U.
SIDDIQUI
Determining the Value of g
Using a Stiff Pendulum
Imperial College London
Abstract — In this experiment, we determine
the value of the gravitational acceleration close
to the surface of the Earth, g = (9.90 ± 0.13) m
s-2 = 9.90 m s-2 ± 1.3% by using a stiff pendulum
method. First, we find the moment of inertia of
the pendulum and then use small angle
approximations to derive an expression for g. We
then compare our results to the generally
accepted value and identify areas of
improvement.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HIS report will discuss the use of the stiff
pendulum to calculate the value of the
gravitational acceleration close to the surface of the
Earth.
A. History of Gravitational Acceleration
In the 4th century BC, Aristotle had incorrectly
theorised that the force of gravity causes heavier objects
to accelerate more rapidly towards the centre of the
Earth [1]. This was shown to be incorrect in the 17th
century by Galileo, who made experimental
observations by dropping spheres of the same size but
of different masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. He
noted that, despite their different masses, both objects
fell towards the Earth at the same rate.
The notion of a constant gravitational acceleration
was a topic of debate until Newton, in 1666, expanded
on the experimental observations of Galileo to
mathematically deduce that all objects accelerated
towards the surface of the Earth at the same rate,
irrespective of mass. The gravitational acceleration is
derived directly from Newton’s law of Gravitational
Attraction:
𝐹=𝐺 , proportional to the torque applied, 𝜏 = 𝐼θ̈. As we will
and the complete derivation can be found in Appendix
A.
From the derivation, taking r to be the average
radius of the Earth, we have g = 9.8 m s-2. The value is
often quoted to only two significant figures because the
value of g varies between (9.780, 9.832) m s-2 depending
on location [2]. This is due to the apparent centrifugal
force being stronger at the equator than at the poles,
and further due to the asymmetrical bulge of the Earth,
which causes the equator to be a further distance away
from the centre of mass of the Earth.
B. Significance of Gravitational Acceleration
1
As described by the work of Newton and Galileo, all
objects irrespective of their mass, experience the same
constant acceleration close to the surface of the Earth.
This has some extremely fundamental consequences –
for example, we use this idea to calculate mass on a
weighing scale. The same idea can be extended for
simple problems involving conservation of gravitational
potential energy close to the surface of the Earth.
Lastly, the gravitational acceleration is a term which
features in the equations for the time period of the
simple and stiff pendulum, as well as the equations
governing simple harmonic motion of an oscillating
spring (see Appendix B).
The value of g is also important in problems
involving rotational motion. For example, calculating
the moment of a person seated on a see-saw (see Figure
1.2) would not be possible without knowing the value of
g, which provides us with an expression for the force
and therefore allows us to deduce the moment of a body
about a given axis.
C. Introducing Moment of Inertia
The method used in our approach to calculate g
relies on the idea of moment of inertia, which is defined
as the tendency of a body to resist angular acceleration.
Mathematically, it is denoted by the symbol I and
calculated by performing the integral
𝐼 = lim ∑𝑟 𝛿𝑚 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑚,
→
over the entire body, where r is the distance of each
point-like particle in the body from the axis of rotation
[3]. In particular, we will be requiring the formula of the
moment of inertia of a cylindrical rod, which is derived
in Appendix C.
The moment of inertia is the rotational equivalent
of mass, and hence the Newtonian laws of motion apply
as normal with some minor adjustments. For example,
the expression for the angular acceleration of a body is
be investigating oscillatory motion, as opposed to linear
motion, we use the equations for rotational motion.
D. Introducing Parallel Axis Theorem
The parallel axis theorem is a theorem that extends
the applications of the moment of inertia. It states that
if the moment of inertia of a body is known about a
particular axis through the centre of mass, the moment
of inertia of the body through a second axis (that is
necessarily parallel to the first) can be calculated by
using the equation
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝑚𝑑 ,
U. SIDDIQUI
where I0 is the known moment of inertia through the
centre of mass, m is the mass of the body and d is the
perpendicular distance between the first and second
axes [4].
We will use a torsion pendulum to calculate the
moment of inertia of the stiff pendulum about its centre
