The metamorphic history of Naxos (central

Cyclades, Greece)
Deciphering the Oligocene and Miocene exhumation events
Alexandre Peillod
Academic dissertation for the in Geology at Stockholm University to be publicly defended on
Monday 4 June 2018 at 10.00 in De Geersalen, Geovetenskapens hus, Svante Arrhenius väg 14.

Abstract
High pressure, low temperature (HP-LT) rocks observed at the surface of the Earth are evidence of past subduction zones.
Understanding the tectonics processes that control the exhumation of HP-LT metamorphic rocks in these subduction zones
requires full comprehension of the pressure-temperature-time (P–T–t) cycle that the rocks experienced. In the Cyclades,
Greece, the Cycladic Blueschist Unit (CBU) hosts eclogite and blueschist facies rocks. However, the processes that
exhumed them are debated. The overall aim of this thesis is to understand how the Eocene HP-LT rocks were exhumed in
the central Cyclades based on a study of the metamorphic history of Naxos Island and nearby Syros Island. In this thesis,
I carried out a systematic geothermobarometric and geochronological investigation on Naxos to better constrain the P–T–
t paths that are recorded by the rocks. The data indicate that high-P metamorphism on Naxos occurred in the Eocene at c.
40Ma and the HP-LT rocks were exhumed by two tectonic events. The first exhumation event occurred in the Oligocene.
The HP-LT rocks were exhumed in a convergent setting by an extrusion wedge. The top of the sequence reached greenschist
facies conditions at c. 32 Ma, whereas the bottom of the sequence remained at greater depth (equating to pressures of 8–12
kbar). Additionally rocks from southeastern Syros recorded a similar Eocene/Oligocene P–T–t history to that recorded by
the top of the sequence on Naxos, suggesting a common Eocene/Oligocene metamorphic history for the central Cyclades.
The second exhumation event occurred in the Miocene. The rocks were further exhumed in an extensional setting from c.
20 to 8 Ma. The top of the sequence on Naxos was already in the brittle crust at that time and therefore did not record this
Miocene metamorphism. The bottom of the sequence was first isothermally exhumed at high-T conditions and thereafter
cooled rapidly.

Keywords: Cycladic Blueschist Unit, Exhumation, Fluid flow, Geothermobarometry, Hellenide orogen, Rb-Sr dating,
Subduction-zone metamorphism, Heat flow, Lower crust, Extensional domain, Metamorphic core complex.

Stockholm 2018
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:su:diva-155218

ISBN 978-91-7797-240-2
ISBN 978-91-7797-241-9

Department of Geological Sciences

Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm
THE METAMORPHIC HISTORY OF NAXOS (CENTRAL CYCLADES, GREECE)
Alexandre Jean Daniel Peillod
The metamorphic history of Naxos (central
Cyclades, Greece)
Deciphering the Oligocene and Miocene exhumation events

Alexandre Jean Daniel Peillod

©Alexandre Jean Daniel Peillod, Stockholm University 2018

ISBN print 978-91-7797-240-2

ISBN PDF 978-91-7797-241-9

Front page: "For my friend 'Hard or nuthin' Alexandre Peillod"

Efstathios Reppas-Chrysovitsinos

Back page: Photo from Etienne Pauthenet

Printed in Sweden by Universitetsservice US-AB, Stockholm 2018

Distributor: Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University
For my grandfather,
Jean Peillod
A mon grand-père,
Jean Peillod
“For something to be interesting, one has to stare at it for a long time”
Gustave Flaubert

“Pour qu’une chose soit intéressante, il suffit de la regarder longtemps”

Gustave Flaubert
Abstract

High pressure, low temperature (HP-LT) rocks observed at the surface of the Earth are evidence of

past subduction zones. Understanding the tectonics processes that control the exhumation of HP-LT

metamorphic rocks in these subduction zones requires full comprehension of the pressure-

temperature-time (P–T–t) cycle that the rocks experienced. In the Cyclades, Greece, the Cycladic

blueschist Unit (CBU) hosts eclogite and blueschist facies rocks. However, the processes that

exhumed them are debated. The overall aim of this thesis is to understand how the Eocene HP-LT

rocks were exhumed in the central Cyclades based on a study of the metamorphic history of Naxos

Island and nearby Syros Island.

In this thesis, I carried out a systematic geothermobarometric and geochronological

investigation on Naxos to better constrain the P–T–t paths that are recorded by the rocks. The data

indicate that high-P metamorphism on Naxos occurred in the Eocene at c. 40 Ma and the HP-LT rocks

were exhumed by two tectonic events. The first exhumation event occurred in the Oligocene. The HP-

LT rocks were exhumed in a convergent setting by an extrusion wedge. The top of the sequence

reached greenschist facies conditions at c.32 Ma, whereas the bottom of the sequence remained at

greater depth (equating to pressures of 8–12 kbar). Additionally rocks from southeastern Syros

recorded a similar Eocene/Oligocene P–T–t history to that recorded by the top of the sequence on

Naxos, suggesting a common Eocene/Oligocene metamorphic history for the central Cyclades. The

second exhumation event occurred in the Miocene. The rocks were further exhumed in an extensional

setting from c. 20 to 8 Ma. The top of the sequence on Naxos was already in the brittle crust at that

time and therefore did not record this Miocene metamorphism. The bottom of the sequence was first

isothermally exhumed at high-T conditions and thereafter cooled rapidly.

1|Page
Abstrakt

Högtryck och lågtemperatur (HP-LT) bergarter som observeras på jordytan är bevis på tidigare

subduktion zoner. För att förstå de tektoniska prosesser som kontrollerar exhumeringen av HP-LT

metamorfa bergarter i dessa subduktions zoner behövs en full förståelse av den tryck-temperatur –tids

(P–T–t) cykel som bergarten genomgått. I Cykladerna, Grekland hittas den Cykladiska blåskiffer

enheten (CBU) som består av både eklogit och blåskiffer facies. Processen som har exhumerat dessa

bergarter är omdebaterad. Målet med den här avhandlingen är att förstå hur de eocena HP-LT

bergarterna exhumerades i centrala Cykladerna baserat på studier av metamorfa bergarter från öarna

Naxos och Syros.

I den här avhandlingen har en systematisk geotermobarymetrisk och geokronologisk

undersökning gjorts på Naxos för att bättre avgränsa den P–T–t väg som bevarats i bergarten. Data

visar att högtryck metamorfism på Naxos skedde under eocen ca. 40 Ma och att HP-LT bergarterna

exhumerades under två tektoniska skeden. Den första exhumeringen skedde under oligocen. HP-LT

bergarterna exhumerades under konvergens av en extruderingskil. Den högre delen av sekvensen

nådde grönskiffer facies förhållanden ca. 32 Ma, däremot så förblev den nedre delen av sekvensen på

större djup (likställt med tryck 8–12 kbar). Bergarter från sydöstra Syros visar en liknande

eocen/oligocen P–T–t historik som den övre sekvensen på Naxos vilket antyder en gemensam

eocen/oligocen metamorf historik för centrala Cylkaderna. Den andra exhumeringen skedde under

miocen. Bergarterna exhumerades ytterligare under divergens från ca. 20 till 8 Ma. Den övre delen av

sekvensen på Naxos var redan i den spröda skorpan och har därför inga spår av den miocena

metamorfismen. Den nedre delen av sekvensen var först isotermiskt exhumerad under högtemperatur

förhållanden och därefter snabbt nedkyld.

2|Page
Résumé

Les roches de haute pression et basse température (HP-BT) qui sont observées à la surface de la Terre

sont les témoins des zones de subduction passées. Comprendre les processus tectoniques qui

contrôlent l’exhumation des roches métamorphiques de HP-BT dans ces zones de subduction

nécessite une bonne compréhension du cycle pression-température-temps (P–T–t) auquel ces roches

ont été soumises. L’unité des Schistes Bleus Cycladiques (SBC), dans les Cyclades en Grèce, contient

des roches en condition de paragenèse éclogitique et des schistes bleus. Cependant, les processus

associés à l’exhumation de ces roches sont discutés. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est de

comprendre comment les roches de HP-BT formées à l’Éocène ont été exhumées dans la partie

centrale des Cyclades, en étudiant l’histoire métamorphique de l’île de Naxos et de Syros.

Dans cette thèse, une étude géothermobarométrique et géochronologique des roches

métamorphiques à Naxos a permis de contraindre le trajet P–T–t. Les données indiquent que le

métamorphisme de haute pression s’est produit autour de 40 Ma à l’Éocène et que ces roches ont été

exhumées en deux évènements tectoniques. La première exhumation s’est effectuée pendant

l’Oligocène. Les roches de HP-BT ont été exhumées par prisme d’exhumation en contexte de

convergence tectonique. Le sommet de la séquence structurelle atteint les conditions de faciès schistes

verts à ~32 Ma, alors que le bas de la séquence structurelle reste à des pressions plus élevées (8–12

kbar). De plus, les roches au Sud Est de Syros ont enregistré une histoire P–T similaire à celle

enregistrée au sommet de la séquence structurale à Naxos. Ces résultats suggèrent une histoire

Éocène/Oligocène commune pour la partie centrale des Cyclades. La deuxième exhumation s’est

effectuée durant le Miocène. Les roches ont été exhumées en contexte extensif de ~20 à 8 Ma. Le

sommet de la séquence structurale à Naxos était déjà en condition de la croûte fragile et par

conséquent n’a pas enregistré l’histoire Miocène. Le bas de la séquence a été initialement exhumé de

façon isotherme à des conditions de haute température, puis a refroidi rapidement.

