MMD PAST EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR NAVAIDS

Q1.a)Describe the use of Rate of turn indicators.

b)What are their performance standards as per IMO?

RESOLUTION A.526(13)

Adopted on 17 November 1983

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR RATE-OF TURN INDICATORS

1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

The rate-of-turn indicator (ROTI) should, in addition to the requirements of these standards,
comply with the requirements of resolution A.281(VIII) for shipborne electronic
navigational aids.

2. OPERATIONAL STANDARDS

2.1 The ROTI should be capable of indicating rates of turn to starboard and to port of the
ship to which it is fitted.

2.2 The ROTI may be self-contained; alternatively it may form part of, or derive
information from, any other appropriate equipment.

2.3 Indication

2.3.1 The indication required should be provided by a centre-zero analogue type indicator
(preferably circular). Where a circular scale indicator is used, the zero should be uppermost.

2.3.2 A turn of ship to port should be indicated on the left of the zero point and a starboard
turn to the right of the zero point. If the actual rate of turn exceeds full scale deflection, this
should be clearly indicated on the display.
2.3.3 In addition, an alphanumeric display may be provided. Positive indication of port and
starboard should be provided on such displays.

2.3.4 The length of scale in either direction from zero should not be less than 120 mm. The
sensitivity of the system should ensure that a change in the rate of turn of 1°per minute is
represented by a distance of not less than 4 mm on its scale.

2.4 Range scales

2.4.1 A linear range scale of not less than ±30°per minute should be provided. This scale
should be marked in intervals of 1°per minute on both sides of zero. The scale should be
marked with figures every 10°per minute. Every 10°mark should be significantly longer than
the 5°mark which in turn should be significantly longer than the 1°mark. The marks and
figures should preferable be red or a light colour on a dark background.

2.4.2 Additional linear range scales may be provided.

2.4.3 Damping of the ROTI should be provided with a time constant which may be varied
during operation in the range zero to at least 10 seconds.

2.5 Accuracy

2.5.1 The indicated rate of turn should not deviate from the actual rate of turn of the ship by
more than 0.5 degrees per minute plus 5 per cent of the indicated rate of turn of the ship.
These values include the influence of earth rate.

2.5.2 Periodic rolling motion of the ship with an amplitude of ±5°and period of up to 25
seconds and periodic pitching motion with an amplitude of ± 1°and period of up to 20
seconds should not change the mean value of the indicated rate of turn by more than 0.5°per
minute.

2.5.3 The ROTI should meet these accuracy requirements at all ship speeds up to 10 knots.

3. OPERATION

3.1 The ROTI should be ready for operation and comply with these standards within 4
minutes of being switched on.

3.2 The design should be such that whether operating or not the ROTI will not degrade the
performance of any other equipment to which it is connected.
3.3 The ROTI should include means of enabling the operator to verify that it is operating.

c)How will you calculate the rate of turn required to execute a

constant turn?

Q2.a)What is carriage requirement for S-VDR & VDR?

For S-VDR

The MSC at its 79th session in December 2004 adopted amendments to regulation 20
of SOLAS chapter V (Safety of Navigation) on a phased-in carriage requirement for a
shipborne simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR). The amendment entered into force
on 1 July 2006.
The regulation requires a VDR, which may be an S-VDR, to be fitted on existing cargo
ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards, phasing in the requirement for cargo ships
of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards first, to be followed by cargo ships of 3,000 gross
tonnage and upwards.
The S-VDR is not required to store the same level of detailed data as a standard VDR,
but nonetheless should maintain a store, in a secure and retrievable form, of information
concerning the position, movement, physical status, command and control of a vessel
over the period leading up to and following an incident.
The phase-in is as follows:
To assist in casualty investigations, cargo ships, when engaged on international
voyages, shall be fitted with a VDR which may be a simplified voyage data recorder (S
VDR) as follows:
 in the case of cargo ships of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed
before 1 July 2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after 1 July 2006 but not
later than 1 July 2009;
 in the case of cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than
20,000 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2002, at the first scheduled dry-
docking after 1 July 2007 but not later than 1 July 2010; and
  Administrations may exempt cargo ships from the application of the requirements
when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after
the implementation date specified above.

For VDR

Under regulation 20 of SOLAS chapter V on Voyage data recorders (VDR), the following
ships are required to carry VDRs:
· passenger ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002;
· ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not later than the first survey on
or after 1 July 2002;
· passenger ships other than ro-ro passenger ships constructed before 1 July 2002 not
later than 1 January 2004; and
· ships, other than passenger ships, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed
on or after 1 July 2002.

b) What are the requirements for annual performance test of VDR?

The requirements for VDR and S-VDR systems to be subject of an annual testing has been

approved by the revision of SOLAS Regulation V/20 and established by Regulation V/18.8.

as amended.

. The purpose of an annual performance test is to determine that a VDR/S-VDR is operational

as defined in the manufacturer’s specification.

. The annual test for the VDR and S-VDR will be carried out by the manufacturer or a person

authorized by the manufacturer.

