Communications Electronics Circuits (EEAP341)

LE CTURE TOP I C S
1 Review of dc biasing and bias stabilization for BJT's

common base current gain: BN Section 3.1
leakage Current: BN Sections 3.5,3. 6 ( nice discussion )
common base configuration: BN sections 3.5, 4.3
common collector configuration: BN Sections 3.7, 4.10
common emitter configuration: BN Sections 3.6, 4.4, 4.5
transistor Q-point: BN Section 4.2
bias stabilization: BN Sections 4.6, 4.7, 4.8
design of bias networks: BN Section 4.12
computer program to calculate bias resistors: BN p.173-174
2 h- and hybrid-pi small signal models

variation of parameters with bias point
transistor data sheets: BN Section 3.9
h-parameter models: BN Sections 7.4, 7.5 (gives good insight )
hybrid-pi parameter models: Smith Section 2.2
variation of parameters: BN Section 7.6
3 frequency dependence of small signal parameters

input impedance and gain
small signal impedances and gains: BN Section 7.7
computer program to do ac analysis: BN p.244-245
approximations in real circuits: BN Section 7.8
gener al frequency considerations: BN Section 9.9
high frequency consider ations: BN Section 9.11
small signal parameter conversions: BN Appendix A
high frequency models: KBR Section 4-2
4 FET characteristics and circuits

transfer characteristics: BN Section 5.2
JFET parameters: BN Section 5.3
MO SFET parameters: BN Section 5.4
FET biasing: BN Chapter 6 ( excellent reading! )
small signal models: BN Section 8.3; Smith Section 2.3
design of a FET amplifier: BN Section 8.6
5 Power amplifiers: Class A, B, AB and C amplifiers

push-pull amplifiers: Smith Section 2.6
class A amplifiers: BN Sections 10.2, 10.3; Smith Section 11.2
classes of amplifiers: BN Section 10.4
class B and AB amplifiers: BN Sections 10.5, 10.6; Smith Section
11-3
Class C amplifiers: Smith Section 11.4
6 Types of gain: transducer, operating and available

gain in cascaded amplifiers: BN Section 9.2; Smith Section 2.4
decibels: BN Section 9.8
multistage frequency effects: BN Sections 9.12, 9.13
amplifier power gains: KBR Section 4-5
amplifier distortion: KBR p.194-196
7 Comparison of amplifier topologies

small signal equivalent circuits: BN Section 7.9; Smith Section
2.2
summary table: BN p.288-289
cascode amplifier: BN Section 9.6
8 Superheterodyne radio concepts

basic radio concepts: KBR Section 1-2; Smith Section 1.4
receiver performance specifications: KBR Section 9-1
RF ampifier: KBR Section 9-2
mixer: KBR Section 9-3
local oscillator: KBR Section 9-4
IF amplifier: KBR Section 9-5
diagram of an AM receiver: KBR Section 9-11
iO N oise, signal / noise ratio

noise: KBR Section 2-1; Smith Section 3.2
noise definitions: KBR Sections 2-4, 2-5; Smith Section 3.3
device noise: KBR Section 2-3, p.28-32; Smith p.72-76
11 amplitude and frequency modulation and detection

modulation principles: KBR Sections 1-3, 1-4
amplitude modulation: KBR Section 8-1
frequency modulation: KBR p.236-239
spectra of modulated signals: KBR Section 8-5
diode envelope detectors: KBR Sections 9-7, 9-8
FM demodulators: KBR Section 10-3
12 Tuned circuits resonance: series and parallel

series and parallel resonance: KBR Sections 3-1, 3-2; Smith
Sections 4.2, 4.3
effect of loading on circuit Q: KBR Sections 3-3, 3-4
13 Tapped capacitor and inductor networks

tapped capacitor networks: KBR p.49-53; Smith p.127-130
tapped inductor circuits: KBR p.53-62; Smith p.125-127
mutual inductance: KBR p.55-57
14 Transformers, auto-transformers, single and double

tuned i. f. transformers
three-winding transformers: Smith Section 6.2
transformer coupled amplifiers: BN Section 9.4
real transformers with mutual inductance: KBR p.55-62
single tuned transformers: KBR Section 3-8; Smith Section 4.4
double tuned transformers: KBR Section 3-9; Smith p.123-125
15 Matching networks
impedance matching: Smith Section 4.5
series to parallel conversions: KBR Section 3-5
effect of loading on circuit Q: Smith Section 4.5
16 Tuned rf amplifiers: frequency dependence of circuit

parameters
tuned amplifier technology: KBR Section 9-6
high frequency models: Smith Section 5.2
frequency response of amplifiers: Smith p.150-167
17 Stability of rf amplifiers
amplifier stability criteria: KBR Sections 4-3, 4-4
Miller's Theorem: Smith p.148-149
18 Conditional and unconditional amplifier design

design with unconditionally stable devices: KBR Section 4-6
design with potentially unstable devices: KBR Section 4-7
neutralization: Smith p.184-185
19 RF amplifier design ( continued )

maximum gain design: KBR Section 4-8
alignability: KBR Section 4-9
cascode amplifier: Smith p.186-188
overall design procedure: KBR Section 4-10
20 Mixers: spectral analysis, distortion, compression

basic mixer theory: KBR Section 7-1
mixer terminology: KBR Section 7-2
balanced mixers: KBR Section 7-3
distortion and compression: Smith Section 3. 5
21 Mixer design: JFET, MOSFET mixers

FET mixers: KBR Section 7-6
JFET mixer design: KBR Section 7-7
MO SFET mixer design: KBR Section 7-8
22 Mixer design: BJT, diode ring mixers

BJT mixers: KBR Section 7-5
23 Basic oscillator principles

feedback amplifier stability: BN Section 17.5; KBR Section 5-1
feedback oscillators: BN Section 17.6; KBR Section 5-3; Smith
Section 7.2
negative resistance oscillators: KBR Section 5-2; Smith p. 243-247
24 Colpitts oscillator design

Colpitts oscillator: BN Section 17.10; Smith p.240-243
Colpitts oscillator design: KBR Section 5-5; Smith p.240-243
25 BJT, FET oscillators, crystal oscillators

miscellaneous oscillator circuits: KBR Section 5-7
Hartley oscillators: BN Section 17.11; Smith p.240-241
crystal oscillators: BN Section 17.12; KBR Section 5-8; Smith
Section 7.5
26 Basic phase locked loops

basic phase locked loops: BN Section 16.7; KBR Section 6-1; Smith
Section 8.1
linear P L L analysis: KBR Section 6-2; Smith Section 8.2
PLL definitions: KBR Section 6-3
voltage controlled oscillators: BN Section 16.6; KBR Section 6-4;
Smith Section 7.6, 8.4
phase detectors: KBR Section 6-5; Smith Section 8.3
27 PLL fm demodulators
fm demodulation: Smith p.319
PLL loop error analysis: Smith Sections 9.2, 9.3
PLL transient behavior: Smith Section 9.4
28 PLL frequency synthesizers

