CHAPTER 1 – Environmental Issues + Risks

1.1. The population is exploding, particularly in developing countries. Also, the greenhouse
effect gone crazy is resulting in the temperature rising by .5 degrees C. Severe carbon
emissions from burning forests in Brazil further contribute to this problem. Finally, the
number of endangered species has escalated.
1.2. BIODIVERSITY. More than 1.4 million different species have been discovered on planet
earth. SA has the third highest level on diversity in the world. Many species are
disappearing as a result of *loss of habitat *pollution of soil, water and air * industrial
agriculture + forestry * alien species * wildlife trade * poaching + hunting * government
policies (encouraging urban development + agriculture) All living things depend on each
other
1.3. WASTE, LITTERING + RECYCLING. We live in a throw-away society. 3 kinds of waste *
biodegrable (2 weeks to 5 months) *combustible – plastic + rubber (10 – 30 years when
exposed to the sun) * noncombustible – metal (80 – 100 years) More than 90% of all
rubbish is disposed on land. Only 30% of waste is recycled. Landfills take very long to
decompose because of no exposure to the sun or air. Recycling is a better option but is a
difficult process.
1.4. GREENHOUSE EFFECT + GLOBAL WARMING. Carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs, ozone
and nitrous oxide all contribute. It is unknown exactly how the greenhouse effect could
change our lives because it is difficult to do conclusive study. A doubling of C02 could
result in the temperature rising between 1 and 5 degrees. Clouds [automatic feedback to
counteract effects of C02) and oceans [full of C02] are known to influence the GHE but it is
difficult to factor into the global circulation model.
1.5. HOLE IN THE OZONE LAYER. Ozone layer is in the stratosphere – 20 – 50 km above
earth. Ozone is made of three oxygen molecules. When O2 reacts with UV rays it creates
ozone. This layer protects the earth from harmful UV radiation that would make life on
earth almost impossible. In 1985 a hole the size of SA was discovered above Antarctica.
This means that the density of ozone had declined significantly. Chlorine based
compounds such as CFCs which rise high into the atmosphere and then destroy ozone
molecules are the main cause of the hole. In 1988 40 countries signed the Montreal
Protocal which pledged to reduce CFCs by 50% by 1999. CFCs live very long so the
ozone layer is not expected to stabilize till 2060. CFCs in the atmosphere are still
increasing by 4% every year. One CFC molecule can destroy up to 100 000 ozone
molecules.
1.6. FACING A NUCLEAR WINTER. In 1986 in Chernobyl a nuclear reactor exploded [Level 7
disaster]. More than 9 tons of nuclear material were released into the atmosphere causing
a cloud to cover parts of Europe. Many people died from the radiation. The radioactivity in
that area would last for 100 years and the peak of cancers resulting from the incident was
estimated to be reached in 2005. A major nuclear war would cause firestorms that would
send a similar cloud of dust and radioactive material into the atmosphere, resulting in a
nuclear winter. In 1968 the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was
introduced. Only the UK, USA, Russia, France and China were allowed nuclear weapons
and no other country was allowed to gain any. Only peaceful use of nuclear energy is
allowed.
1.7. PESTICIDES. Humans produce many toxic chemicals. Malaria is a serious disease in
Africa which has been combated by DDT. DDT is non-biodegradable so it stays in the body
 of animals until it can finally kill them. By now, it is said that every person in the world has
at least some DDT in their body. Bio-magnification occurs when plankton ingest DDT and a
trout eats the plankton and another animal eats the trout etc. The concentration of DDT
increases. DDT is now strictly controlled. It was banned until 2000 when it was re-
introduced to fight malaria.
1.8. OVERPOPULATION. It is estimated that the world population will increase to 10 billion
before stabilizing. Too many people puts strain on the environment because they need
food, shelter and clothing. Destruction of the natural environment, poverty and famine are
serious problems in many countries. Biggest challenge is eliminating povery. WSSD met in
2002 and richer countries pledged to halving the number of people without drinking water
and sanitization by 2015.
1.9. URBANIZATION. In ancient times in Africa there were few large cities. Today in SA about
70 % of the population live in urban dwellings. This is attributed to the lack of agricultural
growth, drought, famine and slow rural development. Since the abolition of apartheid
people may choose where to live; many choose cities. The problem with urbanization is
that the cities are incapable of providing shelter and services to all these people. Many
people live in informal settlements where social conditions are dangerous. Urbanization
also contributes to elevated crime levels. Cities need a huge amount of energy and make a
lot of waste. The advantage of urbanization is that it is easier for the government to provide
basic services to those who live there than those in the rural setting.
1.10. DEPELETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES. SA has an abundance of natural resources,
but these have been depleted through exploitation, water weeds, poor soil management,
dumping of waste water. These problems can be solved by harvesting the weeds for food;
tapping into new sources of energy such as natural gas or solar; and exploring IKS to
better protect and make use of the environment.
1.11. HEALTH HAZARDS. SA is plagued by many diseases; the worst being TB, Cholera,
malaria and AIDS. AIDS has many consequences: lack of adult workers, sick children,
orphans and financial strain on the government. HIV makes people more susceptible to TB
and Malaria. Education campaigns go a long way towards reducing AIDS infections. Clean
water and sanitization help prevention Cholera. DOTS and DOTS-plus programs ensure
that TB patients follow their full course of medication to be properly healed. Elimination
poverty is the biggest concern in combating all disease.
1.12. DESERTIFICATION. Land degradation that is caused by drought, overcropping,
deforestation and incorrect irrigation methods. The biological potential of the soil and its
ability to sustain life is reduced. About one third of Africa’s surface is under threat of
desertification. Soil erosion is also a big problem. About 25 % of the fertility of Southern
Africa’s soil has been lost. 1994 – Convention to Combat Desertification.
1.13. DEFORESTATION. Permanent destruction of indigenous forests + woodlands. Forests
now cover 21 % of our planet. Currently, 12 million hectares of forest are cleared annually.
Causes of deforestation *agricultural land to feed people * cash crops + cattle ranching *
commercial logging * firewood and building material *animals eating. Consequences
include: *alteration of climate *soil erosion *silting of waterways *extinction of species that
survive in forests *desertification. Some ideas for improvement include: *selective logging
*using recycled paper *education
1.14. POLLUTION. The poisoning of the environment by anything that reduces its ability to
support life. Pollution can include too much of a good substance, a harmless substance,
 synthetic compounds and non-biodegradable compounds. The following ecosystems can
be affected: air, fresh water, marine systems and land. Reduction of pollution is essential.
1.15. POVERTY. The inability to attain a minimum standard of living. It is a vicious cycle which
affects the environment. Poverty is not a static condition and is affected by circumstances.
 CHAPTER 2 – HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN SA

