Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Skeleton
920
Lake
I
4 6 8 10 12 14 km
MUSKOKA, ant, Canada
Contour interval 100 feet, elevations in feet above mean sea level
(Courtesy of the Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Canada)
ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
by
EIJU YATSU
SOZOSHA
8, 3-chome, Kandanishikicho, Chiyodaku, Tokyo
1966
Copyright 1966
Sozosha
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PREFACE
This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any
form without the written permission of the publisher.
Geomorphologists too long have shied away from investigat-
ing . basic processes associated with landform origin and
development. Few have gone beyond regarding them in
amateurish or superficial ways. In doing so, they have delayed
unduly the time when their field becomes truly scientific and
useful to persons in allied disciplines. How many engineers,
geologists, mineralogists, pedologists, ecologists, foresters, chemists,
physicists, or agriculturists turn to geomorphological literature
for information that might aid them in solving problems related
to the earth's land surface? Should they do so, how often would
their efforts be rewarded by finding useful information? It is
a sad commentary, but in all probability their harvest would
reveal few grains of corn embedded in huge volumes of chaff.
This is a condition that Professor Yatsu hopes to correct.
The intent of this short book by no means is an attempt to
explain or catalogue a wide variety of examples where rock
control has produced or is reflected in scientific land forms.
Rather, it emphasizes the importance of physiochemical and
mechanical processes that affect rock properties, and hence,
secondarily, resulting land forms. It deals with fundamental,
but largely unsolved, problems in rock dynamics. A style that
at times is deliberately provocative is used in the hope that it
will stimulate open and youthful minds to develop a truly
scientific geomorphology. The fact that the text asks more
questions than it answers points up the need for more penetrat-
ing research than geomorphologists are likely to deem essential.
The hope is that a science hardly advanced beyond the swaddling
clothes stage will mature and on the basis of merit attain its
potential of being sound, respected, and useful. It should not
continue to follow degenerative paths toward becoming little
more than an aid in describing scenery. This viewpoint is
similar to one that I expressed in presidential addresses before
the Association of Americ:m Geographers and the Geological
Society of America. My concluding statement in the Hitchcock
Lectures at the University of California in 1965 repeated the
Printed in Japan hope.
i
II 1I1
The effect of the influence of William Morris Davis, who is necessary to solve essential, fundamental problems underlying
usually considered as the father of American geomorphology, the dynamics of rock deformation. This is something where
was to divert students away from truly scientific research, such most progress to date has been made by specialists in other
as was rather characteristic of the nineteenth century, into super- fields, many of whom have been engaged in penetrating inquiries.
ficial inquiries centered on stages of development in cycles of It is not enough to know the physics and chemistry of bedrock,
erosion, a scheme that Davis advocated for many decades with nor how rock behaves when subjected to mechanical tests.
much precise logic. Research was concerned with end products, Research must emphasize underlying causes, extending into the
hypothetical forms of the surface, while the investigation of physical chemistry of minerals on the scale of examining their
datails of morphological processes lapsed into almost complete crystal lattices, and into changes related to time as well as to
somnolence. local environments.
Professor Yatsu specifically commends Filip Hjulstrom, Rock alterability ordinarily depends on the fact that minerals
Sundborg, Strahler, Wolman and Miller, Leopold and Langbein, are stable in the environments where they originated, but are
Chorley, Glover, Dury, and Hack for their contributions toward altered readily when the environment is changed. In the case
developing a more meaningful geomorphology. But the emphasis of a metamorphic rock formed at considerable depth and later
in the book centers on the contributions of people such as H. brought to the surface, for example, it is necessary to realize
W. Anderson, P. F. Kerr, F. J. Turner, F. Birch, D. Griggs, T. V. that such generalizations must be accepted with caution, because
Karman, A. W. Skempton, L. Bjerrum, R. Grim, M. A. Melton, numerous exceptions may be cited. While it is generally true
E. Penner, D. J. Varnes, and Karl Terzaghi. In addition many that sedimentary rocks of the orthoquartzite series are more
Japanese are cited, most of whom have published in English. stable than those of the arkose-graywacke series in surface
While some of these names will be recognized by' American environments, specific examples must be subjected to a variety
geomorphologists, probably few have intimate knowledge of of inquiries and tests before one knows whether the rule is
their contributions. It is high time that they do! being followed.
In progressing from superficial "explanatory descriptions," Professor Yatsu is by no means suggesting that geomorphol-
advocated by Davis, toward more meaningful studies of land ogy must be developed by people in other disciplines. He notes
forms, many geomorphologists, indeed, have struck out in new that while the main contributors of fundamental information to
directions. Climatic geomorphology, currently in vogue in date have been people such as chemists, geophysicists, pedologists,
Europe and to some extent in America, is regarded by Professor and mechanical engineers, once the geomorphologists get down
Yatsu as but one interesting approach, rather than an end in to business and think in terms of fundamental processes, their
itself. Its practitioners are likely to be concerned with broad contributions will surpass in value those of allied specialists.
features of landscapes and to regard rock types and structures It is sincerely hoped that this text will be found on the
as interesting only because they influence forms of micro-relief. shelves of all institutions where geology, geomorphology, or
Interpretations of aerial photographs, and we might add, other engineering are included in the curriculum. Its content should
forms of remote sensing, although useful, will never provide be understood by all advanced students in geomorphology and
the information needed to understand the origin of land forms. by civil or architectural engineers concerned with the design
Dependence on mathematical elegance offers little more than of structures resting on the ground, the location of highways,
the highly logical deductive approach of Davis, at least until railways, tunnels, and dams, as well as mining engineers
sufficient knowledge has accumulated concerning all processes involved in planning underground workings or open-pit
involved. This requires detailed observation and analysis, both excavations. Its bibliography contains about seventeen pages
on the ground and in the laboratory, where it requires the use of useful references, and in itself is an excellent guide to the
of modern equipment. acquisition of useful information.
To develop anything like an ultimate geomorphology it is While serving as a visiting professor in the Department of
IV
III. MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS .... ..... ..... .......... .. ...... . .... .. 45
3.1. Strength of Solid Rocks .. .. ............................................ 45
3.1.1. Definition of Strength ... .... .. ....... .. ............ .. .......... 45
3.1.2. Classification of Disintegration .. ... .. .. ......... ... ......... 45
3.2. Failure of Rocks by Static Load·· ··· ········ ·········· ·· ···· ···· ··· 46
3.2.1. Rheological Behavior of Rocks .............................. 46
3.2.2. Theories of Fracture of Rocks ... .. ... .......... ............ 47
3.2.3. Time Dependance of Deformation and Fracture ·· ···· 47
3.2.4. Conditions which influence the Strength of Rocks··· 51
Vill
geomorphology nor to treat in detail the methods of geomor- to fluvial geomorphology, while a crowd of geomorphologists
phology. In this connection, several textbooks are very easily became apostles of Davis. So we look forward to the researches
accessible so that the author wishes to leave the trifling and by young students of this school (Sundborg, 1956). Recently a
delicate details to them, and he intends only to summarize his group of American geomorphologists have intensively developed
personal opinions about the problems. Such a brief epitome analytical and dynamic researches in this science, and it seems
might be necessary, preliminary to the following discussions of to be a resurgence of Gilbert's idea (1914) and the influence of
section 1. 2. a late American engineer, Horton (1945). Their contribution in
Considering the development of geomorphology, it was a two decades should be highly appreciated (Strahler, 1952 ;
topology of forms of land surface and had devoted itself to the Wolman and Miller, 1960; Leopold and Langbein, 1962; Chorley,
definitions and classifications of land forms, just as phytology, 1962; Glover, 1964; Dury, 1964; Hack, 1965) .
which used to be taxonomy or plant morphology in its first stage. It is true that climatic geomorphology, which has been quite
It is a matter for congratulation that our geomorphology has in vogue recently, has contributed greatly to the study of geo-
developed into comparative embryology as phytology has done morphology. It is, of course, a very excellent approach to this
into embryology and then into physiology. But alas! Our science. However, the writer wonders whether this method,
geomorphology has strayed into that fanciful theory of Davis. popular in recent times, is not merely a systematization of simple
What a deplorable thing this is for the appropriate development observations, and he feels that there is some limitation to this
of geomorphology! approach. In the domain of geomorphology, there are many
The principal role of gemorphology is, of course, in studying phenomena very difficult to observe or measure in a short while,
the evolution of land forms. The history of the development of so it is natural that we should use the historical approach to the
land forms is thought of as consisting of two forces-an endoge- study of geomorphology. Most of the researchers occupied with
nic process or endogenic factor, for example, crustal movements this kind of historical approach, however, are sadly lacking in
and intrusion of igneous body; and an exogenic process, such the sense of modern science, and have no knowledge of 19th
as erosion, transportation and sedimentation. These two forces, century chemistry and do not even understand the Mechanics
moreover, have changed their intensity in the course of the of Newton. And how many of these researchers there are in
development of the earth. Exogenic processes are especially the world! Their theory is composed of mere deductions. They
influenced by climatic environments which change as time passes. fall into a chain reaction of empty imaginations, though trying
It is true that there is a land form of fault. Everybody agrees to shake themselves out of Davis' theory.
readily and without any hesitation that a shatter zone is weak The writer contributed to the first number of Applied
and likely to be erosible. Then, why is the shatter zone weak? Geography on how applied geomorphology should be, under the
How is it eroded? On what does this weakness depend? Fur- title of "Les caracteres fondamentaux de la geomorphologie
thermore, what is the mechanism of erosion? In answering these appliquee" (Yatsu, 1959). At present, some researchers of
questions, many geomorphologists cheat their students, flourish- applied geomorphology seem very enthusiastic about drawing
ing their abstract explanations or their own imaginations without maps of land form classification or geomorphological maps and
any intention of scrutinizing the true nature of the matter. Do seeking the way of their expression. It might be very handy to
they not have any ability of understanding the true nature of the users of those maps. But, if they were too much concerned
matters? Or do they have any eagerness to do so? Are they with the way of expression and too much fascinated with the
not ashamed of themselves as scientists? beauty of color in maps, they might be artists. It is as if they
Professor Filip Hjulstrom (1935) should be worthy of our were practicing flower arrangement(Ikebana) . Geomorphological
greatest respect, for he has built up the school of Uppsala with maps would be of little use unless they contained not only
his lofty ideal for science and integrity, doing researches into classifications of land forms, but also dynamic and physical
exogenic process and its application to geomorphology, especially characteristics of the matters that compose land forms. Those
SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY Rock Control Problems 5
4
would be, as it were, maps needed for travelers or useless of studying the properties of rocks. Some have declared that
guidebooks for those engineers who are to do some work with the general features of land forms are determined by climatic
them. It might be better for geomorphologists to be indulged environments and have insisted that rock control is only import-
in fantasy with those maps on their laps, to make some guesses ant in micro-configuration.
at land forms looking at air photograph, to observe sometimes Davis thought that structures, processes and stage are the
outcrops in the fields, or to take a survey of the whole panora- dominant factors in the formation of topography (Davis, 1899).
ma of land forms from the top of mountains. But be careful! This concept was correct and adequate. His concept of the. term
They need to be careful not to degrade into studying the stage, however, was of imaginary time in a fanciful cycle. He
"Science of Scenery}' deceived his followers, giving merely verbal descriptions to
It is necessary to introduce dynamics into geomorphology so various processes which were easily accepted. This trend was
I
that this science may rank among modern sciences. It is an extremely regrettable digression and forced the advancement
I.
"I natural, of course, that geomorphology cannot be explained in of geomorphology to be enormously retarded compared with the
il
every respect by dynamics, but at least, dynamics is essential advancements of the other natural sciences.
I to the explanation of processes of exogenic agents. Geomor- Many books juggle to substitute the concept of structure
phology should be much obliged to mathematicians and hydro- control for that of rock control, or consider the latter to be a
dynamists for their participation in the study of it. In their factor of lower degree than the former, although they distinguish
case, it is absolutely necessary that they should use their ma- them from each other. Is it really adequate to depreciate
thematical approaches but only after they have understood the the problems of rock control in comparison with structural
full intrinsic 'phenomena of geomorphology. If not, their ap- control?
proaches would be a science of fantasy. The system of the study To this question the writer wishes to reply with this anta-
of geomorphology has no need for smartness or elegance. It is gonistic question. Imagine the thick deposition of completely
the fundamental nature of land forms that should be made homogeneous and isotropic strata followed by diastrophisms
clear (Yatsu, 1964). such as tilting, folding, faulting, etc. Consider that these strata
do not lose the characteristics of their homogeneity and isotropy
in spite of such crustal movements. Is any structure reflected
1.2. Rock Control Problems in the topography in this case?
1.2.1. Rock Control Problems and its Former Researches. In brief, It is common in nature that strata different in physico-chemi-
rock control theory is concerned with the influences of rock cal characteristics alternate, and that these strata are deformed
properties on the formation of land forms. The problem of by diastrophism to produce folds, faults, cracks, joints, shatter
rock control has been considered as a geomorphological concept zones and so on, which give anisotropic parts to these strata.
for a very long time, and the writer believes it began with the Furthermore, two kinds of rocks or strata of different strength
start of geomorphology; therefore it is not a new concept. are commonly in contact with each other unconformably. This
However, according to many books and reports on this subject, is the reason why structures are reflected in land forms. In
it is, strictly speaking, treated as structure control such as other words, it results from the anisotropy and non-homogeneity
distribution of strata, folds, faults, unconformities and so forth, of the materials forming land forms that the structures give the
although the reports sometimes deal with the physical and chem- important influences upon the topography. The existence of the
ical properties of rocks which compose layers. Their treat- anisotropy and non-homogeneity, namely differences in rock
ment of this difficult subject is considerably rough, and some of properties, enables us to acknowledge the structures. Is this
those researchers, even while saying with a nonchalant air that not a correct opinion? It is more general and more adequate
geological structure is a dominant control factor in the evolu- to state that the structures are reflected in land form because
tion of land forms and is reflected in them, have no intention of the differ~nce in strength or erosibility of rocks; therefore
mm
100.0
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6 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
20.0 IX ' I I 1+
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~ S", Cl."i 90 ("
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Ig Kalhleen Typhoon Sept 13 -16 1947",-
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i
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AMIZUMA ' " , Mean low 'waler level from 1928 10 ~
W-
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1937
~~~g;~nal prof ile of river G) 0
20
0 _6 - 4 - 2 0 2 4 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 a 2 4 a 2 4 a 2 4;
o 10 20 30 40 50 60. 70 80. 90 100 llOkm F ig. 1-d. Cumulative-frequency curves with class units in phi terms of the
Fig. I-b. Longitudinal profile of Kinu River. deposits of Watarase River and Kinu River. Y-axis expresses the
weight percentage. Sampling localities are indicated on each
graph by the distance.