PLL synthesis: Smith Section 10.3
PLL frequency synthesizer design example: Smith Section 10.5
mrf581f.s2p
$BEGIN "mrf581f.s2p"
! MRF581F.S2P
! MRF581
! VCE=10V; IC=50mA
# GHZ S MA R 50
! S-PARAMETER DATA
! Freq S11 S21 S12 S22
0.3 0.65 -169 8.25 94 0.05 46 0.30 -126
0.5 0.68 175 4.96 82 0.07 54 0.24 -138
1.0 0.69 157 2.60 65 0.12 63 0.22 -164
1.5 0.72 139 1.82 52 0.17 63 0.27 -171
$END "mrf581f.s2p"
Page 1
Network Analyzer Basics
Author: David
Ballo

1
DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Network analysis is not...
Router
Bridge
Repeater
Hub
Your IEEE 802.3 X.25 ISDN

switched-packet data stream is
running at 147 MBPS with a BER
-9
of 1.523 X 10 . . .

2
What types of devices are tested?
Duplexers RFICs
Diplexers MMICs
High
Filters T/R modules

Couplers Transceivers
Bridges
Splitters, dividers Receivers
Combiners Tuners
Isolators Converters
Circulators
Attenuators VCAs
Integration
Adapters Amplifiers
Opens, shorts, loads Antennas
Delay lines VCOs
Cables Switches VTFs
Transmission lines Multiplexers Oscillators
Waveguide Mixers Modulators
Resonators Samplers VCAtten's
Dielectrics Multipliers
R, L, C's
Diodes Transistor
Low
s
Passive Device type Active

3
Device Test Measurement Model
84000 RFIC test
Complex
BER Full call

Ded. Testers sequence
EVM
ACP Pulsed S-parm.
VSA Harm. Dist. Pulse profiling
LO stability Regrowth
Intermodulation
SA Image Rej. NF Constell.
Distortion
Eye
VNA Gain/Flat. Compr'n
Phase/GD AM-PM
Response
TG/SA Isolation
Rtn Ls/VSWR
SNA Impedance
S-parameters
tool
NF Mtr. NF
Imped. An. LCR/Z
Param. An. I-V

Measurement plane
Simple
Absol.
Power Mtr.
Power
Det/Scope Gain/Flatness
DC CW Swept Swept Noise 2-tone Multi- Complex Pulsed- Protocol

freq power tone modulation RF
Simple Stimulus type Complex

4
Agenda
 Why do we test components?
 What measurements do we make?
 Smith chart review
 Transmission line basics
 Reflection and transmission parameters
 S-parameter definition
 Network analyzer hardware
 Signal separation devices
 Broadband versus narrowband detection
 Dynamic range
 T/R versus S-parameter test sets
 Three versus four samplers
 Error models and calibration
 Types of measurement error
 One- and two-port models
 Error-correction choices
 TRL versus TRL*
 Basic uncertainty calculations
 Typical measurements
 Advanced topics

5
Why do we need to test components?
Components often used as building blocks
 Need to verify specifications
 Examples:
filters to remove harmonics
amplifiers to boost LO power
mixers to convert reference signals
When used to pass communications signals, need to

ensure
distortionless transmission
 Linear networks
constant amplitude
linear phase / constant group delay
 Nonlinear networks
harmonics, intermodulation
compression
noise figure
When absorbing power (e.g. an antenna), Network Analyzer Basics

6
need to ensure good match

Linear Versus Nonlinear Behavior
A * Sin 360° * f ( t - t )
A °
Linear behavior:
input and output frequencies
Time
to are the same (no additional
frequencies created)
A
output frequency only
Sin 360° * f * t
phase shift = to
* 360 °* f
undergoes magnitude and
Time f
1
Frequency phase change
Input DUT Output
Nonlinear behavior:
f output frequency may undergo
1 Frequency Time
frequency shift (e.g. with
mixers)
additional frequencies created
(harmonics, intermodulation)
f Frequency
1

7
Criteria for Distortionless Transmission
Linear Networks
Constant amplitude over Linear phase over

bandwidth of interest bandwidth of interest
Magnitude
Phase
Frequency Frequency

8
Magnitude Variation with Frequency
F(t) = sin wt + 1 /3 sin 3wt + 1 /5 sin 5wt
Time
Time
Linear Network
Magnitude

Frequency Frequency Frequency

9
H
Phase Variation with Frequency
F(t) = sin wt + 1 /3 sin 3wt + 1 /5 sin 5wt
Linear Network
Time Time
Magnitude
Frequency
0°
Frequency Frequency
-180°
-360 °

10
Criteria for Distortionless Transmission
Nonlinear Networks
Saturation, crossover, intermodulation, and other
nonlinear effects can cause signal distortion
Time Time
Frequency Frequency

11
Example Where Match is Important
KPWR FM 97 KPWR FM 97
Wire and bad antenna Proper transmission line and

(poor match at 97 MHz) antenna results in 1500 W
results in 150 W radiated radiated power - signal is
power received about three times
further!
Good match between antenna and RF amplifier is extremely
important to radio stations to get maximum radiated power
12
The Need for Both Magnitude and Phase
S 21
1. Complete characterization of S 11 S 22
linear networks 4. Time Domain
S 12
Characterization
Mag
2. Complex impedance needed to
design matching circuits
Time
High Frequency
Transistor Model
5. Vector Accuracy Enhancement
Base Collector Error
3. Complex values needed for Measured

device modeling Emitter
Actual
13
Agenda

 What measurements do we
make?
 Advanced topics

14
High-Frequency Device Characterization
Lightwave Analogy
Incident
Transmitted
Reflected

15
Smith Chart Review .
o
+jX 90
Polar plane
1.0
.8
.6
 +R
.4
0 o .2
+ 180 o
- 0
-jX  
Rectilinear -90 o
impedance plane
Constant X
Z L = Zo Constant R
= 0
Smith Chart maps Z L = 0 (short) Z L= (open)
rectilinear impedance = 1 ±180

O
 =1 0
O
plane onto polar plane

Smith Chart
16
Power Transfer
RS
RL
For complex impedances,
maximum power transfer
occurs when ZL = ZS*
(conjugate match)
Load Power (normalized)
1.2
1
0.8 Zs = R + jX
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RL / RS
ZL = Zs* = R - jX
Maximum power is transferred

when RL = RS
17
Transmission Line Review
Low frequencies I
 Wavelength >> wire length
 Current (I) travels down wires easily for efficient power
transmission
 Voltage and current not dependent on position
High frequencies
 Wavelength  or << wire (transmission line) length
 Need transmission-line structures for efficient power transmission
 Matching to characteristic impedance (Z0)
is very important for low reflection