3|Page
List of papers and author contributions

This thesis is based on the following papers:

I Peillod, A., Ring, U., Glodny, J. and Skelton, A. (2017) An Eocene/Oligocene blueschist-

/greenschist facies P–T loop from the Cycladic Blueschist Unit on Naxos Island, Greece:

Deformation-related re-equilibration vs. thermal relaxation. Journal of Metamorphic Geology

35, 805–830

II Peillod, A., Ring, U., Skelton, A., Linnros. H. and Hansman, R. The role of ductile flow of

the lower crust in controlling heat advection in the footwall of the Naxos extensional fault

system (Aegean Sea, Greece). (manuscript in revision)

III Ring, U., Glodny, J., Peillod, A., and Skelton, A. The timing of high-temperature conditions

and ductile shearing in the footwall of the Naxos metamorphic core complex, Aegean Sea,

Greece. (submitted)

IV Skelton, A., Peillod, A., Ring, U., Glodny, J. Coupled replacement and preservation of high

pressure rocks caused by infiltration of mixed H2O-CO2 fluids. (manuscript)

Paper I: Peillod, A. and Glodny, J. carried out field sampling. Peillod, A. carried out rock cutting

microscope observations, electron microprobe analyses, P–T determination, interpretation of the data

and wrote the manuscript. Ring, U. provided structural data. He provided support for field sampling,

data interpretation and manuscript revisions. Glodny, J. provided age data and data interpretation. He

provided manuscript corrections. Skelton, A. provided support for field sampling, data interpretation

and manuscript corrections.

Paper II: Peillod, A. carried out field sampling, laboratory preparations, microscope observations,

electron microprobe analyses, P–T determination, data interpretation and wrote the manuscript. Ring,

U. provided support for field sampling, structural data, data interpretation and manuscript corrections.

4|Page
Skelton, A. provided support for field sampling, data interpretation and manuscript corrections.

Linnros. H. and Hansman, R. provided 3D model and manuscript corrections.

Paper III: Ring, U. provided data interpretation and wrote the manuscript. Glodny, J. provided field

sampling, age data, data interpretation and manuscript corrections. Peillod, A. provided P–T data and

support for field sampling data interpretation and manuscript corrections. Skelton, A. provided

support for data interpretation and manuscript corrections.

Paper IV: Skelton, A. and Ring, U. carried out field sampling and Skelton, A. wrote the manuscript.

Peillod, A. carried out laboratory preparations (rock cutting, powder for Rb/Sr age and whole rock

analyse powder), electron microprobe analysis, P–T determination, petrographic analysis and

interpretation. Glodny, J. provided age data and data interpretation.

5|Page
Contents
1. Introduction and aim ...................................................................................................................... 8
1.1. Exhumation in an extensional setting ................................................................................... 10
1.2. Extrusion wedge in a subduction zone setting ...................................................................... 11
1.3. Source of heat - conduction vs heat flow in extensional orogeny ......................................... 12
1.4. Problem in the Cyclades ....................................................................................................... 13
1.5. Aim and strategy of the thesis ............................................................................................... 14
2. Geological background ................................................................................................................ 15
2.1. The geodynamic setting - the Hellenic subduction zone ...................................................... 15
2.2. Geology of Naxos ................................................................................................................. 18
2.3. Metamorphism and timing recorded in the Cyclades Blueschist Unit .................................. 20
2.3.1. P–T estimates ................................................................................................................ 20
2.3.2. Timing of metamorphism.............................................................................................. 22
2.3.3. High-P metamorphism and wedge extrusion of the CBU in two stages ....................... 24
3. Methods ........................................................................................................................................ 25
3.1. Collection of Samples ........................................................................................................... 25
3.2. Constraining the P–T-t trajectory .......................................................................................... 27
3.2.1. Average Pressure-Temperature – A statistical problem................................................ 27
3.2.2. Rb/Sr dating – The geochronological problem of incomplete resetting ....................... 30
4. Results .......................................................................................................................................... 33
4.1. Paper I - An Eocene/Oligocene blueschist-/greenschist facies P–T loop for the top of the
passive margin sequence on Naxos Island........................................................................................ 33
4.2. Paper II - Characterising the P–T path for the Miocene exhumation related to the
extensional setting for the bottom of the passive margin sequence on Naxos.................................. 35
4.3. Paper III - The timing of the high-T metamorphism in the bottom of the passive margin
sequence in northern Naxos .............................................................................................................. 36
4.4. Paper IV - A P–T–t loop on SE Syros Island (Fabrika section): A common
Eocene/Oligocene metamorphic history for the central Cyclades .................................................... 38
5. Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 39
5.1. Exhumation of high-P rocks by extrusion wedge in a subduction zone setting during the
Eocene and Oligocene ...................................................................................................................... 39
5.2. Relation between the Eocene/Oligocene and the Miocene metamorphic events .................. 41
6. Conclusion and future work ......................................................................................................... 43
7. Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................ 44
8. References .................................................................................................................................... 47

6|Page
Abbreviations

P–T–t Pressure-Temperature-time

high-P; high-T High-pressure; High-temperature

HP-LT high-pressure low-temperature

CBU Cyclades Blueschist Unit

Mineral abbreviations See Whitney and Evans (2010)

ZFT Zircon Fission Track dating

AFT Apatite Fission Track dating

avP–T Average Pressure Temperature

7|Page
1. Introduction and aim

In convergent plate settings, rocks from the subducting plate are buried deep in the crust and the

mantle and experience high-pressure low-temperature (HP-LT) metamorphism. In the orogenic belt

that arises, HP-LT metamorphic rocks can be observed at the surface which implies that geodynamic

processes exhumed the rocks. Understanding processes that control the exhumation of HP-LT

metamorphic rocks requires comprehension of the complete burial-exhumation pressure-temperature-

time (P–T–t) cycle that the rocks experienced. Two types of metamorphic associations that commonly

characterise orogenic belts are (1) the HP-LT metamorphic series and (2) the Barrovian series.

(1) In the HP-LT metamorphic series, the slow thermal conductivities of the rocks combine

with a fast subduction rate of the descending slab, 1 to 10 cm/yr for modern subduction zones (Stern,

2002), modifies the thermal structure in the subduction zone. The subducting plate is cold and as it

descends into hot mantle, HP-LT metamorphism with a geotherm between 5 and 15 °C/km (perhaps

more) arises (e.g. Dumitru, 1991; Penniston-Dorland et al., 2015). At the new P–T conditions that the

rocks experience, metamorphic mineral assemblages form. These assemblages define a metamorphic

facies (Eskola, 1915). From thermodynamic databases, Evans (1990) and Spear (1995) constrained

the P–T stability of the metamorphic mineral assemblages defining the metamorphic facies. The

boundary between the facies depends on rock, mineral and fluid compositions. During the HP-LT

metamorphic stage, rocks can successively experience prograde metamorphism under zeolite,

prehnite-pumpellyite, lawsonite blueschist, epidote blueschist and eclogite facies metamorphism (Fig.

1a and b).

(2) Barrovian metamorphism is defined by medium pressure and low- to high-temperature

metamorphism (15–35°C/km). The Barrovian series is often seen in the field as a sequence of

metamorphic facies along a transect across a metamorphic belt. The typical Barrovian facies series is

greenschist, epidote-amphibolite, amphibolite and granulite facies metamorphism which follows the

index mineral sequence (chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite) in pelitic rocks laid

out by Barrow (1912) (Fig. 1a).

8|Page
Figure 1: P–T diagram showing the main metamorphic facies a) from Spear (1995), b) from Evans (1990).
Thermal gradient divided into the subduction zone and Barrovian metamorphism.

The tectonic processes that control the exhumation of the HP-LT metamorphic series and the

Barrovian series to the surface are, however, not well known and are actively debated (e.g. Avigad et

al., 1997; Jolivet et al., 2003; Ring & Glodny, 2010; Thompson & England, 1984). The Cycladic

Blueschist Unit (CBU), in the Aegean Sea (Greece), is one of the best worldwide examples of the

preservation of eclogite and blueschist facies rocks. The P–T–t paths that are suggested for the

exhumation of this unit differ between studies. Commonly two processes are used to explain the

exhumation of the CBU; exhumation related to extension and exhumation in an extrusion wedge that

formed during shortening. These processes are described below.

9|Page
 1.1. Exhumation in an extensional setting

Exhumation in an extensional setting has been argued for based on P–T–t paths recording two

metamorphic events. The first event is prograde HP-LT metamorphism occurring in a subduction

zone setting. The second event, which records exhumation in an extensional setting is characterised

by a low- to high temperature metamorphism overprint (Barrovian type) (England & Thompson,

1984; Spear, 1995) (Fig. 2a).

Figure 2: Comparison between a) P–T–t path generated by regional metamorphic process (England &
Thompson, 1984) and b) P–T–t path generated by extrusion wedge c) Naxos P–T–t path (Avigad, 1998;
Duchêne et al., 2006; Wijbrans & McDougall, 1986).

During the first (HP-LT) metamorphic event, crustal thickening is thought to be rapid with the

result that the thermal steady state is perturbed within the crust (England & Thompson, 1984). The

thickened crust is isostatically unstable and denudation by normal faulting and erosion occurs. The

time frame for exhumation to the surface is considerably longer than for crustal thickening, and an

environment is created for thermal relaxation controlled by radiogenic decay within the rocks.

Consequently, temperature increases and pressure decreases, which is recorded by the second

(Barrovian) metamorphic event. The typical time frame for thermal relaxation driven by radioactive

decay within the crust is 20–30 Ma (Glazner & Bartley, 1985) (Fig. 2a). Heat transfer is largely

conductive and lies behind observed metamorphic reequilibration and its duration. Later in the

10 | P a g e
exhumation process, when the rocks approach the cold upper crust they are cooled and reequilibrated

at greenschist-facies metamorphic conditions (Fig. 2a) (England & Thompson, 1984). The full P–T–t

loop records isobaric heating followed by exhumation (Fig. 2a). England and Thompson (1984)

calculated that the loop is completed in 50–70 Myr for 50–60 km of exhumation. Thermal relaxation

is needed for exhumation which implies that temperature mainly controls metamorphic reequilibration

and its duration in the extensional setting.