Rock Control Problems 9
8 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
601-++f+.+I++I+++I
40J-.IIC++I++1+++I
201IHd-+I+ i-l-H-H
oti.lJ...l.J=J...]:,j,.ij
- 8 -6-4- 2024 - 6- 4- 2024 -2 0 2 4 6
forms due to the kind and magnitude of forces, velocity and mechanical characteristics of rocks, soil, clay and so forth. It
duration of their application. It is, therefore, very ridiculous and may be a good idea to perform ordinary mechanical experiments.
meaningless that the properties of the materials that constitute That is the first step in our research anyway, although we
land forms should be treated independently of the agents acting should not remain satisfied with these experiments. We must
on them. solve the fundamental and essential problems that underlie
apparent mechanical characters, the problems of mechanism of
1.2.4. An Approach to the Rock Control Problems. We must return rupture of solids, of cohesion and repulsion, of electrical double
to the subject of rock control. Indeed, the study of exogenic layer structure in the colloidal state, of · adsorption, etc. Based
processes is remarkably advanced, but the writer doubts if upon physics of solid state, surface chemistry and the quantum
surface materials of the earth affected by processes are taken theory of matter, we must study the surface materials of the
up dynamically and physico-chemically in the light of modern earth to solve the above-mentioned problems. This approach
science. Such an approach might be very difficult, of course. will not only develop the rock control theory, but also will
When even the same rocks are affected by different forces, offer accurate information about surface materials of the earth,
their resistance and strength become different according to the which is needed by engineers. This is the rock control theory
kind or quantity of forces as mentioned above. The study of in its real sense.
rocks like elastic bodies or visco-elastic bodies has been made
by many researchers. Dynamics takes up and studies the stress A doodle: Geomorphologists have been trying to answer the what,
and strain of rocks as isotropic and sometimes orthotropic ma- where, and when of things, but they have seldom tried to ask how.
And they have never asked why. It is a great mystery why they
terials. Rocks .behave as elastic bodies with a rapid application
have never asked why.
of forces, but when they are affected by gradual forces, they
undergo plastic deformation. The former case results in fault-
ing, whereas the latter case results in folding. How do surface
REFERENCES
materials of the earth behave themselves toward the exogenic
forces? What about soil? What about clay? In what categories
of British Rheologist's Club can we put them? The writer, CHORLEY, RI., 1962, Geomorphology and general systems theory, U.S.G.S.
however, cannot be quite satisfied with rheology itself unless Prof. Paper, 500B, p.10.
I it has a close connection with molecular theory. In general, DAVIS, W.M., 1899, The geographical cycle, Geogr. Jour., vol. 14, pp. 481-
I'
dynamics takes up a small portion of mass, calculates the SOL
equilibrium in that small portion, estimates the deformation, DURY, G.H., 1964, Principles of underfit streams, U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper, 452
and solves the differential equations of this small portion as a A, p.67.
continuous body. Thus it presupposes the continuity of materials, GILBERT, G.K., 1914, The transportation of debris by running water, U.S.
but it is a macro-view or a simple statistical method. It is true G.S. Prof. Paper, 86, p. 363.
that in hydrodynamics we might not need to take into consid- GLOVER, RE., 1964, Dispersion of dissolved or suspended materials in
flowing streams, U.S.G.s. Prof. Paper, 433B, p. 32.
eration behaviors of a water molecule one by one. But in the
HACK, I.T., 1965, Geomorphology of Shenandoah Valley Virginia and
case of mechanics of rupture, creep and sloppy mud, a macro-
Origin of the residual ore deposits, U. S. G. S. Prof. Paper,
view cannot solve various problems. Soil mechanics and rock 484, p.84.
mechanics are now both deadlocked. Is there anyone who HJULSTRiiM, F., 1935, Studies of the morphological activity of rivers as
wants to struggle in order to find some key to these difficult illustrated by the River Fyris, Bull. Geol. Inst. Uppsala, vol.
problems? 25, pp. 321-532.
It is essential for geomorphologists, especially for those who HORTON, RE., 1945, Erosional development of streams and their drainage
deal with problems of rock control, to be acquainted with the basins ; hydrophysical approach to quantitaive morphology,
14 SIGNIFICANCE OF ROCK CONTROL IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
I, weathering processes.
Weathering is generally defined as the disintegration or
16 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH A:lterability of Rocks 17
decomposition of rock in place by external forces. In view of importance. For example, repeating stresses may introduce
the fact that the materials become more easily eroded, the fatigue failure. The problems are complicated but interesting.
changes in the properties of rocks by endogenic agents such There are few articles which discuss the resistance of rocks
as hydrothermal alteration and diastrophism, which causes the to shattering action. It is possible to compare their relative
fragmentation of rocks, are as much worthy of attention as the resistance in areas where various kinds of rocks are exposed
fragmentation and wearing resulting from movements ih the near each other and where they are broken by the same faulting
flowing media. Therefore, whether changes occur in place action. Mudstone, shale, and limestone easily undergo plastic
or during transportation, or whether by exogenic or endogenic deformation and are usually not shattered. On the other hand,
forces, we must study all of the phenomena of these changes such hard but brittle rocks as slate, granite, and diorite are
in the chemical and mechanical properties of rocks and debris; conspicuously shattered. Rock mechanics will offer experimental
that is, all transitions from materials difficult to be eroded into data about these problems.
Ii:I I
the highly erosible ones. Such a transition is called alteration, Although extensive precise studies are often revealed in
and the ease of this transition might be designated "alterability." the mineralogical literature, they always concern merely the
The writer does not like to coin a new word, because so many problems of successive changes of minerals. Very few articles
geomorphologists are patients of definition-mania that a serious (Takahashi et at., 1963) discuss the strength changes as the
confusion of technical terms occurs . in geomorphology. Davis rocks undergo hydrothermal alterations. This problem is also
was the most grave case. We must control the issuance of very interesting to geomorphologists who must be well
licenses for technical jargon and discard them. acquainted with mechanical and engineering methods to
Most textbooks on geomorphology divide the geomorphological investigate it.
processes in two parts, exogenic and endogenic, and consider
the processes of weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition 2.1.2. Methods of Studying Alterability. In order to study the
as the former, and crustal movements (epeirogenic and orogenic) degree of alteration, the following characteristics are very useful
and volcanism as the latter. The above usage has overlooked and effective:
the decomposition and fragmentation by hydrothermal reaction 1. Changes of chemical composition and optical properties,
and diastrophism, since geomorphologists are not so much 2. Degree of fragmentation,
interested in the actual materials which form the · topography. 3. Elasticity or velocity of dilatational waves in fresh
Is this not a great mistake of geomorphologists, who pretend to bedrock compared with those of their weathered parts.
be much interested in facts of rock control by verbal expressions, Weathering of minerals is also investigated by X-ray analysis
but who will not try to really recognize the rock control itself? and electron diffraction by electron microscope, all of which
Alteration naturally includes such processes as: reveal changes in the crystal lattice.
1. Weathering, In the processes of alteration, unstable minerals disappear
2. Wear, disintegration by impaction and decomposition, very early, whereas the resistant minerals remain until a later
3. Production of mylonite, breccia, gouge, and formation of stage. Sedimentary rocks are C(jlmposed of resistant allogenic
fissures and joints by various stresses, and authigenic minerals. The latter is thought of as stable
4. Alteration of minerals by hydrothermal reactions and during diagenesis, although generally unstable during the
formation of clay minerals with a resulting decrease in processes of weathering.
the strength of rocks. It is very difficult to measure the velocity of weathering
When minerals and rocks undergo these processes, their attitudes in natural conditions. Geomorphology always depends upon
depend not only upon their species but upon the function of very questionable velocity values in respect to this point. The
the kind, intensity, duration, and circumstance of action. Wheth- investigations of old buildings, walls and monuments of various
er the processes are continuous or intermittent assumes great kinds of rocks, the date of inauguration of which are known
' ;<
18 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibility 19
exactly, will give the data for this question to some degree. The stability of minerals will be mentioned briefly. In case
Some 80 years ago Geikie (1880) already made a survey of of the weathering processes of igneous rocks, olivines most
dated tombstones in Edinburgh. Volcanic rocks, ashes and easily undergo chemical alteration, followed in increasing order·
recent moraines are good materials to investigate to measure of stability by pyroxenes, hornblendes and biotites among mafic
the velocity of weathering processes. Soil scientists seem to minerals. This order is thought to be the same as the crystal
have been more interested in this problem and to have made differentiation series. Concerning feldspar, calcic plagioclases
more researches than geomorphologists (Jenny, 1940). are more easily affected by chemical weathering than alkali
feldspars such as albites and orthoclases, and microclines are
2.1.3. Some Problems on the Alteration. Concerning the problems also considered stable. Quartz and muscovite are conspicuously
of hydrothermal alteration, some papers have discussed those durable to weathering processes. Silicate minerals formed at
in Hawaii, U. S. A. and Japan. The clay derived from this low temperature are relatively stable, whereas those formed at
reaction sometimes is given attention from the engineering high pressure and temperature are, to the contrary, unstable in
point of view because of its swelling properties. Clays such the circumstance of the ordinary temperature and pressure at
as montmorillonite or mixed layer minerals of montmorillonite or near the earth's surface.
and illite or others in the Hakone volcanic region give rise to However, it is not correct to consider these series as adequate
the rupture· of tunnel linings and to the occurrence of landslides. under every condition. For instance, calcite is very easily
Turner explained in detail the structure of metamorphic dissolved in humid regions that are rich in vegetation and
tectonite and his book is very useful for geomorphologists in water, whereas calcite plays the role of a resistant mineral in
understanding the formation of tectonite by the stresses of dry regions without vegetation. Among the clay minerals
shearing, compression and tension (Turner and Weiss, 1963). produced by weathering processes as stable residuals, kaolinites
Keller (1955) summarized many papers on chemical weathering. are stable in acid environments, while montmorillonites remain
Some selected references, which the students have to scan unchanged in alkali condition. These two clay minerals, how-
will be given at the end of this chapter. Solubility of rock ever, are unstable during diagenesis under sea water and are
forming minerals depends on their components. Monovalent gradually converted into illites or chlorites.
ions are leached out more quickly than divalent ones; the latter Authigenic minerals such as gypsum, apatite, glauconite,
I more quickly than trivalent ones, and Al and Si remain to form zeolite, chlorite, albite, etc. are stable during diagenesis, whereas
they are unstable during weathering as mentioned above.
clay minerals. The hydrogen ion concentration of environments,
II however, has great importance in this case. The larger the Throughout the processes of weathering, transportation,
surface per unit mass and the higher the temperature, the deposition, and diagenesis, the stable minerals are clay minerals,
quicker the chemical reaction is in general. A unit of mass quartz, chert, muscovite, tourmaline, zircon, brookite, and anatase,
will acquire a larger surface if it is crushed into finer particles. which occur either as allogenic or as authigenic minerals in the
Chemical reaction occurs on the surface of the material, thus sediments.
the finer materials pulverized by processes of mechanical
weathering undergo various chemical reactions very easily. 2.2. Erosibility
The platy voids in the solid whose surfaces are parallel to
crystal lattice planes are called cleavage. If the voids in the In the preceding section, the alterability or its antonym,
solid have linear or irregular forms, this solid is referred to as stability of rock forming minerals were discussed. This section
porous. If water contained in the voids is frozen, the solids will deal with the susceptibility to erosion, namely erosibility of
are extremely disintegrated. The BET method is the most the mass of disintegrated particles pulverized and decomposed
convenient and exact one for determining the specific surface from fresh rocks. Moreover, the behavior of solid rocks to
(Brunauer et at., 1938). various agents will be illustrated by some examples.
(
:A ~ )!. i Erosibility 21
20 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH
2.2.1. Soil Properties and Soil Erosion. Human activities often dispersion, called the ultimate silt plus clay. Also, he measured
accelerate geological erosion of the surface materials of the the colloid percent by the water vapor absorption method and
earth. This accelerated erosion is called soil erosion. There moisture equivalent. These physical measurements · were ex-
are several types of soil erosion such as rain wash erosion, pressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the soil fraction,
gully erosion, and wind deflation. Soil scientists have contributed less than 2 mm in diameter. His dispersion ratio and erosion
much more to this problem than geomorphologists. ratio are as follows:
As Baver (1956) has stated, soil erosion of the first type is suspension percent
Dispersion ratio ultimate silt plus clay
due to dispersive action and transporting power of rain wash
water which is affected by rainfall characteristics, slope and ·
E rOSIOn t' dispersion ratio
ra IO = ratIo
. 0 f co ll'd
01 percent to mOis. t ure eqUlva
. Ient
area of the land, vegetation cover, and soil properties. From
this relationship, we obtain the partial derivative with respect Anderson studied 14 watersheds of the Coast Range in southern
to soil properties as the subject of this section. When rainfall California, and he expressed the relationship between erosibility
intensity exceeds infiltration capacity (Horton, 1933), runoff and physical characteristics of soils as in Table 1. The physical
occurs. Many geomorphologists stress the relationship between measurements suggested by Middleton, he noticed, could be
infiltration capacity and drainage texture. According to Baver, recommended as a good index of soil erosibility. He illustrated
the effect of soil factors on erosion may be summarized as the aptness of his equation by comparing the calculated erosion
follows: to measured erosion for some watersheds as in Fig. 3.