 Voltage dependent on position along line

18
Transmission Line Terminated with Zo
Zo = characteristic impedance
Zs = of transmission line
Zo
Zo
Vinc
Vrefl = 0! (all the incident power
is absorbed in the load)
For reflection, a transmission line terminated in Zo

behaves like an infinitely long transmission line
19
Transmission Line Terminated with
Short, Open
Zs = Zo
Vinc
In phase (0 o ) for open

Vrefl Out of phase (180 o ) for short
For reflection, a transmission line terminated in a short

or open reflects all power back to source
20
Transmission Line Terminated with 25 
Zs = Zo
ZL = 25 
Vinc
Vrefl
Standing wave pattern does

not go to zero as with short
or open Network Analyzer Basics
21
High-Frequency Device Characterization
Incident
Transmitted
R
B
Reflected
A
REFLECTION TRANSMISSION
Reflected A Transmitted B
= =
Incident R Incident R
Return Group
SWR Gain / Loss Delay
Loss
S-Parameters Impedance, Insertion
S11,S22 Reflection Admittance S-Parameters Phase
Coefficient S21,S12 Transmission
R+jX,
 G+jB Coefficient


22
Reflection Parameters
ZL  ZO
= V
Vreflected
= 
Reflection
=
Coefficient incident ZL + ZO
Return loss = -20 log(),  = 
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
Emax
Emin Emax 1+
VSWR = =
Emin 1-
No reflection Full reflection

(ZL = Zo) (ZL = open, short)
0  1
 dB RL 0 dB
1 VSWR 
23
Transmission Parameters
V Incident V Transmitted
DUT
VTransmitted
Transmission Coefficient =  = = 
V Incident
V
Insertion Loss (dB) = - 20 Log
Trans
= - 20 log 
V Inc
V
Gain (dB) = 20 Log
Trans
= 20 log 
V Inc
24
Deviation from Linear Phase
Use electrical delay to remove linear
portion of phase response
Linear electrical length

Deviation from linear
RF filter response added
phase
(Electrical delay function)
Phase 45 /Div
Phase 1 /Div
o
o
+ yields
Frequency Frequency Frequency
Low resolution High resolution

25
What is group delay?
Frequency  tg
Group Delay
Group
 Delay
to
Phase 
 Average Delay
d 
Group Delay (t g) = Frequency
d
1 d
= * df Deviation from constant group delay
360 o indicates distortion
 in radians
 in radians/sec
Average delay indicates transit time
 in degrees
f in Hz (  = 2 f ) Network Analyzer Basics

26
Why measure group delay?
Phase
Phase
f f
d  d 
d d
Group
Delay
Group
Delay
f f
Same p-p phase ripple can result in different group delay

27
Low-Frequency Network Characterization
H-parameters Y-parameters Z-parameters

V1 = h11I1 + h12V2 I1 = y11V1 + y12V2 V1 = z11I1 + z12I2
V2 = h21I1 + h22V2 I2 = y21V1 + y22V2 V2 = z21I1 + z22I2
h11 = V1
I1 V2=0 (requires short circuit)
h12 = V1
V2 I1=0 (requires open circuit)
All of these parameters require measuring voltage

and current (as a function of frequency)
28
Limitations of H, Y, Z Parameters
(Why use S-parameters?)
H,Y, Z parameters
 Hard to measure total voltage and current at
device ports at high frequencies
 Active devices may oscillate or self-destruct
with shorts / opens

S-parameters
 Relate to familiar measurements a Incident S 21 Transmitted
1
(gain, loss, reflection coefficient ...) S11 b2
Reflected DUT
 Relatively easy to measure S22
Port 1 Port 2 Reflected
 Can cascade S-parameters of multiple b1 a2
Transmitted S12 Incident
devices to predict system performance
b1 = S11 a 1 + S 12 a 2
 Analytically convenient
b 2 = S21 a + S22 a 2
1
CAD programs
Flow-graph analysis
 Can compute H, Y,or Z parameters from S-

29
parameters if desired Network Analyzer Basics
Measuring S-Parameters
S b2
Incident 21 Transmitted
a1
Z0
Forward S 11
Reflected DUT Load
b1 a2 = 0
Reflected b1
S 11 = = a
Incident 1 a2 = 0 b2
S Reflected
b 22 = = a
Transmitted 2 Incident 2 a1 = 0
S 21 = = a
Incident 1 a2 = 0 b
Transmitted 1
S 12 = = a
Incident 2 a1 = 0
a1 = 0 b2
Z0 S 22
DUT
Load Reflected Reverse
a2
Transmitted S 12 Incident
b1 Network Analyzer Basics
30
Measuring Nonlinear Behavior
Most common measurements:
 Using a spectrum analyzer + source(s)
harmonics, particularly second and third
intermodulation products resulting from two or more carriers
 Using a network analyzer and power sweeps
gain compression RL 0 dBm ATTEN 10 dB 10 dB / DIV
AM to PM conversion
 Noise figure
8563A SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz
LPF
DUT
CENTER 20.00000 MHz SPAN 10.00 kHz

LPF RB 30 Hz VB 30 Hz ST 20 sec

31
What is the difference between .
network and spectrum analyzers?

Hard: getting (accurate) trace Easy: getting trace
Easy: interpreting results Hard: interpreting results
8563A SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz

Amplitude Ratio
Power
Measures Measures
known unknown
signal signals
Frequency Frequency
Network analyzers: Spectrum analyzers:

 measure components, devices, circuits,  measure signal amplitude characteristics
sub-assemblies (carrier level, sidebands, harmonics...)
 contain source and receiver
 are receivers only (single channel)
 display ratioed amplitude and phase
(frequency or power sweeps)  can be used for scalar component test (no
phase) with tracking gen. or ext. source(s)

32
Agenda

make?
 Advanced topics

33
Generalized Network Analyzer
Block Diagram
Incident Transmitted
DUT
SOURCE Reflected
SIGNAL
SEPARATION
INCIDENT REFLECTED TRANSMITTED

(R) (A) (B)
RECEIVER / DETECTOR
PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

34
H
Source
 Supplies stimulus for system

 Swept frequency or power
 Traditionally NAs used separate source
Open-loop VCOs
Synthesized sweepers
 Most HP analyzers sold today have integrated, synthesized sources
Integrated, synthesized sources

35
Signal Separation
Measuring incident signals for ratioing
6 dB
50   Splitter
usually resistive
non-directional
50 
broadband
6 dB
 Coupler
Main signal
directional
low loss
good isolation, directivity
hard to get low freq performance