1.2. Extrusion wedge in a subduction zone setting

Although exhumation of rocks is often thought to take place in an extensional setting

(Thompson & England, 1984), exhumation of high-pressure rocks in convergent settings can also

occur in an extrusion wedge (Ring & Glodny, 2010) (Fig. 3). During this process, deformation at

high-P conditions enables the rocks to be exhumed laterally and upwards. The extrusion wedge is

defined by two main fault structures working in concert during overall horizontal shortening (Fig. 3).

At the bottom of the wedge a basal thrust fault enables one plate to slip beneath another one. At the

top of the structure a normal fault unroofs the wedge. In subduction zone extrusion wedges,

exhumation occurs rapidly at rates close to the rate of subduction (Ring & Reischmann, 2002; e.g.

Ring et al., 2007b). Therefore, thermal relaxation cannot play a significant role (Fig. 2b). Exhumation

in an extrusion wedge implies that deformation assisted by fluid controls metamorphic reequilibration

and its duration.

11 | P a g e
Figure 3: An example of extrusion wedge in horizontal shortening (modified from Ring & Glodny, 2010).
Colour gradient show the reequilibration of the High-rocks in greenschist facies metamorphism.

1.3. Source of heat - conduction vs heat flow in extensional orogeny

In the case of exhumation related to extension, heat produced by radiogenic decay within the rock is

transferred by conduction. The degree of metamorphism is a function of the distance from the heat

source, forming symmetrical concentric metamorphic isograds around the heat source, which typically

record Barrovian metamorphism.

In the case of exhumation in an extrusion wedge, because this is faster, thermal relaxation

cannot occur. The heat transfer mechanism must therefore be different. It is envisaged that heat

transfer occurs by advection, i.e. hot material is physically transported from one location to another.

For example magma intrusions physically transport heat to a higher crustal level (e.g. Brune et al.,

2014; Zito et al., 2003). A number of numerical models indicate that heat advection might be

important in extensional settings (Brune et al., 2014; Gessner et al., 2007; Rey et al., 2009). In an

extensional setting, rapidly exhuming lower-crustal rocks can physically transport deep, hot and

ductile material to higher levels (Axen et al., 1998; Block & Royden, 1990; Brune et al., 2014;

Gessner et al., 2007). Numerical models show that advection of lower crustal material results in an

12 | P a g e
asymmetric thermal architecture of the resultant isograds. It should be possible to observe this

asymmetry in the field.

1.4. Problem in the Cyclades

Exhumation related to extension is generally envisaged for the exhumation of the CBU in the Aegean

Sea (Jacobshagen et al., 1986; Okrusch & Bröcker, 1990). This has been argued on the basis of P–T–t

loops from the Cyclades (example of P–T–t path in Naxos in Fig. 2c). These show blueschist facies

metamorphism in the Eocene (50–40 Ma) followed by a greenschist to amphibolite facies overprint

with local partial melting in the Miocene (25–20 Ma) (Jacobshagen et al., 1986; Okrusch & Bröcker,

1990).

Over the last decade, a few studies show that the regional metamorphism scheme does not hold

true for the eastern and western edges of the Cyclades (Evia and Samos) where P–T–t paths suggest

that rocks were exhumed at greenschist facies metamorphic conditions in a subduction-related

extrusion wedge in the Eocene and Oligocene (Ring et al., 2007a, 2007b). These results imply two

stages of exhumation of the CBU: an earlier extrusion stage in a subduction zone setting and a later

extensional stage with associated core complex formation during the Miocene. Furthermore, other

workers have speculated that the CBU might have been exhumed in two stages on Tinos, Syros, Ios

and Sifnos (e.g. Huet et al., 2009; Laurent et al., 2018; Parra et al., 2002; Schmädicke & Will, 2003;

Trotet et al., 2001a). However uncertain linkages between age determinations, P–T data and/or

deformational stages have led to active debate.

For Naxos, in the central part of the CBU, exhumation related to extension is generally

envisaged (Andriessen et al., 1979; Avigad, 1998). The greenschist/amphibole facies overprint of the

Eocene high-P metamorphic assemblage is considered the consequence of the Miocene extensional

deformation. However, this exhumation mechanism does not work for the upper part of the structural

sequence in Naxos. Zircon fission-track (ZFT) ages that constrain rock cooling at ~240°C are

estimated at 20.5 ± 2.4 Ma and 25.2 ± 3.8 Ma (2σ errors) (Seward et al., 2009). These ages indicate

that the greenschist overprint could not have occurred in the Miocene. Thus an exhumation of the

13 | P a g e
high-P rocks between the Eocene and the Miocene must also have occurred on Naxos. Construction of

P–T–t paths for Naxos would allow for timing of exhumation stages in the central CBU to be

determined.

1.5. Aim and strategy of the thesis

The overall aim of this thesis is to understand how the Eocene HP-LT rocks were exhumed in the

central Cyclades based on a study of the metamorphic history of Naxos Island. Naxos is selected

because the HP-LT and greenschist facies metamorphic rocks in the upper part of the sequence are

expected to give information about the pre-Miocene exhumation, whereas the amphibolite facies

metamorphic rocks in the lower part of the sequence are expected to give information about the

Miocene exhumation. A second aim of this thesis is to show how the Eocene HP-LT metamorphism

and the Miocene high-T metamorphism are related to each other. In order to fulfil the aims of this

thesis, both the P–T conditions and timing of each metamorphic stage were determined as follows:

(1) The P–T–t conditions for the peak high-P metamorphism and the greenschist facies overprint

were determined by analysing adjacent blueschist and greenschist metamorphic rocks in the top of the

structural sequence in southern Naxos (Paper I). This allowed us to hypothesise that the rocks

completed a full blueschist-/greenschist facies metamorphic loop before the Miocene as indicated by

the zircon fission track ages. If so, the exhumation of the high-P rocks cannot be the consequence of

large scale extension in the Miocene. Therefore, another tectonic process that exhumed the high-P

rocks can be envisaged.

(2) The P–T (Paper II) and the timing (Paper III) of Miocene high-T metamorphism were determined

by analysing amphibolite facies rocks that occur in the bottom of the structural sequence. This

contributed to the understanding of the thermal history of Naxos rocks during their exhumation in an

extensional setting.

14 | P a g e
(3) The P–T–t path for nearby Syros Island was determined by analysing HP-LT and greenschist

facies rocks (Paper IV). This allowed comparison between exhumation of the high-P rocks to

greenschist facies conditions on Syros and Naxos in the central Cyclades.

2. Geological background

2.1. The geodynamic setting - the Hellenic subduction zone

The Hellenides subduction system in the eastern Mediterranean is an orogen resulting from the NNE-

ward subduction of the African plate beneath Eurasia (Aubouin & Dercourt, 1965; Brunn et al., 1976;

Jacobshagen et al., 1978). The Aegean Sea in the Hellenides shows large-scale continental extension

above the subduction zone where high-pressure rocks were exhumed. Five tectonic zones define the

Hellenides (Fig. 4). From the top (north) to bottom (south) these zones are: (1) the Internal zone, (2)

the Vardar-Izmir-Ankara suture zone, (3) the Pelagonian zone, (4) the Cycladic zone and (5) the

External Hellenides (Dürr et al., 1978; Robertson et al., 1991).

Internal zone

The Internal zone is a continental fragment which was amalgamated with Eurasia in the early Jurassic

and Cretaceous (Krohe & Mposkos, 2002; Mposkos & Kostopoulos, 2001; Robertson et al., 1991).

These continental fragments reached HP-LT and ultra-high pressure metamorphic conditions (Liati &

Mposkos, 1990; Liati & Seidel, 1996; Mposkos & Kostopoulos, 2001) in the Jurassic and were

exhumed during the Cenozoic (Liati & Gebauer, 1999; Reischmann & Kostopoulos, 2002;

Wawrzenitz & Krohe, 1998).

Vadar-Izmir-Ankara suture zone

The Vardar-Izmir-Ankara suture zone is a result of the convergence of the Internal zone with the

Pelagonian zone. This unit comprises Jurassic ophiolitic rocks from a magmatic arc (Ricou et al.,

1998). The Vardar-Izmir-Ankara oceanic unit was subducted, reaching blueschist facies conditions,

beneath the Internal zone during the Cretaceous (Sherlock et al., 1999).

15 | P a g e
Figure 4: a) Tectonic map of Aegean domain with major tectonic units, location of present-day retreating
Hellenic subduction zone and major Miocene extensional detachments from Paper I (modified from Dürr et al.,
1978; Jacobshagen et al., 1986; Ring & Layer, 2003). Inset shows position of main map in Mediterranean
region. (b) Simplified N–S cross-section showing extensional faults overprinting earlier top-S thrust between
passive-margin sequence and Carboniferous basement (shown by crosses).

16 | P a g e
 Pelagonian zone

The Pelagonian zone is composed of continental basement and an ophiolitic nappe which were

obducted in the late Jurassic (Bonneau & Kienast, 1982; Franz & Okrusch, 1992). This zone was

metamorphosed at blueschist-facies conditions in the Late Cretaceous (Ring & Layer, 2003; Sherlock

et al., 1999).

Cycladic zone

The Cycladic zone consists of fragments of the northern passive margin of the Adriatic plate and

ophiolites from the remnants of the Pindos Oceanic Unit. The Cycladic zone can be subdivided into

three tectonic units (Ring et al., 1999). (1) The top unit is the non- to weakly metamorphosed

Cycladic ophiolite nappe. (2) The Cycladic Blueschist Unit (CBU) which records the deepest

exhumed part of the Hellenides that is composed of blueschist and eclogite facies metamorphic rocks.

This unit is subdivided from top to bottom into three separate members: (a) an ophiolitic mélange, (b)

a Permo-Carboniferous to latest Cretaceous passive-margin sequence and (c) a Carboniferous

basement nappe made of schist, granite and orthogneiss. (3) The Basal Unit is exposed in windows

and is considered a part of the External Hellenides (Avigad & Garfunkel, 1989; Avigad et al., 1997).

This unit shows metamorphism at high pressure as well as a greenschist facies overprint (Ring et al.,

1999).