E=K~D Table 1. Equations relating physical characteristics of soils and
APp cover density to erosion (after Anderson, 1951).
where K: proportionality constant Equation Correlation
No. Equation 1 coefficient
D: an index of the ease of dispersion
A: an expression of the infiltration 'capacity of the 1. Log Es=3. 073-2. 430 log C+3. 427 log DR .888
2. Log Es=4. 786-2. 486 log C+2. 473 log ER .878
soil surface 3. Log Es=l1. 461-2. 524 log C+2.189Iog S-3. 288Iog(si+cl) .849
P: permeability of the soil profile Coll
4. Log Es=2. 127-2. 341 logC+3.861 logDR+1. 353 Iog ME .890
p: size of soil particles 5. Log Es = 10.279 -1. 788 log C+ 1. 151 log S-3. 164 log Coll .854
Musgrave (1947) has stressed the difficulty of expressing the
lEs=Average suspended sediment content of stream flow in ppm; C=
erosibility of soils by single numerals. Woodburn and Kozachyn average cover density on watershed, per cent; DR=Dispersion Ratio, ER=
(1956) studied Mississippi gully soils and stated as follows: it Erosion Ratio; S=Suspension; si+cl= Ultimate Silt plus Clay; Coll = Colloid,
appears that soils vary widely in their resistance to erosion as ME=Moisture Equivalent; and log= logarithms to base 10.
determined by any method· .. loose sandy material from different
geologic sources had about the same erosion potential regardless Anderson (1954) defined the surface-aggregation ratio as
of the method of evaluation. In general splash erosion increased follows: surface area on soil particles of sand and coarser size
with an increase in sand content of the soil. Aggregate stability ( >0.05 mm in diameter) divided by the aggregated silt plus
decreased with increasing sand content. clay; surface area is obtained by considering the particles as
Anderson (1951) expressed the erosibility of soils by using spheres and assigning mean diameters of 7. 5, 3. 5 and O. 9 mm
Middleton's dispersion ratio and erosion ratio. A correct concept to greater than 5. 0, 2. 0 to 5. 0, and O. 05 to 2. 0 mm particle-size
is very important in researches, although it seems to be classes respectively; aggregated silt plus clay is the ultimate
extremely rudimentary and simple at first. What is Middleton's silt plus clay minus the suspension percent. He applied the
idea? Middleton (1930) determined the silt plus clay in the soil same method to the investigation of soil erosion in . western
in the absence of chemical or mechanical dispersion, called the Oregon and northern California (1961) and concluded that the
suspension percent, and the silt plus clay after standard soil erosibility index is significantly related to soil-geologic rock
22 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibility 23
0
1
;/ What is the aggregation? It seems to be indispensable for
studying soil erosibility to solve the clay-mineralogical and
B
6 / 1
physico-chemical problems on erosibility itself. If not, the
erosion ratio is merely a simple, apparent, and statistical thing.
1/ Note: - There is much qualitative and indirect evidence that high
m
~~~~I\~~et vai~~~e a1.j tlo-
V fe rtility does reduce soil erosion losses. It is, as Peterson (1961)
2~ pointed out, partly because fertile soils can grow excellent
11 2 4 6810 20 406080100
11111 200
vegetation cover that reduces erosion, and on the other hand,
@MEASURED SUSPENDED SEDI MENT-IN THOUSANDS ppm because highly fertile soils generally have better tillage than
Fig. 3. Relation of calculated erosion to measured erosion for some their depleted counterparts. Higher fertility moreover will
south coastal watersheds in California (after Anderson, 1951). reduce soil erosion through more organic residues, more active
Table 2. Soil-geologic sequences of physical soil characteristics soil flora and fauna, and higher soil organic matter contents.
and erosibility for major soil-geologic types: Santa Maria Regarding wind erosion of soils, three major factors are
and Santa Ynez Basin, California (after Anderson, 1951) . involved; wind velocity, nature of the surface, and soil properties.
Geology' jSuspen- Ultimate Silt
sion plus Clay
Moisture Dispersion Erosion Relative
Colloid equivalent Ratio Ratio erosibility2
Among the last two, the most important factors are the
Percent Percent Percent Percent aggregation of soils which undergoes soil erosion and the
Miocene
Continental 19.5 39.3 11. 3 11. 9 49.6 52.2 100 conditions of the state of soils, especially soil water content,
(sandstones)
Quaternary because erosion by wind only occurs in dry regions. Aggregation
terrace deposits 16.1 37.9 19.5 14.5 42.5 31. 6 59
(limestone) of soils depends upon the content of clay and organic materials,
Upper Cretac·
eous sediments 22.4 61. 3 27.5 26.5 36.6 35 . 2 35 clay mineral species, and physico-chemical properties of soils.
(shale)
Middle Mio· We will skip their considerations.
~:dfm~nat~ine 15. 1 66.1 36.0 25.8 '23.2 16.8 7.4'
(shales and
sandstone) 2.2.2. Landslips and Slope Rupture. Both terms indicate different
Upper Eocene
marine sedi- 15.2 94. 1 39.0 23.4 16.1 9.6 2.12
types of slope failure. Civil engineers commonly combine them
ments (shale) into one term, landslide, whose meaning is different from Sharpe's
Lower Cretac-
:~drm~:{;ne 5.1 36.2 31.4 16.3 14.1 7.3 1.34 concept (1938). The word "landslip" is almost the same as
(shale) "earth flow" in Sharpe's classification of mass wasting. In
'From Geologic Map of California, Jenkins, 1938. Parenthetical section 4. 2. 5., the reason why the writer challenges the use
expressions were from field observations at th~ particular places where
of Sharpe's terminology will be demonstrated. Landslips imply
soil samples were taken.
'From Equation 1, Table 1, with Miocene Continental geology taken plastic deformation and flow of the mass wastes that compose
as 100. the slopes of the protuberant parts of the earth. Even landslips
'The standard deviation of the Dispersion Ratios of this soil·geo- with much aspect of flow are extremely different from the
logic type, with five replications, was 2. 1, that is about 9 percent of
behavior of volcanic mud flows or mud flows in arid zones..
the mean, indicating little variation within the geologic type.
(
.5 '"
bJJ
a.E
indicated (Yatsu, 1965 a).
In the phenomenon of landslips, day minerals seem to play 'en"
'+<
0
important and fundamental roles of rock control. Clay minerals en
neither occur nor participate in slope failures of the rupture type. :~
Slip planes or slip surfaces sometimes exist very distinctly,
irrespective of the forms they may assume, and along these
'...9"
u
-0
C
planes occur clayey materials which some call landslip clay. ~
OJ
en
The writer is rather inclined to name this "slip surface clay" .0 \':
3u
and reserve "landslip clay" for the clay minerals in the land- OJ
..c
mass or waste of landslips and in the bedrocks, including II)
the slip surface clay. When it is realized that from the '"c
mineralogical point of view, there is no difference between the -5'"
clay minerals of slip surfaces and those in the waste or in ~
OJ
>-l
13. Iwama, Nishiyashiro-gun, Yamanashi-ken M. - - L Q. ::<:
0:1
14. Shimogawara, Minamikoma-gun, Yamanashi-ken M. - - H. Q.
15. Yui, Ihara-gun, Shizuoka-ken sw. ChI. Chl.~L L Q.
~
~
>-l
16. Honden, Kanaya, Shizuoka-ken M. M.~L L K. Q. ::<:
17. Mae, Onsenmachi, Hyogo-ken M. sw. ChI. M.+L L Q. *F
IS. Imafuku, Matsuura-shi, Nagasaki-ken M. M.~L L H. Q.
19. Akedo, Hirato-shi, Nagasaki-ken M. I. Q.
Legend Al : Alunite ChI : Chlorite Chr: Chrysot ile Cr: Cristobalite F: Feldspar H .. Halloysite
I : Illite K: Kaolinite M: Montmorillonite Q: Quartz T: Talc Z : Zeolite
+ : Regular mixed layer minerals ~: Irregular mixed layer minerals ~
Goth ic: Principal component *: Minor component --J
28 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibility 29
r,
M
<.D
en
,....,
'"
"'5
H
<1)
f-<
H
l!
oJ
'-'
oJ
;.0
0
..c
E
oJ
U
+0
0
C
..c: Fig. 7-a . Regular mixed layer clay minerals of illite and intermediate clay
f-<
..!<: mineral of (V-M) . These are the clay minerals that presented great
<1)
.....0
00
<1)
u
!l
H
2:i
<1)
E Dried in ai r
.8u
oJ
H
:::::
;.0
>.
oJ
';<
:x:
<.D
t>D
ii: Swelled with H 2 0
28
o 5 10
LI__~__~__L-~_ _-LI__~__~~__~__~I Ka
o
Fig. 7-b. X-ray diffractometer traces of swelling clay minerals, Prek Thnot
(after Teruta, 1963)
J ---~-- ------~------------------------------------------------------------~--
32 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibil ity 33
"N0 " detected by Yatsu (1965 b). He also examined the glacial tills
S' ..,. I"
O N
--
~
bD
<l!
>
I
'-../ ~
bD
<l!
.~
......
0oj
I
;:,:: > '-../
J
'-../ 0
oj
~
0
'"
;:,::
'" OJ 0;
0'" Ll.. U
tills are illites, montmorillonites, chlorites and kaolinites.
g "0..,. Glacial tills are very different from each other in mineral
"..,.
.--<
U
0 Q '-../
en
C/
<.0
'..../
.--<
composition, even in adjacent areas. Leda clay near Ottawa
0 '-../
0
en --0-
N
""cri N
consists mainly of illites ; · clay minerals of landslip areas in
cri
-- x x x "'" Manitoba consists of illites and montmorillonites (Warkentin,
"<.0
.--< "<.0
N
"..,.
N "NN "..,. """
"" ..,. 1961) . Leda clay is said to be a marine deposit saturated
U
0 Q ..,.
'-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
00
'-../
<.0
'-../
.--< with calcium and magnesium ions. Mechanical experiments
""cD
'-../ L()
0 0 0 N N M N
0
--0- 0.--< cri with quick clays indicate a very low value of interval friction
'" cri cri
t"-
X X
- - angle (Bjerrum, 1961). However, it seems more reasonable to
g "0 "..,. "
<.0 "NN "en
t"- "..,. "Nen
U
0 Q ..,.
C/ ""
'-../
<.0
'-../
.--<
'..../ '-../ '-../
<.0
'-../ '-../ classify the flowslide of post-glacial clays in terms of mudflows
t"- t"- .--<
""en <.0
'-../ L() L()
0 en N N L() N 0 (4. 2. 5., 4. 3. 5.) .
0
--o- cr> cri cri ""cri cri cri
'"
L()
<'-.
"'" In general, swelling clay minerals are more or less contained
g "0
L()
"M
.--< "..,.
t"- "
oo
.--<
"t"- "<.0 "..,.
00
L() "<.0 L() in the landslip clays. Even though its value is small it is
U Q C/ '-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
""en
'-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
anticipated that this one should change the mechanical charac-
~<-~-I
0 L() 00 L() t- .--<
'-../ <.0 L()
0 N en N N N 0
""cri
L()
0
00 .,;- o : r-: cri cri cri cri teristics of clays. Clays typical in Israel show a seasonal
- -
X .--< X
"'" "'" swelling, and their liquid limit is 81 and the plastic index is
"..,. "en
L()
L() g "<.0 "..,. L()
"00 ".--<
L()
<.0 "0..,. "00 "00 "t"- L()
54. These clays consist mainly of montmorillonite, thus the
U
0 Q '-../ '-../ C/ 00
'-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
t-
<.0
'-../
en
'-../ '-../
""
'-../
0
0
'-../
0
00
t"- '"<.0 <.0 .--<
00
00 I .--<
0 N L()
L()
'"
L()
.--<
L()
0 foundation of these areas is very unstable (Geitlen and Komornik,
N --0- <.0 N 0.--< r-: cD cri cri cri cri
1961). The badland areas that supply large amounts of debris
--
N
"'"
rl rl
"'"
"en
N
g "en "..,. "..,.en
00 .--< "<.0
.--< "m..,. ".--<
<.0
"00 C) "<.0
t"-
to the Jordan River (Shattner, 1960) probably have the same
U
o Q '-../
..,. 0 '-'
C/ ..,. '-../ '-../
..,.
'-' '-' '-../ '.../ '.../
type of clay minerals and are a probable area of landslips.
S
'-../
0 N 0 C
.--<
00 I 0 I L()
L()
L()
'"
0
N
L()
0
The swelling clay minerals in the Transvaal region of South
.-< .,;- <.0 cD cri 0.--< r-: cD cri cri cri cri
N .--< rl
.,;-
0
,....;
N
..,.
L()
N
rl
~ <--I r-: L()
N I <.0
0
cD
I eno
L()L()
MM '"
cri
<.0
x x
the civil engineering point of view. The Prek Thnot earth
dam encountered very difficult problems of swelling soils (The
- -
"<.0 ,.,.--...., r--.,r---- r--.