of mass. Then, the parallel axis theorem will be useful
in calculating the moment of inertia about the rotation
axis of the pendulum.
II. THEORY
A. Relating Period of Oscillation to g
For a pendulum of mass m and distance to the
centre of mass h, the torque exerted on the pendulum
by its weight when it is displaced from the equilibrium
position by an angle φ is equal to 𝜏 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 𝐼𝜑̈ . It
can be shown (see Appendix D for derivation) that
𝑔 = 4𝜋 , mass. To find the moment of inertia of the pendulum
Equation 2A.1: The expression for calculating the value of the
gravitational acceleration, g.
where T is the period of oscillation for the pendulum
and I is the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.
Hence, if accurate values of I, m, h and T can be
acquired, the formula can be used to determine the
value of g. Values of m and T can be obtained easily,
and the value for h can be calculated using a simple
method. However, acquiring the value of I requires using
an indirect method.
B. Acquiring the Value of I
The value for the moment of inertia of the stiff
pendulum about the axis of rotation cannot be easily
calculated directly. Instead, we use an indirect torsion
pendulum method to first calculate the value of I about
the centre of mass of the stiff pendulum, and then
extend this using the parallel axis theorem to calculate
the moment of inertia about the required axis.
The torsion pendulum is a device in which a rotating
body is suspended from its centre of mass using a torsion
wire. When the body is rotated, the torsion wire
becomes twisted and exerts a rotational torque on the
body which causes it to accelerate in the opposite
direction to its angular displacement. Again, if the
amplitude of the angular displacement is small, air
resistance becomes negligible and the body oscillates
with simple harmonic motion.
The simple harmonic oscillation of the torsion
pendulum is governed by
𝑇 = 2𝜋 ,
where IP is the moment of inertia of the body and κ is
the torsion coefficient of the torsion wire used [5]. The
value for κ for copper can be relatively easily acquired
from data-books, but it is better to eliminate this value
altogether by first calculating the period of oscillation
of a cylindrical rod, whose moment of inertia can be
shown to be
𝐼 = 𝑀𝐿 ,
2
Equation 2B.1: The moment of inertia through the centre of mass of a
uniform cylindrical rod of mass M and length L.
(see Appendix C for derivation) through its centre of
mass, where M is the mass of the rod and L is the length.
Thus, the dividing the expression for the period of
oscillation for the pendulum by the period of oscillation
for the cylindrical rod yields
= = ⇒𝐼 =𝐼 .
Equation 2B.2: The expression for the moment of inertia of the
pendulum through its centre of mass, given the moment of inertia of a
uniform rod through its centre of mass, as well as the time period for
oscillations on the torsion pendulum for the pendulum and cylindrical
rod.
Note, however, that the expression for IP represents that
moment of inertia of the pendulum through its centre of
through the axis of rotation when the pendulum is
vertically oscillating, we use the parallel axis theorem:
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝑚ℎ = 𝐼 + 𝑚ℎ ,
Equation 2B.3: Applying the parallel axis theorem adjustment to
calculate the moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.
where m is the mass of the pendulum and h is the
distance from the centre of mass to the axis of rotation.
C. Determining the Centre of Mass
The centre of mass of an object is said to be the
point at which all of the mass of an object is said to be
concentrated. An alternative definition states that it is
the point through which a force would not produce an
angular acceleration [4]. While there are other methods
to determine the centre of mass of an object, we will use
a simple approach. Since
the centre of mass is the
point through which a
force produces no angular
acceleration, the body can
be made to balance by a
single force acting Figure 2C.1: By balancing a rod on
an aluminium prism, the position of
through its centre of the centre of mass can be
mass. This reaction force determined. For a uniform and
symmetrical body, the centre of
is provided by an mass is always in the geometric
aluminium prism (see centre of the body.
Figure 2C.1).
III. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
A. Prerequisite Measurements
The centre of mass of the pendulum was determined
by carefully balancing the pendulum on the aluminium
prism as shown in Figure 2C.1. The position of the
centre of mass was marked by placing one edge of a
piece of masking tape against the required position.
Subsequently, the value of h was measured from the
knife-edge on the axis of rotation of the pendulum to
the centre of mass using three different metre-rules.
U. SIDDIQUI 3

