Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A comprehensive review on the applications of waste tire rubber

in cement concrete
Blessen Skariah Thomas n, Ramesh Chandra Gupta
Department of Civil Engineering, MNIT Jaipur, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Disposal of waste tire rubber has become a major environmental issue in all parts of the world. Every
Received 28 April 2015 year millions of tires are discarded, thrown away or buried all over the world, representing a very serious
Received in revised form threat to the ecology. It was estimated that almost 1000 million tires end their service life every year and
31 July 2015
out of that, more than 50% are discarded to landfills or garbage without any treatment. By the year 2030,
Accepted 21 October 2015
Available online 11 November 2015
there would be 5000 million tires to be discarded on a regular basis. Tire burning, which was the easiest
and cheapest method of disposal, causes serious fire hazards. Temperature in that area rises and the
Keywords: poisonous smoke with uncontrolled emissions of potentially harmful compounds is very dangerous to
Waste management humans, animals and plants. The residue powder left after burning pollutes the soil. One of the possible
Cement concrete
solutions for the use of waste tire rubber is to incorporate into cement concrete. This paper presents an
Durability
overview of some of the research published regarding the fresh and hardened properties of rubberized
Mechanical properties
concrete. Studies show that there is a promising future for the use of waste tire rubber as a partial
substitute for aggregate in cement concrete. It was noticed from literatures that workable concrete
mixtures can be made with scrap tire rubber and it is possible to make light weight rubber aggregate
concrete for some special purposes. Rubberized concrete shows high resistance to freeze-thaw, acid
attack and chloride ion penetration. Use of silica fume in rubberized concrete enables to achieve high
strength and high resistance to sulfate, acid and chloride environments.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
2. Classification of scrap tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
3. Properties of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325
3.1. Fresh concrete properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325
3.1.1. Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1325
3.1.2. Bulk density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327
3.2. Hardened concrete properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327
3.2.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327
3.2.2. Flexural tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327
3.2.3. Abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1328
3.2.4. Modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1328
3.2.5. Water absorption, sorptivity and penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1328
3.2.6. Carbonation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329
3.2.7. Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329
3.2.8. Freeze-thaw resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330
3.2.9. Thermal and acoustic properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: chaprathu44@gmail.com (B.S. Thomas), irarcg@hotmail.com (R.C. Gupta).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.092
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1324 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333
3.2.10. Acid and sulfate resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.11. Chloride penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Discussions and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Disposal of waste tire rubber has become a major environ-
mental issue in all parts of the world. It was estimated that
1.5 billion tires are manufactured in the world per annum [1,2].
Every year millions of tires are discarded, thrown away or buried
all over the world, representing a very serious threat to the ecol-
ogy. It is estimated that every year almost 1000 million tires end
their service life and out of that, more than 50% are discarded to
landfills or garbage, without any treatment. By the year 2030, the
number would reach to 1200 million yearly. Including the stock-
piled tires, there would be 5000 million tires to be discarded on a
regular basis [3–5]. According to the data produced by the Rubber
Manufacturer's Association [6]; more than 230 million scrap tires
are generated in US every year and about 75 million are stockpiled.
If the Indian scenario is considered, it was estimated that the total
number of discarded tires would be 112 million per year after
retreading twice [7,8]. The European Association of tires and
rubber producers estimate that 3.2 million tonnes of used tires
were discarded in 2009. The recovery ratio was 96%, of which 18%
were retreated or reused, 38% were recycled and 40% were used
for energy production [9].
The discarded tires are disposed in various methods like land
filling, burning, use as fuel, pyrolysis, to produce carbon black etc.
Stockpiled tires also present many types of, health, environmental
and economic risks through air, water and soil pollution [10,11,2].
The tires store water for a longer period because of its particular
shape and impermeable nature providing a breeding habitat for
mosquitoes and various pests.
Tire burning, which was the easiest and cheapest method of
disposal, causes serious fire hazards [12–14,10]. Temperature in
that area rises and the poisonous smoke with uncontrolled emis-
sions of potentially harmful compounds is very dangerous to
humans, animals and plants. Tires are manufactured from petro-
chemical feed stocks such as styrene and butadiene. Burning tires
releases styrene and several benzene compounds. Butadiene is a
highly carcinogenic four-carbon compound that may be released
from the styrene–butadiene polymer during combustion (bur-
ningissues.org). The air pollutants from emits dense black smoke
which impairs visibility and soils the painted surfaces. The toxic
gas emissions includes polyaromatic hydro carbons, CO, SO2, NO2
and HCl. The residue powder left after burning pollutes the soil.
The disadvantage of pyrolysis is that, about it produces carbon
black powder, which pollutes the atmosphere.
Use of tire rubber as fuel is economically not attractive. The
carbon black produced from tires is more expensive and is of
lower quality when compared with that produced from petroleum
products. Tire rubber can be used in a variety of civil and non-civil
engineering applications such as in geotechnical works, in road
construction, in agriculture to seal silos, in onshore and offshore
breakwaters, in retaining walls in harbors and estuaries to buffer
the impact of ships, in artificial reefs to improve fishing, as a fuel in
cement kilns, incineration for production of electricity, as reefs in
marine environments or as an aggregate in cement-based pro-
ducts. Still, millions of tires are being buried, thrown away or
burnt all over the world [9,15–17].