.The annual testing of the VDR and S-VDR should include:

1. Confirmation that no alarms are present prior to the initiation of the test;

2. Confirmation that when the external power is removed, the power supply alarm is

activated, the equipment continues to operate for at least 1 hours and 55 minutes and

automatically stops recording no later than 2 hours 5 minutes after the external power is
removed;

3. Confirmation that the acoustic beacon is functional using the appropriate manufacturer’s

test equipment or by the substitution of a certified fully operational unit;

4. Confirmation that the overall condition of the equipment is satisfactory and that any

battery within the equipment (acoustic beacon and power supply) is not expired;

5. Confirmation that accurate maintenance records of the VDR are available;

6. Confirmation that the items to be recorded, specifically those data items available and

required to be recorded at the time of original commissioning as defined in resolution

A.861(20) and resolution MSC.163(78) for VDR and S-VDR respectively, are satisfactorily

stored for the duration of the 12-hour recording period;

7. Confirmation that the capsule float-free arrangements, where required or fitted, are

satisfactory as originally accepted at commissioning; and that any battery, release

mechanism or other items are within their expiry date; and,

8. Confirmation that the equipment is restored to normal operation mode following

completion of the tests.

. The annual test may be carried out:

1. Up to 3 months before the due date of the passenger ship and 3 months before or after the

due date of a cargo ship. (The maximum period between subsequent checks is, therefore, 15

months for passenger ships and 18 months for cargo ships, unless either certificate has been

extended as permitted by SOLAS regulation I/14, in which case a similar extension may be

granted.). The manufacturer must complete a review, record any changes and issue the

completed test report within 45 days. To accommodate performance checks to align with

the appropriate survey under the Harmonized System of Survey and Certification (HSSC).

7. The annual test will be registered on the form from the Model Report about the test that
figures on the Appendix of this Circular. A copy of the report from the test will remain on

board of the vessel. Also these forms will be available for all Port State Control Inspectors.

c) What ships are required to be fitted with float-free capsule for VDR?
VDR and S-VDR may be of the fixed type or of the float-free type. If, they are of the
float-free type, then the VDR & S-VDR should comply with the performance
standards for Float-free Release and Activation Arrangements as specified in the
relevant IMO Resolutions.

Q3.What are the carriage requirements for Ship borne navigational

system and equipments as per SOLAS chapter V for the ships of 10,000
GRT and upwards but less than 50,000 GRT.

Regulation 19 - Carriage requirements for

shipborne navigational systems and equipment
1 Application and requirements
. Subject to the provisions of regulation 1.4:

1.1. Ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002 shall be fitted with navigational systems and
equipment which will fulfil the requirements prescribed in paragraphs 2.1 to 2.9

1.2. Ships constructed before 1 July 2002 shall:

.1. subject to the provisions of paragraphs 1.2.2 and 1.2.3, unless they comply fully with this
regulation, continue to be fitted with equipment which fulfils the requirements prescribed in
regulations V/11, V/12 and V/20 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea,
1974 in force prior to 1 July 2002;

.2. be fitted with the equipment or systems required in paragraph 2.1.6 not later than the first
survey see footnote after 1 July 2002 at which time the radio direction-finding apparatus
referred to in V/12 (p) of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 in force
prior to 1 July 2002 shall no longer be required; and

.3. be fitted with the system required in paragraph 2.4 not later than the dates specified in
paragraphs 2.4.2 and 2.4.3.

2 Shipborne navigational equipment and systems

2.1. All ships irrespective of size shall have:

.1. a properly adjusted standard magnetic compass, or other means, independent of any power
supply, to determine the ship’s heading and display the reading at the main steering position;

.2. a pelorus or compass bearing device, or other means, independent of any power supply, to
take bearings over an arc of the horizon of 360°;

.3. means of correcting heading and bearings to true at all times;

.4. nautical charts and nautical publications to plan and display the ship’s route for the intended
voyage and to plot and monitor positions throughout the voyage. An electronic chart display
and information system (ECDIS) is also accepted as meeting the chart carriage requirements of
this subparagraph. Ships to which paragraph 2.10 applies shall comply with the carriage
requirements for ECDIS detailed therein;

.5. back-up arrangements to meet the functional requirements of subparagraph .4, if this
function is partly or fully fulfilled by electronic means; see footnote

.6. a receiver for a global navigation satellite system or a terrestrial radionavigation system, or
other means, suitable for use at all times throughout the intended voyage to establish and
update the ship’s position by automatic means;

.7. if less than 150 gross tonnage and if practicable, a radar reflector, or other means, to enable
detection by ships navigating by radar at both 9 and 3 GHz;

.8. when the ship’s bridge is totally enclosed and unless the Administration determines
otherwise, a sound reception system, or other means, to enable the officer in charge of the
navigational watch to hear sound signals and determine their direction;

.9. a telephone, or other means, to communicate heading information to the emergency

steering position, if provided.

2.2. All ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall, in
addition to the requirements of paragraph 2.1, be fitted with:

.1. a spare magnetic compass interchangeable with the magnetic compass, as referred to in
paragraph 2.1.1, or other means to perform the function referred to in paragraph 2.1.1 by
means of replacement or duplicate equipment;

.2. a daylight signalling lamp, or other means, to communicate by light during day and night
using an energy source of electrical power not solely dependent upon the ship’s power supply.
.3. a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS), as follows:

.1. cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size
constructed on or after 1 July 2011;

.2. passenger ships irrespective of size constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first
survey see footnote after 1 July 2012;

.3. cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2011, not later
than the first survey see footnote after 1 July 2012;

.4. cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage constructed
before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey see footnote after 1 July 2013; and

.5. cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage constructed
before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey see footnote after 1 July 2014.