Lastly, the mass of the pendulum was measured on three
different precise top-pan balances.
The same process was repeated for the uniform
cylindrical rod. Again, the centre of mass was found
using the aluminium prism and recorded using a piece
of masking tape. Finally, the theoretical moment of
inertia of the uniform cylindrical rod was calculated.
B. Torsion Pendulum
A clamp and retort stand was set-up at the edge of
our work desk with a steel rod inserted through the ring
clamp to give clearance from desk. A copper torsion wire
of thickness approximately (0.71 ± 0.01) mm was
wrapped around the steel rod and held in place with
some masking tape.
The other end of the
torsion wire was
fastened to a pipe
clamp clip and the
uniform rod was
inserted through the
pipe clamp clip and
securely tightened and
the pipe clamp clip
positioned on the
Figure 3B.1: A set-up of the torsion
centre of mass so that pendulum apparatus. The retort
the rod rested in stand is clamped securely to the desk
equilibrium (see Figure and the cylindrical rod rotates below
the desk. The steel rod was added to
3B.1). provide greater clearance from the
The torsion desk.
pendulum was then displaced and the stopwatch was
started when the pendulum came to rest at its
amplitude position as this made it easy to determine the
end of a single oscillation. The time was recorded for the
pendulum to complete 5 oscillations. The process was
repeated 4 more times to produce a dataset of 5 values
for the time taken to complete 5 oscillations.
Then, the cylindrical rod was removed from the pipe
clamp clip and replaced by the pendulum, again
tightening the pipe clamp clip over the centre of mass
so as to ensure the pendulum was balanced on the
torsion wire. The time taken for 5 oscillations was again
recorded until we had a dataset of 5 values.
Subsequently, the mean value for TR and TP, the
time period for one complete oscillation of the
cylindrical rod and pendulum respectively was
calculated. The moment of inertia of the pendulum
about its centre of mass was calculated using Equation
measurements in the short time period. Furthermore, it
was more difficult to concentrate when recording 10
complete oscillations so the standard deviation for the
time taken for 10 oscillation was significantly larger.
After displacing the apparatus by a small distance1,
we waited for the apparatus to come to rest at its
amplitude to start the timer as this made it easier to
determine when a single oscillation had been completed.
We recorded the time taken for 5 oscillations using the
Figure 3C.1: The resting block was clamped to the table and the knife-
edge of the pendulum placed in the opening of the resting block. The
pendulum was then displaced slightly and allowed to oscillate.
lap function on the stopwatch provided, which allowed
us to collect a large amount of data in a short time.
The data collected was input into a spreadsheet
document and stored as a CSV file before being
imported into a Jupyter Notebook and analysed using
Python. The time period for one oscillation was
determined and Equation 2A.1 was used to calculate the
value of g.
IV. RESULTS
A. Prerequisite Measurements
The mass and length of the cylindrical rod were
measured as M = (269.86 ± 0.01) g and L = (78.6 ±
0.1) cm, respectively. Hence the theoretical moment of
inertia of the cylindrical rod about it centre of mass was
measured as IR = (13.9 ± 0.1) g m2.
Mass Length Table 4A.1: Measurements of the mass
and length of the uniform cylindrical rod.
/g / cm
For the mass, the first value was discarded
269.57 78.6
due to a systematic error with a faulty
269.86 78.6 balance. The remaining three values were
269.86 78.6 measured on different balances and were
consistent to within 0.01g. The lengths
269.86 were measured using different metre-rules
and were each consistent to 0.1cm.