For the last some years, construction industry is taking up the
challenge to incorporate sustainability in the production activities
1330
1331
1331
1332
by searching for more environmental friendly raw materials or by
the use of solid waste materials as aggregates in concrete. One of
the possible solutions for the use of waste tire rubber is to incor-
porate into cement concrete, to replace some of the natural
aggregates. This attempt could be environmental friendly as it
helps to dispose the waste tires and prevent environmental pol-
lution. It also helps to reduce the carbon dioxide emission by the
prevention of tire fires. This process is also economically viable as
some of the costly natural aggregates can be saved [3,18–21].
2. Classification of scrap tires
The most preferred method for the recycling of tire rubber is by
grinding it and then to convert it for various applications. The
crumb rubber used in concrete or asphalt paving mixtures is in
sizes ranging from 0.0075 mm to 4.75 mm. The steps involved in
the production of crumb rubber include shredding, separation of
steel and textile, granulation and classification. The tires would be
cut into larger pieces and then shredded into smaller pieces. The
steel wires and the textile part would be separated after shred-
ding. Mechanical grinding for granulation could be performed at
ambient temperature, at ambient temperature under wet condi-
tion, at high temperature and at cryogenic temperature.
In the grinding at ambient temperature, the waste tire chips
would be grinded in mills or granulators at an ambient tempera-
ture. In the case of wet ambient grinding, water is sprayed on
crumb rubber to reduce the temperature. After the wet grinding
process, the crumb rubber would be dried by eliminating water. In
high temperature grinding at about 130 °C, rubber granules of 1–
6 mm would be produced. The limitation of high temperature
grinding is the viscoelastic nature and low heat conductivity of
crumb rubber. In the cryogenic grinding process, tire rubber would
be cooled below its glass transition temperature and then shat-
tered by passing through an impact type mill. Ambient grinding
and cryogenic grinding are widely used for the granulation of tire
rubber [22].
Total Municipal Solid Waste Generation in USA is given in
Fig. 1; US scrap tire market summary is given in Fig. 2; images of
tire rubber aggregates are given in Figs. 3 and 4; US scrap rubber
Fig. 1. Total Municipal Solid Waste Generation in USA (United States Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 2010).
 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333 1325

Fig. 2. US scrap tire market summary [6].

Fig. 3. (a) Ground Rubber. (b) Crushed Rubber (waste tire chips) [43].

disposition is given in Table 1; typical materials used in manu- 3. Properties of concrete

facture of tire is given in Table 2; composition of manufactured
tires by weight is given in Table 3. One of the possible solutions for the use of waste tire rubber is
Ganjian et al. [23] have classified the discarded tire rubber into to incorporate into cement concrete, to replace some of the natural
chipped, crumb and ground rubber. aggregates.

(1) Shredded or chipped rubber that replaces coarse aggregates:
Tires are shredded in two stages. At the end of the first stage,
the rubber pieces would be shredded to 300–430 mm length
and 100–230 mm width. In the second stage of shredding, the
length would be reduced to 100–150 mm, and then further
reduced to 13–76 mm and are called as ‘shredded particles’,
which can be used to replace coarse aggregates.
(2) Crumb rubber that replaces fine aggregates: It is manu-
factured in special mills that grind the tire rubber to granules
of size ranging from 0.425–4.75 mm. Different sizes of rubber
particles could be produced depending on the type of mills
and the temperature generated.
(3) Ground rubber that can partially replace cement: The size of
ground rubber depends on the equipment used for size
reduction. If the micro-milling process is adopted, the rubber
particles could be made into 0.075–0.475 mm. A two-stage
process of magnetic separation and screening would be
adopted in the process of making ground rubber.
3.1. Fresh concrete properties
3.1.1. Workability
Fresh concrete is a plastic concrete that can be molded to any
shape. Hundred per cent compaction of fresh concrete is an
important parameter to enable maximum strength for concrete. A
highly workable concrete can ensure full compaction. Workability
of concrete is the ease with which concrete can be mixed, handled
and compacted. Holmes et al. [24] have observed decrease in
workability with increase in crumb rubber grades and proportions.
The reduction could be due to the reduced inter-particle friction
between the rubber and other constituents. Dong et al. [25] have
indicated that higher rubber content reduce the workability of
concrete. Youssf et al. [26] mentioned that the workability of
rubberized concrete can be controlled by using appropriate
quantity of super plasticizer (1–3% by weight of cement). Bravo
and Brito, [9] explained that the concrete mixes containing
mechanically ground tire aggregates have lower slump than the
1326 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333

Fig. 4. Various sizes of crumb rubber (Li et al. [7]).

Table 1
concrete containing cryogenic ground tire aggregates. This could
US scrap rubber disposition [6]. be because of the higher specific surface and roughness of the
mechanically ground tire aggregates. Su et al. [27] mentioned that,
Sl. No Market or disposition In thousands of tons
due to the higher water absorption of rubber particles, there was a
1 Tire derived fuel 2120.29 general reduction in the slump of rubberized concrete, regardless
2 Ground rubber 975.00 of the particle size of tire rubber. Also a decrease in slump was
3 Land disposed 327.78
observed as the particle size of rubber was decreased.