2.1. IUCN definition : “Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying
concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the
interrelatedness among people, their culture and their biophysical surroundings. Environmental
education also entails practice in decision making and self-formulation of a code of behaviour
about issues concerning environmental quality.
2.2. Prior to the 20th century there were occurrences of environmental education in areas such as
Egypt and Greece. In Africa the people always worked with nature in order to protect it and sustain
themselves.
2.3. in the 19th century the industrial revolution, based on an inexhaustible consumption of natural
resources; as well as the breeding ground for social ills, squalor and mass production; changed the
world. Today we still have the same outlook. Poets were outspoken against this. Patrick Geddes
laid the groundwork for environmental education as we know it today. He coined the term ‘ecology’
2.4. Following WW2 was a time of incubation for ideas for a new world. Many organizations were
formed. IUCN – World Conservation Union. WWF was formed in 1961 with an emphasis on wildlife
conservation. They realized that their aims were inseparable from social, economic, cultural and
educational issues. They worked with governmental and NGO organizations. Unesco (United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) enjoyed the most fruitful partnership.
They coined the term “environmental education”. A milestone in the global EE development was
the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm. It was here
that the UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) was formed and located on African soil.
The first Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education was help at Tbilisi in 1977.
they came up with 12 guiding principles. These were:
1. consider the whole environment which includes natural, built, technological and social.
2. lifelong process starting at preschool and leading till the end
3. interdisciplinary therefore making a balanced perspective possible
4. examine environmental issues from a global, national, regional and local viewpoint
5. focus on historical, current and potential environmental situations
6. promote cooperation on all levels and areas in combating problems
7. consider environmental aspects in plans for development + growth
8. enable learners to plan, make decisions and accept the consequences in their learning
9. make sure that environmental sensitivity is introduced, especially from a young age. Also
knowledge, problem-solving skills and value clarification
10. help learners discover the symptoms and causes of environmental problems
11. show the complexity of problems and the need for critical thinking and problem solving
skills
12. use different learning environments + approaches, including hands on and practical, when
teaching
Three important reports:
1. 1983 Brandt Commission Report entitled “Common crisis North-South: cooperation for
world recovery” – focused on the different between the rich and poor countries and the
need for fairer distribution of resources
2. 1980 “Global 2000 Report to the President of the United States: entering the 21 st century”
– commissioned by Jimmy Carter and rejected by Ronald Reagan
3. 1987 report of the World Commission on Environment and Development entitled ‘Our
Common Future’ (also called the Brundtland Report). This had the most influence
Another report which had little impact – 1990 “Report of the South Commission: the challenge to
the South”. Also known as the Nyerere Report. All these reports added considerable conceptual
and intellectual weight to the growing concerns about uneven distribution of wealth and introduced
notions of sustainable development. Unfortunately, they did not make much of a difference to much
of the world’s population
2.5. Environmental Education in the international arena: 1990 – 2002.
1992 Earth Summit had a document called ‘Agenda 21’ emphasized the need for widescale
environmental Ed, and the process involving teachers + students. Sustainable development
became a major factor.
A Treaty on Environmental Education for Sustainable Societies recognized the central role of
education in shaping social action and values. The NGO Forum Principles were formed as a result
of this (see pg. 43) These principles had a large social base.
In 1997 a review was done of the progress since the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. It was determined
that little had changed and that mainstream educators had not responded well to the environmental
crisis. Unesco published a document entitled “education for a sustainable future: a transdisciplinary
vision for concerted action’ with the aim of spurring debate and mobilizing action in highlighting the
importance of environmental education and public awareness on sustainability.