2B.2 and the parallel axis theorem was applied to

Similarly, the combined mass of the pendulum and
calculate moment of inertia of the pendulum about the
bob was found to be m = (744.56 ± 0.07) g and h was
axis of rotation.
found to be h = (53.5 ± 0.1) cm.

C. Oscillating Pendulum
Next, the apparatus was reconfigured to that shown
in Figure 3C.1. We decided to measure the time taken
for 5 oscillations per measurement because it would be
faster and would therefore allow us to collect more

1
Note: It was necessary to use a small displacement because Equation
2A.1 is only valid if the amplitude of oscillation is small.
U. SIDDIQUI 4

oscillations as t = (8.54 ± 0.01) s. Hence, the period of

Mass of Mass of Combined one oscillation is calculated as T = (1.71 ± 0.01) s.
pendulum bob mass h
/g /g /g / cm
D. Calculating g
363.44 380.32 743.76 53.5
363.82 380.76 744.58 53.5 The value of g can be calculated using Equation
363.83 380.72 744.55 53.5 2A.1, with I = (0.292 ± 0.001) kg m2, m = (0.74456 ±
363.79 380.75 744.54 0.00007) kg, h = (0.535 ± 0.003) m and T = (1.71 ±
0.01) s.
Equation 2A.1 gives the value of g = (9.90 ± 0.13)
Table 4A.2: Measurements of the mass of the pendulum, bob and the m s-2, or g = 9.90 m s-2 ± 1.3%, giving the range g =
value of h. Again, note that the first measurements of the mass of the
pendulum and bob were discarded due to a systematic error with a faulty (9.77, 10.03) m s-2. Note that this range includes the
balance. The remaining values are all consistent to 0.1g. Each value of generally accepted value of 9.8 m s-2, as well as the
h was measured with a different rule, but all values were consistent to
0.1cm. extreme values at the poles and equator of 9.780 m s-2
and 9.832 m s-2, respectively.
The values for M and L were used with Equation
2B.1 to calculate the theoretical moment of inertia E. Error Propagation and Analysis
through the centre of mass of the cylindrical rod, By analysing equation 2A.1, it is possible to analyse
yielding IR = (13.9 ± 0.1) g m2. the contributions of each value to the total error in g
(see Table 4E.1).
B. Torsion Pendulum
Source Error Table 4E.1: Breakdown of the contribution to
The mean value of the time period of the rod to /% the total error in the final value of g according
complete one oscillation TR was calculated as TR = I 0.444 to Equation 2A.1.
(15.55 ± 0.05) s. Similarly, the mean value for the h 0.418
From Table 4E.1, the mass of
period of oscillation for the pendulum was TP = (36.99 T2 0.181
the pendulum m contributes the
± 0.05) s. The measurements of these values are m 0.0134
smallest value to the error as the
summarised in Table 4B.1.
value of m was verified on three separate balances and
Time taken for 5 Time taken for 5 Table 4B.1:
consistent to 0.01g on all three balances. Conversely, the
oscillations of rod oscillations of pendulum Measurements of moment of inertia, I, of the pendulum contributes most
/s /s the time taken to significantly to the error in the final value of g. The
77.07 185.40 complete 5
oscillations on the value of h also has a significant contribution to the error
77.78 184.53
78.36
torsion pendulum in g, so these values should be analysed further in Tables
184.79 for the cylindrical
77.72 184.85 rod and pendulum.
4E.2 and 4E.3 respectively.
78.16 185.12
Source Error Table 4E.2: Breakdown of the contribution to
/% the error in the moment of inertia about the
Using the values for TR, TP and IR, it is possible to h2 0.836 axis of rotation for the pendulum. Again, as in
Table 4E.1, h makes a significant contribution
determine I0 using Equation 2B.2: I0 = (78.6 ± 0.8) g I0 0.377 to the error.
m2. This can be extended to calculate the moment of m 0.0134
inertia of the pendulum about the axis of rotation using
the parallel axis theorem in Equation 2B.3, giving IP =
Source Error Table 4E.3: Breakdown of contribution to
(292 ± 1) g m2 = (0.292 ± 0.001) kg m2. /% the error in the value of h. Note that the
Centre of mass 0.374 error in the centre of mass is significant,
since the centre of mass was determined
C. Oscillating Pendulum Zero point 0.187
using an inaccurate aluminium prism
During the method.
experiment, we
The error in the value of h is larger than expected
measured the
due to the estimated error in the centre of mass. When
time taken for the
determining the centre of mass of the pendulum, we
pendulum to
used an aluminium prism method, but this had a large
complete 5
scope for human error as will be discussed in the final
oscillations. In
conclusion.
total, we made 84
The overall error in g is approximately 1.3%, so our
measurements of
experiment provides a relatively accurate estimate of g
this value, which Figure 4C.1: A histogram of 84
without using technical and advanced equipment.
contributed to a measurements of the time taken for the
pendulum to perform 5 oscillations. The
lower standard dataset has mean = 8.54 s and standard error
V. CONCLUSION
error when = 0.01 s.
calculating the sample mean. For extensive analysis, The calculated value of g = 9.90 m s-2 is larger than
each individual measurement is included in Appendix E, the accepted value of g = 9.8 m s-2, but is included in
but a histogram of the measurements is shown in Figure the ±1.3% error range for the calculated value. The