4 Exported 245.84
5 Civil engineering application 172.00 Aiello and Leuzzi [28] mentioned that the workability of con-
6 Reclamation works 49.17 crete (by slump test) was slightly improved by the partial sub-
7 Electric arc furnace 65.56 stitution of coarse or fine aggregates with rubber shreds. The
8 Baled tires/market 30.00
9 Agricultural 7.10
control concrete exhibited a fluid behavior, while the rubberized
10 Punched/stamped 1.90 concrete had shown a hyper-fluid behavior. Elchalakani [29]
11 Total generated 3824.26 explained that the rubberized concrete having a combination of
12 Total to market 3666.85
rubber powder and crumb rubber, exhibited good workability with
13 Amount to market/utilized 95.9%
respect to plain concrete when adequate quantity of admixture
 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333 1327

Table 2 aggregates would be surrounded by the cement paste containing

Typical materials used in manufacture of tire [6]. rubber particles. This cement paste would be much softer than
that without rubber. This results in rapid development of cracks
Sl. No Materials
around the rubber particles while loading and this leads to quick
1 Synthetic rubber failure of specimens. (b) There would be lack of proper bonding
2 Natural rubber between rubber particles and cement paste, as compared to
3 Sulfur and sulfur compounds cement paste and natural aggregates. This can lead to cracks due
4 Phenolic Resin
5 Oil
to non uniform distribution of applied stresses. (c) The compres-
a. Aromatic sive strength depends on the physical and mechanical properties
b. Naphthenic of the constituent materials. If part of the materials is replaced by
c. Paraffinic rubber, reduction in strength will occur. (d) Due to low specific
6 Fabric
gravity of rubber and lack of bonding of rubber with other con-
a. Polyester
b. Nylon crete materials, there is a tendency for the rubber to move
7 Petroleum waxes upwards during vibration leading to higher rubber concentration
8 Pigments at the at top layer. Such a non-homogeneous concrete sample
a. Zinc oxide leads to reduced strengths.
b. Titanium dioxide
9 Carbon black
Al-Akhras and Smadi [34] studied on the properties of mortar
10 Fatty acids containing tire rubber ash. Increase in compressive strength was
11 Inert materials observed when the tire rubber ash was replaced for fine aggre-
12 Steel wires gates up to 10%. The increase in compressive strength of mortar
specimens at 90 days were 14%, 21%, 29%, and 45% at tire rubber
ash content of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10%, respectively. Gesoglu et al.
Table 3
Composition of manufactured tires by weight [6].
[30,31] have observed negative effect on the compressive strength
of pervious concrete due to the action of tire rubber. The rate of
Composition (wt%) Automobile tire Truck tire reduction in compressive strength increased with increase in the
rubber content. Maximum loss in compressive strength was
Natural rubber 14 27
observed in the concrete specimens containing a mixture of crumb
Synthetic rubber 27 14
Carbon black 28 28 rubber and tire chips. Holmes et al. [24] mentioned that the sig-
Steel 14–15 14–15 nificant reductions in compressive strength could be avoided if the
Fabric, filler, accelerators and antiozonants 16–17 16–17 replacement of crumb rubber does not exceed 20% of the total
aggregate content.
Ganjian et al. [23] have obtained 10–23% reduction in com-
was used. Pacheco-Torgal et al. [16] explained that, when rubber
pressive strength when chipped rubber was replaced for aggre-
chips was partially replaced for coarse aggregate, the slump
gates and 20–40% reduction when powdered rubber was replaced
increased with increasing volume of tire aggregates up to 15%
for cement. Dong et al. [25] have examined the properties of
substitution and decreased beyond 15%. When crumb rubber was
concrete with uncoated rubber and the concrete containing rubber
used to partially replace fine aggregate, the slump decreased up to
coated with a silane coupling agent. It was observed that the
15% substitution and shower irregular values beyond 15%.
compressive strength of concrete with coated rubber increased
significantly due to the better chemical bonding and improved
3.1.2. Bulk density
interface around rubber particles. Onuaguluchi and Panesar [35]
Gesoglu et al. [30,31] prepared lighter weight concrete by
have observed significant improvement in the compressive and
adding rubber to concrete. The rubberized pervious concrete
tensile strength in the mixtures containing coated rubber and
densities were lesser by 2–11% when compared to the control mix
silica fume. Youssf et al. [26] mentioned that the crumb rubber can
specimens. Similar results were observed by Holmes et al. [24].
be replaced for mineral aggregates up to 3.5% without any sig-
Pelisser et al. [32] explained that the density of concrete with nificant effect on the compressive strength. When compared to the
recycled rubber diminished by 13% when compared with reference non-treated rubber concrete, the concrete with NaOH treated
concrete. When silica fume was added to the rubberized concrete, rubber increased the compressive strength by 15% at 28 days.