The bridge navigational watch alarm system shall be in operation whenever the ship is
underway at sea;

.4. a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS) installed prior to 1 July 2011 may
subsequently be exempted from full compliance with the standards adopted by the
Organization, at the discretion of the Administration.

2.3. All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall, in
addition to meeting the requirements of paragraph 2.2, be fitted with:

.1. an echo sounding device, or other electronic means, to measure and display the available
depth of water;

.2. a 9 GHz radar, or other means, to determine and display the range and bearing of radar
transponders and of other surface craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks
to assist in navigation and in collision avoidance;

.3. an electronic plotting aid, or other means, to plot electronically the range and bearing of
targets to determine collision risk;

.4. speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and distance
through the water;

.5. a properly adjusted transmitting heading device, or other means to transmit heading
information for input to the equipment referred to in paragraphs 2.3.2, 2.3.3 and 2.4.
2.4. All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages and cargo
ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international voyages and passenger
ships irrespective of size shall be fitted with an automatic identification system (AIS), as follows:

.1. ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002;

.2. ships engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002:

.2.1. in the case of passenger ships, not later than 1 July 2003;

.2.2. in the case of tankers, not later than the first survey see footnote for safety equipment see
footnote on or after 1 July 2003;

.2.3. in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and
upwards, not later than 1 July 2004;

.2.4. in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 300 gross tonnage and
upwards but less than 50,000 gross tonnage, not later than the first safety equipment survey
see footnote after 1 July 2004 or by 31 December 2004, whichever occurs earlier; and

.3. ships not engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002, not later than 1
July 2008;

.4. the Administration may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of this
paragraph when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the
implementation date specified in subparagraphs .2 and .3;

.5. AIS shall:

.1. provide automatically to appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft
information, including the ship’s identity, type, position, course, speed, navigational status and
other safety-related information;

.2. receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships;

.3. monitor and track ships; and

.4. exchange data with shore-based facilities;

.6. the requirements of paragraph 2.4.5 shall not be applied to cases where international
agreements, rules or standards provide for the protection of navigational information; and

.7. AIS shall be operated taking into account the guidelines adopted by the Organization. see
footnote Ships fitted with AIS shall maintain AIS in operation at all times except where
international agreements, rules or standards provide for the protection of navigational
information.

2.5. All ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements
of paragraph 2.3 with the exception of paragraphs 2.3.3 and 2.3.5, and the requirements of
paragraph 2.4, have:

.1. a gyro compass, or other means, to determine and display their heading by shipborne non-
magnetic means, being clearly readable by the helmsman at the main steering position. These
means shall also transmit heading information for input to the equipment referred in
paragraphs 2.3.2, 2.4 and 2.5.5;

.2. a gyro-compass heading repeater, or other means, to supply heading information visually at
the emergency steering position if provided;

.3. a gyro-compass bearing repeater, or other means, to take bearings, over an arc of the
horizon of 360°, using the gyro-compass or other means referred to in subparagraph .1.
However ships of less than 1,600 gross tonnage shall be fitted with such means as far as
possible;

.4. rudder, propeller, thrust, pitch and operational mode indicators, or other means, to
determine and display rudder angle, propeller revolutions, the force and direction of thrust and,
if applicable, the force and direction of lateral thrust and the pitch and operational mode, all to
be readable from the conning position; and

.5. an automatic tracking aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing of
other targets to determine collision risk.

2.6. On all ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, failure of one piece of equipment should
not reduce the ship’s ability to meet the requirements of paragraphs 2.1.1, 2.1.2 and 2.1.4.

2.7. All ships of 3000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements
of paragraph 2.5, have:

.1. a 3 GHz radar or where considered appropriate by the Administration a second 9 GHz radar,
or other means, to determine and display the range and bearing of other surface craft,
obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in collision
avoidance, which are functionally independent of those referred to in paragraph 2.3.2; and

.2. a second automatic tracking aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing
of other targets to determine collision risk which are functionally independent of those referred
to in paragraph 2.5.5.
2.8. All ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the
requirements of paragraph 2.7 with the exception of paragraph 2.7.2, have:

.1. an automatic radar plotting aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing
of at least 20 other targets, connected to a device to indicate speed and distance through the
water, to determine collision risks and simulate a trial manoeuvre; and

.2. a heading or track control system, or other means, to automatically control and keep to a
heading and/or straight track.

2.9. All ships of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the
requirements of paragraph 2.8, have:

.1. a rate-of-turn indicator, or other means, to determine and display the rate of turn; and

.2. a speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and distance over
the ground in the forward and athwartships direction.

2.10. Ships engaged on international voyages shall be fitted with an Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS) as follows:

.1. passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2012;

.2. tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2012;

.3. cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or
after 1 July 2013;

.4. cargo ships, other than tankers, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 10,000
gross tonnage constructed on or after 1 July 2014;

.5. passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2012, not later
than the first survey see footnote on or after 1 July 2014;

.6. tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2012, not later than
the first survey see footnote on or after 1 July 2015;

.7. cargo ships, other than tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1
July 2013, not later than the first survey see footnote on or after 1 July 2016;

.8. cargo ships, other than tankers, of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 50,000
gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the first survey see footnote on or
after 1 July 2017; and
.9. cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 20,000
gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the first survey see footnote on or
after 1 July 2018.

2.11. Administrations may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of paragraph
2.10 when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the
implementation date specified in subparagraphs .5 to .9 of paragraph 2.10.