Coupled signal

36
Signal Separation
Separating incident and reflected signals
 Coupler
directional
low loss
good isolation, directivity
hard to get low freq performance
 Bridge
used to measure
Detector
reflected signals only
broadband
Test Port
higher loss

37
Forward Coupling Factor
Coupling, forward
-20 dBm
.01 mW
Source
Z0
0 dBm .046 dBm

1 mW .99 mW
Example of 20 dB Coupler
P coupling forward
Coupling Factor (dB) = -10 log
P incident
38
Directional Coupler Isolation (Reverse
Coupling Factor)
Coupling, reverse
this is an error signal during
-50 dBm
measurements
.00001 mW
Source
Z0
0 dBm 1 .046 dBm

mW .99 mW
Example of 20 dB Coupler "turned around"
Pcoupled reverse
Isolation Factor (dB) = -10 log
Pincident
39
Directional Coupler Directivity
Pcoupled forward
Directivity (dB) = 10 log
P coupled reverse
Directivity = Coupling Factor

Isolation
Directivity (dB) = Isolation (dB) - Coupling Factor (dB)
Example of 20 dB Coupler with 50 dB isolation:

Directivity = 50 dB - 20 dB = 30 dB
40
Measuring Coupler Directivity the Easy Way
1.0 (0 dB) (reference)
Coupler
Directivity Good approximation for
35 dB coupling factors 10 dB
short
Source .018 (35 dB) (normalized)
Directivity = 35 dB - 0 dB = 35
dB
Source
load Assume perfect load

41
Interaction of Directivity with the DUT
(Without Error Correction)
0
Data Max
DUT RL = 40 dB
Directivity
Add in Phase
Return Loss
Device
30
60
Frequency
Device
Data Min
Data = Vector Sum
Device
Directivity
Directivity
Cancel Data  0

42
Directional Bridge
 50 ohm load at test port

balances the bridge - detector
reads zero
 Extent of bridge imbalance
  indicates impedance
 Measuring magnitude and
phase of imbalance gives
complex impedance
Detector  "Directivity" is difference
between maximum and
minimum balance
 Test Port

43
DUT
Detector Types SOURCE Reflected
SIGNAL
SEPARATION
INCIDENT REFLECTED TRANSMITTED

(R) (A) (B)
RECEIVER / DETECTOR
Diode PROCESSOR / DISPLAY
DC Scalar broadband (no

RF
AC phase information)
Tuned Receiver
RF IF = F LO  F RF Scalar narrowband
(magnitude only)
ADC / DSP
Vector
IF Filter (magnitude and phase)
LO 44
Broadband Diode Detection
 Easy to make broadband

 Inexpensive compared to tuned receiver
 Good for measuring frequency-translating
devices
 Improve dynamic range by increasing power
 Medium sensitivity / dynamic range
10 MHz 26.5 GHz

45
Narrowband Detection - Tuned Receiver
ADC / DSP
 Best sensitivity / dynamic range

 Provides harmonic / spurious signal rejection
 Improve dynamic range by increasing power,
decreasing IF bandwidth, or averaging

 Trade off noise floor and measurement speed
10 MHz 26.5 GHz

46
Front Ends: Mixers Versus Samplers
Sampler-based front end
ADC / DSP S ADC / DSP
Mixer-based front end
f
Harmonic
frequency "comb"
generator
It is cheaper and easier to make

broadband front ends using
samplers instead of mixers

47
Comparison of Receiver Techniques
Broadband (diode) Narrowband (tuned-

detection receiver) detection
0 dB 0 dB
-50 dB -50 dB
-100 dB -100 dB
-60 dBm Sensitivity < -100 dBm Sensitivity
 higher noise floor  high dynamic range

 false responses  harmonic immunity
Dynamic range = maximum receiver power - receiver noise

floor Network Analyzer Basics
48
Dynamic Range and Accuracy
Dynamic range is very important
for measurement accuracy!
Error (dB, deg) Error Due to I nterfering Signal
100
+ magn (dB)
10 - magn (dB)
phase (± deg)
phase error
1
magn error
0.1
0.01
0.001
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60 -65 -70
Interfering signal (dB)
H DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre

49
Traditional Scalar Analyzer
Traditional scalar system consists of

processor/display and source
Example: HP 8757D
 requires external detectors, couplers, bridges, splitters
 good for low-cost microwave scalar applications
RF R A B
RF R A B
Detector
Detector
Detector
Bridge DUT
Termination
DUT
Reflection Transmission
50
Modern Scalar Analyzer
Everything necessary for transmission and
reflection measurements is internal!
One-port (reflection) and response

(transmission) calibrations
Narrowband and
Large display broadband detectors
Synthesized source Transmission/reflection

test set

51
Spectrum Analyzer / Tracking Generator
RF in
IF
SPECTRUM ANALYZER 9 kHz - 26.5 GHz
8563A
LO
DUT
Spectrum analyzer
TG out
DUT
f = IF Tracking generator
Key differences from network analyzer:

 one channel -- no ratioed or phase measurements
 More expensive than scalar NA
 Only error correction available is normalization
 Poorer accuracy
 Small incremental cost if SA is already needed
52
Modern Vector Analyzer
Synthesizer
15 MHz to 60 MHz
Features:
996 kHz integrated source
sampler-based front end
MUX
tuned receiver
 RF
4 kHz
magnitude and phase
Reference Test
detector A S
Set
300 kHz vector-error correction
to 4 kHz
T/R or S-parameter test sets
3 GHz B S
Phase 4 kHz
Lock R S
DU
T
ADC CPU Display
Digital
Control
Source Test Receiver
Set
Note: modern scalar analyzers like HP 8711/13C

look just like vector analyzers, but they don't
53
display phase Network Analyzer Basics
T/R Versus S-Parameter Test Sets
Transmission/Reflection Test Set S-Parameter Test Set
Source Source
Transfer switch
R R
A B A B
Port 1 Port 2 Port 1 Port 2
Fwd DUT Fwd DUT Rev
 RF always comes out port 1  RF comes out port 1 or port 2

 port 2 is always receiver  forward and reverse
 response, one-port cal measurements
available  two-port calibration possible 54
Three Versus Four-Channel Analyzers
Source Source
Transfer switch
Transfer switch
R R1
A B A B
R2
Port 1 Port 2 Port 1 Port 2
3 samplers 4 samplers
cheaper more expensive
TRL*, LRM* cal only true TRL, LRM cal
includes: includes
 HP 8753D  HP 8720D (opt. 400)
 HP 8720D (std.)  HP 8510C