4C.1. Using Python, we calculated the mean time for 5 largest uncertainty stems from the value for the moment
U. SIDDIQUI
of inertia of the pendulum, but further analysis revealed
that this is likely due to the uncertainty in the value for
h.
A strength of the experiment is that it is relatively
simple to execute and does not require any technical or
advanced apparatus. Considering the simplicity of the
equipment used, an error of only ±1.3% is remarkable.
However, as mentioned above, the experiment could be
improved with a few changes (for example, to the
equipment used to determine centre of mass).
A weakness of the practical was that it makes some
estimates regarding the experiment that may not be
true. For example, Equation 2A.1 uses the
approximation that the sine of a small angle is
approximately equal to the angle. While this
approximation holds true for small angles, it is possible
that the amplitude of oscillations used during our
practical may have been too high for this approximation
to hold true. Hence, a more accurate approach to
determining the value of g would take this into
consideration and possibly account for the additional
systematic error from the possibility of the amplitude of
oscillation being too great.
A source of random error in the experiment arose
when using the torsion pendulum, which was extremely
sensitive to nearby air currents. This meant that people
walking past the experiment while the pendulum or rod
were rotating may have influenced the time period,
which could see a larger error propagating through in
the final value of g. Nevertheless, the biggest problem
with this experiment was in the way that the centre of
mass was determined for the pendulum. The errors in
this arose from the fact that it was based on the
judgement of the scientist to decide if the rod was
balanced on the prism, which is an error that cannot be
easily quantified. Furthermore, it was often easy for the
rod to slip or move off the prism while the masking tape
was being placed on the rod, which made it difficult to
accurately mark the position of the centre of mass.
The uncertainty in
determining the centre
of mass and hence the
value of h can be
significantly reduced
by using the apparatus
in Figure 5.1. Two
force-meters are
attached to the
Figure 5.1: An apparatus that can be
pendulum: one is
used to determine the centre of mass,
attached to the axis of h, of a body. T1 and T2 are tensions
rotation of the measured by force-meters a known
pendulum and the distance d apart.
other can be attached
arbitrarily at a known distance d from the first force-
meter. Then, by Newton’s 1st Law:
𝑇 + 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔.
Applying the principle of moments about the axis
of rotation gives
𝑇 𝑑 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ ⇒ ℎ = = ,
5
which is a more accurate method of determining h.
Note that to further improve the estimate of h, it is
possible to plot against d. The gradient of this graph
is then equal to . When possible, it is always
advisable to use a graphical method to determine a
value because it is easier to determine outliers from a
graph and errors can be better accounted for in the
estimate of the gradient.
A minor source of error was accurately trying to stop
the stopwatch when the correct number of oscillations
had been completed. Measuring only five oscillations
meant that the percentage error in each measurement
was theoretically larger, but measuring 10 oscillations
meant fewer measurements could be made and it was
more difficult to concentrate for longer periods of time.
A better alternative would be to eliminate the error
arising from reaction time and human error altogether
by automating the task of taking measurements of the
period of oscillation. This could be done, for example,
by connecting a laser rangefinder to a datalogger, which
could record the speed of the pendulum as it was
oscillating (see Figure 5.2). When the pendulum was
stationary, it would mean that the pendulum was at an
amplitude point and the computer could start the timer,
stopping the timer after a set number of oscillations
have been completed. This would be significantly more
accurate than the method used in this practical, and
Figure 5.2: Using a laser range-finder to determine the point at which
the pendulum has reached its amplitude. The data can be passed in
real-time to a computer, which can monitor and record the period of
oscillation automatically and store the data in a CSV file, for example.
would mean that more measurements could be made
over a shorter period of time.
VI. REFERENCES
1. Grant, E. (1996). The foundations of modern science in the
middle ages. Cambridge [u.a.]: Cambridge Univ. Press.
2. Boynton, R. (2001). Precise Measurement of Mass. [online]
Arlington, TX, p.2. Available at:https://www.space-
electronics.com/contentAssets/Literature/Precise_Measure
ment_of_Mass.PDF [Accessed 26 Oct. 2017].
3. Grounds, S. and Kirby, E. (1992). Physics. 1st ed. Essex:
Longman, pp.38-39.
4. Whelan, P. and Hodgson, M. (1989). Essential principles of
physics. 2nd ed. London: John Murray.
5. Flegrova, M. and Ward, M. (2017). Calculating g using a
Stiff Pendulum. In: N. Ekins-Daukes and Y. Uchida, ed.,
First Year Laboratory Manual 2017-2018, 1st ed. London:
Imperial College London, pp.41-47.
U. SIDDIQUI 6

