of Michigan
applies for a U.S. invention patent for the
first practical ultrasonic testing method.
The patent is granted on April 21, 1942 as
U.S. Patent No. 2,280,226, titled "Flaw
Detecting Device and Measuring
Instrument". Extracts from the first two
paragraphs of the patent for this entirely
new nondestructive testing method
succinctly describe the basics of such
ultrasonic testing. "My invention pertains
to a device for detecting the presence of
inhomogeneities of density or elasticity in
materials. For instance if a casting has a
hole or a crack within it, my device allows
the presence of the flaw to be detected
and its position located, even though the
flaw lies entirely within the casting and no
portion of it extends out to the surface. ...
The general principle of my device
consists of sending high frequency
vibrations into the part to be inspected,
and the determination of the time intervals
of arrival of the direct and reflected
vibrations at one or more stations on the
surface of the part."

James F. McNulty (U.S. radio engineer) of

Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El
Segundo, California, an early improver of
the many foibles and limits of this and
other nondestructive testing methods,
teaches in further detail on ultrasonic
testing in his U.S. Patent 3,260,105
(application filed December 21, 1962,
granted July 12, 1966, titled “Ultrasonic
Testing Apparatus and Method”) that
“Basically ultrasonic testing is performed
by applying to a piezoelectric crystal
transducer periodic electrical pulses of
ultrasonic frequency. The crystal vibrates
at the ultrasonic frequency and is
mechanically coupled to the surface of the
specimen to be tested. This coupling may
be effected by immersion of both the
transducer and the specimen in a body of
liquid or by actual contact through a thin
film of liquid such as oil. The ultrasonic
vibrations pass through the specimen and
are reflected by any discontinuities which
may be encountered. The echo pulses that
are reflected are received by the same or
by a different transducer and are
converted into electrical signals which
indicate the presence of the defect.” To
characterize micro-structural features in
the early stages of fatigue or creep
damage, more advanced nonlinear
ultrasonic tests should be employed.
These nonlinear methods are based on the
fact that an intensive ultrasonic wave is
getting distorted as it faces micro
damages in the material.[1] The intensity of
distortion is correlated with the level of
damage. This intensity can be quantified
by acoustic non-linearity parameter (β). β
is related to first and second harmonic
amplitudes. These amplitudes can be
measured by harmonic decomposition of
the ultrasonic signal through fast Fourier
transformation or wavelet
transformation.[2]

How it works

At a construction site, a technician tests a pipeline

weld for defects using an ultrasonic phased array
instrument. The scanner, which consists of a frame
with magnetic wheels, holds the probe in contact with
the pipe by a spring. The wet area is the ultrasonic
couplant that allows the sound to pass into the pipe
wall.
Non-destructive testing of a swing shaft showing
spline cracking

In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound

transducer connected to a diagnostic
machine is passed over the object being
inspected. The transducer is typically
separated from the test object by a
couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in
immersion testing. However, when
ultrasonic testing is conducted with an
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer
(EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.

There are two methods of receiving the

ultrasound waveform: reflection and
attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo)
mode, the transducer performs both the
sending and the receiving of the pulsed
waves as the "sound" is reflected back to
the device. Reflected ultrasound comes
from an interface, such as the back wall of
the object or from an imperfection within
the object. The diagnostic machine
displays these results in the form of a
signal with an amplitude representing the
intensity of the reflection and the distance,
representing the arrival time of the
reflection. In attenuation (or through-
transmission) mode, a transmitter sends
ultrasound through one surface, and a
separate receiver detects the amount that
has reached it on another surface after
traveling through the medium.
Imperfections or other conditions in the
space between the transmitter and
receiver reduce the amount of sound
transmitted, thus revealing their presence.
Using the couplant increases the
efficiency of the process by reducing the
losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due
to separation between the surfaces.
Features
Advantages

1. High penetrating power, which allows

the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection
of extremely small flaws.
3. In many cases only one surface needs
to be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other
nondestructive methods in determining
the depth of internal flaws and the
thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size,
orientation, shape and nature of defects.
6. Some capability of estimating the
structure of alloys of components with
different acoustic properties
7. Non hazardous to operations or to
nearby personnel and has no effect on
equipment and materials in the vicinity.
8. Capable of portable or highly automated
operation.
9. Results are immediate. Hence on the
spot decisions can be made.

Disadvantages

1. Manual operation requires careful

attention by experienced technicians. The
transducers alert to both normal structure
of some materials, tolerable anomalies of
other specimens (both termed “noise”)
and to faults therein severe enough to
compromise specimen integrity. These
signals must be distinguished by a skilled
technician, possibly requiring follow up
with other nondestructive testing
methods.[3]
2. Extensive technical knowledge is
required for the development of inspection
procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape,
very small or thin, or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning
and removing loose scale, paint, etc.,
although paint that is properly bonded to a
surface need not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide
effective transfer of ultrasonic wave
energy between transducers and parts
being inspected unless a non-contact
technique is used. Non-contact techniques
include Laser and Electro Magnetic
Acoustic Transducers (EMAT).
6. Inspected items must be water
resistant, when using water based
couplants that do not contain rust
inhibitors. In these cases anti-freeze
liquids with inhibitors are often used.