2.6. The growing prominence of “education for sustainability”. Education for Sustainability has
started to provide a sense of reorientation and focus for environmental education around the globe.
Janse van Rensburg alerts environmental educators to the need for a more reflective view of
change processes. She focuses on a responsive process of change. Education has been
highlighted for a way to change in social-ecological, political and economic ways.
2.7. Conservation was largely found in SA prior to 1994 which was quite basic and just focused on
ecology. Slowly it became what is now known has environmental education which is holistic and
encompasses many aspects, including social, political, cultural, economic and urban environments.
Environmental education was during the 1980’s confused with outdoor education.
In 1982 the first international conference on environmental education was held in SA. This saw the
formation of the EEASA (EE Association of SA).
Many NGOs popped up , such as the Wildlife Society of SA and the Umgeni Valley Project. The
UVP enjoyed the cooperation of the Natal ED Dep and the Natal Parks Board.
Two very good EE programmes – Bophuthatswana and the National Environmental Awareness
Council.
The ‘White Paper on EE’ was tabled in 1989. It was based on the Tbilisi Principles and emphasized
the EE should be talk all through education.
EE was pioneered at North West Uni. Rhodes , UNISA and Stellenbosch both played a major role.
Gold Fields, Swedish International Development Agency and Danish International Development
Agency all funded development.
2.8. Post 1994 a lot of work was put into a new curriculum. The 1995 ‘White Paper on Education
and Training’ set the scene for a focus on EE at all school and tertiary levels.
2.9. The SA Constitution enshrines the right to a healthy environment, and truly sustainable
development has come to the fore in government policies. A clearer African focus for EE is
developing and is being found in industry training, public education and communities.
 CHAPTER 3: PARADIGMS, ETHICS + RELIGION IN EE
SECTION A: PARADIGMS

3A.1.1 Paradigm (theoretical framework, philosophy, philosophical position, approach) – your