Note the multiple of 2, which is needed because the

VII. APPENDIX rod is symmetrical in both directions about its centre.
A. Mathematical Derivation of Gravitational Now, 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑑𝑟 where ρ is the density of the
Acceleration material of the rod, V is the volume and A is the
Newton’s law of gravitational attraction states that cross-sectional area. Hence,
the gravitational force F is given by
𝐼 = 2𝜌𝐴 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝐹=𝐺 ,
where G is the universal gravitational constant, M and 2𝜌𝐴
= [𝑟 ]
m are the masses of the two objects and r is the distance 3
2𝜌𝐴𝐿
between them. In the case of the Earth, we have M = =
5.972 × 1024 kg and r = 6.371 × 106 m is the average 24
1
radius of the Earth. Then, the gravitational = (𝜌𝐴𝐿)𝐿
12
acceleration, or force per unit mass, experienced by an 1
object close to the surface of the Earth is = 𝑀𝐿
12
( . × )( . × )
𝑔=𝐺 = = 9.82 𝑚 𝑠 . as required.
( . × )

Note that some other derivations will use different

estimates for values of G, M and r and will therefore D. Derivation for Relationship Between g and
acquire different values. The generally accepted value is Time Period
quoted as g = 9.8 m s-2. For small angle oscillations, the stiff pendulum will
approximate simple harmonic motion, that is 𝜃̈ = −𝜔 𝜃
B. Equations Involving Gravitation where 𝜔 = . Resolving the forces acting tangentially
Acceleration on the pendulum in Figure 7D.1 gives 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 so
The equation for the time period of a simple 𝜏 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. But 𝜏 = 𝐼𝜃̈ . Hence considering just the
pendulum involves the use of the value of g: absolute value of the angular acceleration, we have
𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐼𝜃̈
𝑇 = 2𝜋 .
= 𝜔 𝐼𝜃
The value of g is also used in equations for the But for small angle oscillations 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 so
conservation of gravitational potential energy over small 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝜃 ≈ 𝜔 𝐼𝜃. Hence
distances and close to the surface of the Earth
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ. 𝑔= = = 4𝜋
Similarly, any physics or engineering problem as required.
where gravitational forces need to be consider will
likely involve the value of g. A simple engineering
example is that of calculating the moment of the E. Full Results
centre of mass of a bridge about one of its supporting
cables. This allows engineers to make decisions about Time taken to complete 5 oscillations
the minimum strength of the material required to \s
support the bridge if one of the cables were to break. 8.38 8.54 8.58 8.48 8.40 8.69 8.55
8.66 8.38 8.54 8.53 8.47 8.57 8.56
8.66 8.60 8.49 8.63 8.66 8.59 8.49
8.55 8.59 8.60 8.42 8.62 8.48 8.58
8.38 8.51 8.56 8.60 8.47 8.55 8.52
8.58 8.59 8.50 8.60 8.49 8.62 8.60
8.50 8.48 8.59 8.47 8.60 8.47 8.55
8.69 8.57 8.48 8.60 8.50 8.55 8.63
8.45 8.49 8.62 8.46 8.65 8.62 8.48
8.54 8.58 8.59 8.50 8.60 8.50 8.54
Figure 7A.1: A free body diagram of a uniform tension bridge.
8.47 8.56 8.52 8.70 8.55 8.56 8.54
Engineers use the value of g to work out the weight that the remaining
cables would need to support if one of the cables were to break. 8.61 8.48 8.59 8.53 8.48 8.51 8.51

C. Moment of Inertia of a Cylindrical Rod

Consider a cylindrical rod with mass M and length
L. Then the moment of inertia of the rod is given by

𝐼 = 2 ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑚.