Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Waechter
2013
Hyponatremia
is
low
sodium
concentration
in
the
blood
and
is
defined
as
<
135
mmol/l.
There
are
2
keys
words
in
this
sentence:
concentration
and
blood.
Before
going
any
further,
this
topic
can
be
very
confusing
if
the
following
facts
are
not
first
well
appreciated:
• “-‐emia”
refers
to
blood.
Therefore,
we
are
only
making
reference
to
the
vascular
compartment.
Keep
in
mind
that
this
is
only
one
of
many
body
compartments
that
contains
sodium
and
water.
• Hyponatremia
is
more
about
water
than
it
is
about
sodium.
The
bottom
line
with
hyponatremia
is
that
water
intake
>
water
loss.
• Both
water
and
sodium
can
shift
into
and
out
of
body
compartments.
This
shifting
will
change
the
concentration
of
sodium
in
the
blood
but
will
not
change
the
total
amount
of
“whole
body”
sodium
or
water.
These
compartments
include
the:
o Extracellular
space
(outside
both
cells
and
the
blood
vessels)
o Intracellular
space
(inside
cells)
o Potential
spaces,
also
called
“third
space”
(pleural
and
peritoneal
spaces
• The
concentration
of
sodium
in
the
blood
is
a
balance
of
water
and
sodium.
o Too
much
water
or
too
little
sodium
can
cause
low
concentration
o A
low
concentration
of
sodium
can
occur
with:
total
body
sodium
being
either
low,
normal
or
high
total
body
water
being
either
low,
normal,
or
high
• Therefore,
the
sodium
concentration
in
the
blood
tells
you
nothing
about
the
volume
status
of
the
patient
nor
the
total
body
sodium
level.
Let’s
start
with
the
super
rare
things,
since
they
are
distracting:
• Psychogenic
polydipsia
and
beer
potomania:
these
are
fancy
terms
for
people
who
consume
liquids
that
are
low
in
sodium
and
are
able
to
drink
more
water
than
their
kidneys
can
excrete.
This
is
rare
and
requires
a
special
gift.
• Not
real
hyponatremia:
“pseudohyponatremia”
is
also
not
common.
It
is
a
lab
error
that
can
be
caused
by
really
high
protein
or
lipids
in
the
blood.
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resource
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1
Common
and
Important
Hyponatremia:
like
everything
in
medicine,
there
is
more
than
one
way
to
categorize
your
approach.
I
have
presented
only
one
way
here.
Also,
since
our
understanding
is
a
little
incomplete,
some
shortcut
assumptions
are
probably
required
to
help
you
remember
the
important
things.
ADH
(anti-‐diuretic
hormone)
is
a
key
component
of
hyponatremia.
Here
is
a
little
reminder
of
some
important
facts
about
ADH:
• also
called
arginine
vasopressin
(AVP)
or
simply,
vasopressin
• is
produced
by
the
hypothalamus
and
secreted
by
the
posterior
pituitary;
therefore
its
function
can
be
abnormal
with
severe
brain
injury
• The
2
main
triggers
for
ADH
release
are:
o Reduced
arterial
baroreceptor
activity
o High
osmolality
• In
the
last
segments
of
the
kidney
(the
collecting
duct),
ADH
will
bind
to
vasopressin
(V2)
receptors
to
promote
major
water
re-‐absorption
by
opening
“aqua-‐porins”.
This
action
will
greatly:
o Reduce
urine
volume
o Concentrate
the
urine
o Retain
“free”
water
The
2
triggers
for
ADH
are
important.
The
osmolality
component
is
a
huge
factor
in
regulating
sodium
concentration.
This
mechanism
is
working
in
tandem
with
the
aldosterone
axis
to
maintain
homeostasis
of
sodium.
However,
when
there
is
reduced
baroreceptor
activity,
the
kidneys
will
preferentially
override
the
osmolality
details
and
work
hard
to
maintain
“circulating
volume”.
Let’s
look
at
this
in
more
detail.
Baroreceptors:
• If
you
are
volume
depleted,
your
arterial
blood
pressure
will
be
low.
It
is
logical
that
in
this
condition,
ADH
levels
should
be
increased
to
reclaim
water.
In
this
water
avid
state,
water
will
be
strongly
conserved.
• If
you
have
a
condition
that
pathologically
lowers
your
arterial
blood
pressure,
you
can
trick
the
body
into
thinking
that
it
needs
to
conserve
more
water.
Examples
of
these
conditions
include:
congestive
heart
failure,
nephrotic
syndrome,
and
cirrhosis
(the
latter
2
are
associated
with
low
albumin
and
protein
in
the
blood
and
so
fluid
exits
the
vessels
and
enters
the
tissues).
The
baroreceptors
will
therefore
become
activated
and
ADH
levels
will
increase.
The
major
difference
now,
is
that
the
body
will
be
in
a
state
of
volume
overload,
but
with
paradoxically
underfilled
vessels.
• In
these
conditions
of
being
water
avid,
the
water
secreted
by
the
kidneys
will
be
very
very
low.
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Remember
that
we
mentioned
earlier
than
hyponatremia
refers
only
to
the
sodium
concentration
in
the
vascular
compartment?
An
additional
mechanism
for
hyponatremia
is
water
shifting
into
the
vascular
compartment
due
to
osmotic
forces:
• Water
follows
solutes.
If
you
have
high
sugar
in
the
blood,
water
will
shift
into
the
blood
to
balance
the
osmotic
load.
High
water
content
with
a
previously
normal
sodium
load
will
result
in
hyponatremia.
This
is
common
in
diabetics.
• Other
conditions
where
this
process
occurs
is:
o Azotemia
(high
blood
urea)
that
occurs
in
renal
failure
o Alcohol
ingestion
(which
is
osmotically
active)
• Note:
glucose,
urea,
and
alcohol
all
contribute
to
serum
osmolality.
Therefore,
these
3
conditions
can
cause
the
osmolality
of
the
serum
to
be
elevated.
This
is
worth
noting
because
the
other
main
contributor
to
osmolality
is
sodium.
Why
mention
this?
Because
with
low
sodium,
you
would
expect
low
osmolality;
however,
with
these
pathological
conditions,
you
will
get
a
low
sodium
with
a
high
osmolality.
Here
is
a
reminder
of
the
equation
for
osmolality:
Serum
Osm
=
2
x
Na
+
glucose
+
urea
+
alcohols
Chloride
and
bicarb,
negatively
ions
also
contribute
to
the
osmolality,
but
since
the
positive
charged
ions
=
negative
charged
ions,
we
get
lazy
and
only
use
sodium
in
the
equation,
but
then
double
it
to
also
account
for
the
negatively
charged
ions.
(yes,
potassium
is
also
positively
charged,
but
medical
mathematicians
are
even
so
lazy
that
they
can’t
be
bothered
to
add
the
little
K
value
to
the
equation
either!)
Let’s
move
on.
Proper
water
and
sodium
handling
require
functioning
kidneys.
A
simple
model
to
explain
hyponatremia
is
renal
failure:
you
drink
water
and
can’t
pee
it
out.
It
is
easy
math.
Doesn’t
matter
if
your
ADH
or
aldosterone
axes
are
working
…
there
are
no
responsive
kidneys
for
them
to
manipulate.
This
occurs
with
any
cause
of
renal
failure
and
occurs
with
both
chronic
and
acute
renal
dysfunction/failure.
Note
that
there
is
a
double
whammy
here
…
renal
failure
results
in
high
urea,
so
there
is
a
second
mechanism
(osmotic)
at
work
in
addition
to
failure
to
secrete
water.
Some
less
common
causes
of
hyponatremia
occur
when
the
hormone
systems
that
are
responsible
for
sodium
homeostatis
(ADH
and
aldosterone)
are
dysfunctional.