"M.--< "00
t-
------
" "..,. "0 Prek Thnot Investigation Team, 1962), and a part of the
G:~~~
L()
U Q '"
'.../ '--..-/'-../'-.-/'-../ '-../ '-../
'"en '" '"
'-../ '-../ '-../ construction method had to be changed. Teruta (1963)
:r: '-../
C)
Cf)OO~t-
C'\l~-.::r~
<.0
.--<
L()
N I I I L()
L()
M
.--<
N
investigated this clay which was derived from Triassic arkose
--0- cri m-.:::i~~ 0.--< r-: cri cri cri
--
N
~~ X sandstone. The yellow clays of this area are covered by lateritic
"..,. g "" "00 "t"- "oo
<.0 N<.o
.--<
"en ""'00
..,. "
00 S'
<.0
surface soils. She concluded that the clayey soil is composed
cj Q '-../ C/ L()""
'-../'-../ '-../
'"t- ..,.
'-../ '-../ '-../ '.../'-../
en
'-../
mainly of montmorillonites (speaking in detail, intermediate
'-../
<.0
t"-
<.0
NO
t"- 00
<.0
.--<
'"r-: <.0cD I t"-
N L()""
N L()
00 I I
~ --O- r-: .--<
r-: ~M 0 ..,; M er) cD clay minerals between montmorillonites and vermiculites, namely
.-<
~
N
--
"'" g " " "en "M "00
------
"en " " "M
<j )
with both characteristics of the two kinds of clay minerals) and
.s 00
L()<.o
L()L() N
L()
M N
<.0
M
N
N
mixed layer minerals of the above-mentioned montmorillonites
Q '-../
..,.
C/ '-../ '-../
en .--<
'-../ '-../
..,.
'-../
I
'-../ '-../ '-../ '-../
""0.::::
·c
<l! ro
'-../
0 N
' " 00
<.0
.--<
.--<
M 0 I t"-
L()
L()
M
0
N
L()
0 and illites, and these minerals are considered to be responsible
Q
.,;- <.0 cD MN* 0 r-: cD cri cri cri cri
N .--<
~
.--< for the swelling characteristics of this soil. The utilization of
34 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH Erosibility 35
this soil as material for an earth dike will carry a great risk wear called abrasion.
of slumping. Amounts of cracks are important. Sandstone (extremely
Most clay mineralogists have no interest in the mechanical consolidated) and crystalline rocks are more resistant than
behaviors of clays, while civil engineers are occupied with shales, tuffaceous rocks and other sedimentary layers in general.
mechanical experiments of heavy soil and making blueprints. Chalk is very soft and is easily eroded by waves. Yamanouchi
Chemists investigate clay minerals from the viewpoint of surface (1964) evaluated the erosibility of rocks to wave erosion by
chemistry or ceramics. The problems of landslips will remain the dropping hammer test. The Schmidt hammer test perhaps
unsolved without the collaboration of geologists, geomorphologists, supplies good data. The comparison of penetration depth or
chemists, and civil engineers in order to investigate the boundary carved volume by nail gun test probably might be appropriate
regions of their sciences. for the field survey. Many strength tests such as compression,
Fig. 4 and Table 3 give the distribution of landslip areas in tension and percussion as well as the measurement of hardness
Japan and the general concept concerning their clay minerals and weathering tests should be performed for a discussion of
(Yatsu, 1964). this problem in detail.
Slope rupture cannot be attributed to some special component
of debris such as montmorillonites in the case of landslips. It 2.2.5. Wear of rocks. Processes of wear are important during
happens everywhere, if the following conditions are satisfied: the transportation of debris by flowing water (Russell, 1938)
accumulation of debris, increase in weight of masses by and by wind in arid regions or in the case of wave erosion.
infiltrating water, decrease of shear strength by infiltrating Regarding the grain size of fluvial sediments, Sternberg (1875)
water, degree of slope, etc. proposed the following formula:
Conditions of rocks are reflected in the formation of debris Y=Y o e- lX
and in the characteristics of the debris itself, for example, where Y =diameter of debris
permeability and strength of debris. Rupture of slopes occurs x =distance which debris traveled
especially in the regions of unconsolidated and fresh volcanic Yo=Y at x=O
sand (Shirasu in Japanese, 4.2.3.), strata of gravels and sands, and A be designated as the coefficient of abrasion.
and decomposed debris derived from granitoides (M asa in Morris and Fan (1962) applied an experimental abrasion test
Japanese, 4.2.4.). In the Tama River drainage area near to arkose sands. Mixtures of quartz and potash feldspar grains,
Tokyo, granite regions are more susceptible to this type of varying in size, were placed in a group of oscillating tubes for
erosion than the regions of sandstones or slates. a maximum of 30 hours. The samples were analyzed at 10-
hour intervals and weight loss computed for each component.
2.2.3. Glacial Erosion and Erosibility of Rocks. Many geomor- Potash feldspars of course are more susceptive to wear than
phologists, impressed by large scale erosion and deposition of quartz. Observing their data in detail, weight seems to decrease
glacial processes, pay little attention to the lithological effects in exponential curve of time t,
on glacial topography. At least, it is reasonably anticipated W=W o e- pt
that differences of strength, hardness, amount of cracks, porosity, where W =weight
etc. influence glacial topography (c/. Frontispiece). t =duration of experiment
Wo=W at t=O
2.2.4. Denudation and Erosibility of Rocks. Erosional forces of and fl corresponds to A in Sternberg's formula. The greater
waves and offshore currents as well as the weathering processes the hardness, especially scratching hardness, the smaller the
along coasts play important roles in coastal geomorphological coefficients of abrasion)' and fl. Quartzites, siliceous sandstones
processes. Waves act in many modes of destructive effects such and hornfels are more resistant to abrasive effects while slates,
as compression, fatigue by reciprocating stress, cavitation and shales and limestones are easily worn. The modes of wear at
EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH REFERENCES 37
36
beaches are somewhat different from those in streams (Naka-
yama, 1965; Aramaki and Suzuki, 1962). Gravels on beaches
REFERENCES
become flatter and more smooth than those in rivers because
in the latter case gravels are rolled during transportation more
than in the former. ADAMS, J . E., HENDERSON, R c., and SMITH, R M., 1959, Interpretations
What is wear? What is the mechanism of wear? This of runoff and erosion from field scale plots on Texas
problem is very difficult. Explanations will be given in the ) Blackland Soil, Soil Sci., vol 87, pp. 232-238. ,
next chapter. The decrease in grain size of fluvial sediments ALLING, H. L., 1951, Abrasion of nine minerals of sand size in ."'ball mills,
during their transportation is not attributed entirely to wear in Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 249, pp. 569-590.
the rivers but also to disintegration by impaction. It probably ANDERSON, H. W., 1951. Physical characteristics of soils related to erosion,
Jour. Soil and Water Conservation, vol. 6, pp. 129-133.
might be adequate to say that the impaction effect is greater
ANDERSON, H. W., 1954, Suspended sediment discharge as related to
than attrition. Sternberg's formula involved these two processes, streamflow, topography, soil, and land use, Trans. Am.
I I but neither explained the mechanism of wear nor gave its Geophys. Union, vol. 35, pp. 268-281.
I
physical meaning. When we analyze the fluvial deposits ANDRE, J. E., and ANDERSON, H. W., 1961, Variation of soil erosibility with
comprising gravel, sand and silt, we can easily observe very geology, geographic zone, elevation, and vegetation type in
often the binominal distribution on the grain size frequency northern California wildlands, Jour. Geophy. Res., vol. 66,
curve and one minimum frequency always rests at the pp. 3351-3358.
grain size of 4-2 mm. Yatsu (1955) thought that these deposits AOMINE, S., and WADA, K, 1962, Differential weathering of volcanic ash
consist of two populations of gravel and sand, and they are and pumice, resulting in formation of hydrated halloysite,
lacking in the grains of granules. Thus he inferred that granule Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 47, pp. 1024-1048.
ARAMAKI, M. , and SUZUKI, T., 1962, The prevailing direction and mechanics
size particles are unstable and susceptible to disintegration.
of beach drift inferred from variation series of beach
The strata mainly consisting of this size indeed seem to be
sediments along the Sagami Bay coast, Japan, Geog. Rev.
rare in many series of sedimentation. Japan, vol. 35, pp. 17-34.
In tests of aggregates of concretes, testing machines of BAILEY, S. W., CAMERON, E. N., SPEDDEN, H. R, and WEEGE, R]., 1956,
Deval or Los Angeles type are ordinarily used to measure the The alteration of ilmenite in beach sands, Econ. Geol., vol.
rate of wear. Such test methods can be applied to determine 51, pp. 263-279.
the erosibility of rocks to some degree. BARTRUM, J. A.. 1947. The rate of rounding of beach boulders, Jour. Geol.,
The topography associated with faults and structures has vol. 55, pp. 514-515.
been very frequently described partly because of the spectacular BAVER, L. D., 1956, Soil physics, 3 rd edition, p. 429, John Wiley & Sons.
nature of some scarps and ridges, and also because of the ease BAYLISS, P., and LOUGHNAN, F. C., 1963, Mineralogical evidence for the
of apprehension. It is necessary to keep in mind that geological penecontemporaneous lateritization of the basalts from New
England, N. S. W., Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 48, pp. 410-414.
structure consists of stratified rocks that vary in susceptibility
BIRMAN, J. H., 1952, Pleistocene clastic dikes in weathered granite-gneiss,
to erosion. If geomorphologists. however, will not study the
Rhode Island, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 250, pp. 721-734.
problems of rock control itself, they leave many things shrouded BJERRUM, L., 1961, The effective shear strength parameters of sensitive
in doubt. When it is realized how scientists of the other fields clays, Proc. 5 th I. C. S. M. F. E., Paris, vol. 1, pp. 23-28.
have striven to investigate the properties of materials, it BRANNOCK, W. W., FIX, P. F., GIANELLA, V. P., and WHITE, D. E ., 1948,
becomes evident that this phase of geomorphological studies Preliminary geochemical results at Steamboat Springs, Nevada,
has been neglected, even though geomorphologists have Trans. Am. Geophy. Union, vol. 29, pp. 211-226.
emphasized the importance of rock effects. BROCK, R W., 1943, Weathering of igneous rocks near Hong Kong, Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 54, pp. 717-738.
BRUNAUER, S., EMMETT, P. H., and TELLER, E., 1938, Adsorption of gases
38 EROSION OF SURFACE MATERIALS OF THE EARTH REFERENCES 39
in multimolecular layers, Jour. Am. Chern. Soc., vol. 60, pp. .J Twelfth Nat. Con£. on Clay and Clay Minerals, XII, pp.455-
309-319. 463.
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'y
KERR, P. F ., KULP, J. L. , PATTERSON, C. M., and WRIGHT, R J., 1950, erosion, a first approximation, Jour. Soil and Water Conser-
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42
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WARKENTIN, B. P., 1961, Shrinking and swelling properties of two Canadian
III MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
1 I I
S=p Cl +l + l (1 - e- tl ')
E. 1J. E
where ~=-'l
S: Strain
E
P : applied stress
t : time after the application of the stress
~ : retardation time
E. and E : elastic element
1J. and 1J: viscous element
Fig. 8.
+
Maxwell Unit
Basic rheological element and unit.
Voigt Unit
1
Griggs experimented using the Solenhofen limestone and
drew the time-strain curves. He thought of them as elastico- E' (l)----T---
viscous and consisting of two parts:
Maxwell unit
a. pseudoviscous flow or deformation of definite velocity,
expressed by Ct, 'I. (2)
.g
.;:
::>
explained the role of stress waves in comminution. u ""! if>
oj
~ - "
There exist very little information regarding the fatigue ro E
'"cw .....0
failure of rocks. Rock fracture by insolation must be a good w
isotropic properties of rocks. Fig. 12-a and Fig. 12-b show the stress-
"
strain curves of Shimizu slate. The commonest, and in most cases
best, method of measuring the strain employs electric resistance-strain
-
..0
::>
>.
oj
'-<
gauges. In case of Shimizu slate, the loading direction does not
greatly affect Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio; however, the ""
"0
0
..0
~
U
if>
resid ual strains in the hysteresis loops are remarkably different from U
:::t.
each other. The compress ive load parallel with the bedding plane,
cause larger residual strains in slate than that perpendicular to the
-E" .<:'
c
0 b.O
bedding plane. In the latter case, the specimen recovers elastically C
§ .;:
without residual strains after the removal of stress, while in the former ::>
case, it is presumable that the basal plane of clays in slate easily -2 if>
oj
separate and in such tiny flaws, the edges of the clay minerals are ">- "E
sq ueezed. The clay minerals usually are less res istant to the tens ion is" .....0
in the direction of c-axis than to the compression in that direction. <Ii
I
This phenomenon of res idual strain must be creep or fatigue failure ......
......
of a very slight quantity. In this connection, a more elaborate biJ
investigation is needed. ~
54 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS Impulsive Fracture and Others 55
(Zll ) DYZ81 o
<D
(ZOI) D ¥6ZZ
Stress-strain loops. The loading direction perpendicular to the (IEI tre ) 1' (ZOl ) 148 yasZ
Fig. 12-a. lS
o
r<)
c ckg/ cm :
2000
1000
- Ax ial
..... Dia gona l
(100 ) 1 yglOl --..· ~==-~
~ L at eral
Fig. 12-b. Stress-strain loops. The loading direction is parallel with the
bedding plane (2), Shimizu Permian slate.
Fig. 14-a. Shimizu Permian slate, parallel with bedding plane. Fig. 14-b. Shimizu Permian slate, perpendicular to bedding plane.
Fig. IS.,.a. Takakurayama Permian or Triassic slate, parallel with bedding plane. Fig. IS-b. Takakurayama Permian or Triassic slate, perpendicular to bedding plane.