3 . When "other means" are permitted under this regulation, such means must be approved by
the Administration in accordance with regulation 18.

4 . The navigational equipment and systems referred to in this regulation shall be so installed,
tested and maintained as to minimize malfunction.

5 . Navigational equipment and systems offering alternative modes of operation shall indicate
the actual mode of use.

6 . Integrated bridge systems see footnote shall be so arranged that failure of one sub-system is
brought to the immediate attention of the officer in charge of the navigational watch by audible
and visual alarms, and does not cause failure to any other sub-system. In case of failure in one
part of an integrated navigational system, see footnote it shall be possible to operate each other
individual item of equipment or part of the system separately.

Q.4.Describe the principle of Doppler Log?Explain the uses of Janus

configuration.

MARINE ELECTRONICS (DOPPLER SPEED LOGS)

DOPPLER SPEED LOGS
Doppler speed logs work on the principle of the Doppler effect, which is a shift in
frequency between a transmitted signal and a received signal caused by the
motion of a vessel over the sea bottom. A transducer broadcasts a continuous
beam of sound vibrations at about a 60-degree angle from the keel. A second
transducer receives the diffusely reflected signal returning from the seabed.
Unlike the fathometer, which times the returning signal, the Doppler speed log
registers the change in frequency between the transmitted signal and the
received signal and then calculates the velocity of the vessel based on the
amount of the frequency shift.

There are several differences between Doppler beams and fathometer beams.
Doppler beams are continuous, narrower (about 3 degrees in width), and higher
in frequency. In addition to the transducer set facing forward, there is a second
transducer set facing aft. This is called a Janus configuration (named for the
two-faced Greek god) and allows the system to calculate frequency shift in two
directions thus insuring a more accurate speed measurement. The placing of the
Janus configuration in a fore and aft direction is known as a single axis system
and is used to calculate speed over ground in the forward and after direction. A
dual axis system places a second grouping of Janus configured transducers in
an athwartships direction allowing for the calculation of a vessel's speed when
moving sideways through the water, as in docking. The beam width of the
athwartship installation is about 8 degrees to account for the possibility of a
vessel's rolling.

The Doppler system calculates speed to within an accuracy of about 0.5 percent
of the distance traveled. It functions well for all speeds that modern vessels can
attain and works from a minimum depth of about 1.5 feet to a maximum depth of
about 600 feet. Frequencies employed are between 100 kHz and 600 kHz. There
are primarily four errors to be aware of when using the Doppler system:
1. Transducer orientation error caused when the pitching or rolling of the vessel
becomes excessive
2. Vessel motion error caused by excessive vibration of the vessel as it moves
through the water
3. Velocity of sound errors due to changes in water temperature or density due to
salinity and particle content
4. Signal loss errors caused by attenuation ofthe vibrations during transit through
the water or upon reflection from the bottom

The Doppler system normally measures speed over ground to about 600 feet.
Mter this depth signals may be returned by a dense, colder layer of water located
throughout the oceans called the deep scattering layer (DSL). Signals received
off the DSL are not as accurate as signals received from bottom reflections but
can still be used to provide an indication of speed through the water instead of
speed over ground when bottom tracking. Your unit may have a manual or
automatic system which will switch from bottom tracking to water tracking at
increased depth.
The Doppler system can be connected with other electronic navigation systems
providing generally accurate speed input. The navigator should be cautioned,
that precise speed should be determined not only by using the Doppler but also
from careful calculations of distances between accurate navigational fixes.
Q.5.Briefly Explain a) How a fix is obtained by GPS?

Position Determination with GPS

In a considerably simplified approach, each satellite is sending out signals with

the following content: I am satellite X, my position is Y and this information was
sent at time Z. In addition to its own position, each satellite sends data about
the position of other satellites. These orbit data (ephemeris und almanac data)
are stored by the GPS receiver for later calculations.

For the determination of its position on earth, the GPS receiver compares the
time when the signal was sent by the satellite with the time the signal was
received. From this time difference the distance between receiver and satellite
can be calculated.
If data from other satellites are taken into account, the present position can be
calculated by trilateration (meaning the determination of a distance from three
points). This means that at least three satellites are required to determine the
position of the GPS receiver on the earth surface. The calculation of a position
from 3 satellite signals is called 2D-position fix (two-dimensional position
determination). It is only two dimensional because the receiver has to assume
that it is located on the earth surface (on a plane two-dimensional surface). By
means of four or more satellites, an absolute position in a three dimensional
space can be determined. A 3D-position fix also gives the height above the
earth surface as a result.

Simplified, the position determination by means of a GPS works on the sample

principle as the distance of thunderstorms can be judged: the time is measured
between lightning and the following thunder. The speed of light is so high that
the delay between the time where the flash hits the ground and the time the
observer sees the flash can be neglected. The speed of sound in the earth’s
atmosphere is approximately 340 m/s. This means that for example a difference
of 3 seconds between lightning and thunder corresponds to approximately 1 km
distance to the thunderstorm.

However, this procedure is not yet a determination of a position, but only a

determination of a distance. If different people on fixed positions would
determine the time span between lightning and thunder, this would allow the
determination of the position where the flash hit the ground!