viewpoint and perspective
3A1.3. teachers should consider a pluralistic approach to EE
3 Teaching Paradigms
 Behaviourism (positivism). Originated in US. Based on stimulus and response. It is
concerned with observable behaviour and the effect of conditioning on such behaviour.
Reinforcement (reward) and conditioning (modification of behaviour, for eg. A friendly
teacher) are two important principles. The aim is to change behaviour. Objectives are
based on the Tbilisi principles. There is a focus on knowledge and values. Methods used
are the transmission of info from expert to learner; and reinforcing positive behaviour. The
learner is seen as an empty vessel to fill.
 Interpretivism. the teacher is a facilitator who helps the individual to discover their innate
potential through self-driven development. Experiential learning plays a big role. Piaget’s
theory of development plays a role, as a child is born with some intuitive areas of
knowledge (schemas), and NOT an empty vessel. The child is powerful and active, not the
teacher. Some of the objectives include community based learning, environmental literacy
+ active involvement. The methods used include working in the community, problem
investigation, non-authoritarian and cross-curricular. Memorization and rote learning is not
used. EE is regarded as ‘good’. The learner is likened to a seed which must be nurtured.
Resources + curriculum are developed among teachers. Learners construct their own
knowledge through experience.
 Social critical. The two most important ideas: empowerment for the masses and social
justice for all. The focus is on the disadvantaged and on liberation from social injustice.
The curriculum is negotiated by all the role-players in the community. Reconstruction of
oppressive policies + practices are also important. The teacher is an agent of change and
a leader who offers the masses the necessary knowledge and skills for empowerment.
Cooperative learning in groups of 4 – 6 is central. Action research is used – planning,
acting, observing + reflecting. EE is regarded as better education for all. Critical theorists
see learners as fires to kindle. The teacher who uses this method will be sensitive to the
children in her class, make use of their pre-knowledge, focus on enquiry + communication.
In terms of curriculum, it is developed at a grassroots level by those who are interested
and focuses on teaching of concepts. It is transdisciplinary and challenges commonly held
‘truths’. Knowledge is power.
3 Different Value Positions
 Anthropocentric value position – instrumental or use value of the environment is
emphasized. This can be fragmented further into 3 value positions:
o The ruthless developer: maximally exploiting nature. The value that humans
can acquire from nature, the economical bottom line + progress, the myth of
superabundance, does not worry about future generations; they can take care
of themselves, technology can deliver us
o Resource development + conservation: this means getting the maximum use
out of the environment (utilitarianism], not wasting, moderation, concern for
 future generations and the realization that there won’t ‘always be more’.
Conservation means : together with a slave
o Wilderness preservation [before slavery]. Stresses the instrumental values
that can be enjoyed by humans if they allow existing aspects of nature to
continue as they always have. There are 9 arguments within this : life-support
system, early warning system, silo argument, laboratory argument,
gymnasium argument, art gallery argument, cathedral argument, monument
argument and psychogenetic argument.
 Ecocentric value position, as found in Leopold’s ‘Land Ethic’. Heavily based on the
theory of evolution and that everything on earth has flows of energy and links that
must not be disturbed by humans. He formed the ‘land pyramid’. With soil at the
bottom, then insects, birds and rodents continuing to the apex which has larger
carnivores. The environment is a community of which humans are one part. Leopold
groups people into two categories, A – who regard soil as a commodity, and B – regard
the biota as something broader. Leopold states that man is naturally a ‘conqueror’ but
we must learn to live as just one species of the world.
 Radical value positions. Radical meaning ‘root’. Going back to the original causes of
our environmental problems and to overcome them by a radical transformation of our
thought patterns, practices, institutions and experiences. The positions that exist are :
Deep Ecology, ecofeminism, social ecology and bioregionalism. Ecofeminism focuses
on the conceptual and socio-political structures that make it possible to dominate and
exploit nature, as well as women. They propose rethinking the relationship male-
female, and human-nature. In education, ecofeminism is anti-anything that advances a
logic of domination. It advocates pluralism, with the emphasis on women’s voices;
values such as care, love and friendship are put to the fore; ethical theory as
progressive.
 Environmental pragmatism believes that you can pick and choose from the various
theories, like a toolbox, and use what suits the situation. Environmental ethics is just in
its emerging stages so questions and debate are healthy as we form solutions to real
life problems.

INFLUENCE OF RELIGION ON ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE ENVIRONMENT

3.C.1. ISLAM. According to Islam, the universe was created by God (Allah) and belongs to him.
Human are subject to the laws of nature and are to use everything on use wisely, as managers, not
proprieters. Misuse of the environment is considered to be disrespect to the creator. Water is
regarded as being very precious. Areas of land are demarcated as being prohibited for
development. Carnivorous animals may be killed out of self-defense, but only herbivorous animals
may be eaten; and no part wasted. Plants may be used on the condition that no one else is
disadvantaged and it does not run short. Minerals may not be in the possession of individuals.
CHRISTIANITY. Humans are at the top of the hierarchy of created beings. The fact that Christians
are meant to subdue the world has sometimes resulted in exploitation of the environment. During
the fight against animism, some Christians separated God and nature so that the appreciation of
nature was lessened, and God was regarded as distant. In later times, this attitude has changed to
being one of stewardship.
BUDDHISM. Buddhists are environmentally friendly because they believe in reincarnation, so a
plant or animal could be another human. No beings that breathe may be killed. Buddhists believe
that the better your morality is, the better the world and the environment will be. They have a non-
violent attitude, even towards plants.
JUDAISM. According to Judaism, God created the world as a gift to mankind which they are meant
to guard. Animals must be killed in certain ways, and various rules exist for what plants may be cut
down and which may not. Planting of trees is a big part of their beliefs. NO waste or destruction is
allowed, and obeying the law is linked to prosperity in all aspects of the world.
HINDUISM. They believe that the whole world is a forest that must be protected. It is divided into
three sections – one of prosperity, one of meditation, and one of safety from
persecution/extermination. They believe in seven facets of human existence – Forest splendour,
spirituality, culture, heritage, pilgrimage, human welfare and human ecology. Their god (Vishnu) is
the world, and is reincarnated into a variety of animals, therefore all life is respected. In Hinduism,
you can earn merit for your future life by planting a tree.
 CHAPTER 4: EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABILITY

There are about 50 definitions of ‘sustainable development’. One is: development that takes place
in such a way that does not compromise the needs of future generations. Two conceptions of
sustainability: conservative and radical. A new term, ‘sustainable living’ was coined in 1991. It has
two categories: ecological sustainability and social justice. Under ecological sustainability:
interdependence, biodiversity, living lightly on the earth, interspecies equity. Under social justice:
basic human needs, human rights, participation and intergenerational equity.
There is much debate as to how EE should be taught at schools. Neo-classical approach:
education is preparation for work. Liberal-progressive: education as preparation for life.
Indicators of sustainability fall into different categories: ecological, social and spiritual.
Ecological – harmony with your local environment, organic food from good sources, ‘healthy’
buildings, good waste management, clean and renewable water, renewable, non-toxic energy
sources used, technologies used for the common good.
Social – safety and trust, adequate opportunities for communication, sharing, diversity is honoured,
personal growth is valued, options for achieving optimal health exist, the flow of resources is
balanced.
Spiritual – cultural vitality, creativity and the arts, respect for spirituality, unity and integrity in
common life, flexibility to dealing with problems.
Example of a sustainable company : Marula Natural Products. Harvested from the fallen fruit of the
Baobab tree to create essential and edible oils, fruit pulp and cosmetics.
 CHAPTER 5: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT, TEACHING AND LEARNING FOR THE
ENVIRONMENT

The Environmental Education Policy Initiative (EEPI) suggested four main policy options:
1. should be local and problem solving
2. integrated approach
3. as a separate subject
4. as a component within a subject

three main paradigms to curriculum development: positivist, phenomenological, critical

two philosophical frameworks: classical and participatory

CLASSICAL
Experts develop the product (curriculum) and pass it on to teachers who are seen as mere
implementers who adopt it. Relies heavily on objectives.

PARTICIPATORY/PROCESS
Emphasis on processes, participation, social change and outcomes based education.

Open ended curriculum development has been developed in the form of The Spiral Model. This
involves :contextualization, participation, dialogue, reflectiveness, integration of theory and
practice, flexibility, democracy, a constructivist approach, development of sophistication of meaning
and continuous learning.
Participation in the curriculum process involves the awareness that students can create their own
knowledge.
Some researchers see EE as a vehicle for social change: economic needs, state of society, and
the self-concepts of young people.

OBE suits EE in the following aspects: learner-centredness, learning programmes, role of teachers,
learning activities, content and assessment.

The strategies and methods for environmental education involve the following:
Learner-centedness, activity based, relevant to learners, utilization of the environment and cross-
curricular application.

Designing a learning programme involves the following steps:

1. selection of a topic
2. how to deal with the topic in the different learning areas
3. make the scheme relevant to the children’s experiences
4. select the learning outcomes and design tasks to achieve these outcomes
5. assessment
6. formal presentation of the task

Principles for EE: based on knowledge, skills must be developed to solve environmental
challenges and learning should impact the affective domain
Some approaches to EE: active learning, authentic learning, problem solving and critical thinking.

Take note of different learning styles.