60 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS Plasticity of Rocks and Salt Domes 61
As mentioned above, most rocks except some igneous rocks display boundaries of minerals or in minerals themselves. In the latter
anisotropic characteristics to such a marked degree that the impor- case, the fracture usually occurs along the cleavage of minerals.
tance of their micro-structure, which seems to be the origin of an iso- It is evidently natural that the fractures occur along the grain
tropy, cannot be overemphasized. boundaries and in grains if the intergranular bond is equal to
It is easily expected that in slate, clay minerals should have paral-
the cohesion of grains. In a well solidified concrete specimen,
lel orientation if the compression was great enough during the dia-
the fracture surfaces always truncate the hard gravels of aggre-
genesis stage. Such stratification must be very clearly examined by
gates, whereas in poorly cast concrete, sometimes aggregates
recourse to X-rays. If the stratification be perfect, only the (001)
reflection will be observed in the X-ray diffractometer traces, when are not cut. Specimens of concrete will give a good model for
X-rays are applied to the surface parallel with the bedding plane, the fracture of rocks.
while X-rays incident upon the surface perpendicular to the bedding
plane will cause only the (hkO) reflection. If the stratification of
3.5. Plasticity of Rocks and Salt Domes
clay minerals is not perfect, the (hkO) reflection will be not iced
in X-ray diffractometer traces, even though X-rays are applied to 3.5.1. Plasticity of Rocks. Rocks display the plastic properties
the surface parallel with the bedding plane. Fig. 13 discloses the
perfect parallelism of clay minerals in Shimizu slate and the imperfect
one in Takakurayama slate.
Photographs taken by electron microscope (Fig. 14-15) w ill g reatly
assist in understanding the deg ree of stratification of the clay min-
erals in slates.
to vacant lattice sites, interstitial atoms, dislocations, gross 20 foot contour, LOUISIANA DEROUEN QUADRANGLE
defects and so forth. Fig. 16. Weeks Island Salt Dome.
Fractures in polycrystal rocks occur either along the grain
SALT STRUCTURE-WEEKS ISLAND SALT DOME, LOUISIANA
MORTON SALT COMPANY MINE-758FOOT LEVEL*
:-------
II
-
'\
'po 2?O 390 .po ~?O Feet
\ < I
Donald H Kupfer
\\ 0 I " 1962 EXPLANATION .3
\~ v/0'/ ~" ~ S~L T LAYERING tTHIC~.LAYER
·1
TREND OF WORKINGS
~ 2
i
10
0;,"0" J
~
Fo;", 0""" ~ G'Od'~"d I Wo" ~ Sholl
/7
'T
~.
Strike and dip of loyering ......89 Plunoe of rold
t~ f'i'~"l'
\..
I! --fs Strike and dip of axial pion. , Verticol p1uft'llt rs-
",,/
A c L
r"
82
'
po
"'lo •
t ~ 87
"'. 1
.4 Strike and dip at axial
plone of cross fold
8
of ClOSS fold
9
4\'..
8889
Axiol pion. ond
of fold
- ;[c\.~~CUlot'd
Plun" /~
ottltud' l-t--
10
..
F
Fig. 17. Salt st ruct ure, Weeks Island Salt Dome, Loui siana, Morton Salt Company M ine, 758-foot level (Kupfer, 1962).
64 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
is applied, the greater is the deformation produced. If the Wear due to solid particles in moving liquid is abrasive wear
temperature increases slightly, halite and sylvite remarkably as observed in rivers and shores. We will skip the explanation
increase their mobility which is very important in accounting of cavitation in the next section.
for the formation of a salt dome.
Under quasistatic loading at room temperature, pressure of 3.6.2. Various Wear Mechanism. Mechanical engineers usually
only 150-200kgj cm 2 suffices to produce the flowage deformation consider corrosion as corrosion wear, whereas geologists and
of rock salts. geomorphologists exclude it from wear phenomena.
In passing, it is very interesting that in general the purer a. Adhesive wear. Formerly, friction was attributed to
the crystal, the lower the yielding stress, and impurity and the gearing of ruggedness of two contact surface and its value
crystal defects such as radiation damage increase the strength was thought to be determined by the value of work to lift up
of the crystal. In this direction, countless works are reported to the height of protuberance. Recently the theory of adhesion
in periodicals such as the Journal of Applied Physics, Philoso- has become popular. According to this theory, some parts of
phical Magazine and so on. Akimoto (1963) reported that single contact surfaces approach each other by the distance of a mole-
crystals of sylvite produced by the Harshaw Co. undergo flow- cule, thus adhesive forces occur. Friction is attributed to the
age deformation under a stress less than 100kgj cm2. However, force which shears the adhesive parts.
in case of sylvite rock salts, the stress sufficient to produce the In the case of metals, the following explanation is given for
flowage deformation is considered by Dreyer (1955) to be about the mechanism of adhesive wear. On the actual surface loaded
250kgj cm2. with value of W, plastic deformation occurs around the contact
The discrepancy between the very high calculated strength points, thus the contact surface increases to the extent in which
of a crystal and that one experimentally measured, is fully the load W becomes in equilibrium with the product of the
solved by the dislocation theory, concerning which it is particu- increased contact surface A times the yield stress of materials
larly deisrable to consult books on solid state physics (3.4.) . P, then we can obtain the next equation,
A=Y'L
P
3.6. Wear where P is considered as micro-Vickers hardness H (kgj mm 2) .
3.6.1. Friction and Wear. Geomorphologists as well as sed i- Therefore,
mentologists have an interest in the phenomenon of wear, but A=Y'L
it seems that they do not investigate this phenomenon itself. H
The problems of friction and wear of materials, especially me- The value of adhesive wear V is proportional to this A and
tals, are so very important that researchers of engineering the distance of slide L, then
materials are fully occupied in clarifying such phenomena. V=k AL
Though it might be thought very commonly that the greater =k Y'LL=k' WL
the friction, the more extensive the wear, this is not always H
correct. We have to completely separate the two terms. Wear If both sides of this equation are divided by apparent contact
usually implies several phenomena as follows: area Ao, average depth of wear h is as follows,
a. Wear due to sliding between two contact bodies, - V -k' W L
h -A
adhesive or galling wear, o- Ao
abrasive and cutting wear, =k' PoL
b. Wear due to surface fatigue, where Po= W
Ao ' Po is named design pressure, and k' coefficient
pitting (flaking) ,
c. Cavitation, etc. of adhesive wear. Fig. 19 shows the mechanism of adhesive
Wear 69
68 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
wear.
Concerning the work hardening of rocks, experiments on
the indentation pressure or hardness by Brace (1960) must be
referred to here. He reasonably concluded as follows:
200
l~;::'''~
Rock salt deforms predominantly by gliding and becomes
harder with increased deformation, and the hardening charac-
terizes both individual grains and polycrystalline aggregate.
Anhydrite, limestone and marble deform by combination of
E
~
bD
-'"
150 --I71-
c
"
1 ~I~Marble r GRAIN
V)-
fracture and gliding; the bulk hardness decreased from the V)
Q)
c:
100 a r-Anhydrite BULK ~
normal value outside the deformation zone to a small fraction 1 ~
ro
of this just under the indentation) however, the hardness of :r: / 0_ (a)
b~:;;;~
individual grains, for the marble at least, increased toward the 50
center of the deformation zone.
The writer does not know whether work hardening occurs 0
0.5 1.0
so often in rocks. Wear of rocks and minerals may result 2. Distance below surface, cm
mainly from the processes described in the following section.
b. Abrasive and cutting wear. This wear is mechanical Bulk and grain hardness in the deformed region of anhydrite
Fig. 20-b.
cutting in which one of two surfaces in contact is rougher and and marble (after Brace, 1960) .
harder than the other, and the former directly cuts the latter.
The material which undergoes this type of wear least is the
one with great hardness and a small Young's modulus. It is
usually admitted that the greater the elastic limit of strain E e,
REFERENCES 71
70 MECHANICS OF SOLID ROCKS
quenching and irradiation, Jour. Appl. Phys., vol. 34, pp.
the less the abrasive and cutting wear. Ee is equal to the
1767-1770.
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IV MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED
AND FRACTURED ROCKS
6
Q'"
.; t)
;:; if>
if>
0. '"0-
::> -;
k
::;;;
.~ 4-<
.... 0
.:; ~
'"
E .,'"
..0
Q'" -5
~
., ~
if>
if> '"
~
'0-"
-; .0:
0
::;;; >.
'+<
0
E
.,~ .s
.,
> ]
.,c:
N ->:
N
.:d
b.O U3
~
c0
N
b.O
~
(Xl
""
>-rj
r!'i' :;:
tv t'l
()
"" ~
:»
8:'9 ~
()
'"
... ::>
;:r'aq
Ul
o
'" '"'"0 ~
D
aq
>-\
~ .....,
:r:
~o :=- ~ 7.13A
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C
Z
::> :>< ()
'0
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...
>-\ '<
'"
>-\
zUl
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::> p..
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:::::
::> 8
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'"
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Table 6. Clay minerals in mylonite at the base of Malpasset Dam. Changes of X-ray diffraction with various
treatments. Oriented specimens were used.
H 2O E.G. HCI ! NH4 N0 3 ! Dri:fr in /200 o C. 1 h !400°C. 1 h /500 0 C. 1 h /700°C. 1 h !900°C. 1 h ! Mineral (Index)
! !
d , (intensity) d, (intensity) d, (intensity) d, (intensity) d, (intensity)ld , ( intensity) d, (intensity) d, (intensity) ld , ( intensity) d, (intensity)
0 0
29.42A Regular mixed layer minerals
24. OOA( 5) of swelling Chlorite and Illite
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14.24 14. 24A(15) 14. 24A( 3) 14. 24A(13) 14.47 (12) 14. 24A(I1) 14. 24A(I1) 14. 24A(1O) 13. 58A(13) X Chlorite (001)
1-. 11. 18 (11) 11. 18 (11) x AI-vermiculite
10.16 (38) 10.04 (13) 10.04 (29) 10.04 (28) 10.04 (24) 10.04 (28) 10.04 (25) 10.04 (16) 10.04 (20) Illite (002)
7.13 (56) 7. 13 (13) 7. 13 (59) 7. 13 (57) 7. 13 (51) 7.13 (52) 7. 13 (38) x Chlorite (002)
5.03 (20) 5.06 (8 ) 5.00 (21) 5.03 (19) 5.00 (21 ) 5.00 (19) 5. 03 (15) 5.06 (14) x Illite (004)
4.74 (26) 4. 72 (7 ) 4.72 (21) 4.74 (19) 4.72 (25) 4. 71 (19) 4. 74 (15) x Chlorite (003)
4.50 (11) 4.50 (15) 4.53 (18) 4.50 (20) Illite (020, 110)
4.27 (41) 4.27 (26) 4.27 (28) 4.27 (33) 4.27 (36) 4.27 (38) 4.27 (26) 4. 27 (32) 4.25 (33) Quartz (100)
3.78 (13) 3. 78 (33) 3. 78 (21) 3. 78 (17) 3. 78 (16) 3. 78 (16) 3.70 (22) Illite (023)
3.56 (40) 3. 54 (14) 3.53 (35) 3.56 (36) 3. 53 (41) 3.53 (37) 3.54 (26) x Chlorite (004)
3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3. 35 (100) 3.34 (100) Quartz (101)
3.25 (30) 3.25 (16) 3.23 (34) 3.23 (27) 3.23 (25) 3.24 (23) 3. 23 (18) 3.23 (17) 3.23 (28) Feldspar (040)
3. 14 (35) 3.19 (27) 3. 19 (58) 3. 18 (37) 3.20 (37) 3.20 (31) 3.20 (32) 3.20 (32) 3. 20 (27) Illite (114)
86 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics cf Weathered Bedrock and Systems of Large Debris 87
layer minerals of swelling chlorite and illite as a minor com-
ponent (Fig. 6, Table 5) . The French engineering geologist
Talobre (1964) misidentified the mylonite at the base of this
fatal dam. At first glance the mylonite looks very hard, but
it becomes flaky upon swelling. The origin of failure in this
dam should be attributed to the swelling of mixed layer miner-
als and adsorption of water on the surface of the clay minerals,
both of which decreased the strength of the bedrock. Swelling
of solfataric clays may cause problems in tunnel constructions
such as in the New Tanna Tunnel of the New Tokaido Line
(Takahashi et at., 1963) . This tunnel passes very close to
Hakone Volcano, which is frequently subject to landslips.
Our investigations showed that this tunnel clay consists of
montmorillonite, illite, metahalloysite, and mixed layer minerals
of montmorillonite and illite and is derived from the Yugashima
group by hydrothermal reactions; whereas in the landslip area,
the clay minerals are mostly montmorillonite, with halloysite
and alunite as minor components, and are derived from andesites
in the same way (Nakano et at., 1961) .
It is well known that shale and tuffaceous shale containing
montmorillonite adsorb water and expand, and that the swelling
of these strata give rise to landslips (2. 2. 2.) and many other
difficulties in tunnel excavation. At times, troubles due to
swelling chlorite have been reported, such as the Yui Tunnel
of the New Tokaido Line and the Yui Landslip in Japan. In
the western part of the United States, more and more attention
is being given to the unique foundation conditions associated
with the expansion and shrinkage of clays and clayey bedrock
materials (Holz, 1959).
Serpentines with abundant fractures will not cause as much
trouble for construction works if they do not contain weathered
clay minerals. Antigorite and chrysotile are not swelling clay
minerals. However, at times, in the clay minerals derived from
serpentine rock, montmorillonites or mixed layer minerals of
antigorite and montmorillonite which swell a great deal do
occur. The Kamogawa and Soro Landslips in Japan are related
to montmorillonite in serpentine clay minerals.