In the following an explanation is given, how the position determination by GPS works. For
simplification, in the first step we assume that the earth is a two-dimensional disk. This allows us
to do some understandable sketches for illustration. The principle can then be transferred to the
model of a three-dimensional globe.
Position determination with two satellites (in a 2-dimensional world)

In the example on the left, the time needed by a signal to travel from the first
of two satellites to the receiver was determined to be 4 s. (In reality this value
is far too high. As the signals travel with the speed of light (299 792 458,0
m/s), the actual time span for signals from the satellite to the receiver lies in
the range of 0.07 s.)
Based on this information, we can at state that the receiver is positioned
somewhere on a circle with a radius of 4 s around the first satellite (left circle).
If we perform the same procedure with a second satellite (right circle), we get
two points of intersection. On one of the two points the receiver must be
situated. Now we have used two satellites. But the process is called
trilateration, not dilateration so don't we need a third satellite? We may use a
third satellite but we could also assume that the receiver is located somewhere
close to the earth's surface and not deep in space, so we can neglect point B
and know that the receiver must be found on point A. The area in the picture
above which shaded grey is the region in which GPS signals are supposed to be
“realistic”. Positions outside this area are discarded, so is point B.
This assumption replaces the third satellite which would in theory be required
for the process of trilateration. In this example an unequivocal position is
obtained from only two satellites.
So we just need a third satellite for a third dimension and that's it? Well, in principle yes. But…
The problem lies in the determination of the exact runtime of signals. As explained above,
satellites impose a sort of time stamp on each transmitted data package. We know that all clocks
of satellites are absolutely precise (they are atomic clocks after all) but the problem is the clock
in our GPS receiver. Atomic clocks being too expensive, our GPS receivers are based on
conventional quartz clocks which are comparatively inaccurate. What does this mean in practice?

2D position determination with 2 satellites and clock error

Let's stick to our example and suppose the clock in our receiver is 0.5 seconds
early compared to the clock in the satellite. The runtime of the signal seems to
be 0.5 s longer than it actually is. This leads to the assumption that we are on
point B instead of point A. The circles that intersect in point B are called
pseudoranges. They are called “pseudo” as long as no correction of the
synchronisation errors (bias) of the clocks has been performed.
Depending on the accuracy of the clock in the GPS receiver, the determined
position will be more or less wrong. For the practice of GPS based navigation
this would mean that no determined position can ever be of any use, as the
runtimes of the signals are so short, that any clock error has an overwhelming
influence on the result.

A clock error of 1/100 second, which is difficult to imagine but quite common
from car races or skiing races, would in GPS navigation lead to a mistake in the
position of about 3000 km. To achieve an accuracy of 10 m of the position, the
runtime of the signal must be precise to 0.00000003 seconds.

As atomic clocks are no option in GPS receivers, the problem is solved in another and quite
elegant way:

2D position determination with 3 satellites and corrected clock error

If a third satellite is taken into account for the calculation of the position,
another intersection point is obtained: in case that all clocks are absolutely
precise, point A would be obtained, corresponding to the actual position of the
receiver.
In case of the receiver clock being 0.5 s early, the three intersection points B
are obtained. In this case the clock error stands out immediately. If now the
time of the receiver clock is shifted until the three intersection points B merge
to A, the clock error is corrected and the receiver clock is synchronized with the
atomic clocks in the satellites.
The GPS receiver can now be regarded as an atomic clock itself. The distances
to the satellites, formerly regarded as pseudoranges, now correspond to the
actual distances and the determined position is accurate.

In case of the example – a two dimensional disc world – we therefore need

three satellites for an unequivocal determination of our position. In the real
world which has one additional dimension, we would need a fourth satellite.

Well, then why is it always said that three satellites are enough?
In practice you get a two-dimensional position determination (2D-fix) with three
satellites. The position is bound to be located on the earth's surface. The fourth
satellite is the geocenter; the distance to the “fourth satellite” corresponds to
6360 km (the radius of the globe). Therewith the fourth satellite necessary for
the calculation is given, but the calculation is restricted to locations on the earth
surface. However the earth is not a perfect sphere. The surface of the earth in
this case means the earth geoid, corresponding to sea level. If the receiver is
located on a mountain, the determined position again is afflicted with an
inaccuracy, as the runtime of the satellite signals is wrong.

By constantly recalculating its position, the GPS receiver can additionally

determine the speed and direction of a movement (referred to as "ground
speed" and "ground track").

Another possibility of determining the speed is by using the Doppler's effect

which occurs due to the movement of the receiver while receiving the signals.
The principle is the same as for a moving siren on a police car: the tune is
higher when the car moves towards the listener and it is lower when the car
moves away.

b)Use of AIS in collision avoidance?

AIS is used in navigation primarily for collision avoidance. Due to the limitations of VHF radio
communications, and because not all vessels are equipped with AIS, the system is meant to be used
primarily as a means of lookout and to determine risk of collision rather than as an automated collision
avoidance system, in accordance with the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at
Sea (COLREGS).
A vessel's text-only AIS display, listing nearby vessels' range, bearings, and names

When a ship is navigating at sea, the movement and identity of other ships in the vicinity is critical for
navigators to make decisions to avoid collision with other ships and dangers (shoal or rocks). Visual
observation (unaided, binoculars, night vision), audio exchanges (whistle, horns, VHF radio),
and radar or Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA) are historically used for this purpose. However, a lack
of positive identification of the targets on the displays, and time delays and other limitation of radar for
observing and calculating the action and response of ships around, especially on busy waters, sometimes
prevent possible action in time to avoid collision.

While requirements of AIS are only to display a very basic text information, the data obtained can be
integrated with a graphical electronic chart or a radar display, providing consolidated navigational
information on a single display.

Q.6. a)How are ECDIS charts corrected?

・ Update chart before embarking on a voyage. Do not update charts during a voyage.

・ During updating, do not display the radar overlay screen or the route monitor screen.

Hangup may result. If hangup occurs, turn the power off and on again.

・ It takes about seven hours to update one zone. Plan accordingly.

[SELECT] key Trackball

[CHART PLAN] key

ECDIS Keyboard

1. Preparation

1. Press the [CHART PLAN] key.

The menu appears in the Information area at the right side of the screen.
2. Rotate the trackball to place the cursor (arrow mark) on [SENC Convert Settings] and press
the [SELECT] key.

The [SENC Convert Settings] window appears. [SENC Convent Settings]2

3. Check the box on [Automatic SENC conversion] and [Automatic Display Unit]. (Or confirm
that the check marks are displayed.) To check the box, place the cursor on the box and press
the [SELECT] key.

4. Place the cursor on the [Close] button and press the [SELECT] key to close the windows.

2. Loading the catalogue chart to be updated from CD-ROM to ECDIS

1. Insert latest CD-ROM in the CD drive.

2. Press the [CHART PLAN] key to display the

menu.

3. Place the cursor on [Load] and [by CD Catalogue], and press the [SELECT] key to

display the [Load CD Catalogue] window.

4. Confirm that the drive is "D" on the [Load Dir] box. Place the cursor on the [Load] button
and press the [SELECT] key.

When the catalogue is loaded, the catalogue name input window appears.

[by CD Catalogue] [Load]

[Close] button

Check box D draive [Load] button3

The catalogue name [CM93PROF3] is shown.

5. Place the cursor on the [OK] button and press the [SELECT] key.

Note: If the catalogue name is the same as an existing one you named previously, the

following message appears. To overwrite the name, place the cursor on the [Yes] button

and press the [SELECT] key. To change the name, place the cursor on the [No] button,

press the [SELECT] key and enter a new name.

6. Place the cursor on the [Close] button and press the [SELCT] key to close the [Load or view
CD Catalogue] window.

[Load or View CD Catalogue] window

[Close] button

[YES] button

[ＯＫ] button4

3. Displaying the Catalogue Chart

1. Press the [CHART PLAN] key to display the menu.

2. Place the cursor on the [Catalogue] and press the [SELECT] key.

3. Check on the [Name] and [Catalogue charts] check boxes and select [CD] in the [View
filters] window.

4. Place the cursor on the down arrow in the [CD] box, press the [SELECT] key and select the

catalogue name entered at step 5 in the previous section.

Note: We recommend that you check off the [Overview] check box in the [Navigation

purpose]. This will omit the loading of the zoomed-out charts, which are normally not

used and the ECDIS has already installed these types of chart (7C type). Conversion

time can be reduced by not loading the ìOverviewî charts.

5. Using the [ZOOM IN], [ZOOM OUT] or [SET CHART CENTER] key, adjust the catalogue

chart scale so that you can see all charts desired.

[NAME] [Catalogue Charts]

[CD] Choose catalogue name.

[Overview]

[Catalogue]5

6. Set the chart group to update as follows.

a. Place the cursor on the [Groups] button at the bottom of the [Catalogue] window and
press the [SELECT] key.

b. Place the cursor on the [New] button and press the [SELECT] key.

c. Place the cursor on an alphbet or number button and press the [SELECT] key. Repeat

this to enter group name. Set a name which is easy to understand.

d. Place the cursor on the [OK] button and press the [SELECT] key.

[Groups] button

[Catalogue] window

[NEW] button

[OK] button

Enter group name.6

e. Place the cursor on the [Add Frame] button and press the [SELECT] key.

f. Rotate the trackball to place the cursor inside the chart cell frame desired and press

the [SELECT] key. Repeat this to select all desired areas.

The selected areas are shown in blue.

g. After selecting all areas desired, place the cursor on the [DONE] button and press the

[SELECT] key.

h. Confirm that the chart numbers selected are shown in the [Inside] box in the [Group]

window and then place the cursor on the [Save] button and press the [SELECT] key.

i. Place the cursor on the [Close] button and press the [SELECT] key to close the [Group]

window.

[Add Frame] button

[Done] button

[Save] button

[Group] window
[Inside]

[Close] button7

4. Chart Conversion (from ENC format to SENC format)

The chart data in a CD-ROM (ENC format) must be converted to SENC format in order to
display it on the ECDIS. Note that the conversion takes several hours.

1. Press the [CHART PLAN] key to display the menu.

2. Place the cursor on [Load] - [View loaded CD Catalogue] and press the [SELECT] key.

3. Choose the catalogue name from the [CD] box.

4. Place the cursor on the [Groups] button in the [Chart Selection] window and press the

[SELECT] key.

5. Place the cursor on the catalogue name entered at the [Group Select] window and press
the [SELECT] key. The chart numbers chosen above are displayed in black as shown in the left

figure.

[View loaded CD Catalogue]

[Load]

[CD] box

[Group Select] window

[Groups] box

[Chart Selection]

[OK] button

Group name ebtered.8

6. Place the cursor on the [Missing only] check box and press the [SELECT] key to display the

check mark.

7. Place the cursor on the [Load] button and press the [SELECT] key.
The catalogue data is loaded to the ECDIS. During loading, the hourglass mark and the
number of chart loaded are displayed. For example, if the screen displays "110 of 209", 110
charts of 209 charts in the CD have been loaded to the ECDIS. "209 of 209" means that the
loading is completed.A chart cell frame on the screen changes from

green to orange when loading of that frame is completed.

[Load] button

[Missing only] check box

Numbers of charts

loaded

Total numbers of

charts

Hourglass9

After loading all charts desired, the chart conversion (from ENC to SENC) automatically

starts.

8. At this time, the message [No Base Cell available] and chart cell numbers are displayed

in the [S57 LOAD] window. Then, place the cursor on the [OK] button and press the

[SELECT] key.

The chart CD-ROM contains all chart data, but there are some areas which the base charts cell

(last three digits of chart number : 000) are not installed in the ECDIS. These chart cell
numbers

are displayed.

9. If the message [Update number is too low] and chart cell numbers are displayed in the
[S57 LOAD] window, place the cursor on the [OK] button and press the [SELECT] key

This message means that the ECDIS does not update older version charts contained in the

CD-ROM.

For example, if the lower three digits of the chart numbers are 001 to 028, 001 - 015 are not
updated (not used) and 016 - 028 are updated.

The chart cell numbers to be updated are displayed in the [Conversion list] on the [SENC
CONVERT]

window. The chart is updated cell by cell from the top of the list. After the conversion has
been completed, the chart numbers disappear from the window. Further the color of a chart
cell frame

changes to green when conversion of the cell is completed. The conversion may take 4 - 5
hours, depending on the quantity of chart numbers installed.

[Update number is too low]

[No Base Cell available]

Chart cell number

[S57LOAD] window

[SENC CONVERT] window10

The error message may appear during conversion, however leave the message displayed until
the conversion is completed.

The list in the [Conversion List] becomes blank after conversion is completed.

10. Place the cursor on the [Close] button of the [SENC CONVERT], [Failed SENC conversions]

and [Catalogue] and press the [SELECT] key to close the windows.

The message [FAIL CONVERSION] may appear during the conversion. If this occurs, press the

[CHART PLAN] key, place the cursor on {CELL STATUS], press the [SELECT] key and confirm that
the date has been updated at [SENC] in the [CELL STATUS] window. And also, press the
[CHART PLAN] key, place the cursor on [CATALOGUE], press the [SELECT] key and confirm that
the charts updated now are shown in green on the chart screen. This completes the
procedure for updating charts.

b)Write short notes on Voyage Data Records?

Voyage Data Recorder, or VDR, is a data recording system designed for all vessels required to comply
with the IMO's International Convention SOLAS Requirements (IMO Res.A.861(20)) in order to collect
data from various sensors on board the vessel. It then digitizes, compresses andstores this information in
an externally mounted protective storage unit. The protective storage unit is a tamper-proof unit designed
to withstand the extreme shock, impact, pressure and heat, which could be associated with a marine
incident (fire, explosion, collision, sinking, etc).

The protective storage unit may be in a retrievable fixed unit or free float unit (or combined withEPIRB)
when the ship sunk in marine incident. The last 12 hours of stored data in the protected unit can be
recovered and replayed by the authorities or ship owners for incident investigation. Beside the protective
storage unit, the VDR system may consist of recording control unit and data acquisition unit, which
connected to various equipment and sensors on board a ship.

Although the primary purpose of the VDR is for accident investigation after the fact, there can be other
uses of recorded data for preventive maintenance, performance efficiency monitoring, heavy weather
damage analysis, accident avoidance and training purpose to improve safety and reduce running cost.

Simplified Voyage Data Recorder (S-VDR), as defined by the requirements of IMO Performance Standard
MSC.163(78), is a lower cost simplified version VDR for small ships with only basic ship's data recorded.

The information recorded in the unit(s), sometimes also called Black box for ship, may include the
following information:-

 Position, Date, Time using GPS.

 Speed log - Speed through water or speed over ground.

 Gyro compass - Heading.

 Radar* - As displayed or AIS data if no off-the-shelf converter available for the Radar video.

 Audio from the bridge, including bridge wings.

 VHF radio communications.

 Echo sounder* - Depth under keel.

 Main alarms* - All IMO mandatory alarms.

 Hull openings* - Status of hull doors as indicated on the bridge.

 Watertight & fire doors* status as indicated on the bridge.

 Hull stress* - Accelerations and hull stresses.

 Rudder* - Order and feedback response.

 Engine/Propeller* - Order and feedback response.

 Thrusters* - Status, direction, amount of thrust % or RPM.

 Anemometer and weather vane* - Wind speed and direction

Data marked with * may not be recorded in S-VDR, except Radar and Echo Sounder if data & standard
interfaces available.

Q.7.What are the types of Transducers used in

Echosounders?Explain their advantages and disadvantages
each.
Transducers are of two types:

Piezo-electric transducer

Magneto-striction transducer.

Piezo-electric transducer

This type makes use of the special properties of crystals (e.g. crystals of barium-titanate and lead
zirconate). If an alternating voltage is applied to the opposite faces of a flat piece of one of the
above materials, the crystal will expand and contract, and hence vibrate creating sound waves for
as long as the vibrations continue. The process is reversible, i.e. when varying pressure from a
returning echo, is applied to the opposite faces, an alternating voltage is generated across the
faces and the same can be further amplified and used to activate an indicator.