the reduction was only 9% due to the higher densification of the
concrete structure. Sukontasukkul and Tiamlom, [33] have 3.2.2. Flexural tensile strength
observed decrease in density with increasing amount of crumb Ganjian et al. [23] have noticed 37% reduction in flexural
rubber. The effect of crumb rubber on density was more pro- strength when tire chips were partially replaced for coarse
nounced when smaller size crumb rubber (passing through 26 aggregates and 29% loss when tire powder was partially replaced
number sieve) was used. Pacheco-Torgal et al. [16] studied on for cement. Su et al. [27] observed a reduction of 12.8% in the
rubberized concrete with tire chips partially replaced for coarse flexural strength when 20% fine aggregate was substituted with
aggregate, crumb rubber for fine aggregate and a combination of rubber aggregate. Less loss in strength was obtained when the size
tire chips and crumb rubber for total mineral aggregate. It was of rubber particles were smaller. This would be due to the filler
observed that the density of the concrete with coarse aggregate effect of small rubber particles that increase the compactness of
replacement had a reduction of 45% that of fine aggregate repla- concrete, reduce the stress singularity at internal voids and hence
cement reduced by 34% and the combination gave a reduction reduce the likelihood of fracture. Aiello and Leuzzi [28] have
of 33%. observed larger loss in flexural strength when the coarse aggre-
gate rather than fine aggregate was substituted by waste tire
3.2. Hardened concrete properties rubber particles. Elchalakani [29] explained that the addition of
silica fume and reduction in water–cement ratio has enhanced the
3.2.1. Compressive strength flexural strength of rubberized concrete. As the effect of silica
Ganjian et al. [23] have mentioned the reasons for the decrease fume enhanced the interfacial transition zone bonding, the
in compressive strength of the rubberized concrete. (a) The reduction in strength of high strength rubberized concrete was
1328 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333
lower than that of the normal strength concrete. Gupta et al. [36]
pointed out that the flexural strength of concrete containing
rubber ash decreased with increase in the percentage of rubber
ash, while the flexural strength of modified concrete (containing
10% rubber ash and a varying percentage of rubber fibers)
increased with the increasing amount of rubber fibers (aspect
ratio 8–10).
Yilmaz and Degirmenci [37] mentioned that the specimens
containing tire rubber (in the form of fibers) up to 20% exhibited
higher flexural strength than the control specimens. The flexural
strength decreases when the amount of rubber was increased
from 20–30%. The control specimens exhibited brittle failure and
split into two pieces immediately after cracking, while the speci-
mens containing rubber fibers showed deformation without
complete disintegration. Ganesan et al. [38] observed increase in
flexural strength with the increase in the amount of rubber in self
compacting concrete. When the amount of rubber was 15% and
20%, the strength increased to 15% and 9% respectively when
compared to the control mix concrete. Segre and Joekes [17]
examined the flexural strength of concrete with as-received rub-
ber and the rubber treated with NaOH. In both cases, the flexural
strength was higher than the control specimens. Al-Akhras and
Smadi [34] studied on the properties of mortar containing tire
rubber ash. Increase in flexural strength was observed when the
tire rubber ash was replaced for fine aggregates up to 10%. The
corresponding increases at 28 days of curing were 12%, 27%, 32%,
and 43% at tire rubber ash content of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10%,
respectively when compared to the control mix mortar.
3.2.3. Abrasion resistance
The abrasion resistance of concrete may be defined as its ability
to resist being worn away by rubbing. The concrete which is more
resistant to abrasion can be applied in pavements, floors and
concrete highways, in hydraulic structures such as tunnels and
dam spillways, or in other surfaces upon which abrasive forces are
applied between surfaces and moving objects during service [39].
Gesoglu et al. [30,31,40] explained that the abrasion resistance of
pervious concrete increased with increasing amount of rubber
from 0–20%. Fine crumb rubber (passing 1 mm sieve) exhibited
more resistance to abrasion than tire chips and crumb rubber. The
depth of wear reduced from 0.91% to 0.17% when the amount of
fine crumb rubber was increased from 0% to 20%. Thomas et al.
[41] observed that the rubberized concrete exhibited better
resistance to abrasion than the control mix. During the abrasion
test, the crumb rubber particles present in the rubberized concrete
projected beyond the smooth surface of the concrete and restric-
ted the grinding/rubbing of the concrete surface by acting like a
brush (as given in Fig. 6). This minimized the action of abrasive
powder on the surface of concrete and hence the rubberized
concrete became more resistant to abrasion when compared to the
control mix.
Sukontasukkul and Chaikaew [42] mentioned that the crumb
rubber blocks exhibited less abrasion resistance than the control
mix specimens. The concrete blocks containing a mixture of dif-
ferent sizes of crumb rubber performed better than those with
single size rubber aggregates. Gupta et al. [36] pointed out that the
depth of wear increases with increasing percentages of rubber ash
in concrete, while it decreases with increasing percentages of
rubber fiber in the modified concrete. Even in the most adverse
conditions (water–cement ratio 0.55 and replacement of 25%) the
depth of wear was below the permissible limits as per BIS-1237.
Zhang and Li [43] studied on the abrasion resistance of concrete in
which silica fumes and crumb rubber were taken as the additives.
It was reported that the addition of crumb rubber reduced the
compressive strength but increased the abrasion resistance of the
concrete. The addition of silica fume enhanced both compressive
strength and abrasion resistance of rubberized concrete. Concrete
with silica fumes had a better abrasion resistance than control
concrete and the rubberized concrete had better resistance to
abrasion when compared to the silica fume concrete. The abrasion
resistance of rubberized concrete increased with the increase of
rubber content.
3.2.4. Modulus of elasticity
Gesoglu et al. [30,31,40] have observed that the variation in
modulus of elasticity and compressive strength are similar. Addi-
tion of rubber to pervious concrete significantly decreased the
modulus of elasticity since the compressive strength was reduced.
Increasing the amount of rubber resulted in a significant reduction
in the static elastic moduli due to the decrease in the paste
amount. Ganjian et al. [23] have obtained 17–25% reduction in
modulus of elasticity in case of 5–10% aggregate replacement with
chipped rubber and the corresponding reduction for powdered
rubber was 18–36%.
Dong et al. [25] have examined the properties of concrete with
uncoated rubber and the concrete containing rubber coated with a
silane coupling agent. It was observed that the moduli of rubber-
ized concrete were less than control concrete. As the rubber con-
tent was increased, modulus was decreasing. Due to the stronger
chemical bonding developed by coating, the moduli of concrete
with coated rubber were higher than those with uncoated rubber.
Pelisser et al. [32] observed that the concrete with rubber has less
rigidity when compared to control concrete. The average reduction
in elastic modulus of rubberized concrete was 49%, which was
smaller when compared with the compressive strength loss.
3.2.5. Water absorption, sorptivity and penetration
Ganjian et al. [23] have mentioned that the water absorption of
concrete mixtures increased when tire chips was replaced for
coarse aggregates whereas, the water absorption decreased when
rubber powder was partially replaced for cement. Oikonomou and
Mavridou [15] explained that the addition of rubber (Granulated
tire rubber substituted for sand in different weight percentages)
decreases the water absorption by immersion under vacuum of
the matrix. Onuaguluchi and Panesar [35] have observed increase
in porosity and water absorption as the crumb rubber was
increased in concrete. Addition of silica fumes have helped to
reduce the porosity and water absorption of the concrete samples.
Bravo and Brito [9] explained that the water absorption by
immersion increased with increase in replacement ratio and with
increase in size of rubber. Sukontasukkul and Tiamlom [33] pre-
pared concrete with two different sizes of crumb rubber (that pass
through 6 number sieve and that pass through 26 number sieve).
Concrete with rubber passing through 6 number sieve exhibited
more water absorption than control concrete. As the rubber par-
ticles are non-polar in nature, they can trap air bubbles at particle
surfaces. This makes the interface between cement and aggregate
more porous and highly absorptive. In the concrete mixes con-
taining rubber powder passing 26 number sieve, the water
absorption was less than the control mix. The small size rubber
particles might have acted as fillers to arrest the capillary pores in
concrete. The size of air bubbles around the rubber powder was
very small and caused less effect on the overall absorption.
Azevedo et al. [3] studied on the properties of high perfor-
mance rubberized concrete in which crumb rubber partially
replaced fine aggregates. The capillary water absorption increased
with the increase in rubber content. The water absorption reduced
when cement was partially replaced with flyash and metakaolin.
Mohammed et al. [10] mentioned that the substitution of 10%
cement with silica fumes leaves excess amount of un-reacted silica
fume inside the matrix. This can fill the air voids inside the
microstructure of rubberized concrete and helps to decrease the
 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333
water absorption due to its micro filling ability. Segre and Joekes
[17] explained that the addition of rubber particles to concrete
lowered the amount of water absorbed, since the rubber particles
do not absorb water. Gesoglu and Guneyisi [40] pointed out that
the sorptivity increased with increasing amount of rubber in self
compacting concrete. The use of flyash at 40% replacement level
and at a testing age of 90 days, there was gradual reduction in the
sorptivity coefficients. An average reduction of about 20% in the
sorptivity index was observed due to the refined pore structure
attributed to the long term pozzolanic effect of the fly ash.
One of the characteristics that influence the durability of con-
crete is its permeability to the ingress of water and other poten-
tially deleterious substances. Gesoglu et al. [30,31] pointed out
that the water permeability was more for the concrete specimens
containing bigger rubber particles. The small rubber particles fill
the pores among natural aggregates and this reduced the perme-
ability. Su et al. [27] observed that the concrete became more
compact when a combination of different sizes of rubber (well
graded rubber aggregates) was used. The finer rubber particles can
fill the voids formed by the larger ones. So, the number of conduits
through which the water can transport would be reduced. Thomas
et al. [41] observed that all the mixes with w/c 0.4, 0.45 and
0.5 exhibited low to medium permeability, while the entire mixes
of M60 grade (w/c 0.3) concrete exhibited low permeability [23].
Measurement of Depth of Water Penetration is given in Fig. 5.
3.2.6. Carbonation resistance
Bravo and Brito [9] explained that the depth of carbonation
increased with the replacement ratio of natural aggregates with
tire aggregates. The increase in carbonation may be due to the
higher water content needed to maintain the workability of rub-
berized concrete and the higher void volume between tire
aggregate and cement paste. 56% increase in the carbonation
depth was observed when 15% coarse aggregates were replaced
with chipped tire rubber. Gupta et al. [36] explained that the depth
of carbonation increased with the increase in exposure to CO2. As
the water–cement ratio was reduced for the concrete containing
rubber ash, the carbonation resistance has improved. The depth of
carbonation in all cases was less than the minimum cover required
for any Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) members. As per BIS
456, the minimum concrete cover for any type of RCC member
should not be less than 15 mm (Fig. 6).
Thomas et al. [44] noticed that the depth of carbonation of the
mixes with 2.5–12.5% crumb rubber were less than or equal to that
of control mix concrete. Gradual decreasing trend in the depth of
carbonation was noticed up to 10% substitution with crumb
Fig. 5. Measurement of depth of water penetration [41].