In some crystalline schist areas, swelling chlorites occur and
cause landslips. Swelling chlorites in crystalline schists were
first discovered in the Alps and the landslips near the upper
end of the Queyras River were caused by such minerals, as
88 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Weathered Bedrock and Systems of Large Debris 89
3.0
(%)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
13.0 300
12.0
11.0 250
p
10.0 (g r/cm 2 )
·0
9.0 200
(%)
8.0
150
7.0
6.0
100
5.0
4.0
50
3.0
2.0
3.00
700
600 2.00
300 - Time(mi n. )
••-...............e.
........
10 J:f 5
o ., o 5 •
- --
lJ1W"O'JOl O o
~
8
N
'" LOlD"COO'lrl
o N l"1.q-lCli,O"a)O'l ......
d
N (I') ¢ 0 00
o I
d
Fig. 32.
d
Particle size in mm
Grain size distribution of shirasu (after Matsuo et ai, 1953).
I
",-
4
--
oo _ -
4 --;;,
'"
........
0.--
3 3~
The
4.2.3. Properties of Some Erosible Sandy Soil I, Shirasu. 2 _
2
word Shirasu means volcanic sandy soils which cover very 0-
,,.p.
6
1-
broadly the southern part of Kyushu, Japan. Their mechanical • 12 '"'" 5
Ol~~~~~~~~~~~~~
<l
properties are so extremely unfavorable that this region is X
4 8 10 '"
0
subject every year to serious damage from rupture of slopes, ~
6
'1 (%)
"' . 14 16
'"
4 S
X
gully erosion, and so on. 8 3 t:. '" 3
6 ~
This soil is very sandy and about 90% of it belongs to the X 6
~t~
2 I
range of sand grain size as shown in Fig. 32. Matsuo et at. ",« '"
xX x"
(1953) studied this soil and summarized the results of physical )<
0;,
clay minerals, and feldspars into kaolinite. The shirasu above- ~ 1.0r------r-------------+---------7~~~~~------~
mentioned is restricted to volcanic regions of acidic rocks where
broad areas are covered by acidic siliceous volcanic ashes, while
masa seems to be very common in the world. This simple
word masa will be used from now on for decomposed granitic
sandy soils in order to save space and time. In Japan, masa
has a deep profile of twenty or thirty meters in some places.
It has not been decided whether masa is formed under present
climatic conditions or a dissimilar one during some stage of 0~-_7ry_----_7~----~~----~
1.7 1.8 1.9 20
the Pleistocene. SOme masa are observed to be covered by ~ 1J Dry density (g/cm 3 )
Pleistocene deposits.
If the vegetation cover is lost, deep profiles of masa will
y Dry density - unconfined compression strength curves (3-1ayer)
the infiltration capacity of soil derived from Palaeozoic rocks Fig. 34-a. Compaction tests on masa (3-1ayer compaction, after Tanimoto
and Nishi, 1963).
is in general higher than that of granitic soils (masa), but
this conclusion must be erroneous. Very reasonably, Shibuya
(1960) recommended the measurement of porosity to determine
the degree of weathering of granite. Shima (1961) carried on
3.0,-----------,---------,,---------, 80
~ 60
V,X
'A-Line
o xl--/
;;;:
2.5r--;::=====::;---t----I--~51I ~,
>- 10.(-
(a) 6 40 "/ x . VvA~A~_
i=
E (j')
<C xV' ~....... V- v';
~ 2 0 f - - -- - - f - - - - - - f - --+-----,1--T 0: 20
.. Z::
~
~/ ,/ v'
o i/: ~~ xxV"'"
20 40 60 80 100
LIQUID LIMIT 1-
80
.
, ,
~ 60
V
o x/
z
>- /x Kaolin (SKEMPTON)
(b) 640 ...-
i= ,/
x
...-
(j') I
<C
0: 20 / " j..- "
j..-"
/ ...- i
V
o~ 40 60 80 100
O~--------~--------~~------~~ 20
1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 CLAY CONTENT ::!,
Dry density (g/cm 3 ) (a) Plasticity index versus liquid limit; (b) Plasticity index versus clay content
Dry density - unconfined compression strength curves (5-layer)
Fig. 35. Plasticity index of fine fractions of decomposed granitic soil,
Hong Kong (after Lumb, 1962).
Decomposed granitic soil in Hong Kong was studied by Lumb occur at a slope more gentle than that of slope rupture which
(1962) . Plasticity indices of the fine fractions are shown in does not need the existence of clay minerals for its occurrence.
Fig. 35. The results lie on or above the A-line and noticeably It is fundamentally a problem of rock control that landslips can
above the values quoted by Vargas (1953) for decomposed gran- occur on a gentle slope where rupture of slope cannot.
ite in Brazil. The average activity is 0.93 which would put Table 8. Classification of mass wasting.
the soil into the normal activity group, and except in two Soil fall , rock
samples, plasticity indices are higher than that of kaolinite, 1. Fall Mass travels through the air. fall , needle ice
eroSIon
presumably because of the appreciable content of mica in these
.fractions. However, this soil behaves essentially as a coarse Plastic deformation without
2. Creep clear shear plane. Soil creep
grained soil.
3. Rupture Abrupt brittle fail ure of Rock slide,
(YAMA-KUZURE) slope with clear shear plane. slump, g lide
4.2.5. Stability of Slope.
This item forms one chapter in every
text book of soil mechanics. The control of stability of slopes, 4. Slip Slow plastic flow with clear Landslip
natural or excavated, is an important aspect of civil engineering. ( JISUBERI) shear plane. ( Earth flow)
For geomorphologists, slope problems are the focus of interest Liquid flow, high content of Mud flow
5. Flow Flowslide in
because any topographic feature is composed merely of two water more than liquid limit
quick clay
elements, slope and altitude. (Consider slope S, altitude A and
Complex type, transitional
position P, then, topography = f (S, A) , where A = f (P) , S = 6. Others type or other Solifluction
dA/ dP. This is a fundamenal geomorphological concept) . Thus
mass wasting on slopes should have been a matter of primary When civil engineers calculate the stability of slope, they
concern for geomorphologists. However, they have indulged in usually assume the slip surface to be circular. However, shear
their fantastic imagination about slopes, saying convex, concave, surfaces do not seem to be as simple in nature. Nevertheless,
aufsteigende Entwicklung, absteigende Entwicklung, retreat of shearing stress , is expressed by angle of internal friction ifJ
slopes, and so on. This approach has had its time. Geomor- and cohesion C, as follows:
phologists have at long last had to come, hat in hand, before , = u tanifJ + C
the civil engineers to beg instruction in the matter of slope where u is normal stress.
stability, a matter long understood by the engineers. However, Sandy soil without cohesion lacks C, whereas in clay ifJ becomes
don't take this too sorely to heart. With little effort we can O. Geomorphologists must perform experiments on shearing,
not only catch up but also surpass them. Soil mechanics has and take up the problems of what type of rocks make a parti-
come to a standstill in a certain sense. cular kind of soil from the point of view of soil mechanics.
Among the problems of slope stability, some opinions about In regions that are subject to earthquakes, their effects
mass wasting will be presented. The well-known classification should be accounted for in the stability of slopes. If the accel-
of mass wasting by Sharpe is very systematic but very puzzling eration of earthquakes attains several hundred gals, slope rupture
because it lacks explanation of mechanisms from a mechanical occurs everywhere and mountain slopes lose their debris. The
point of view. Recently a new classification of landslides have effects of earthquakes are caused not only by their acceleration
been presented by a civil engineer (Varnes, 1958) , and it seems but also by changes in the fundamental physical properties of
to be much better. The writer wishes to propose a tentative soils and conditions of pore pressure. In soil that has an angle
classification of mass wasting which emphasizes the mechanisms of internal friction <jJ, this value decreases with the degree of
of such phenomena and ignores their shapes and so forth vibration as follows:
(Table 8) .
Landslips have a relationship to swelling clay minerals and
ifJ k= ifJ - tan-! v\
Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays 105
104 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
by water content, while with relatively larger water content, flows in that the orientation of particles is not instantaneous
the kind of clay minerals and exchangeable ions play an im- under shearing stress and needs a definite time lag for structural
portant role in this property. Attention must be paid to the time recovery. These time lags depend upon the concentration of
effect which is reflected greatly in the strength of shear. the suspension, namely, the higher the concentration, the lesser
Terzaghi (1944) defined the concept of sensitivity as the the time lag because the average intergranular distance is less,
ratio of the strength of soil in an undisturbed condition to the with consequent greatness of intergranular attractive force.
remolded material at the same water content. Skempton et at. Thus structural recovery soon occurs.
(1952) classified the sensitivity of clays as follows: Bentonite, chiefly composed of montmorillonite and some
[Group] [Sensitivity] glacial till clay called quick clay, has striking characteristics of
Insensitive clays <1 thixotropy. The amount of thixotropic regain of strength in
Low sensitive clays 1-2 remolded test pieces of soils is greatest in clayey materials with
Medium sensitive clays 2-4 high activity, namely in clays containing chiefly momtmorillonite.
Sensitive clays 4-8 It results from the extremely small particle size of montmorillo-
Extra sensitive clays 8-16 nite and its high water· adsorbing capacity which favors the
Quick clays > 16 development of oriented water on clay minerals. The regain in
A soil composed of allophane has been described (Grad well and strength is considerable for montmorillonite, moderate to small
Birrell, 1954) as having a sensitivity of 7. The sensitivity of for illite and practically nil for kaolinite.
allophane is due to the substantial differences in textural char- Grim (1962) opined that quick clays do not show any appre·
acteristcs and accordingly in strength between the soil test ciable regain in strength on standing after remolding and con·
pieces in their natural state and those in a remolded state, as sequently thixotropic hardening does not provide an explana-
shown by Yatsu (1964 b) . In general, the more irreversible tion for their sensitivity, and Kerr (1963) supported this opinion.
the hydration and dehydration of clay minerals, the greater A great number of landslides (Mudflow in Table 8) in Scandi-
their sensitivity. The work of remolding destroys the structure navia result from the properties of quick clays that were inten·
of aggregation and changes the state of hydration that is hardly sively studied by Bjerrum (1961), Kjellman (1954) and others.
ever regained. If the strength is recovered after a remolding The landslides at Anchorage caused by the Alaskan Earthquake
of test pieces for some duration, such a property is named (1964) and the one at Maseguchi (1947) belonged to the cate-
thixotropy. gory of mudflows. Quick clays lose their strength by shocks
and vibrations, assume a liquid state, and begin to flow. Many
4.3.3. Thixotropy and Mudflows. The term "thixotropy" OrIgI- mudflows in volcanic regions seem to have the same origin,
nally was given to the property of certain suspensions that because of the occurrence of a great deal of montmorillonite
causes them to become fluid on agitation but set to gel when clay from hydrothermal reactions.
undisturbed. A characteristic behavior of thixotropic materials
manifests itself in a hysteresis loop when they are tested in a 4.3.4. Properties of Some Cloy,ey . Soil I, Konto Loom. The so-
rotational viscometer (rheometer) under varying rates of shear. called Kanto Loam is not a" real loam in the soil classification,
At increasing rates of shear, the structure is continuously bro- but is the traditionaL common name which was given to the
ken down and the up-curve is shifted toward larger stresses, altered volcanic ashes, covering the Diluvial terraces and hilly
indicating a decrease in flow resistance, whereas the down-curve lands in the Kanto Basin, Japan. Soils of a similar type cover
determined at decreasing rate of shear is shifted toward smaller broad areas in Central and North-east Honshu Island. Several
stresses. Thixotropy, like other non-Newtonian types of flow, hundred works have been contributed to clarify its origin and
results from the change of structures when materials are sub- nature from various points of view, geological, pedological,
jected to shear stress, but it differs from the non-Newtonian agricultural, technical and so forth. However, some problems
108 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays 109
-
110 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
1.100
l Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays
\
the optimum water content on the compaction test. Fig. 37
1.000 -"~ shows this phenomenon (Kuno, 1962).
rf p
1~ alteration of volcanic glass fragments. Through the efforts of
0.900
~
mineralogists and pedologists, the components are clarified as
',,- follows:
'?-o.-
0
~ ®
;\~~.<&
Tachikawa Loam dominant in allophane, auxiliary
J ,
hydrated halloysite.
0. 700
Cf
:Y
@n Musashino Loam allophane and hydrated halloysite .
Shimosueyoshi Loam hydrated halloysite and halloysite.
Tama Loam halloysite.
0.600 u
0. 50 0
20 40 60 80 100 120
~
140 60 .
eral in Kyushu named "Imogolite", which seems to be a type
transitional between amorphous allophane and crystalline clay
w:% minerals. Imogolite is observed in Kanto Loam. Yatsu dis-
Fig. 37. Effect of in it ial water content on the opt imum water covered filmy allophane in Tachikawa Loam at the Kasugacho
content of compac t ion test, Kanto Loam ( smaller than Campus of Chuo University. This filmy allophane is very
0.85mm in diameter). P. 1 to P. 5 are in sequence unstable and he ('onverted it to crystalline halloysite by
from dry to wet initial condition. P . 1: sample dried
in an oven, P . 2-5 : samples dried in air ( after Kuno, collision with carbon vapor in high vacuum (Yatsu, 1964) .
1962). New Zealand has a temperate humid climate, as does Japan.
The physical and soil engineering properties of volcanic clayey
the range of PF, more than 4. 2. The consistency of Kanto soils there are very similar to those in Japan. Gradwell and
Loam, determined by the ordinary method using the air-dried Birrell (1954) and Fieldes et at. (1955a, 1955b, 1956, 1957) have
sample, is very similar to those of Alluvial soils as illustrated contributed to the research on this type of soil.
in Fig. 36-b. However, these results give an utterly false image
for the consistency of this soil. The drying treatment once 4.3.5. Properties of some clayey soil II, post-glacial marine soils.
done, this soil does not recover its original properties, even if During post-glacial transgressions, very broad areas were sub-
water be added, i. e., the drying and wetting processes are merged by marine water under which a huge volume of sedi-
irreversible. Kanto Loam decreases its plastic and liquid limits ments were deposited. In many regions, these marine deposits
with the decrease of water content by drying in the air. This subsequently have been covered by fluvial sediments and form
phenomenon presumably is caused by the existence of allophane. the substrata of fluvial plains and deltas.
The shearing test shows that the value of cohesion is about In regions, depressed under the ice load in the period of
0.3 to 0. 5kg/cm2, almost equal to that of Alluvial clays, but its glaciation, the post-glacial transgression was followed by the
angle of internal friction is 25° to 30°. The bearing capacity uplift of lands which raised the post-glacial marine soils to their
estimated by the penetration test is 3 to 8 t / m2, however, when present elevation above sea level. In eastern Canada, most flow
calculated by load-settlement relation attains to 10 to 15 t / m2. slides have occurred in the valleys of the Ottawa and the St.
This discrepancy should originate from the special structure of Lawrence Rivers where clays (called Leda clay) and silts have
this soil. been deposited in the Champlain Sea and now raised generally
It must deserve special consideration that the method of up to 300 feet above sea level. In Norway, fjord lowlands near
......
......
tv
~
to
()
:I:
>
Z
oen
o
"l
~
()
o
Z
en
o
r
6
>
>-l
to
'='
>
Z
'='
"rj
~
>
()
>-l
c::
~
to
'='
;;0
o()
~
en
Fig, 38-a, Allophane (round) and imogolite (fibrous) in Tachikawa Loam at the Kasugacho
Campus, Chuo University,
...
~
~
::r-
'"" '
ri
'"
o
.....
~
ri'
a
"~.
0..
tJ
r1>
:r
en'
'"c(')
::r-
'"'"
o
Ii)
'<
'"
Fig, 38-b, Allophane (filmy), at the Kasugacho Campus, ChuD University, ......
......
w
.....
.....
",.
... 2:::
t<l
()
"
:I:
:>
Z
0
Ul
0
."
c::
Z
()
0
Z
Ul
0
r
(3
:>
>-l
t<l
0
:>
z
0
,.."
~
:>
()
>-l
c::
~
t<l
• 0
• ~
0
•
• /',1),
()
:>1
Ul
I •
Fig. 38-c. Allophane (filmy ), at the IKasugac ho Camr;us, Chuo University.
2:::
~
::r-
oo
::l
ri'
if>
8.,
2:::
q.
o
::l
N'
(1)
0-
t;I
(1)
g"
w·
if>
c:
"
::r-
e;
o
'<
'"
if>
Fig. 38-d. Halloysite converted from filmy allophanes shown in Fig. 38-c by collision .....
,....
(Jl
cf carbon vapor in high vac uum.
116 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
~ ~ ~ ~
Soil ' Elev. Water Content. Undrained Shear Strength and
Description ft % Preconsolidation Pressure, tift 2
20 40 60 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
{ Surface <7
lOH==l=+==+~=+=+=+=+=+=!==l==l==l==l
y Fill I"'--
Ot-+--+~--+--P~--~~-+--t-+--+~--+-~
>-FH--<'P't---+---+1'~
G -1Ot-+-= : B° vP~econlsolid~tion pre~sure ~\
>-~ ; c9<Y'
-~t-~=T~+--r~!\:,-\-+-01~~0~-+~r-1--+~+--r-1
LL
,:t--- ~ Jf ective overburden ttl
1" Clay I' ' ° 01
["Yf'" pressure \'
F -30 I \
~~ \ n~r'\.
-~r-~~~~+'-r~-r~~I-4 ,ro~~~~~
~ "-
E - 50 I--+.I__-j-:-,1-+---11-+ 1
\-+ __1-+-+ __ '\~.--t--+--+--I
°+---,
jl-' ,\ a'"",,
~ Foraminifera -60 ,
.......!..,'
"-
o
° on'
°"
il/
zones - . : 'I-Shear strength from
N
::':9':-:W:-J +--+--1-\1-\--t--+140 Ivan, tes
D - 70f---c;W,fj' "Cw
Fig. 39. Soil profile and geotechnical test results, Skabo, Oslo LO
00
LO
CD
(after Kenny, 1964) .
,..., L'l ,..., LO
Oslo and Trondheim were covered by marine clay deposits
which have been lifted up to about 600 feet. Similarly in Swe- I 1+
00 I 1+ 1+
den, the valleys of Stockholm and Goteborg undergo numerous NLO
,...,
LOO
NO
L'l LO
N
00
NO
LOO LOO
LO
LO
""'0 ""'0
flow slides. Meyerhof (1957) summarized the common charac- LO LO
118 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS Mechanics of Micronized Debris such as Clays 119
0 0 0 0 0 0
.Low surface
0
en
~
:2_.....J
0J
'" "'" LD <.0
/',
I \
0, I 'j "-
800 0 I '. "
c:
2c:
0
~
r "~'i--'/ f/<) ,... i~- /\ \ Ii
700
0
0
'-'
,~,C:/\ Iii
~~3: 1;\\
.--. 2
0
en ,' ,
U)
600 ;,:'" I::::"" ~lr ~ ~
I/r-..- ~
\ .
t::;; ~
Low • surface
~
>- ~!~
~
:~
500 f------9
~
'(/j ~ ~ ;;t;
c
(])
400 V> 0?- 0' --' 0
(j)
~ '" § m :g ~
300 >'"
;;; "" '"
cD <D
'" OD
--' ::;;; ::;;; :;; ::;;;
200 :." Q.
• «'"
> --'
--' § "" ill §
100 ~ ~ Sj iil @
14
, Electrokinetic potential
Fig, 40, E lectro-kinetic potential of undisturbed Leda Clay as a function
of sensitivity (after Penner, 1964).
§ \
IU 1(,)
.
Penner (1964) measured the electro-kinetic potential in un- ""
disturbed samples of Leda Clay. Of particular interest is the :5
OD 8
co
fact that the potential increases directly with increasing sensi- c:
~
tivity. Surface chemistry must be a powerful method in an Ul 8<.0
attempt at complete solution of sensitivity problems.
Fig. 41 and 42 show the geotechnical properties of marine
soils in the Thames Estuary, Osaka Bay and Ube, which display
the normal consolidation; thereforet he strength of such clays
does increase with depth.
Alluvial plains are quite often underlain by post-glacial clays
that are high in water content and have not yet consolidated
enough to afford a large bearing capacity. Construction works
such as large buildings, bridges, highways etc. frequently en- f-p_
.I.cef"~~
,___
O~,--UO_:l-,---___ ~
P .0c1_8,-
P! Ios UOJ ,\ II 8WJ 0 N lVI:JV18 3JV~~31
o
Ul ';±'Vl NIVld GOOlJ "'""
counter great difficulties because of insufficient strength of lVIJVl8 - lSOd '->-
MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS REFERENCES 121
120
Geotechnique, vol. 4, pp. 46-69.
SHEAR STRENGTH (kg!cm2)
BJERRUM, L., and KJAERNSKI, B., 1957, Analysis of the stability of some
0r-~0.~1~0~.2~O~.3~0~.4~0~
. 5~____
Norwegian natural clay slopes, Geotechnique, vol. 7 pp. 1-16.
, BJERRUM, L., and SIMONS, N .E ., 1960, Comparison of shear strength cha-
\ ==} Osaka.' Bay ractt"ristics of normal consolidated clays, Norwegian Geotech-
E 2
,,
• .. Ube nical Inst. pub., 35, pp. 13-22.
,
2:
0
I-
I-
3
4
,
~,
... . 'I
BOWER, T .H., 1951, Mudflow occurrence in Trinidad. B. W. 1., Bull. Am.
Assoc. Petroleum Geol., vol. 35, pp. 908-912•
CAPPS, S.R., 1941, Observations of the rate of creep in Idaho, Am. Jour.
0
en Sci., vol. 239, pp. 25-32.
5
>- CHORLEY, R.]., 1959, The geomorphic significance of some Oxford soils,
<t:
en 6 Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 257, pp. 503-515.
w
:r: CRAWFORD, C.B., and EDEN, W.J., 1965, A compariron of laboratory results
I- 7
with in-situ properties of Leda Clay, Proc. 6th 1. C. S. M . F.
2:
0 8 E. 1965, Montreal, vol. 1, pp. 31-35.
Ct::
lL.. DAVIS, D.H ., 1954, Estimating porosity of sedimentary rocks from bulk den-
9
:r: sity, Jour. Geol. , vol. 62, pp. 102-107.
I-
E:J 10 DEVANATHAN, M .A.V., 1954, A theory of the electrical double layer and
0
11 the interpretation of differential capacity curves, Trans. Fara·
day Soc., vol. 50, pp. 373-385.
12 FIELDES, M ., and WILLIAMSON, K1., 1955, Clay mineralogy of New Zea-
land soils, I, New Zealand Jour. Sci. Tech., vol. 37, pp. 314-
335.
Fig. 42. Shear strength of marine clays, Osaka and Ube, Japan (after
FIELDES, M ., 1955, Clay mineralogy of New Zealand, II, New Zealand Jour.
Takenaka, 1964).
Sci. Tech., vol. 37, pp. 336-350.
strata. Consolidations of clay layers is one of the causes of FIELDES, M ., WALKER, 1.K and WILLIAMS, P .P ., 1956, Clay mineralogy
such ground subsidences as observed in Tokyo and Osaka. of New Zealand soils III, New Zealand Jour. Sci. Tech., vol.
38, pp. 31-43.
These are, in a sense, tangible manifestations of the direct
FIELDES, M., 1957, Clay mineralogy of New Zealand soils IV, New Zealand
rock control over human life. Jour. Sci. Tech., vol. 38, pp. 533-570.
FUJIMOTO, H ., 1965, Shearing properties of shirasu, Soil Mechanics and Fo-
undation Engineering, vol. 13, pp. 56-63.
REFERENCES
GRADWELL, M., and BIRRELL, KS., 1954, Physical properties of certain
volcanic clays, New Zealand Jour. Sci. Tech., Sec. B, vol. 36,
ANDERSON, PJ., and MURRAY, P ., 1959, Zeta potentials in relat ion to rheo' pp. 108-122.
GRATER, R.K, 1945, Landslide in Zion Canyon, Zion National Park, Utah,
logical properties of oxide slips, Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc., vol.
42, pp. 70-74. , Jour. Geol., vol. 54, pp. 116-124.
AOMINE, S., and WADA, K, 1962, Differential weathering of volcanic ash GRIM, R.E., 1962, Applied Clay Mineralogy, p. 422, McGraw-Hill.
and pumice, resulting in formation of hydrated halloysite, HENKEL, DJ., 1956, The effect of overconsolidation on the behavior of
Am. Mineralogist, vol. 47, pp. 1024-1048. clays during shear, Geotechnique, vol. 6, pp. 139-150.
AVENARD, ].M., 1961, La solifluxion, Centre de Documentation Universi- HEMWALL, J .E., and Low, P.F., 1956, The hydrostatic repulsive force m
taire, p. 164. clay swelling, Soil Sci., vol. 82, pp. 135- 145.
BISHOP, A.W., and MORGENSTERN, N., 1960, Stability coefficients for earth HIGASHI, T., and AOMINE, S., 1962, Weathering of montmorillonite in soils,
slopes, Geotechnique, vol. 10, pp. 129-147. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., vol. 8, pp. 7-12.
BJERRUM, L., 1954, Geotechnical properties of Norwegian marine clays, HOLTZ, W .G., 1959, Expansive clays-properties and problems, Quart. Colo-
122 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS REFERENCES 123
rado Sch. Mines., vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 89-125. Report of the Building Research Institute, no. 21, pp. 1-14.
KANTO LOAM STUDY GROUP, 1964, Kanto Loam, its origin and nature, p. OLSON, RE., and MITRONOVAS, F ., 1960, Shear strength and consolidation
373, Tsukiji Shokan, Tokyo. characteristics of calcium and magnesium illite, proc. Ninth.
KATO, y., 1965, Some problems on parent materials of volcanic ash soil, Nat. Conf. Clay and Clay Minerals, pp. 185-209.
Pedologist, vol. 9, pp. 13-19. OLSON, RE., 1962, The shear strength properties of calcium illite, Geotech-
KENNY, T .C., 1964, Sea-level moverr.ents and the geologic histories of the nique, vol. 12, pp. 23-43.
post-glacial marine soils at Boston, Nicolet, Ottawa and Oslo, PENNER, E., 1963, Sensitivity in Leda Clay, Nature, vol. 194, pp. 347-348.
Geotechnique, vol. 14, pp. 203-230. PENNER, E., 1964, Studies of sensitivity and electro-kinetic potential in Le-
KERR, P .F ., 1963, Quick clay, Scientific America, 1963, Nov., pp. 132-l42. da Clay, Nature, vol. 204, pp. 808-809.