External Hellenides

The External Hellenides are made up of the Pindos Oceanic Unit and Tripolitza block. The Pindos

Oceanic Unit is a heterogeneous paleogeographic domain made of oceanic crust formed in the Late

Cretaceous (Keay, 1998; Tomaschek et al., 2003) and continental margin (basement-cover)

sequences. This unit was accreted in the Eocene (Brunn, 1956; Jones & Robertson, 1991; Robertson

et al., 1991; Stampfli et al., 2003). The Tripolitza block is a continental platform unit and flysch dated

from the Early Triassic to the Eocene (Jacobshagen et al., 1986). This block was underthrust during

the Oligocene (Sotiropoulos et al., 2003; Thomson et al., 1998).

17 | P a g e
 2.2. Geology of Naxos

Naxos is located in the central part of the Aegean Sea in the CBU of the Cycladic zone. The CBU on

Naxos is structurally subdivided into three units which are from top to bottom: (1) non-

metamorphosed sedimentary and ophiolitic rocks, (2) the Permo-Carboniferous to latest Cretaceous

passive-margin sequence and (3) the Carboniferous basement (Fig. 7).

The non-metamorphosed sedimentary succession has been deposited on an ophiolite nappe

(Kuhlemann et al., 2004). The passive margin sequence is mainly composed of alternating layers of

marble, metapelite and metabasalt. The basement consists of a N-S elongated migmatitic gneiss and

marble dome located in the centre of the island. The migmatite dome is dominated by diatexite

surrounded by metatexite (Vanderhaeghe, 2004). Lenses of ultramafic rocks are found between the

basement and the passive margin sequence.

The major structure is the Miocene Naxos extensional fault system, which exhumed the

Lower and Middle units (Buick, 1991; Gautier & Brun, 1993). This extension caused crustal anatexis

forming the migmatite dome, the small leucogranite intrusions in northwest Naxos and the intrusion

of a granodiorite body in the western part of the island (Buick & Holland, 1989; Jansen & Schuiling,

1976).

Two metamorphic events affected the passive-margin sequence and the basement. A high-P

metamorphism which affected the top of the passive margin sequence (southern part of Naxos) at >12

kbar and 470 ± 50°C (Avigad, 1998) occurred in the Eocene 45 ± 5 Ma (Andriessen et al., 1979). For

the bottom of the passive margin sequence (northern part of Naxos) high-P metamorphism was dated

at 69–42 Ma (Martin et al., 2006) and c. 40 Ma (Bolhar et al., 2017a). This high-P metamorphism is

followed by Barrovian-type greenschist to upper amphibolite facies overprinting related to large-scale

continental extension (Buick & Holland, 1989). The P–T conditions at which this occurred were

estimated for the passive margin sequence at 470°C and 5 kbar in southern Naxos to 700–760°C and 8

kbar close to the migmatite dome (Buick & Holland, 1989; Duchêne et al., 2006; Jansen & Schuiling,

1976; Katzir et al., 2000). The P–T conditions of metamorphism in the migmatite dome have been

18 | P a g e
calculated to be 6–11.7 kbar and 550–650°C followed by 3.5–10.5 kbar and 620–720°C (Buick &

Holland, 1989).

Figure 5: a) Geological map of Naxos modified from Paper I showing the principal units and the Miocene
isograds around the migmatite dome (Jansen & Schuiling, 1976; Kruckenberg et al., 2010; Vanderhaeghe,
2004). b) North-south cross-section showing the domal architecture of Naxos. Note that the detachment fault is
not shown in the cross section but usually is considered following the northern coast of Naxos and should be
located near the question mark.

High-T metamorphism was dated at ~20–14 Ma (Andriessen et al., 1979; Bolhar et al.,

2017b; Keay et al., 2001; Wijbrans & McDougall, 1988). The age for the greenschist facies

metamorphism is not constrained. However, zircon fission tracks (ZFT) data show that rocks from

south Naxos were already at temperatures above ~240°C in the late Oligocene (20–25 Ma). For the

19 | P a g e
northern part of Naxos, ZFT data indicate that the rocks were in the brittle crust at 9–11 Ma.

Geothermobarometry and geochronology are detailed in the papers I, II and III.

2.3. Metamorphism and timing recorded in the Cyclades Blueschist Unit

2.3.1. P–T estimates

The Cyclades Blueschist Unit records HP-LT metamorphism during the Hellenide mountain building.

Figure 5 is an updated compilation of the P–T paths for the Cyclades (modified from Ring et al.,

2010). For the passive margin sequence, prograde metamorphic conditions are constrained by the

transition lawsonite-blueschist to epidote-blueschist metamorphism on the islands of Syros, Sifnos,

Naxos and Ios. This transition is estimated to have occurred at ~12 kbar ~470°C on Naxos (Avigad,

1998); 8–11 kbar 320–380°C on Ios (Grütter, 1993); 15–20 kbar 500–550°C on Sifnos (Groppo et al.,

2009; Schmädicke & Will, 2003; Trotet et al., 2001a) and probably ~14 kbar 300–400°C on Syros

(Schumacher et al., 2008).

The peak high-P metamorphic conditions range from upper epidote-blueschist to eclogite

facies. Peak high-P metamorphism for the passive margin sequence ranges between ≥11.5 kbar and

~450°C for the western part of the Cyclades (Evia) (Katzir et al., 2000; Shaked et al., 2000) and 19

kbar and 520°C for the eastern part (Samos) (Will et al., 1998). For the central part of the Cyclades,

high-P conditions are reported for Sifnos, Syros and Tinos and P–T conditions are 15–24 kbar and

500–575°C (Bröcker, 1990; Dixon, 1976; Dragovic et al., 2015; Groppo et al., 2009; Laurent et al.,

2018; Matthews & Schliestedt, 1984; Schmädicke & Will, 2003; Schumacher et al., 2008; Trotet et

al., 2001b). Relatively lower P–T conditions: 9–12 kbar 350–500 for Ios (Grütter, 1993; Thomson et

al., 2009; van der Maar & Jansen, 1983) and >12 kbar ~470°C for Naxos (Avigad, 1998) are

reported.

For the Cycladic Basement Unit, high-P metamorphism is poorly described and no clear

indications show that this unit underwent P–T conditions similar to those experienced by the passive

margin sequence. High-P metamorphism at blueschist facies conditions is described only for Ios and

20 | P a g e
Sikinos. For Ios, P–T is estimated at 9–11 kbar and 350–400°C (van der Maar, 1981; van der Maar &

Jansen, 1983) and at 8–11 kbar and 530–600°C (Thomson et al., 2009). For Sikinos, P–T conditions

of 11 kbar and 475°C are estimated (Gupta & Bickle, 2004).

Figure 6: Compilations of P–T–t paths from the Cyclades show peak high-P metamorphism and retrograde
metamorphism during the Eocene (modified from Ring et al., 2010). P–T data are from: Evia Katzir et al.
(Katzir et al., 2000); Samos Will et al. (1998); Naxos Avigad, (1998); Duchêne et al. (2006); Ios Grütter,
(1993); Thomson et al. (2009); van der Maar and Jansen (1983); Sifnos (1) Matthews and Schliestedt (1984);
(1) Schliestedt and Matthews, (1987); (1) Schmädicke and Will, (2003); (2) Trotet et al. (2001a, 2001b); (3)
Ashley et al. (2014); (3) Dragovic et al. (2015, 2012); (3) Groppo et al. (2009); Syros (1) Ridley, (1984); (1)
Schumacher et al. (2008); (1) Trotet et al. (2001a, 2001b); (2) Laurent et al. (2018); Tinos (1) Bröcker, (1990);
(2) Parra et al. (2002). For geochronological data see Figure 6.

The HP-LT metamorphism of the passive margin sequence is followed by retrogression at

greenschist facies conditions. In the western part of the Cyclades (Evia), retrogression is estimated to

have occurred at 6–8 kbar and 290–350°C (Katzir et al., 2000). In the central Aegean, the retrograde

21 | P a g e
path is more complex. For Syros and Sifnos, post high-P metamorphism is characterised by a near

isothermal decompression under blueschist facies conditions at 8–17 kbar and 460–550°C followed

by a retrogression under greenschist facies conditions at 3–6 kbar and 300–400°C (Groppo et al.,

2009; Trotet et al., 2001b). A thermal anomaly is reported on Tinos, Naxos, Ios and in some part of

Syros. For Tinos, a first retrogression at blueschist facies conditions (8–9 kbar and ~370°C) is

followed by isobaric heating reaching ~570°C (Parra et al., 2002). The greenschist facies

retrogression is estimated to have occurred at ~2 kbar and 420–500°C implying an unusually high

near-surface geotherm of 60-70°C/km and a brittle-ductile transition at about 5 km depth. On the

islands of Naxos and Ios, high-T metamorphism of the passive-margin sequence occurred at

amphibolite facies conditions and is associated with partial anatexis of the Cycladic basement. The P–

T conditions are estimated at 6–10 kbar and 500–760°C (Buick & Holland, 1989; Duchêne et al.,

2006; Katzir et al., 1999). Recently on Syros, Laurent et al. (2018) showed a first retrogression of the

high-P rocks at 10–12 kbar and ~500°C followed by isobaric heating reaching ~570°C.

2.3.2. Timing of metamorphism

The ages for peak high-P metamorphism (blueschist/eclogite facies) and for retrogression in the upper

crust (greenschist facies) are compiled in Figure 6 and are plotted on the P–T path in Figure 5. For

references see the figure caption.

The peak high-P metamorphism is estimated between 50 and 40 Ma for most of the islands

and 30 Ma for Evia and southern Sifnos. This peak high-P metamorphism is estimated by different

geochronological methods and is consequently well constrained for most islands. The Cyclades were

affected by two post peak high-P metamorphic stages. The first stage was at blueschist facies

conditions and lasted until ~27 Ma for Evia and about ~37–30 Ma in Sifnos, Syros and Tinos. The

second stage is at greenschist facies conditions. This stage is less well constrained and based on only a

few analyses/samples. This stage may have begun at ~37–30 Ma on Sifnos, Syros and Tinos, and

continued until 20 Ma. This large age variability is interpreted as a continuous retrogression of the

high-P rocks. For the islands of Naxos, Ios and Evia, the greenschist overprint is dated at ~20 Ma.