Assessment is important. The types are : baseline, diagnostic, formative, summative, continuous,
systemic and authentic.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN THE NON-FORMAL SECTOR

Governments have poor records of dealing with EE but NGOs have come to the fore. SANParks
were very active but ran into financial difficulties. The Wildlife and Environment Society of Southern
Africa has probably contributed most to the non-formal sector.
SADC REEP has been instrumental in implementing various environmental education policies.
Rural communities need to be helped to sustain and use their environmental resources properly so
that they will be of optimum benefit to themselves and future generations. In Ethiopia, 90% of the
population depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Poverty has increased since the 1950s
despite enormous economic growth since the 1950’s.
Four obstacles to approaching rural communities: illiteracy, customs and traditions, dependency
and apathy.
When you enter a community, it is important to gain the trust of the people immediately. There must
be a strategy of approaching them. Participation is essential. A situation analysis of the area and
more abstract qualities such as the politics, social structure and attitudes.
One strategy is the Participatory Rural Approach.
Some government departments, such as Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Health, Forestry,
Water Affairs and Education have all taken on some environmental projects.
Environmental Education centres are largely a thing of the past, but a handful still serve the needs
of schools needing outing opportunities.
 CHAPTER 7: EE AND TRAINING IN INDUSTRY: SA DEVELOPMENTS

King II Report encourages businesses to have a triple bottom line and care about broader
sustainable interests.
Eco-efficiency requires business and industry to look beyond compliance with the law; to strive
towards producing waste-free products from waste-free factories; to look at the environmental and
social costs and the environmental impact of products every step of the way.
Average young Americans are said to consume six times more than their parents did.
Business Council for Sustainable Development has been formed.
Businesses are being encouraged to consider the long term consequences of their actions, and not
to look at environmental considerations as a threat, but rather a step to increased efficiency. The
Global Compact has nine principles encouraging industries to support the environment.
International Standards Organisation (ISO) 14001 provides companies with standards by which
they should conduct business.
NQF is outcomes based and developed for a range and career paths. Accreditation.
Training is: instructional experience designed to develop new skills that can be applied
Education: learning activity which allows for a participant to acquire additional knowledge
NQF : practical competence, foundational competence and reflexive competence
Most companies are unsure of the meaning of EE, believe their company has little or no impact on
the environment and did not allow time for this kind of training.
Those companies that did implement programs found that there were clear benefits: reduced costs,
greater efficiency, increased employee awareness and contribution to the environment
ISO 14000 has been criticized for being corrective and not preventive. Environmental management
must be shifted from being Reactive to Proactive.
Some challenges for SA: transforming industries to focus on sustainability goals; developing
approaches to EE that demonstrate applied competence; developing accredited environmental
education and training programmes; develop EE models that are preventative.
Rhodes University did a case study on EE. It was designed to foster Cleaner Production and
improved environmental education and training.
 CHAPTER 8: EE RESEARCH

There has been renewed research into the environment and EE as a means of bringing about
sustained change.
Research is: formal, scientific and systematically conducted. It may involve investigation into
certain issues. The results should be applied to solving a problem.
Those who are interested in the research AND those affected by its outcomes should be involved
in the process.
Research needs to have specific outcomes.
A literature review needs to be done. This means studying the information that is available on the
topic, therefore learning what variables need to be considered in the task.
During the process of data collection, it is vital to ask various questions that will shape what kind of
data is required, who will provide it, how it will be collected, etc.
In order to choose a research methodology, two factors must be considered: he nature of the
research problem, and the type of data that is required to explain the problem at hand.
Positivism: a distinction between what is clearly observable and that which is subjective
(emotions). Data is in numerical form and based on the premise that mathematical models need to
be uncovered.
Post-posivist/Post-modern paradigm: accepts values and perspectives as important
considerations in the search for knowledge. The researcher generally works in a holistic,
environmental setting rather than in an experimental one.
Qualitative: verbal/explanatory/descriptive information. Search for meaning, personal expression,
particulars.
Quantitative: numbers, statistics, deductive logic, hypotheses.
Some other research methods according to purpose: Basic, Applied, Evaluation, Experimental,
Non-experimental.
Other research methodologies: Case Study, Action Research, Participatory Rural Appraisal.
How to know when sufficient data has been collected: exhaustion of sources, saturation of data,
emergence of regularities, over-extension.
Environmental audit: focus on assessing the current functioning of an enterprise or community.
Guidelines for Questionnaires: 1) Determine the questions 2) Draft the items 3) Sequence the
items 4) Sequence the items 5) Design the questionnaire 6) Pilot-test the questionnaire 7) Develop
a strategy for data collection and analysis
Guidelines for Interviews: 1)Determine the general and specific research questions 2) Draft the
interview questions 3) Sequence the questions 4)Consider the process needs 5) Prepare the
introduction and closing 6)Prepare for recording the responses 7) Pilot-test the interview schedule
Focus group interviews are very effective and have groups of 6 – 12 individuals who discuss a
topic from questions posed by a leader.
Three kinds of observation: Complete observer, complete participant or as a participant observer.
Sample surveys can also be used to glean information.