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124 MECHANICS OF UNCONSOLIDATED AND FRACTURED ROCKS
l
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V CONCLUSION
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Men live on the Earth. Human lives are controlled directly
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YOUNG STUDENTS FULL OF HOPE AND ENERGY
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AUTHOR INDEX
I
d
128
ROSENQVIST, 1. T., 104 TERUTA, Y., 30, 31, 32, 33
TERZAGHI, K., 79, 106
SERATA, S., 64 THORNBURY, W. D., 45 SUBJECT INDEX
SHARPE, C. F. S., 23, 102 TURNER, F . J., 18
SHATTNER, 1., 33
SHIBUYA, T., 98 VARGAS, M., 102 Abrasion, 35 Bearing capacity, 110
SHIMA, H., 98 VARNES, D. ]., 102 abrasion test, 35 of foundation, 95
SKEMPTON, A. W ., 105, 106, 119 coefficient of, 35 Bentonite, 107
STERNBERG, H., 35 WARKENTIN, B. P., 33 Acceleration of earthquake, 103 BET method, 18
STRAHLER, A. N., 3, 45 WEISS, L. E., 18 Activity, 105 Biotite, 19, 98
SUDO, T., 111 WILSON, S. D., 79 Adhesive force, 95 Bischofite, 64
SUNDBORG, A., 3 WOLMAN, M . G., 3 Adsorption, 13, 87, 93, 94 Black Cotton Soil, 33
SUZUKI, T., 35 WOODBURN, R., 20 Aggregate stability, 20 Boiling condition, 95
Aggregation, 23 Brazil, 102
TAKAHASHI, H., 17, 87 YAMANOUCHI, H., 35 Air photo interpretation, 10 Breccia, 16
TAKENAKA, J:-; 120 YATSU, E., 3, 4, 9, 10, 24, 25, 28, Alaskan Earthquake, 107 British Rheologist Club, 12
TANAKA, Shin., 98 33, 34, 36, 81, 94, 98, 106, 111 Albite, 19 Brittle, 46
TANIMOTO, K., 99, 100 YOSHINAGA, N., 111 Allogenic mineral, 17, 19 brittle rock, 17
TALOBRE, J. A., 87 Allophane, 104, 106, 108, 110, 111 brittle material, 24
Alluvial fan deposits, 9 Brookite, 19
Alluvial clay, 110 Burgers model, 51
Alps, 87
Alterability, 15, 16, 18, 19 Calcite, 19
Alteration, California, 21
degree of, 17 Cambodia, 30, 32
method of studying, 17 Canada, 47, 111
Alternate load, 46 Carnalli te, 64
Alunite, 28, 87 Cataclasite, 81
Anatase, 19 Cation exchange capacity, 23
Anchorage, 107 Cavitation, 34, 66
Andesite, 87 Chalk, 35
Anhydrite, 68 Champlain Sea, 111
anhydritic sediments, 64 Chert, 19
Anisotropic, 45 Chlorite, 19, 33, 81, 105
anisotropy, 60 swelling chlorite, 28, 87
Antigorite, 87 Chrysotile, 28, 86, 87
Apatite, 19 Clay mineral, 16-19, 24-33, 87, 98,
Attapulgite, 104 104
Atterberg's limit, 104, ) 16 expansion and shrinkage of, 87
Attrition, 36 swelling clay mineral, 33, 93, 102
Augen, 81 Cleavage, 1, 18, 61
Authigenic mineral, 17, 19 Cohesion, 60, 94, 103
Colloidal state, 13
Bad land, 98 Colloid percentage, 21
Basal diffraction, 28 Compaction test, 111
optimum water content for, 101 Dynamic load, 46 French Alps, 28, 29 Hydrogen ion concentration, 18
Compression, 18 Hydrostatic pressure, 47
compression failure, 45 Earthflow, 23, 103 Geological structure, 4, 36 Hydrothermal,
compression test, 95 Echi River Fan, 8 photo interpretation, 10 alteration, 16-18
high speed compression, 51 Edinburgh, 18 prediction of, 11 reaction, 28, 87, 107
Consistency, 94, 110 Elasticity, 17 Geomorphological, Hysteresis, 105
Consolidation, 105 elastic body, 12, 46 inversion, 10, 108 hysteresis loop, 106
Creep, 1, 12. 103 elastic limit, 24, 46, 64 map, 3
creep of rocks, 47 elastic modulus, 52, 81 process. 45 Iberia Parish, 64
creep failure, 24 Electrical double layer, 13, 94 Geomorphology, 1, 2, 17 Illite, 18, 19, 28, 33, 81, 87, 104,
Cristobalite, 28 Electric registance-strain gauge, 52 applied geomorphology, 3 105, 107
Crustal movement, 2, 5, 16 Electro-kinetic potential, 118 climatic geomorphology, 3 Imogolite, 111
Crystal lattice, 17 Electron diffraction, 17 dynamic geomorphology, 10 Impact load, 46
Crystalline rock, 35 Embryology, 2 fluvial geomorphology, 3 Impaction, 16, 36
crystalline schist, 87 Endogenic, development, 2 impaction failure, 45
Cuesta, 10 process, 2 domain, 1 Impulsive,
agent, 16 method, 1 fracture, 51
Decomposition, 15, 16 Epeirogenic movement, 1 Glacial till, 33 wave, 52
Deflation, 20 Erosibility, 5, 15, 19, 20, 34, 35, 98 Glauconite, 19 Indentation pressure, 68
Deformation, 1 Erosion, 2, 15, 16. 20 Gneiss, 81 India, 33
deformation coefficient, 81 erosion ratio, 20, 21 Goteborg, 116 Infiltration capacity, 20
elastic deformation, 48 Evaporite, 64 Gouge, 16 Insolation fracture, 52
plastic deformation, 12, 17 Exogenic, 16 Graded river, 9 Intergranular attractive force, 107
pseudoviscous deformation, 48 force, 12 Granite, 17, 98 Interlayer adsorption, 94
Dehydration, 104 process, 1, 2, 12 granite dome, 98 Interlocking, 96
Denudation, 15, 34 Griffith flaw, 60 Internal friction, 103
Design pressure, 67 Failure, 45, 46, 47 Gulf Coast Plain, 64 Inugami River Fan, 8
Deval type, 36 Fall, 103 Gully erosion, 20, 96 Israel, 33
Diagenesis, 17, 19 Fall maker, 10 Gypsum, 19 Isotropy, 5
Diastrophism, 5, 16 Fault, 2, 4, 5, 12, 17 Izumi Sandstone, 28
Dike ridge, 10 Fatigue failure, 17, 45, 52 Hakone, 18
Dilatancy, 96 Feldspar, 19, 35, 98 volcano, 87 Jack method, 81
Dilatational wave, 17 Field measurement, 81 Halite, 64, 66 Japan, 18, 24-28, 87, 94-98, 105,
Diorite, 17 First-order reaction velocity, 93 Halloysite, 28, 87, 104, 111 107
Disintegration, 15, 36 Flaking, 66, 70 hydrated halloysite, 111 Jisuberi , 103
classification, 45 Flaw, 52,60 Hardness, 67 Joint, 1, 5, 16
Dislocation theory, 60, 66 Flow, 103 bulk hardness, 68 Jordan River, 33
Dispersion, 20 flow strain, 47 scratching hardness, 35
dispersion ratio, 21, 96 flowslide, 33, 103, 116 Vickers hardness, 67 Kagoshima Prefecture, 96
Divalent ion, 18 Fold, 4, 5, 12, 64 Hawaii, 18 Kamogawa, 87
Dolomite, 64 Fracture, 60 Hogback, 10 Kamogawa Tunnel, 86
Dropping hammer test, 35 theory of fracture, 47 Hong Kong, 101, 102 Kanto Basin, 107
Drilling velocity, 81 Fragmentation, 15 Honshu Island, 107 Kanto Loam, 107-115
Ductile, 46 France, 81 Hornblende, 19 Kaolinite, 19, 33, 102, 104, 105, 107
ductile material, 24, 47 Free energy, 94 Hydration, 105 Karst, 10
132 133
Kelvin unit, 51 81, 87 Plasticity, 61, 109 Rock drill, 81
Kieseritic rock, 64 Mohr, plasticity index, 95, 96, 101, 102, Rock salt, 64
Kinu River, 6 stress circle, 97 104, 109 Rotational viscometer, 106
Knickpoint, 10 Mohr's theory, 47 plastic deformation, 23, 24, 47 Rupture, 12, 103
Kyushu, 96, 111 Moisture equivalent, 21 plastic limit, 64, 95, 104, 110 slope rupture, 1, 15, 23, 24, 34,
Molecular theory, 12 plastic material, 64 96, 103
Land form, 1, 2 Monovalent ion, 18 plastic stage, 46 rupture of solid, 13
evolution of, 4 Montmorillonite, 18, 19, 28, 33, 34, plastic strain, 47
Landslide, 18, 23 87, 94, 104, 107 Pitting, 66, 70 Sagami Diluvial Terrace, 108
Land slip, 15, 23-28, 34, 86, 87, Moraine, 18 Poison's, Salt dome, 61, 64, 66
102, 103 Moving load, 46 number, 51 Sandstone, 35, 51
lands lip clay, 24, 33 Mudflow, 23, 33, 103, 106 ratio, 52 Schmit hammer test, 35
Lateral erosion, 15 Mudstone, 17, 81 Pore pressure, 103 School of Uppsala, 2
Lateral pressure, 46, 47 Muscovite, 19 Post-glacial, Sensitivity, 106, 118
Leda Clay, 33, 111, 116-118 Mylonite, 16, 80, 81, 87 clay, 33 Sericite, 28
Limestone, 17, 35, 46, 64, 68 marine soil, 111 Serpentine, 28, 87
Liquid limit, 95, 110 Nail gun test, 35 transgression, 111 Setouchi, 98
Livingston's energy transfer theory, New Tanna Tunnel, 87 Prek Thnot, 30-34 Shale, 17, 28, 35, 81, 87
51 New Zealand, 105, III Pseudoviscous flow, 64 montmorillonitic shale, 81
Load, 46 Niigata Earthquake, 95 Pyroxene, 19 Shatter zone, 2, 5, 24,
loading test, 81 Non-newtonian flow, 106 Shear,
Loam, 107 Norway, III Quantum theory, 13 shear failure , 45
Los Angeles type, 36 N-value, 79 Quartz, 19, 35, 81 shear strength, 34, 68, 105
Louisiana, 61-64 Quartzite, 35 shearing, 18
Olivine, 19 Quartz porphyry, 98 shearing test, 81, 95
Maebara Pass, 80 Onsen Yodo, 81 Queyras River, 28, 29, 87 shearing stress, 103, 107
Malpasset Dam, 81-85 Optimum water content for compac- Quick clay, 33, 103, 107, 116 Shikoku Island, 93
Manitoba, 33 tion, 101, 110, 111 Shimizu Slate, 52, 54-57
Marble, 51 Oregon, 21 Radiation damage, 65, 66 Shirasu, 34, 96, 97
Marl, 64 Orogenic movement, 1 Rain wash, 20 Shrinkage limit, 95
Masa, 34, 98-101 Orthoclase, 19 Regain in strength, 107 Siliceous sandstone, 35
Maseguchi, 107 Osaka, 120 Repeating stress, 17 Slate, 17, 60, 80
Mass wasting, 1, 15, 23, 93, 102, Osaka Bay, 118 Repeated load, 46 Slip, 103
103 Oslo, 116 Repulsion, 94 slip plane, 24
Maximum octahedral shear theory, Ottawa, 33, 111 Resid ual strain, 52 slip surface clay, 24
47 Oxford Soil, 94 Rheology, 12 Slumping, 34, 103
Maxwell unit, 48 rheological behavior, 46 Soil erosion, 20
Mesa, 10 Parallel orientation, 60 rheological element, 48 Solenhofen Limestone, 48
Metahalloysite, 87 Penetration test, 110 rheological model, 48 Solfataric clay, 81, 87
Mica, 102 Permeability, 10, 20, 94 Rheometer, 106 Solid state, 13
Microcline, 19 PF-value, 110 Rock control, 5, 9, 12 Solifluction, 103
Micro-configulation, 5 Physiology, 2 depositional land form, 15 Solleftea, 33
Middleton 's dispersion ratio, 20 Phytology, 2 relation to processes, 11 Solo, 87
Mississippi, 20 Plagioclase, 19 rock control theory, 4 Solubility, 18
Mixed layer mineral, 18, 28, 31-33, Plant morphology, 2 approach to rock control theory, 12 Specific surface, 18
134 135
Splash erosion, 20 time dependence, 47 mechanism of, 67 X -ray diffraction, 33
Stockholm, 116 time effect, 106 Weathering, 1, 15-19
Static load, 46 time-strain curve, 48 velocity of, 18 Yamakuzure, 103
Sternberg's formula, 35, 36 Tokyo, 34, 120 weathering test, 35 Young's modulus, 52
St. Lawrence, III Tourmaline, 19 Weeks Island, 61-64 Yugashima group, 87
Strain, 46 Transvaal, 33 Wetting, 83 Yui,87
strain energy, 52 Triaxial cOrppression, 64 immersional wetting, 94 Yunomata, 96
strain of rocks, 12 triaxial compression test, 46, 96 Work hardening, 68
strain energy theory, 52 Trivalent ion, 18 Zeolite, 19, 28
Stratification, 60 Trondheim, 116 X-ray analysis, 33 Zircon, 19
Stream text ure, 10 Tsurukawa, 108
Strength, 45 Tuff, 28
strength of rocks, 5, 16, 45 tuffaceous rock, 35
strength test, 35 tuttaceous shale, 87
Stress, 18, 46
stress circles of Mohr, 47 Ube, 118
Structural, Ultrasonic pulse wave, 53, 108
structural bench, 10 Unconsolidated rock, 81
structural plain, 10 Undisturbed soil specimen, 95
structural recovery, 107 Uniaxial test, 46, 47
Structure control, 5, 9 United States, 87
Surface,
surface-aggregation ratio, 21 Van der Vaal's force, 95
surface chemistry, 34 Visco-elastic,
surface energy, 94 visco-elastic body, 12
surface fatigue, 70 visco-elastic behavior, 51
Suspension percent, 20 Viscous deformation, 64
Sweden, 33, 116 Void, 18
Swelling, 18, 81 void ratio, 108, 109
swelling pressure, 88, 93 Voigt Unit, 48
Sylvite, 64, 66 Volcanism, 1, 16
volcanic ash, 18, 108
Takakurayama Slate, 55, 58, 59 volcanic rock, 18
Tama River, 34 volcanic sand, 34
,I Taxonomy, 2
Tectonite, 18
volcanic sandy soil, 96