1329
rubber. Beyond 10%, there was gradual increase in the depth of
carbonation up to 20% substitution with crumb rubber. Reduction
in the depth of carbonation was observed up to 12.5% of crumb
rubber. This can be attributed to the improved pore structure at
reduced water–cement ratios. The fine aggregates and the
replaced crumb rubber were almost the same size (Zone II) and
these closely packed rubber particles along with the natural
aggregates in the concrete may prevent the entry of carbon
dioxide gas in to the concrete. The rubber powder might have
provided a filler effect in the concrete to reduce the depth of
carbonation. Increase in the depth of carbonation beyond 10%
crumb rubber would be due to the lack of internal packing in the
concrete specimens.
3.2.7. Shrinkage
Raghvan et al. [20] studied on the shrinkage properties of
rubberized mortars incorporating two different types of tire rub-
ber: (i) granules about 2 mm in diameter and (ii) two types of
rubber shreds (5.5 mm  1.2 mm and 10.8 mm  1.8 mm). It was
observed that the use of rubber shreds was effective in allowing
multiple cracking to occur over the width of the specimen com-
pared with a single crack in the mortar without rubber shreds. In
spite of multiple cracking, the total crack area in the case of
rubber-filled mortar, have decreased with an increase in the rub-
ber mass fraction. The propagation of cracks was arrested several
times by the rubber shreds, which provided sufficient restraint to
prevent the shorter cracks from propagating.
Bravo and Brito [9] explained that the shrinkage of concrete
increases with increase in the amount of tire rubber. The variation
was smaller when coarse aggregate was replaced with chipped
rubber. The shrinkage in control concrete and rubberized concrete
was more intense in the first 15 days of curing and has decreased
by degrees by the end of 90 days. Yung et al. [45] mentioned that
the change in length in the concrete specimens containing 5%
rubber powder was 35% higher than the control group and that of
the specimen containing 20% rubber powder was 95% higher than
the control group.
Sukontasukkul and Tiamlom [33] noticed that the shrinkage of
rubberized concrete depends on the content as well as the size of
the rubber used. The concrete specimen with rubber powder
(passing 26 sieve) exhibited more shrinkage than those with
crumb rubber (passing 6 sieve). This can be because of the flaky
particle size of the rubber particle that allows them to act like a
spring. Elchalakani [29] noticed that the free drying shrinkages for
normal and high strength concrete were less than the design value
of 850 microstrains. At the end of 28 days, the shrinkage of normal
1330 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333
Fig. 6. Surface of the control mix (0% rubber) and rubberized concrete after Abrasion test [41].
strength concrete was more than that of the high strength con-
crete. The combined effect of reducing the water–cement ratio and
adding silica fume in high strength concrete mix reduced the 28
days shrinkage by about 50%.
3.2.8. Freeze-thaw resistance
Gesoglu et al. [30,31] have observed that there was no clear
distinction between the performance of plain and rubberized
pervious concrete up to 240 cycles as the mass loss was less than
3.5%. After 300 cycles, the plain concrete lost more mass than the
rubberized concrete. Increasing the rubber content has enhanced
the freezing-thawing resistance of pervious concrete up to 180
cycles. Best results for the freeze-thaw were observed when the
aggregates were replaced with fine crumb rubber. Raghavan et al.
[20] have used 0.6% crumb rubber by weight in concrete. The
control concrete samples failed before the completion of the
freeze-thaw test program whereas the rubberized concrete sam-
ples showed minimum surface scaling or internal damage. The
weight loss of rubberized concrete was at minimum throughout
the duration of the freeze-thaw test, while there was severe
weight loss in case of concrete without rubber.
Zhu et al. [46] mentioned that the size of crumb rubber has
obvious influence on the freeze-thaw resistance of rubberized
concrete. The resistance increases with increasing the fineness of
rubber when the size of crumb rubber was less than 60 mesh. The
resistance reduces with increasing the fineness of crumb rubber,
when the size of rubber exceeds 60 mesh. Al-Akhras and Smadi
[34] studied on the properties of mortar containing tire rubber
ash. The control mortar showed very little durability to freezing
and thawing. The relative dynamic modulus of elasticity reached
only 55% at 50 cycles of freezing and thawing with durability
factor at 9%. Specimens with 5% rubber ash for fine aggregates
exhibited 55% dynamic modulus at 150 cycles with durability
factor of 28%. The specimens with 10% rubber ash reached 60%
dynamic modulus at 225 cycles with durability factor of 45%. Thus,
the filling ability of tire rubber ash in mortar made it more durable
to freezing and thawing when compared to the control mix mortar
specimens.
3.2.9. Thermal and acoustic properties
When concrete is exposed to temperature around 300 °C, the
free water in capillary pores, the water in C–S–H gel and
sulphoaluminates evaporates. It causes shrinkage in concrete. The
C–S–H gel decomposes at a temperature above 400 °C. The Ca
(OH)2 transforms to anhydrate lime at a temperature of around
530 °C. Thus, the high temperature leads to cracking and reduction
in compressive strength of concrete [47]. It was mentioned by
Topcu and Bilir [47] that the control specimens exhibited highest
compressive strength after exposure to a temperature of 400 °C
and 800 °C. As the rubber particles burns in high temperature and
leaves voids in the concrete structure, the loss in compressive
strength increased with increase in the amount of tire rubber in
concrete. Loss in weight of specimens showed the similar trend of
the results for compressive strength. Mohammed et al. [10] men-
tioned that the combination of 10% silica fume and flyash as a
replacement of cement content leads to the reduction in thermal
conductivity of rubberized concrete. This can be due to the lower
thermal conductivity of silica fume and flyash when compared to
cement.