Magneto-striction transducer

In this type, the use is made of the magneto-striction effect which is a phenomenon whereby
magnetization of ferromagnetic materials produce a small change in their dimensions, and
conversely the application of mechanical stresses such as weak pressure vibrations, as from an
echo to them, produce magnetic changes in them; e.g. a nickel bar when placed in the direction
of or strength of the magnetic field. If the nickel bar is placed in a coil with an alternating current
flowing through it (a solenoid), the varying current and magnetic field will cause the ends of the
bar to vibrate and hence create a sound wave. This is what happens when the transducer is
transmitting.
Type with specs 50 kHz - 100 W: Maximum depth measurable - 700 metres Type with specs 20
kHz - 100 W: Maximum depth measurable - 400 metres

The magneto-striction type would be fitted inside a cast elliptical housing or a circular housing in
such a way that the bottoms of the pistons are in contact with the sea (i.e. pierced hull type - see
details of this type later).

Another type, which is fitted internally, consists of a ring of thick nickel discs enclosed in a
winding to which the AC is applied. This resulting sound pulse is directed downwards through
the steel bottom shell by a reflector. The advantages of nickel ring types are that it is cheaper to
construct and damping is greater.

In both designs the sound pulses are directed down wards in a cone shaped beam to avoid loss of
sounding when the vessel is rolling. The process is reversible, as, when the echo returns, it
applies a varying pressure to the working faces of the transducer, which causes the magnetic
condition of the nickel to fluctuate at the same frequency. This varying magnetic field strength
induces a voltage in the winding round each piston leg and this voltage is amplified before being
applied to the indicator.

As oscillators must be in water dry forepeak tanks. Tanks may be flooded sufficiently to-keep
them submerged. Forepeak tanks are usually arranged so that when they are pumped out, enough
water is retained to keep the oscillators from becoming dry.

Echo sounding equipments may be divided into two main classes:

.1 Those that transmit and receive sound vibration through the shell plating of a ship,
referred to as 1nternal installation" class.

.2 Those that are in direct contact with the sea generally referred to as "pierced-hull
installation" class.

In the internal installation class, because of the shell plating, energy is wasted during
transmission and reception. For a shell plating thickness of 9.5 mm, about 15 per cent of the
energy gets through the plate and only 2 per cent gets through when the shell plating is 31.8 cm
thick.

The advantages of having an internal installation are:

.1 Equipment may be fitted without dry-docking the ship.

.2 Projectors or oscillators may be serviced or changed while the ship is afloat.

Sound wave energy is wasted if it is required to pass through a plate. The plate will prevent
sound waves to pass through, if the thickness of the plate is close to a quarter wavelength of the
sound wave; but if thickness of the plate is about a half wavelength then the steel plate becomes
transparent to the sound wave.

For a pierced-hull installation, the shell plating of the ship is first pierced and the gap filled in by
a thinner plate. If a steel plate is to be fitted, then the physical dimensions of the steel plate needs
to be small and the plating will have to vary in thickness from ship to ship because of different
frequencies used.

Thus for pierced hull installation the problem of using a frequency suitable for reasonable
penetration no longer applies and higher frequencies can be used.

With a very low frequency, the size of the oscillator becomes inconveniently large; secondly,
there is lack of selectivity from water and other noises within the audible range and finally, less
directivity.

The higher frequencies gives more improved selectivity from noise and better directivity is
possible, but there is less penetration.

Q.8.Explain how Doppler effect is used to measure the speed of a

ship over ground with good accuracy.

The Doppler speed log measures ship's speed by using the Doppler
Effect, which is observed as a frequency shift resulting from

relative motion between a transmitter and receiver or reflector of

acoustic or electromagnetic energy. A common example of the

Doppler Effect is a train. When a train is approaching, the whistle has a

higher pitch than normal. You can hear the change in
pitch as the train passes.

The DS-80 has a pair-beam, one directed in the fore direction and the
other in the aft direction, which emits ultrasonic waves at

an angle of θ to the waterline towards ship’s fore and aft directions. The
frequency of the received signal is then compared with that

of the transmitted frequency to measure doppler shift to calculate ship’s

speed The relative motion causes the Doppler shift

and the ultrasonic waves reflected at the watermass (plankton or any

underwater objects) are received at the frequency of fr =

fo + fd where fd is the number of frequency shifts counted at the

receiver circuit. To calculate ship’s speed, the following formula

is used.

V = fd/fo • c/2sinθ

c: Underwater velocity

Note that the sound velocity in water changes with water temperature
and water pressure but the DS-80 readout is

automatically compensated for change by using a temperature sensor.

Q.9.a)What are the advantages of an ECDIS over conventional

paper charts?

ECDIS is not only an adequate replacement for the paper navigational

chart but also a system containing all information important for
navigation. It reduces the time-consuming manual correction of paper
charts.

The ECDIS display can be superimposed with radar images and with the
radar targets of ARPA; and the vessel’s positions is continuously shown
on the chart display and stored at regular intervals. Hence manual
chart exchange is no longer required.

The elements of route planning in ECDIS are waypoints and leglines to

ensuring safe track keeping. The cross distance along the leglines can
be set for activation of the alarm if the vessel deviates from the scope
of leglines. ECDIS "knows" whether a vessel can pass safely through an
area, on the basis of the vessel's information fed in.