55
Processor / Display
DUT
SOURCE Reflected
50 MHz-20GHz
H NETWORK ANALYZER
SIGNAL ACTIVE CHANNEL ENTRY
SEPARATION CH1
CH2
S 21
S 12
log MAG
log MAG
10 dB/
10 dB/
REF 0 dB
REF 0 dB
1_ -1.9248 dB
1_ -1.2468 dB
839.470 000 MHz RESPONSE
PRm
Duplexer Test - Tx-Ant and Ant-Rx
Cor
INCIDENT REFLECTED TRANSMITTED 1 1
(R) (A) (B)

Hld
PASS
1
880.435 000 MHz STIMULUS INSTRUMENT STATE R CHANNEL
RECEIVER / DETECTOR PRm
Cor
T R L S
PASS
Hld HP-IB STATUS
CH1 START 775.000 000 MHz STOP 925.000 000 MHz

PROCESSOR / DISPLAY
PORT 1 PORT 2
CH1 S21 log MAG 10 dB/ REF 0 dB 1_ -1.9248 dB

CH2 S12 log MAG 10 dB/ REF 0 dB 1_ -1.2468 dB
839.470 000 MHz
PRm
Cor
 markers 1 1
 limit lines Hld

PASS
 pass/fail indicators 1
880.435 000 MHz
 linear/log formats PRm
Cor
 grid/polar/Smith 2
charts Hld
PASS
CH1 START 775.000 000 MHz STOP 925.000 000 MHz Network Analyzer Basics
56
Internal Measurement Automation
Simple: recall states
More powerful:
 Test sequencing
available on HP 8753 / 8720
families ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ0123456789 + - / * = < > ( ) & "" " , . / ? ; : ' [ ]

keystroke recording 1 ASSIGN @Hp8714 TO 800
2 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"SYST:PRES; *WAI"
some advanced functions 3 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"ABOR;:INIT1:CONT OFF;*WAI"
4 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"DISP:ANN:FREQ1:MODE SSTOP"
 IBASIC
5 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"DISP:ANN:FREQ1:MODE CSPAN"
6 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"SENS1:FREQ:CENT 175000000 HZ;*WAI"
available on HP 8711 family
7 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"ABOR;:INIT1:CONT OFF;:INIT1;*WAI"
8 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"DISP:WIND1:TRAC:Y:AUTO ONCE"
9 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"CALC1:MARK1 ON"
sophisticated programs 10 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"CALC1:MARK:FUNC BWID"
11 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"SENS2:STAT ON; *WAI"
custom user interfaces 12 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"SENS2:FUNC 'XFR:POW:RAT 1,0';DET NBAN; *WAI"
13 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"ABOR;:INIT1:CONT OFF;:INIT1;*WAI"
14 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"DISP:WIND2:TRAC:Y:AUTO ONCE"
15 OUTPUT @Hp8714;"ABOR;:INIT1:CONT ON;*WAI"
16 END

57
HP Families of HF Vector Analyzers
Microwave
HP 8510C family
HP 8720D family
110 GHz in coax
40 GHz
pulse systems
economical
antenna meas.
fast, small
Tx/Rx module test
test mixers, high-
highest accuracy
power amps
4 S-parameter
S-parameter
display
RF HP 8753D family
6 GHz
HP 8712/14C
52C: T/R test set
3 GHz
53D: S-parameter
low cost, fast
highest RF accuracy
narrowband and
Offset and harmonic
broadband detection
RF sweeps
T/R test set only

58
HP Families of LF Vector Analyzers
LF
HP E5100A/B
300 MHz HP 8751A
economical
500 MHz
fast list sweep
fast, small
impedance matching
test resonators,
4 trace display
filters
parameter
analysis
Combination
HP 4195A HP 4396A
500 MHz 1.8 GHz
network/spectrum/
network/spectrum/
impedance impedance (option)

fast, highest
(option)
DC output
accuracy
time-gated
user-defined
functions spectrum (option)

59
Agenda

make?
 Advanced topics
Why do we even need error-correction and

calibration?
It is impossible to make perfect hardware
It would be extremely expensive to make hardware good
enough to not require any error correction

60
Measurement Error Modeling
Systematic errors
 due to imperfections in the analyzer and test
setup
 are assumed to be time invariant (predictable)
 can be characterized (during calibration process)
and mathematically removed during

measurements
Random errors
 vary with time in random fashion (unpredictable)
Errors:
 cannot be removed by calibration
 main contributors:
SYSTEMATIC
instrument noise (source Measured Unknown
Data Device
phase noise, IF noise floor, etc.) RANDOM
switch repeatability
DRIFT
connector repeatability
Drift errors
 are due to instrument or test-system
performance changing after a calibration has

been done
 are primarily caused by temperature variation 61
 can be removed by further calibration(s) DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
Systematic Measurement Errors
R A B
Directivity Crosstalk
DUT
Frequency response
 reflection tracking (A/R) Source Load
 transmission tracking (B/R) Mismatch Mismatch
Six forward and six reverse error terms

yields 12 error terms for two-port
devices 62
Types of Error Correction
Two main types of error correction:
 response (normalization)
simple to perform
only corrects for tracking errors
stores reference trace in memory,

thru
then does data divided by memory
 vector
requires more standards
requires an analyzer that can measure phase
accounts for all major sources of systematic error
SHORT
OPEN
thru
S11 LOAD
A
S11
M 63
What is Vector-Error Correction?
 Process of characterizing systematic error terms
 measure known standards

remove effects from subsequent measurements.
 1-port calibration (reflection measurements)

only 3 systematic error terms measured
directivity, source match, and reflection tracking
 Full 2-port calibration

(reflection and transmission measurements)
12 systematic error terms measured
usually requires 12 measurements on four known standards
(SOLT)
 Some standards can be measured multiple times
(e.g., THRU is usually measured four times)
 Standards defined in cal kit definition file
network analyzer contains standard cal kit definitions
CAL KIT DEFINITION MUST MATCH ACTUAL CAL KIT
USED! 64
Reflection: One-Port Model
Ideal If you know the systematic error terms,

RF in you can solve for the actual S-parameter

 Assumes good termination at port two
S11M S11A if testing two-port devices

 If port 2 is connected to the network analyzer
and DUT reverse isolation is low (e.g., filter

passband):
assumption of good termination is not valid
Error Adapter two-port error correction yields better
1 results ED = Directivity
RF in
ERT = Reflection tracking
S11M ED ES S11A ES = Source Match
S11M = Measured
ERT S11A = Actual
S11M = ED + ERT S11A To solve for S11A, we

1 - ES S11A have 3 equations and 3
unknowns Network Analyzer Basics
65
Before and After One-Port Calibration
0
2.0
Data Before
Error Correction
20
Return Loss (dB)
1.1
VSWR
40
1.01
60 Data After
Error Correction
1.001
6000 12000