22 | P a g e
Note that for Naxos and Ios, greenschist and the amphibolite facies metamorphism are dated to have

occurred simultaneously

23 | P a g e
Figure 7: a) Age of blueschist/eclogite and greenschist facies metamorphism for studies of principal islands
(modified from Philippon et al., 2012). Evia (1) Ring et al. (2007a); (2) Klein-Helmkamp et al. (1995); (3)
Maluski et al. (1987); Sifnos (4) Dragovic et al, (2015); (5) Altherr et al. (1979); Syros (6) Tomaschek et al.
(2003); (7) Putlitz et al. (2005); (8) Bröcker and Enders (2001); (9) Baldwin (1996); (10) Maluski et al. (1987);
(11) Lagos et al. (2002); (23) Cliff et al. (2017); Tinos (12) Bröcker and Franz (1998); (13) Bröcker et al.
(1993); Naxos (14) Andriessen et al. (1979); (15) Wijbrans and McDougall (1986); Ios (16) Henjes-Kunst and
Kreuzer (Henjes-Kunst & Kreuzer, 1982)(Henjes-Kunst & Kreuzer, 1982)(Henjes-Kunst & Kreuzer,
1982)(1982); (17) Baldwin and Lister (1998); (18) Andriessen et al. (1987); (19) Kreuzer et al. (1978); (20)
Thomson et al. (2009); (21) Baldwin et al. (1998); Samos (22) Ring and Layer (2003); (23) Bröcker et al
(2013). b) Geological map of the Cyclades with the major tectonic units modified from Paper I (modified after
Dürr et al. (1978); Jacobshagen, (1986); Ring and Layer, (2003).

2.3.3. High-P metamorphism and wedge extrusion of the CBU in two stages

The peak high-P metamorphism at eclogite/blueschist facies conditions occurred at ~53–30 Ma

reflecting different high-P ages, probably due to repeated underplating and nappe formation (Ring et

al., 2010).

Early exhumation of the high-P rocks within the CBU is inferred in this thesis to have

occurred in an extrusion wedge. The timing of extrusion is dated at 33–21 Ma for Evia and 42–32 Ma

for Samos on the edge of the Cyclades (Ring et al., 2007a, 2007b). The extrusion wedge formed at

different periods, and thus the high-P overprint also occurred at different periods. In the eastern part

of the CBU (Samos), the extrusion wedge started to extrude at c. 40 Ma when high-P metamorphism

was occurring in parts of the central CBU. The extrusion wedge on Samos ended at about 30 Ma

when high-P metamorphism was occurring in the lower crust on southern Sifnos. This suggests a

close relationship between downward propagation of high-P metamorphism in the CBU and the

subsequent formation of extrusion wedges.

A second exhumation is related to large scale extension creating sedimentary basin and dated

at ~23 Ma. The rocks were exhumed into the near surface. In this stage the Cycladic basement was

exhumed and formed a migmatite dome in Naxos and Paros.

24 | P a g e
3. Methods

3.1. Collection of Samples

To constrain the P–T path for the top of the sequence, three samples were collected in the

southernmost part of Naxos (Paper I; Fig. 8). These were a metabasalt and a metasediment with well-

preserved blueschist facies assemblages, which were used to constrain peak high-P metamorphic

conditions and a calcschist with a greenschist facies assemblage, which was used to constrain the P–T

conditions of the overprint. Eight more samples were collected from various localities in the southern

half of Naxos to better constrain the age of the greenschist overprint. The above mentioned zircon

fission track ages indicate that blue- and greenschist-facies metamorphism must have occurred before

the late Oligocene and that the rocks of south Naxos where already in the brittle crust during the

Miocene and formed a structural lid during the Miocene high-T history.

To characterise the high-T metamorphism in the passive margin sequence related to large

scale extension, we collected nine samples around the migmatite dome. They were used to constrain

how the P–T path is spatially related to the Naxos extensional fault system and the migmatite core

(Paper II; Fig. 8). Because the top of the fault is eroded away, a three-dimensional reconstruction of

the detachment surface at the top of the extensional fault system and metamorphic isograds was used.

The three-dimensional reconstruction was constructed by Linnros (2016).

We selected nine samples associated with high-temperature metamorphism for age dating

(Paper III; Fig. 8). The samples were collected nearby to those used in Paper II to build a P–T–t path

of the high-temperature metamorphism.

To constrain the P–T–t path in Syros we collected seven samples of blueschist, eclogite and

greenschist rocks (Paper IV). Samples of transitional rocks (blueschist-eclogite) were also collected to

understand the metamorphic texture reequilibration.

25 | P a g e
Figure 8: a) Geological map of Naxos from paper III (Jansen & Schuiling, 1976; Kruckenberg et al., 2011;
Vanderhaeghe, 2004) showing the sample localities of paper I, III and IV. b) Cross-section showing domal
architecture of Naxos and sample localities projected for paper III into the cross-section plane.

26 | P a g e
 3.2. Constraining the P–T-t trajectory

Average P–T (avP–T) was used to calculate P–T metamorphic conditions in Naxos and Syros, based

on chemical reactions assuming mineral assemblage equilibrium (Paper I, II and IV). The mineral

compositions used in avP–T were determined by electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA). Rb/Sr age

dating was used to determine the metamorphic ages for Naxos and Syros (Paper I, II and IV). Detailed

information about specific instruments and run conditions used for EMPA and Rb/Sr isotope analyses

can be found in the papers. The avP–T and Rb/Sr methods used to construct the P–T–t path for Naxos

and Syros are discussed below.

3.2.1. Average Pressure-Temperature – A statistical problem

The P–T conditions of metamorphism can be calculated if the chemistry of co-existing

minerals and thermodynamic properties of these minerals (e.g. enthalpies, entropy, activity) are

known. The basic assumption is that co-existing minerals are in thermodynamic equilibrium. If this is

true, P-T conditions can be calculated from the positions of reaction equilibria between these minerals

in P-T space. The P–T condition of metamorphism is given by the intersection of two or more

reaction equilibria in P-T space (Fig.9a). Early applications of geothermobarometry used the

intersection of two reaction equilibria constrained from the activities of mineral end members and

their activities which were calibrated by direct experimental investigations. This method, however,

depends on single reaction thermometers and barometers that can give large uncertainties. Having

more than two reaction lines might reduce the uncertainties. Calculation with more than two reaction

equilibria (Fig. 9b) was possible when all available experimental information was combined in an

internally consistent thermodynamic data set.

However, a problem arises when more than two reaction equilibria are used to constrain P–T

conditions. This is that the calculation is overdetermined and further statistical methods must

therefore be applied (Fig. 9b). One method uses the least-squares method for averaging all the

available equilibrium reactions in the rock, incorporating uncertainties and their inter-correlations

(Powell, 1985). In other words, the method works best when the activity of a single mineral is used in

27 | P a g e
several equations and the uncertainties of the respective reaction constants are therefore correlated

(cor). This implies that the uncertainties in the calculations can be better constrained. This approach is

applied by the avP–T mode of the software THERMOCALC (Powell & Holland, 1994, 1988, 2008).

Other methods (not used in our research) try to optimise P–T estimations of overdetermined systems

include WEBINVEQ software (Gordon, 1992, 1998) and TWEEQU software (Berman, 1991).

Figure 9: Geothermobarometry calculation using a) intersection of two reaction lines and b) intersection of three
reaction lines. Red dot is the optimal thermobarometry estimation. The ellipse represents the correlated
uncertainly (cor) and fits in the uncertainly box (σPT). Note that for the three reaction-line calculations, the
correlated uncertainly ellipse is large due to large temperature errors. Modified from Powell and Holland
(Powell & Holland, 1994).

An example of how avP–T works is shown here (Fig. 9). In the case of two reaction

equilibria, their intersection generates a P–T point and a P–T uncertainty ellipse can be derived from

the uncertainties of the equilibria (Fig 9a). Adding more reaction lines with their uncertainties

provides more than one P–T intersection. In Figure 9b three reaction lines give three intersections (A,

B, C). As mentioned above, to resolve this problem AvP–T uses a least-squares method to determine

28 | P a g e
the optimal P-T estimate. The positions of the equilibria are varied in proportion to their uncertainties

̅̅̅̅̅̅
and correlations, so that they intersect at one optimal point (𝑃– 𝑇 in Fig. 9b). This optimal point is

located in an area where all three uncertainties overlap and generate a correlated uncertainty ellipse

within an uncertainly box (σP and σT).

The avP–T method provides several diagnostic tools to evaluate the quality of the calculation

and the influence of the input data on the optimal P–T. The diagnostics can be illustrated by referring

to Table 1 which shows the P–T estimate of the peak high-P in the sample 15SY03. The mineral end

members, their activities and respective uncertainties are calculated using the A-X program

(http://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/research/research-groups/research-projects/timhollands-software-

pages/ax). Using avP–T, nine independent reaction equilibria were calculated for this sample and an

optimal P–T estimate with uncertainties (T; sd(T) = σT; P; sd(P) = σT) and a table of diagnostics (fit,

χ2, e* and hat) are generated. The first diagnostic information is the σfit (the scatter of the enthalpies

and activities normalised by their uncertainties). This value should be close to 1; however, larger

values need to be tested to determine that the average is statistically consistent with the input data (χ2

= 95% confident). The calculation reveals σfit = 1.65, which is larger than allowed from the χ2 test.