Sound absorption is defined, as the incident sound that strikes
a material and is not reflected back. Crumb rubber concrete has
better sound absorption characteristics when compared to the
conventional concrete. The noise reduction coefficient increases as
the amount of crumb rubber increases. The use of silica fume in
rubberized concrete reduces the sound absorption properties due
to the micro filling abilities [10]. Holmes et al., [24] studied on the
sound absorption properties of rubberized concrete. They
explained that the crumb rubber concrete was found to be more
effective than plain concrete in absorbing sound in low, normal
and high temperature environments. Better absorption coefficients
were observed at crumb rubber 2–6 mm and 10–19 mm, used for
15% substitution of fine aggregates. Crumb rubber concrete
exhibited better performance as an insulator for high frequency
sounds due to the wider surface affected. Pacheco-Torgal et al. [16]
explained that the rubberized concrete is an effective absorber of
sound and shaking energy. A large reduction in the ultrasonic
modulus with increasing rubber concentration demonstrates a
porous composition for rubberized concrete.
3.2.10. Acid and sulfate resistance
Degradation can take place if the concrete is exposed to
aggressive sulfuric acid environments. It is one of the key dur-
ability issues that affect the maintenance costs and life cycle per-
formance of all the concrete structures. There can be presence of
sulfuric acid in chemical waste, ground water, etc. In the case of
concrete structures in industrial zones, there can be possibility of
deterioration due to acid rains in which sulfuric acid can be one of
the key components. Sulfuric acid attack is more disastrous than
 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333
sulfate attack because of the fact that there would be a dissolution
effect by the hydrogen ions in addition to the attack by sulfate ions
[48–50]. Azevedo et al. [3] studied on the acid resistance of HPC
with 10% concentration of sulfuric acid. Increase in the rubber
content lead to high mass loss degree. The concrete mix with 5%
rubber, partial cement replacement with 15% flyash and 15%
metakaolin exhibited almost same resistance of the control mix.
The mix with 45% flyash and 15% metakaolin showed much higher
acid resistance than the control mix.
Thomas et al. [44] studied on the acid resistance of high
strength rubberized concrete. It was observed that the water
absorption of the acid attacked specimens with crumb rubber was
greater than that of the control mix. The amount of water
absorption gradually increased with the increase in the percentage
of crumb rubber in concrete. The top layer of the concrete speci-
mens with 0% crumb rubber was completely removed (100%) by
the action of sulfuric acid. In the case of the mix with 20% crumb
rubber, less than 100% top surface were attacked by acid. The
rubber particles and the cementitious layer surrounding the rub-
ber particles were unaffected by acid and have projected outwards
by providing extra pockets to arrest the water. So the water
absorption of rubberized concrete was higher than the control mix
concrete. There was more loss in compressive strength and weight
for the specimens with less amount of rubber. As the amount of
crumb rubber was increased in concrete, the amount of loss has
gradually decreased. The crumb rubber particles present in the
rubberized concrete was holding the constituent particles of the
concrete from breaking away by preventing the formation of
cracks and material separation. While in the concrete with no
crumb rubber or less amount of crumb rubber, more cracks were
developed and the constituent materials were easily separated.
Sulfates reacts with the hydrate of calcium aluminates to form
calcium sulphoaluminates (the volume will increase approxi-
mately 227% of the volume of the original aluminates) and with
the free calcium hydroxides in cement to form calcium sulfate.
This reaction leads to the formation of gypsum, ettringite and/or
thaumasite and causes detrimental effects like spalling, cracking,
softening, expansion loss of strength and other forms of concrete
damage. The expansion results in the formation of cracks and
subsequent disruption of concrete. This phenomenon is known as
the sulfate attack. Yung et al. [45] studied the sulfate corrosion
resistance of rubberized concrete. Alternate wetting and drying
cycles were adopted for the test. It was observed that there was
more loss in weight with the increase in exposure period. The
concrete containing 5% tire rubber that pass through #30 sieve
had exhibited the best resistance to sulfate media.
3.2.11. Chloride penetration
Oikonomou and Mavridou [15] explained that the chloride ion
penetration decreased as the amount of rubber was increased in
mortar. In the mix with 2.5% rubber, the reduction was 14.22%
when compared to the control mix and there was a reduction of
35.85% for the mix with 15% rubber. When a bitumen emulsion
was used as an additive, the mixture with 12.5% tire rubber had
shown a reduction in chloride ion penetration up to 55.89% when
compared to control mix concrete. Bravo and Brito [9] performed
chloride migration test on rubberized concrete. Increase in chlor-
ide diffusion coefficient was observed for 5–15 replacement with
tire rubber. Increasing the size of rubber aggregate leads to higher
chloride diffusion coefficient. Concrete containing tire aggregates
from cryogenic technique offered lesser resistance to chloride
penetration than those containing mechanically ground tire
aggregates. Increase in curing period lead to decrease in the
amount of chloride penetration. Gupta et al. [36] mentioned that
the concentration of chloride ions was very low in the
1331
downstream cell for each mix of rubberized concrete. This indi-
cates more resistance of concrete to chloride-ion penetration.