66
Adapter Considerations
reflection from
adapter desired signal
leakage signal
  
total = adapter + DUT
Coupler directivity = 40 dB
Adapter DUT Termination DUT has SMA (f)

connectors
APC-7 calibration done here

Worst-case Adapting from APC-7 to SMA (m)
System Directivity
APC-7 to SMA (m)

28 dB SWR:1.06
APC-7 to N (f) + N (m) to SMA (m)

17 dB SWR:1.05 SWR:1.25
APC-7 to N (m) + N (f) to SMA (f) + SMA (m) to (m)

14 dB SWR:1.05 SWR:1.25 SWR:1.15

67
Two-Port Error Correction
Port 1 EX Port 2
S21
A ETT b2 Forward model
a1 ES
ED S11 S22 a2
A A
b1 EL
ERT S12
A
ED = Directivity EL = Load Match

ES = Source Match ETT = Transmission Tracking
ERT = Reflection Tracking EX = Isolation
 Notice that each actual S-

parameter is a function of all four
measured S-parameters
 Analyzer must make forward and
reverse sweep to update any one
S-parameter
 Luckily, you don't need to know
these equations to use network
analyzers!!!
68
Crosstalk (Isolation)
Crosstalk definition: signal leakage between ports

DUT
Can be a problem with:
High-isolation devices (e.g., switch in open position)
High-dynamic range devices (some filter stopbands)
Isolation calibration
Adds noise to error model (measuring noise floor of system)
Only perform if really needed (use averaging)
if crosstalk is independent of DUT match, use two
terminations
if dependent on DUT match, use DUT with termination on
output
Isolation cal when crosstalk is
dependent on match of DUT
LOAD DUT DUT LOAD

69
Errors and Calibration Standards
UNCORRECTED RESPONSE 1-PORT FULL 2-PORT
SHORT SHORT SHORT
DUT OPEN OPEN OPEN

thru
LOAD LOAD LOAD
Convenient
Generally not accurate DUT
No errors removed
DUT
Easy to perform thru
Use when highest
For reflection
accuracy is not DUT
required measurements
Need good termination
Removes frequency Highest accuracy
response error for high accuracy with Removes these errors:
two-port devices Directivity

Removes these errors:
Source, load match
Other errors: Directivity Reflection tracking
Random (Noise, Repeatability) Source match Transmission tracking
Drift Reflection tracking Crosstalk
70
ECal: Electronic Calibration
(HP 85060 series) H
HP 85062A
Impedance States Electronic Calibration Module

0.045 - 2 GHz
 achieved by shunting transmission line with PIN-
diode switches in various combinations

 13 reflective states, from low to high reflection
 two thru states plus one isolation state
 programmable and highly repeatable
 characterized by TRL-calibrated network analyzer
Calibration 12
7
 four known impedance states presented at each
frequency (providing redundant information)

 uses least-squares fit to calculate error terms
 yields accuracy between SOLT and TRL 1
Example distribution of impedance

states for reflection calibration at
one frequency Network Analyzer Basics
71
Calibration Summary
Test Set (cal type)
Reflection SHORT
T/R S-parameter
(one-port) (two-port)
OPEN
 Reflection tracking
 Directivity
 Source match LOAD

 Load match
Test Set (cal type)

Transmission T/R S-parameter
(two-port)
(response,
error can be corrected isolation)
 Transmission Tracking
error cannot be corrected  Crosstalk
 Source match
* HP 8711C enhanced response cal
 Load match ( * )
can correct for source match during
transmission measurements

72
Reflection Example Using a One-Port
Cal
Analyzer port 2 match:

18 dB (.126)
DUT
16 dB RL (.158) Measurement uncertainty:
1 dB loss (.891) -20 * log (.158 + .100)
= 11.4 dB (-4.6dB)
.158 -20 * log (.158 - .100)
= 24.7 dB (+8.7 dB)
(.891)(.126)(.891) = .100
Low-loss bidirectional devices generally require 2-

port calibration for low measurement uncertainty
73
Transmission Example Using Response
Cal
RL = 18 dB (.126)
RL = 14 dB (.200)
Thru calibration (normalization) builds error into

measurement due to source and load match interaction
Calibration Uncertainty
= (1 ±  )
S L
= (1 ± (.200)(.126)
= ± 0.22 dB

74
Transmission Example (continued)
DUT
Source match = 14 dB 1 dB loss (.891)
16 dB RL (.158) Load match = 18
(.200)
dB (.126)
1
(.126)(.158) = .020
(.126)(.891)(.200)(.891) = .020
(.158)(.200) = .032
Total measurement uncertainty: Measurement uncertainty

+0.60 + 0.22 = +0 .82 dB = 1 ± (.020+.020+.032)
-0.65 - 0.22 = - 0.87 dB = 1 ± .072
= + 0.60 dB
- 0.65 dB
75
Measuring Amplifiers with a Response Cal
DUT
Source match = 14 dB 16 dB RL (.158) Load match = 18
(.200)
dB (.126)
1
(.126)(.158) = .020
(.158)(.200) = .032
Total measurement uncertainty: Measurement uncertainty

+0.44 + 0.22 = + 0.66 dB = 1 ± (.020+.032)
-0.46 - 0.22 = - 0.68 dB = 1 ± .052
= + 0.44 dB
- 0.46 dB
76
Transmission Measurements using
the Enhanced Response Calibration
Calibration Uncertainty
Effective source match = 35 dB! = (1 ±  )
S L
= (1 ± (.0178)(.126)
= ± .02 dB
DUT
Source match = 35 1 dB loss (.891)
dB (.0178) 16 dB RL (.158) Load match = 18
dB (.126)
1
Measurement uncertainty
(.126)(.158) = .020 =1±
(.020+.0018+.0028)
(.126)(.891)(.0178)(.891) = .0018 = 1 ± .0246
(.158)(.0178) = .0028 = + 0.211 dB
- 0.216
Total measurement uncertainty:

0.22 + .02 = ± 0.24 dB

77
Calculating Measurement Uncertainty
After a Two-Port Calibration
DUT
1 dB loss (.891)
Corrected error terms: 16 dB RL (.158)
(8753D 1.3-3 GHz Type-N)
Directivity = 47 dB Reflection uncertainty
Source match = 36 dB
2
Load match = 47 dB S11m = S11a ± (E D+ S11a E S+ S21 aS12 aE L+ S11 aE RT)
Refl. tracking = .019 dB = .158 ± (.0045+.158 2*.0158 + .891 2*.0045 + .158*.0022)
Trans. tracking = .026 dB
Isolation = 100 dB = .158 ± .0088 = 16 dB +0.53 dB, -0.44 dB
Transmission uncertainty
S21m = S21a ± (E I + S11 aE S+ S22 aE L+ S21 aS12 E
a E
S +
L S21 E )
a TT
2
= .891 ± (10 -6+ .158*.0158 + .158*.0045 + .891 *.0158*.0045 + .891*.003)
= .891 ± .0059 = 1 dB ± 0.06 dB