The second diagnostic information is the hat value, which measures the degree of influence of the end

member on the least-squares result (ranges between 0 and 1). In the present example, the final result is

very sensitive to the activity of clinozoisite (= 0.42) but not to that of acmite (= 0). A change in

clinozoisite activity would provide a significant change to the P–T estimate. The last diagnostic test is

the activity residual normalised e* which is the difference between the measure of the activity of one

end member and the calculated activity required for all the equilibria to intersect at the optimal P and

T. A large value for e* shows that this residual activity fits poorly with respect to the other values.

This is the case for pyrope (=2.85) in the example (Tab. 1). Additionally, this large e* is associated

with a significant hat value and consequently pyrope may be an outlier in this avP–T estimate.

The next step is to remove the outlier end member. The result is shown in the second

diagnostic table. Here σfit passes the χ2 test (1.10/1.45). No more anomalies in the e* values are found

29 | P a g e
and the avP–T estimate is considered acceptable. The P–T results and their uncertainties (σP and σT)

mean that σP and σT have the same σfit. In other words, the P–T estimates of 16.8 ± 0.6 kbar and 479

± 11°C (± is 2σ) means that the rock had experienced conditions anywhere within the ranges 16.2–

17.4 kbar and 468–490°C.

Table 1: Thermocalc output for the peak high-P assemblage in 15SY03. Abbreviation from the THERMOCALC
documentation.
Activities and their uncertainties
gl fgl py gr alm pa di hed jd acm cz ep ilm geik q H2O ru law
a 0.16 0.078 0.003 0.021 0.22 0.79 0.23 0.14 0.44 0.18 0.36 0.58 0.58 0.007 1 1 1 1
sd(a)/a 0.216 0.2952 0.653 0.472 0.15 0.05 0.1779 0.2571 0.094 0.24 0.1229 0.1 0.05 1.538 0 0 0

Independent set of reactions

1) 11gr + 4alm + 9q + 3law = 12hed + 12cz
2) 4jd + 4cz + law = 3gr + 4pa + q
3) alm + 3hed + 6ru = gr + 6ilm + 6q
4) pa + 3di + jd = gl + gr
5) alm + 10jd + 6cz + 3law = fgl + 5gr + 8pa
6) alm + 15hed + 12jd + 6law = 6fgl + 7gr + 6H2O
7) 2alm + 3di + 6ru = py + gr + 6ilm + 6q
8) alm + 16jd + 6ep + 3law = fgl + 5gr + 8pa + 6acm
9) 2fgl + 2pa + 9geik + 8q = 3gl + 2alm + H2O + 9ru

S ingle end-member diagnostic information S ingle end-member diagnostic information

2 2
For 95% confidence, fit (=σfit) should be < 1.42 (χ ) For 95% confidence, fit (=σfit) should be < 1.45 (χ )
e* < 2.5 e* < 2.5
hat > 0.5 hat > 0.47
P sd(P) T sd(T) cor fit e* hat P sd(P) T sd(T) cor fit e* hat
gl 17.33 0.88 490 15 0.817 1.56 -1 0.03 gl 16.78 0.63 479 11 0.831 1.09 -0.25 0.01
fgl 17.53 0.82 496 14 0.817 1.46 1.6 0.02 fgl 16.9 0.58 482 10 0.836 0.93 1.13 0.03
py 16.98 0.73 483 13 0.831 1.26 2.85 0.13 gr 16.78 0.63 479 11 0.829 1.1 0.06 0.04
gr 17.42 0.92 493 16 0.812 1.65 0.17 0.04 alm 16.61 0.87 476 15 0.913 1.09 0.2 0.36
alm 17.96 1.1 502 18 0.881 1.58 -0.87 0.27 pa 16.77 0.67 479 11 0.822 1.1 -0.05 0.08
pa 17.41 0.99 493 16 0.806 1.65 -0.02 0.08 di 16.78 0.61 478 11 0.828 1.07 0.66 0.04
di 17.43 0.92 493 16 0.811 1.65 0.2 0.03 hed 16.73 0.58 479 10 0.834 1.01 -1.14 0.01
hed 17.39 0.91 493 15 0.816 1.62 -0.84 0.01 jd 16.92 0.77 481 12 0.859 1.09 -0.23 0.25
jd 17.38 1.17 492 18 0.861 1.65 0.07 0.29 acm 16.8 0.61 479 11 0.832 1.07 -0.45 0
acm 17.44 0.92 493 15 0.815 1.64 -0.42 0 cz 16.78 0.63 479 12 0.744 1.1 -0.05 0.42
cz 17.4 0.92 495 17 0.718 1.64 -0.34 0.42 ep 16.79 0.63 479 11 0.833 1.09 0.19 0
ep 17.43 0.92 493 16 0.816 1.65 0.18 0 ilm 16.45 0.75 474 13 0.889 1.05 -0.58 0.3
ilm 17.53 1.08 495 18 0.864 1.65 0.24 0.24 geik 16.79 0.63 479 11 0.833 1.09 -0.32 0
geik 17.42 0.92 493 16 0.816 1.64 -0.45 0 q 16.78 0.63 479 11 0.833 1.1 0 0
q 17.42 0.92 493 16 0.816 1.65 0 0 H2O 16.78 0.63 479 11 0.833 1.1 0 0
H2O 17.42 0.92 493 16 0.816 1.65 0 0 ru 16.78 0.63 479 11 0.833 1.1 0 0
ru 17.42 0.92 493 16 0.816 1.65 0 0 law 16.78 0.63 479 11 0.833 1.1 0 0
law 17.42 0.92 493 16 0.816 1.65 0 0
T = 479¡C, sd = 11,
T = 493¡C, sd = 16, P = 16.8 kbars, sd = 0.6, cor = 0.833, sigfit = 1.10/1.45
P = 17.4 kbars, sd = 0.9, cor = 0.816, sigfit = 1.65/1.42

3.2.2. Rb/Sr dating – The geochronological problem of incomplete resetting

Rubidium–Strontium isotopic mineral dating is a method using the isotopic ratio of 87Sr and 86Sr on

the isotopic ratio of 87Rb and 86Sr (Fig. 10). In these ratios, 87Sr is radiogenic and 87Rb decays to 87Sr

over time. At the time the metamorphic assemblage is formed, all the minerals in the sample are

30 | P a g e
assumed to have the same 87Sr/86Sr ratio which defines the initial isotopic equilibrium among a set of

paragenetic minerals (Fig. 10). The 87Rb/86Sr ratio is different for the different minerals. The minerals

containing low amounts of Rb (and K which can be replaced by Rb in crystal lattices) (e.g.
87
paragonite, apatite, plagioclase and calcite) have low Rb/86Sr ratios whereas minerals with high

amounts of Rb (and K) (e.g. phengite) plot at high 87Rb/86Sr ratios (Fig. 10). When the system remains

closed after formation of the minerals, the 87Sr/86Sr ratio increases with time whereas 87Rb/86Sr ratio

decreases (Fig. 10). The final result is a line called an isochron defined a linear array representing

three or more minerals. An isochron in a metamorphic context is commonly considered to directly

date a geological process. As an example our sample NAX15-26 shows an isochron of six minerals

which yields an age of 40.5 ± 1 Ma (Fig. 11a).

Figure 10: Evolution of the 87Sr/86Sr and 87Rb/86Sr ratio over time.

This method works only if the metamorphic overprint fully resets any preexisting contrasts in
87
Sr/86Sr ratios in the rock (Cliff & Meffan-Main, 2003; Freeman et al., 1998; Glodny et al., 2003). A

mixed age is obtained if the resetting is not completed. This is frequently the case in the Cyclades

where different generations of white mica can be identified (Bröcker et al., 2013; Cliff et al., 2017).

Single multi-grain fractions of white micas will provide mixed ages without direct geochronological

meaning as shown in the sample Na07-10 (Fig. 11b). In this sample three populations of white micas

have different Rb/Sr signatures. The age of 36.1 ± 2.6 Ma resulting from this Sr disequilibria gives a

high MSWD (Mean Square Weighted Deviation).

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Figure 11: Examples of multimineral isochrons obtained for Naxos (Paper I). a) NAX15-26 b) Na07-10.

A solution to the problem is based on the separation of different grain-size fractions to

provide different age signatures in accord with the petrological observations (cf. Müller et al., 1999).

Commonly a correlation between white mica grain-size fraction and apparent Rb–Sr ages can be

observed in the samples, with higher apparent ages for the larger grain-size fractions (Fig. 11b). These

ages are consistent with petrological textures showing that the larger grains correspond to the early

assemblages and chemical compositions. In Naxos the larger grains of white mica correspond to the

early metamorphic stage with high Si content. In contrast the smaller grains are characteristic of the

later stage. Smaller grains tend to react more and faster to fluid-induced reequilibration (Straume &

Austrheim, 1999).

The ages obtained by this method cannot be termed isochron ages because there is no certainty

that the two minerals were formed isotopically in equilibrium during the same petrological process.

Ages calculated from “scattered data” are termed ‘apparent ages’. The geological meaning of apparent

ages obtained from Rb/Sr disequilibrium patterns needs to be reinforced by other arguments such as

petrological observations. In most cases, the interpretation of the apparent age is a minimum age for

the formation of the relict assemblage (like a large, relict flake of white mica combined with a

feldspar porphyroclast) and a maximum age for the crystallization of small grains during the last

32 | P a g e
increments of deformation in a rock. For sample Na07-10, the apparent age of 37 ± 0.6 Ma is defined

by the larger white mica and feldspar. It is interpreted as the minimum age for blueschist facies

metamorphism. The apparent age of 32.5 ± 0.5 Ma is defined by the smaller white mica combined

with feldspar and is interpreted as the maximum age for the end of the greenschist facies

metamorphism (Fig. 11b).