• ADH
conserves
water:
too
much
ADH
will
therefore
cause
hyponatremia
• Aldosterone
conserves
sodium:
deficiency
will
therefore
cause
hyponatremia
Let’s
look
at
this
in
a
little
more
detail:
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Pathologically
high
secretion
of
ADH,
a
condition
called
SIADH
(Syndrome
of
Inappropriate
secretion
of
ADH)
can
create
super
low
levels
of
sodium.
There
are
many
causes
of
SIADH:
some
are
related
to
tumors
that
secrete
ADH,
and
others
are
infections
like
TB,
brain
infections
and
some
drugs.
• To
help
you
remember
the
diagnostic
criteria
of
SIADH,
think
about
what
a
normal
set
of
kidneys
would
do
if
the
blood
sodium
was
really
low
…
they
would
RETAIN
sodium.
The
diagnostic
criteria
for
SIADH
is:
• Hyponatremia
AND
• High
urine
sodium
(over
40
mEq/l)
AND
• High
specific
gravity
(>
1.030)
If
you
pathologically
retain
water,
you
will
not
be
volume
depleted.
Low
urine
sodium
occurs
when
kidneys
retain
sodium
when
the
body
is
volume
depleted.
Therefore,
with
SIADH,
we
would
expect
the
urine
sodium
to
not
be
low,
but
rather,
high.
Spefic
gravity
is
an
indicator
of
how
concentrated
the
urine
is.
Obviously,
if
a
lot
of
water
is
being
retained
in
the
body,
there
will
not
be
a
lot
of
water
in
the
urine
and
therefore
the
concentration
of
the
urine
will
be
high.
Adrenal
insufficiency
will
also
cause
hyponatremia.
Remember
that
aldosterone
will
conserve
sodium
in
exchange
for
potassium.
Therefore,
reduced
aldosterone
activity
will
result
in
low
sodium
and
high
potassium
in
the
blood.
Additional
factors
are
probably
also
important:
• Low
cortisol
results
in
low
BP:
therefore,
baroreceptors
are
likely
activated
and
ADH
levels
are
increased.
• Low
cortisol
results
in
increased
CRH
(corticotropin
releasing
hormone)
from
the
hypothalamus
and
ACTH
(adrenocorticotropic
hormone)
from
the
anterior
pituitary
CRH
is
also
an
ADH
secretagogue:
therefore,
low
cortisol
levels
will
result
in
2
mechanisms
of
hyponatremia
at
the
same
time:
o low
minerallocorticoid
activity
by
low
cortisol
and
low
aldosterone
will
reduce
sodium
retention
o increased
ADH
stimulation
will
increase
water
retention
Thyroid
deficiency
can
be
associated
with
hyponatremia.
The
mechanism
is
probably
indirect
and
multifactorial:
• hypothyroidism
can
cause
arterial
hypotension
and
thus
activate
baroreceptors
and
increase
ADH
• hypothyroidism
can
also
reduce
glomerular
filtration
rate
and
therefore
reduce
water
excretion
directly
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Ok,
let’s
see
if
we
can
recap
the
causes
and
mechanisms
of
hyponatremia:
• Drinking
ridiculous
amounts
of
water
• Lab
error
• Osmotic
loads
(high
osmolality)
o Glucose
o Urea
o Alcohol
• Can’t
secrete
water:
o Kidney
failure
o Elevated
ADH:
Appropriately
elevated,
baroreceptors:
• Hypovolemia
Inappropriately
elevated,
baroreceptors:
• Congestive
heart
failure
• Cirrhosis
• Nephrotic
syndrome
• Hormonal
abnormalities:
o Adrenal
insufficiency
o Hypothyroidism
Pathologically
elevated:
• SIADH
Hopefully
this
explanation
will
help
you
understand
mechanisms
of
hyponatremia.
With
all
this
talk
of
salt,
I
bet
you
are
craving
some
beer
and
nachos
right
now.
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