Onuaguluchi and Panesar [35] have observed reduced trans-
mission of charges when the replacement with crumb rubber was
5–10%. Significant reductions in the charges were observed in the
mixtures containing silica fumes due to the microstructure
enhancement. Al-Akhras and Smadi [34] studied on the properties
of mortar containing tire rubber ash. At the end of 90 days of
curing, the electrical charge passed through the control concrete
was 1875 C (lower resistance to chloride penetration), that passed
through the specimens containing 5% rubber ash was 520 C and
that passed through the specimens with 10% rubber ash was 350 C.
According to ASTM C 1202-97, when the electrical charge passed
through mortar is below 1000 C, the mortar has high resistance to
chloride-ion penetration. So it is clearly understood that the con-
crete containing rubber ash was highly resistant to chloride ion
penetration. Gesoglu and Guneyisi [40] have observed a pro-
gressive increase in the chloride penetration with the increasing
amount of crumb rubber in self compacting rubberized concrete.
When fly ash was added to the rubberized concrete, there was
significant resistance to the chloride ion ingress at 90 days of
curing. The concrete containing 20%, 40% and 60% flyash exhibited
an average reduction of 67%, 79% and 78% respectively in the
chloride ion permeability.
Thomas et al. [44] have observed that the depth of chloride
penetration of the mixes with crumb rubber up to 10% of fine
aggregates was lesser than or similar to the values of the control
mix. The mixes with crumb rubber 12.5–20% had shown more
depth of chloride penetration than that of the control mix. The
chloride ion penetration exhibited reduction for the mixes with 0–
7.5% crumb rubber. Gradual increase in the depth of chloride ion
penetration was observed for the mixes with 10–20% crumb rub-
ber. The reason for the minor reduction in the depth of chloride
penetration from the mixes with 0–7.5% crumb rubber would be
due to the fact that the rubber particles are impervious and does
not absorb water and simultaneously does not allow the passage
of chloride ions. As the percentage of crumb rubber increased, the
depth of chloride penetration decreased. However beyond 7.5%
crumb rubber, the chloride penetration increased and it may be
due to the lack of internal packing of the concrete.
4. Discussions and conclusions
4.1. It was clear that workable rubberized concrete mixtures can
be made with scrap tire rubber. If admixtures are used, the
workability similar to the normal concrete could be achieved
without any increase in the quantity of water. It was clear from
the literatures that the density of rubberized concrete
decreases with increasing amount of rubber. The loss in den
sity would be severe when powdered rubber is used to sub
stitute aggregates. By the addition of tire waste, it is possible
to make light weight aggregate concrete for some special
purposes.
4.2. Compressive strength would be greatly affected by the use of
tire rubber in concrete. Significant reductions in compressive
strength could be avoided if the replacement of crumb rubber
does not exceed 20% of the total aggregate content. Severe loss
in compressive strength could be avoided if the rubber is
treated with any coupling agents. If crumb rubber or rubber
powder is used, there would be reduction in flexural strength,
while the use of rubber fiber increases the flexural tensile
strength.
4.3. A few researchers have pointed out that the use of tire rubber
reduces the abrasion resistance of concrete, while many
1332 B.S. Thomas, R.C. Gupta / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 54 (2016) 1323–1333
researchers mentioned that the abrasion resistance got
improved by the action of crumb rubber like a brush. The
modulus of elasticity of rubberized concrete was less than
control concrete. As the rubber content was increased, mod-
ulus was decreasing. In the case of crumb rubber coated by a
silane coupling agent, the moduli of concrete with coated
rubber were higher than those with uncoated rubber.
4.4. Water absorption, sorptivity and water penetration showed
increase with the increase in the ratio of tire rubber. Reduction
in the water absorption and penetration was observed when
silica fume, flyash or very fine rubber powder was used. Depth
of carbonation and shrinkage of rubberized concrete depends
on the content as well as the size of the rubber used. In gen-
eral, both the properties showed increase with increase in the
amount of rubber used.
4.5. The control concrete samples failed before the completion of
the freeze-thaw test program whereas the rubberized con-
crete samples showed high resistance. The weight loss of
rubberized concrete was at minimum throughout the duration
of the freeze-thaw test, while there was severe weight loss in
case of concrete without rubber. Rubberized concrete is not
suitable for high temperature applications, while it was found
to be more effective than plain concrete in absorbing sound in
low, normal and high temperature environments.
4.6. Rubberized concrete was observed to be more resistant to
acid attack. The crumb rubber particles present in the rub-
berized concrete was holding the constituent particles of the
concrete from breaking away by preventing the formation of
cracks and material separation. While in the concrete with no
crumb rubber or less amount of crumb rubber, more cracks
were developed and the constituent materials were easily
separated. Most of the researchers have pointed out that the
concrete containing tire rubber was highly resistant to chlor-
ide ion penetration. Use of silica fume in rubberized concrete
enabled to achieve very high resistance to chloride
penetration.
4.7. As recommendations for future work, a proper study on the
microstructure of rubberized concrete could be performed.
Studies on the corrosion behavior of reinforcement steel bars
in rubberized concrete could be performed. Strength and
Durability properties of high strength and high performance
rubberized concrete can be studied. Properties of tire rubber
fiber reinforced concrete can be studied in depth.
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