4. Results

4.1. Paper I - An Eocene/Oligocene blueschist-/greenschist facies P–T loop for the

top of the passive margin sequence on Naxos Island

We revisited the known locality of high-P rocks at Kalados Bay in south Naxos (top of the passive

margin sequence) to constrain P–T conditions of high pressure metamorphism and the greenschist

facies overprint (Fig. 12). The high-P samples record blueschist facies metamorphism and preserve

the prograde path in garnet and glaucophane cores. We estimated that prograde high-P metamorphism

occurred at 12–13 kbar and 450–470°C in the metapelite sample and 14.5–15 kbar and 540–570°C in

the metabasite sample. Peak high pressure metamorphism was estimated from the metapelite and the

metabasite sample at 15–17.1 kbar and 550–651°C and dated at 41.5–38 Ma. The greenschist facies

overprint was estimated to have occurred at 2.7–4.9 kbar and 350–410°C and dated at 29–35 Ma. The

exhumation of the high-P rocks occurred at a rate of 7.4 ± 4.6 km/Ma. The P–T loop for the top of the

sequence passed though the temperature of ~240°C in the late Oligocene and early Miocene (20.5 ±

2.4 Ma and 25.2 ± 3.8 Ma) (Seward et al., 2009). The final exhumation from greenschist facies

conditions through fission track cooling occurred at distinctly smaller rates of 0.49 ± 0.24 km/Ma.

33 | P a g e
Figure 12: P–T–t path of the top of the passive margin sequence in south Naxos (modified from Peillod et al.,
2017; Paper I). Pressure converted to depth assuming average rock density of 2700 kg/m3. Metamorphic facies
are is from Evans (1990): PA, pumpellyite–actinolite; LBS, lawsonite blueschist; EBS, epidote blueschist; E,
eclogite; AEA, albite–epidote–amphibolite; A, amphibolite). zircon (ZFT) and apatite fission-track (AFT) ages
(Seward et al., 2009).

The most important finding of Paper I is that the rocks at the top of passive margin sequence of

the CBU record a full Eocene/early Oligocene blueschist/greenschist facies P–T loop. The rocks

reached upper crustal levels about 10 Ma before the Miocene high-T metamorphism overprint during

the large scale extension.

34 | P a g e
 4.2. Paper II - Characterising the P–T path for the Miocene exhumation related to

the extensional setting for the bottom of the passive margin sequence on Naxos

We collected nine samples at different distances from the projected trace of the Naxos extensional

fault system and the migmatite dome. We constrained the P–T paths for the high grade

metamorphism. The P–T paths of all samples are characterised by two distinct P–T path segments.

The early segment is characterised by near isothermal decompression between 8–12 kbar and 650–

750°C and 5.5–7.1 kbar and 550–630°C. The second segment is characterised by pronounced cooling

(cooling path) from 5.5–7.1 kbar and 550–630°C to the surface (Fig 13).

Figure 13: Pressure-temperature (P–T) paths (grey shading) derived from P–T estimates of the nine samples in
Paper II.

The main finding of this study is that there is not one single path for the high-T rocks but that

rocks from different locations have different paths. The results show that the cooling path has

systematic differences in metamorphic field temperature gradient relative to the distance from the

Naxos extensional fault system (Fig. 14). Samples from north of the migmatite dome show a constant

35 | P a g e
P–T gradient with distance from the fault system, whereas rocks from further south show a decreasing

P–T gradient downwards from the fault system. We correlated these differences of the late thermal

gradients with finite strain data, which represents a proxy for the intensity of ductile flow. High finite

strain (d = 3.56–10.86) is associated with high thermal gradients (northern sample group, red line in

Fig. 14). In contrast low finite (d = 0.15–0.51) is associated with a downward decreasing thermal

gradient (southern sample group, green line in Fig. 14).

Figure 14: Vertical distance from detachment vs temperature gradient and Naxos map that shows the samples
locations (Modified from Paper II).

4.3. Paper III - The timing of the high-T metamorphism in the bottom of the passive

margin sequence in northern Naxos

In this paper we reported eight Rb-Sr multi-mineral isochron ages which constrain the timing of high-

T metamorphism and partial melting associated with the ductile deformation in the footwall of Naxos

metamorphic core complex (bottom of the passive margin sequence). A migmatite sample provided

an age of ~14 Ma for crystallisation of the migmatisation-related melt. Pegmatite samples provided

36 | P a g e
ages of 12–14 Ma that are in part associated with the partial melting of the surrounding host rocks.

Schist samples metamorphosed at amphibolite facies conditions yielded ages of about 14 Ma.

Apparent ages of 9.5–13 Ma for fluid- and/or deformation-assisted white mica and biotite reworking

are interpreted as a late stage of extensional shearing at greenschist facies conditions. The main

finding is that high-T metamorphic conditions and partial melting lasted until 14–12 Ma.

Figure 15: Simple P–T–t path for the bottom of the passive margin sequence during the Miocene high-T
metamorphism.

37 | P a g e
 We combined the reported age data and the P–T estimates from Paper II with published U-Pb

zircon ages of migmatite and granite crystallisation (Bolhar et al., 2017b; Keay et al., 2001; Martin et

al., 2006) and Ar-Ar hornblende ages (Wijbrans & McDougall, 1988) to construct a generalised P–T–

t path for the bottom of the passive margin sequence (Fig. 15). The early near isothermal segment

started at 20 and lasted until 14–12 Ma. The final decompression and cooling segment occurred after

12–11 Ma. The results show that melt was present in central and northern Naxos for at least 7 Ma and

that the melt-weakened crust considerably aided large-magnitude displacement at the Naxos

extensional fault system.

4.4. Paper IV - A P–T–t loop on SE Syros Island (Fabrika section): A common

Eocene/Oligocene metamorphic history for the central Cyclades

The finding that the greenschist facies overprint in southern Naxos occurred already in the Oligocene

is an important and new finding. Because the Oligocene age for the greenschist-facies overprint has

been demonstrated for the first time in the central Cyclades, we decided to study another, similar rock

sequence on a nearby island. The Fabrika coastal section in southeastern Syros provides a perfect

locality for this. In paper IV we constrained a P–T–t path for the Fabrika section (Fig. 16).

Garnet cores in blueschist and eclogite facies rocks preserve the prograde path which was

estimated at 10.7–14.4 kbar and 380–460°C. The peak high-P metamorphism was estimated for

blueschist and eclogite rocks at 15.4–17.7 kbar 470–500°C and dated at 42.9–39.5 Ma. The

greenschist facies overprint was estimated at 1.3–5.5 kbar, 388–524°C and dated at 33–26 Ma. These

results demonstrate a common Eocene/Oligocene P–T metamorphic history for southeastern Syros

and southern Naxos, suggesting that Eocene/Oligocene exhumation of the CBU might have been

important for the Cyclades.

38 | P a g e
 Figure 16: P–T–t path of blueschist-eclogite overprinted by greenschist facies rocks in Syros.

5. Discussion

5.1. Exhumation of high-P rocks by extrusion wedge in a subduction zone setting

during the Eocene and Oligocene

In this thesis we constrain a P–T–t loop for the top of the passive margin sequence in Naxos

(Paper I) and calculated peak high-P conditions at c. 40 Ma. The data show rapid exhumation soon

after peak high-P metamorphism from a depth of 60 km to a depth of 14 km until c. 32 Ma

(Oligocene). This is followed by slower exhumation across the brittle-ductile transition in the

Miocene (25–20 Ma). The full P–T–t loop shows that the top of the passive margin sequence in

39 | P a g e
southern Naxos was rapidly exhumed into the brittle upper crust by the Oligocene/Miocene boundary.

This finding contrasts with previous conclusions that the greenschist facies overprint of the blueschist

facies rocks is related to large scale extension and the formation of the migmatite dome in the

Miocene. An important consequence is that the top of the passive margin sequence in southern Naxos

does not record the later Miocene high-T metamorphism and was already above crustal levels where

metamorphism can occur. We have corroborated our findings through a study in southeastern Syros

(Paper IV).

Figure 17: extrusion wedge of the passive margin sequence for Naxos during the Eocene/Oligocene.

The process that exhumed the passive margin sequence is likely to be an extrusion wedge similar

to those demonstrated for the eastern and western edges of the Cyclades in Evia and Samos (Ring et

al., 2007a, 2007b) and suspected in the central Cyclades (Huet et al., 2009; Ring et al., 2011). In

Naxos, the serpentine lenses (Fig. 5) at the boundary between the basement and the passive margin

sequence are interpreted as remnants of a lithospheric-scale thrust that emplaced the passive margin

40 | P a g e
sequence onto the Cycladic Basement (Jansen & Schuiling, 1976; Katzir et al., 2007). The thrust

should cause high-P metamorphism in the basement. However, no relics of high-P assemblages have

been reported from the Cycladic Basement. In Paper I we interpret top-to-the-N shear sense indicators

in the passive margin sequence to be related to normal faulting at the top of the passive margin

sequence at the top of the extrusion wedge (Fig. 17). This normal fault working in concert with the

thrust at the bottom of the passive margin sequence bound the extrusion wedge and caused rapid

exhumation of the passive margin sequence onto the Cycladic Basement and thereby allowed the

basement to escape high-P metamorphism (Fig. 17). The rapidity of this exhumation gives no chance

for thermal relaxation to play a significant role in the reequilibration of the Naxos blueschists.

5.2. Relation between the Eocene/Oligocene and the Miocene metamorphic events

Our data demonstrate three distinct metamorphic events for Naxos. The top of the sequence

shows high-P metamorphism at 41–38 Ma and a greenschist facies overprint at 37–29 Ma. The

bottom of the sequence shows an extension-related high-T metamorphism at 20–12 Ma. This result

raises the question: what is the relation between the Eocene/Oligocene and the Miocene metamorphic

events?

At the top the passive margin sequence in Naxos blueschist facies metamorphism is observed

to the south of the biotite isograd (Fig. 7). Additionally, the Eocene/Oligocene metamorphic history is

retained in the Rb-Sr isotopic signature (samples NAX15-13 and NAX15-14 in paper I) and in garnet

cores (sample NP39 in paper II). At the bottom of the passive margin sequence in central and northern

Naxos, zircon rims preserve a geochronological memory of the high-P metamorphism (Bolhar et al.,

2017b; Martin et al., 2006). Consequently, we argue that the entire passive margin sequence

experienced the Eocene high-P metamorphism and was subsequently exhumed within an extrusion

wedge. The rocks of the lower passive margin sequence in central and northern Naxos were later

metamorphosed again at amphibolite facies conditions in the Miocene. Consequently, the bottom of

the sequence experienced three metamorphic stages. However, P–T conditions for the bottom of the

passive margin sequence during the Eocene and Oligocene are unknown.