Standards
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
ISO 2400: Non-destructive testing -
Ultrasonic testing - Specification for
calibration block No. 1 (2012)
ISO 7963: Non-destructive testing —
Ultrasonic testing — Specification for
calibration block No. 2 (2006)
ISO 10863: Non-destructive testing of
welds -- Ultrasonic testing -- Use of time-
of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD)
(2011)
ISO 11666: Non-destructive testing of
welds — Ultrasonic testing — Acceptance
levels (2010)
ISO 16809: Non-destructive testing --
Ultrasonic thickness measurement
(2012)
ISO 16831: Non-destructive testing --
Ultrasonic testing -- Characterization and
verification of ultrasonic thickness
measuring equipment (2012)
ISO 17640: Non-destructive testing of
welds - Ultrasonic testing - Techniques,
testing levels, and assessment (2010)
ISO 22825, Non-destructive testing of
welds - Ultrasonic testing - Testing of
welds in austenitic steels and nickel-
based alloys (2012)
ISO 5577: Non-destructive testing --
Ultrasonic inspection -- Vocabulary
(2000)
European Committee for
Standardization (CEN)
EN 583, Non-destructive testing -
Ultrasonic examination
EN 1330-4, Non destructive testing -
Terminology - Part 4: Terms used in
ultrasonic testing
EN 12668-1, Non-destructive testing -
Characterization and verification of
ultrasonic examination equipment - Part
1: Instruments
EN 12668-2, Non-destructive testing -
Characterization and verification of
ultrasonic examination equipment - Part
2: Probes
EN 12668-3, Non-destructive testing -
Characterization and verification of
ultrasonic examination equipment - Part
3: Combined equipment
EN 12680, Founding - Ultrasonic
examination
EN 14127, Non-destructive testing -
Ultrasonic thickness measurement
(Note: Part of CEN standards in Germany
accepted as DIN EN, in Czech Republic as
CSN EN.)

See also
Non-Contact Ultrasound
Phased array ultrasonics
Time-of-flight diffraction ultrasonics
(TOFD)
Time-of-flight ultrasonic determination
of 3D elastic constants (TOF)
Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS)
ultrasonics for tubes
EMAT Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducer
 ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology)

References
1. Matlack, K. H.; Kim, J.-Y.; Jacobs, L. J.;
Qu, J. (2015-03-01). "Review of Second
Harmonic Generation Measurement
Techniques for Material State
Determination in Metals" . Journal of
Nondestructive Evaluation. 34 (1): 273.
doi:10.1007/s10921-014-0273-5 .
ISSN 0195-9298 .
2. Mostavi, Amir; Kamali, Negar; Tehrani,
Niloofar; Chi, Sheng-Wei; Ozevin, Didem;
Indacochea, J. Ernesto (2017). "Wavelet
Based Harmonics Decomposition of
Ultrasonic Signal in Assessment of Plastic
Strain in Aluminum" . Measurement. 106:
66.
doi:10.1016/j.measurement.2017.04.013 .
3. U.S. Patent 3,260,105 for Ultrasonic
Testing Apparatus and Method to James F.
McNulty at lines 37-48 and 60-72 of Column
1 and lines 1-4 of Column 2.

Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Ultrasonic flaw detection.

Albert S. Birks, Robert E. Green, Jr., technical

editors ; Paul McIntire, editor. Ultrasonic
testing, 2nd ed. Columbus, OH : American
Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1991.
ISBN 0-931403-04-9.
Josef Krautkrämer, Herbert Krautkrämer.
Ultrasonic testing of materials, 4th fully rev.
ed. Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990.
ISBN 3-540-51231-4.
J.C. Drury. Ultrasonic Flaw Detection for
Technicians, 3rd ed., UK: Silverwing Ltd.
2004. (See Chapter 1 online (PDF, 61 kB)).
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Third ed.:
Volume 7, Ultrasonic Testing. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing.
Detection and location of defects in
electronic devices by means of scanning
ultrasonic microscopy and the wavelet
transform measurement, Volume 31, Issue 2,
 March 2002, Pages 77–91, L. Angrisani, L.
Bechou, D. Dallet, P. Daponte, Y. Ousten
Charles Hellier (2003). "Chapter 7 - Ultrasonic
Testing". Handbook of Nondestructive
Evaluation. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.

External links
Ultrasonic testing
Film about Russian ultrasonic testing
unit ASK-132 in Kalinin NPP
Video on ultrasonic testing , Karlsruhe
University of Applied Sciences

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