78
Response versus Two-Port Calibration
Measuring filter insertion loss

CH1 S21 &M log MAG 1 dB/ REF 0 dB
CH2 MEM log MAG 1 dB/ REF 0 dB
Cor
After 2-port calibration
After response calibration
Uncorrected
Cor
x2 1 START 2 000.000 MHz STOP 6 000.000 MHz

2

79
Thru-Reflect-Line (TRL) Calibration
We know about Short-Open-Load-Thru (SOLT) calibration...
What is TRL?
 A two-port calibration technique
 Good for noncoaxial environments (waveguide, fixtures, wafer
probing)
 Uses the same 12-term error model as the more common SOLT
cal
 Uses practical calibration standards that
are easily fabricated and characterized

 Two variations: TRL (requires 4 samplers)
and TRL* (only three samplers needed)

 Other variations: Line-Reflect-Match (LRM),
Thru-Reflect-Match (TRM), plus many others

80
H
Why Are Four Samplers Better Than
Three?
TRL TRL*
HP 8720D Opt. 400 adds

fourth sampler, allowing full
TRL calibration
 TRL*
 assumes the source and load match of a test port are equal
(port symmetry between forward and reverse measurements)

this is only a fair assumption for a three-sampler network analyzer
TRL* requires ten measurements to quantify eight unknowns
 TRL
Four samplers are necessary for all the measurements required for a full TRL
cal (fourteen measurements to quantify ten unknowns)

TRL and TRL* use identical calibration standards
 In noncoaxial applications:
TRL achieves better source match and load match correction than TRL*
 What about coaxial applications?

TRL* and SOLT calibration have about the same accuracy
Coaxial TRL is usually more accurate than SOLT but not commonly used

81
Calibrating Non-Insertable Devices
When doing a thru cal, normally test ports mate directly

 cables can be connected directly without an adapter
 result is a zero-length thru
What is an insertable device?

 has same type of connector, but different sex on each port
 has same type of sexless connector on each port (e.g. APC-7)
What is a non-insertable device?

 one that cannot be inserted in place of a zero-length thru
 has same connectors on each port (type and sex)
 has different type of connector on each port DUT

(e.g., waveguide on one port, coaxial on the other)
What calibration choices do I have for non-insertable devices?
 Use an uncharacterized thru adapter
 Use a characterized thru adapter (modify cal-kit definition)
 Swap equal adapters
 Adapter removal

82
Swap Equal Adapters Method
Accuracy depends on how well the

Port 1 DUT Port 2 adapters are matched - loss,
electrical length, match and
impedance should all be equal
Port 1 Adapter Port 2 1. Transmission cal using adapter A.

A
Port 1 Adapter Port 2

B 2. Reflection cal using adapter B.
Port 1 DUT Adapter Port 2 3. Measure DUT using adapter B.

B

83
Adapter Removal Calibration
 In firmware of HP 8510 family
 Can be accomplished with E-Cal (HP 85060) and HP 8753/8720 families
 Uses adapter with same connectors as DUT
 Adapter's electrical length must be specified within 1/4 wavelength
adapters supplied with HP type-N, 3.5mm, and 2.4mm cal kits are already
defined
for other adapters, measure electrical length and modify cal-kit definition
 Calibration is very accurate and traceable

 See Product Note 8510-13 for more details
Port 1 DUT Port 2
Cal
Port 1
Adapter
Adapter Port 2 1. Perform 2-port cal with adapter on port 2.
B Save in cal set 1.
Cal Set 1
Cal 2. Perform 2-port cal with adapter on port 1.

Port 1 Adapter Port 2
Adapter
B Save in cal set 2.
Cal Set 2
[CAL] [MORE] [MODIFY CAL SET] 3. Use ADAPTER REMOVAL

[ADAPTER REMOVAL]
to generate new cal set.
Port 1 DUT Adapter Port 2 4. Measure DUT without cal adapter.

B 84
Agenda

make?
 Advanced topics

85
Frequency Sweep - Filter Test
CH1 S 11 log MAG 5 dB/ REF 0 dB
Cor
69.1 dB Stopband
rejection
CENTER 200.000 MHz SPAN 50.000 MHz

START .300 000 MHz STOP 400.000 000 MHz
Cor
1
Return loss
m1: 4.000 000 GHz -0.16 dB
m2-ref: 2.145 234 GHz 0.00 dB
ref 2
Insertion loss Cor

86
START 2 000.000 MHz STOP 6 000.000 MHz DJB 12/96 na_basic.pre
x2 1 2
Power Sweep - Compression
Saturated output
power
Output Power (dBm)
Compression
region
Linear region (slope =

small-signal gain)
Input Power (dBm)

87
Power Sweep -Gain Compression
CH1 S21 1og MAG 1 dB/ REF 32 dB 30.991 dB
12.3 dBm
C2
1 dB compression: input
power resulting in 1 dB
drop in gain
 Ratioed measurement
0
 Output power available (non-
0
ratioed measurement)
IF BW 3 kHz SWP 420 msec

START 10 dBm CW 902.7 MHz STOP 15 dBm

88
Power Sweep - AM to PM Conversion
1:Transmission Log Mag 1.0 dB/ Ref 21.50 dB
2:Transmission /M Phase 5.0 deg/ Ref -115.7 deg
Ch1:Mkr1 -4.50 dBm 20.48 dB

Ch2:Mkr2 1.00 dB 0.86 deg
Use transmission setup

2
with a power sweep
Display phase of S21
1 AM - PM = 0.86 deg/dB
1
1
Start -10.00 dBm CW 900.000 MHz Stop 0.00 dBm
Start -10.00 dBm CW 900.000 MHz Stop 0.00 dBm
89
Agenda
make?
 Advanced topics
 Time domain
 Frequency-translating
devices
 High-power amplifiers
 Multiport devices
 In-fixture measurements
 Crystal Resonators
 Balanced-Cables

90
Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR)
 Analyze impedance versus time
 Differentiate inductive and capacitive transitions
 High-speed oscilloscope:
yields fast update rate
200 mV step typical
 Network analyzer:
broadband frequency sweep (often requires microwave VNA)
inverse FFT to compute time-domain
resolution inversely proportional to frequency span
inductive transition non-Zo termination
Zo
capacitive transition
91
Time-Domain Gating
 TDR and gating can remove undesired reflections
(a form of error correction)
 Only useful for broadband devices (a load or thru for
example)
 Define gate to only include DUTCH1 S11&M log MAG 5 dB/ REF 0 dB
 Use two-port calibration PRm