41 | P a g e
 In Paper I we demonstrate that the top of the passive margin sequence in southern Naxos

reached ~4 kbar ~400°C in the Oligocene. In Paper II and III, we constrain the maximum pressure of

the high-T metamorphism at 8–12 kbar 750°C. How do the ~4 kbar (equalling about 15 km depth) in

the Oligocene related to the 8-12 km (about 28-40 km depth) in the Miocene? Because the Miocene

high-T metamorphism occurs in an extensional setting, any thickening/reburial between the Oligocene

and Miocene can be ruled out. Therefore the bottom of the passive margin sequence needs to be have

been at greater depth than the top of the sequence in the Oligocene. The current structural thickness of

the passive margin sequence exposed in Naxos is ~8 km. The baric difference between the top and

bottom of the sequence is 4–8 kbar (equalling 14–29 km). This estimate implies that the ~8 km of

current structural thickness was 14–29 km in the Oligocene. The pressure of 8–12 kbar for the bottom

of the sequence in the Oligocene and that about 50% vertical thinning of the passive margin sequence

took place due to extensional deformation. This reasoning suggests that rocks from the base of the

passive margin sequence were at a pressure of 8-12 kbar between the Oligocene and the high-T

overprint in the Miocene.

To determine the P–T conditions of the bottom of the passive margin sequence during the

Eocene, Avigad (1998) used the current structural thickness (~8 km) and a geothermal gradient of

13°C/km to extrapolate the P–T condition at the bottom of the sequence and obtained >14 kbar and

~550°C. However, we have shown that the structural thickness was 14–29 km in the Oligocene,

which may reflect a better estimate of the structural thickness of the passive margin sequence at that

time. Additionally, we calculated a prograde P–T path segment from 12–13 kbar ~450°C to 15–17

kbar 550–643°C (in Paper I,) which gives a geothermal gradient of 12–14°C. Using the structural

thickness of 14–29 km, the geothermal gradient of 12–14°C/km and our peak high-P conditions for

blueschist facies metamorphism at the top of the sequence, we provide an extrapolation similar to that

of Avigad (1998). Our extrapolation results in 20–24 kbar and 750–950°C for the bottom of the

sequence. The pressure range is similar to the highest pressures obtained for nearby islands (e.g.

Syros, Tinos and Sifnos; see Fig. 5). The temperatures, however, are surprisingly high, distinctly

higher than temperatures recorded for nearby islands. The estimate of 750–950°C is nevertheless

42 | P a g e
corroborated by Ti-in-zircon thermometry providing a temperature of 650–850°C for Eocene zircon

rims (Bolhar et al., 2017b). Additionally Katzir et al. 1999 estimated 1057–1070°C for relict crystals

of orthopyroxene, olivine and spinel in metaperidotites which were juxtaposed with the bottom of the

passive margin sequence at the base of the orogenic wedge.

6. Conclusion and future work

The main conclusion of this thesis is that the passive margin sequence in Naxos experienced two

exhumation events: an Eocene/Oligocene exhumation phase in the subduction zone setting within an

extrusion wedge, and a Miocene exhumation related to the extensional deformation. During the

Oligocene exhumation, the top of the passive margin sequence reached upper crustal levels whereas

the bottom of the passive margin sequence was at greater depth (8–12 kbar). During the Miocene the

top of the passive margin sequence was already in the brittle crust and therefore did not record the

Miocene metamorphism. The bottom of the sequence was first isothermally exhumed at high-T and

subsequently cooled rapidly. Another conclusion is that rocks from southeastern Syros record a

similar Eocene/Oligocene P–T metamorphic history than the south Naxos rocks suggesting a common

Eocene/Oligocene metamorphic history for the central Cyclades.

Although we characterised the Oligocene exhumation of the Eocene high-P rocks on Naxos,

several avenues for future research emerge from this thesis. There is a gap of 10–15 Ma between the

metamorphic stages. During this time, the bottom of the passive margin sequence apparently stayed at

the same pressure (8–12 kbar). The temperature, however, could not be constrained. It is possible that

during the 10–15 Ma time gap, rocks at the bottom of the passive margin sequence experienced

isobaric heating by thermal relaxation. On Tinos, Parra et al. (2002) show isobaric heating of 200–

300°C at a depth comparable to about 9 kbar. Unfortunately, the timing of this heating stage is

unconstrained and the drastic geological consequences (extreme thermal gradient, see above)

unexplored. Recently Laurent et al. (2018) also suggest isobaric heating of ~70 °C at ~10 kbar for

Syros. An area for further investigation would be to better characterise the P–T conditions during the

43 | P a g e
10–15 Ma time gap in Naxos, so as to understand the metamorphic relationships during the apparent

tectonic lull between the Oligocene and Miocene.

Another point that this thesis raises is the lack of P–T data for high-P metamorphism at the

bottom of the passive margin sequence. The P–T of 20–24 kbar and 750–950°C estimated from the

extrapolation of peak high-P from the top of the sequence is surprising but maybe not impossible

given the thermometric estimates provided by Bolhar et al. (2017b) and Katzir et al. (1999). A

petrological study aiming at better understanding high-P conditions for the bottom of the passive

margin sequence on Naxos might be warranted.

7. Acknowledgement

The root of this thesis is from my fourteenth year when I decided to study geoscience. From now to

back to this time, the contributions and support of many people were infinitely precious in my eyes.

First I would like to thank Uwe Ring for sharing his great experience of the geology of the Aegean

domain. These past years have been challenging and you were always available to provide good

guidance and help at the good time. You have clearly improved my scientific rigour and critical

thinking. Scientific criticism was coupled with free space to develop my own ideas.

This supervision was completed by my co-supervisor Alasdair Skelton. Thanks you for your

continuous support and knowledge in metamorphic petrology. I will be available for the Scottish

dance you will organise in the department. I also thank Johannes Glodny for his awesome age dating

work. I really appreciate the discussions during the samples safari we had in Naxos to get the best

ages. Thanks Henrik Linnros for your 3D model of Naxos and for the nice time we had in the field. I

am looking forward for the next time you will pay me a glass of ouzo.

Undying thanks to Hildred Crill. You believe in me and give all your time to improve my

scientific writing. I really appreciated our discussion about politics and music. You are clearly the

type of teacher that every university needs.

44 | P a g e
 The EPMA data in this thesis were carried out in Uppsala. I met their nice geologist team and

made friends. Thanks Iwona Klonowska, Jarek Majka and Abigail Barker for strong support. I had a

difficult relationship with the emotionally disturbed microprobe machine but it is true love. I thank

Jan-Olov Persson greatly for his help with statistical problems.

I am very grateful to Runa Jacobsson, Dan Zetterberg, Marianne Ahlbom, Eve Arnorld, Arne

lif, Inês Jakobsson, Krister Junghahn, Malin Andersson and Draupnir Einarsson for sample

preparations, technical supports and administrative tasks.

All my love goes to my family who believe in my study project. They support all my projects

and give encouragement during the difficult moments.

I thank also all the people I met during this Swedish adventure. Barbara Kleine thanks for all

your knowledge about glaucophane. I hope I was a good office mate. Reuben Hansman, Clifford

Patten and Hagen Bender are my “bros” in the department. Kiwi, beer and cheese are definitely a

good mix. Special thanks to Stefano Bonaglia, Statis Repas, Christophe Sturm and Etienne Pauthenet

for this great music band we have! Not bad at all! A special thanks to Charlotta Högberg for all this

good time we had together. You were a great support. Lot of thanks and kram to Helene Petit,

Melanie Schmitt, Ross Kielman, Robert Graham, Mélissa Glodny, Charlotte Depin, Jan Jan Fidom,

Fiona Thiessen, Lara Schultes, Sandra Gdaniec, Elin Tollefsen, Henrik Swärd, Susanne Sjöberg,

Natalia Barrientos, Jenny Sjöström, Frans Weis, Pedro Petro, Alexander Lewerentz, Lisa Bröder,

Patrick Winiger, Francesco and Pilvi Muschitiello, Arman Boskabadi, Catherine Hirst, Christophe

Dupraz, Johanna Holmberg, Kweku Afrifa Yamoah, Kerstin Winkens, Tobias, Gabrielė Kniukštaitė,

Xiaojing Zhang, Bo, Berit Gewert and all people I forgot to name!

I thank all the Strasbourg people that I met and who all contributed to the success of my

studying path. We had the best time there from the laughing to crying. Bastien Walter, Pierre Dietrich,

Leila Mezri, Benoit Deleplanc, Thibaud Denoyer, Maxime Mareschal, Fabien Humbert, Marie-Laure

Bachschmidt, Étienne Skrzypek, Francis Chopin, Véronique Adam, Geoffroy Mohn…

45 | P a g e
 I thank all my childhood friends from Lyon that support me, Florian and Olivia Migeot,

Gaëtan and Agnes Saubiez, Patrice and Laurence Marques, Jerome and Amandine Jamet,

Emmanuelle Blanc, Marie Guerard, Louise Charlotte Barut, Gaël Lester, Adrien and Florence

Demaison, Claire Veale, Fabien and Elsa Ludjer, Benjamin Gonin.

46 | P a g e
8. References

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technique, with petrological applications. The Canadian Mineralogist, 29, 833–855.
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lower crust. Tectonics, 9, 557–567.
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Bröcker, M. 1990. Blueschist-to-greenschist transition in metabasites from Tinos Island,
Cyclades, Greece: Compositional control or fluid infiltration? Lithos, 25, 25–39.
Bröcker, M., Baldwin, S. & Arkudas, R. 2013. The geological significance of40Ar/39Ar and
Rb-Sr white mica ages from Syros and Sifnos, Greece: A record of continuous
(re)crystallization during exhumation? Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 31, 629–646.
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