Cor
2
CH1 MEM Re 20 mU/ REF 0 U
PRm Gate 1: -45.113 dB 0.947 GHz

1: 48.729 mU 638 ps
Cor RISE TIME 2: -15.78 dB 6.000 GHz
29.994 ps 2: 24.961 mU 668 ps
8.992 mm 1 3: -10.891 mU 721 ps
Thru in frequency domain, with

Thru in time domain and without gating
1
CH1 START 0 s STOP 1.5 ns START .050 000 000 GHz STOP 20.050 000 000 GHz

92
Time-Domain Transmission
RF Input
RF Output
CH1 S21 log MAG 15 dB/ REF 0 dB
Main Wave
Leakage Surface
Wave
Triple Travel
Cor
RF
Triple
CH1 S21 log MAG 10 dB/ REF 0 dB Leakage
Travel
Cor
Gate off
START -1 us STOP 6 us
Gate on

93
Frequency-Translating Devices
Medium-dynamic range
measurements (35 dB)
R IN
1 2
ACTIVE CHANNEL ENTRY
RESPONSE
HP 8753D STIMULUS INSTRUMENT STATE R CHANNEL

Ref In
start: 900 start: 100
MHz MHz HP-IB STATUS
Reference Mixer
R L T S
stop: 350 Ref Out

PROBE POWER FUSED
stop: 650 H 8753D 30 KHz-3GHz

NETWORK ANALYZER
MHz MHz
FIXED LO: 1 GHz
LO POWER: 13 dBm PORT 1 PORT 2
RF IF
10 dB LO
10 dB Lowpass
CH1 CONV MEAS log MAG 10 dB/ REF 10 dB Filter
10 dB
LO
DUT
3 dB
Signal Generator
START 640.000 000 MHz STOP 660.000 000 MHz

High-dynamic range measurements
94
High-Power Amplifiers
Preamp
ACTIVE CHANNEL ENTRY
RESPONSE
STIMULUS INSTRUMENT STATE R CHANNEL

Ref In
R L T S
HP-IB
Source
STATUS
PROBE POWER
FUSED
H 8753D 30 KHz-3GHz
HP 8753D
NETWORK ANALYZER
PORT 1 PORT 2
Preamp
AUT
DUT
R
A B
AUT
+43 dBm max input (20 watts!)
HP 8720D Option 085
HP 85118A High-Power Amplifier Test System

95
Multiport Device Test Port 1
Port 1
Port 2
Port 2 Port 3
Directional
Note: unused ports Test Set
are terminated Coupler
Multiport test sets:

improve throughput by reducing the
number of connections to DUTs with more

than 2 ports
allow simultaneous viewing of two paths
(good for tuning duplexers)

include mechanical or solid-state
PR
CH1 S21
CH2 S12
log
log
MAG
MAG
10
10
dB/
dB/
REF 0
REF
dB 0
dB
1_ -1.9248
1_ -1.2468
dB
839.470 000dB
switches,
MHz
m
Co
r
1 1
50 or 75 ohms
degrade raw performance so calibration is
Hld
1
880.435 000
PAS
S a must (use two-port cals whenever
MHz
PR
m
Co
possible)
r
PAS
S
Hld
CH1 START 775.000 000
CH2
MHz START 775.000 000 STOP
STOP 925.000
925.000 000
000 MHz
MHz MHz

96
In-Fixture Measurements
Measurement problem: coaxial calibration plane is not

the same as the in-fixture measurement plane
Calibration Measurement
Plane Plane
Fixture
ED ES DUT
ET
 Loss
 Phase shift
Error correction with coaxial calibration
 Mismatch

97
Characterizing Crystal Resonators/Filters
Ch1 Z: R phase 40 / REF 0 1: 15.621 U
31.998 984 925 MHz

Min
Cor
START 31.995 MHz STOP 32.058 MHz
SEG START STOP POINTS POWER IFBW

DUT
1 31.995 MHz 32.008 MHz 200 0 dBm 200Hz
> 2 32.052 MHz 32.058 MHz 200 0 dBm 200Hz
END
Example of crystal resonator measurement
HP E5100A Network Analyzer

98
RF Balanced-Cable Measurements
280.00 ohm
260.00 ohm
240.00 ohm
220.00 ohm
200.00 ohm
180.00 ohm
160.00 ohm
140.00 ohm
120.00 ohm
100.00 ohm
80.00 ohm
0.01 MHz 0.10 MHz 1.00 MHz 10.00 MHz 100.00 MHz 1000.00 MHz
Example of characteristic impedance (Zc)

measurement from 10 kHz to 500 MHz
0.00 dB
-20.00 dB
-40.00 dB
-60.00 dB
-80.00 dB
-100.00 dB
-120.00 dB
HP 4380S RF Balanced-Cable Test -140.00 dB

0.01 MHz 0.10 MHz 1.00 MHz 10.00 MHz 100.00 MHz 1000.00 MHz
System
Example of near-end crosstalk (NEXT) measurement
99
Challenge Quiz
1. Can filters cause distortion in communications systems?
A. Yes, due to impairment of phase and magnitude response
B. Yes, due to nonlinear components such as ferrite inductors
C. No, only active devices can cause distortion
D. No, filters only cause linear phase shifts
E. Both A and B above
2. Which statement about transmission lines is false?
A. Useful for efficient transmission of RF power
B. Requires termination in characteristic impedance for low VSWR
C. Voltage is independent of position along line
D. Used when wavelength of signal is small compared to length of line
E. Can be realized in a variety of forms such as coaxial, waveguide,
microstrip
3. Which statement about narrowband detection is false?
A. Is only available in vector network analyzers
B. Provides much greater dynamic range than diode detection
C. Uses variable-bandwidth IF filters to set analyzer noise floor
D. Provides rejection of harmonic and spurious signals
E. Uses mixers or samplers as downconverters
100
Challenge Quiz (continued)
4. Maximum dynamic range with narrowband detection is defined as:

A. Maximum receiver input power minus the stopband of the device under
test
B. Maximum receiver input power minus the receiver's noise floor
C. Detector 1-dB-compression point minus the harmonic level of the source
D. Receiver damage level plus the maximum source output power
E. Maximum source output power minus the receiver's noise floor
5. With a T/R analyzer, the following error terms can be corrected:
A. Source match, load match, transmission tracking
B. Load match, reflection tracking, transmission tracking
C. Source match, reflection tracking, transmission tracking
D. Directivity, source match, load match
E. Directivity, reflection tracking, load match
6. Calibration can remove which of the following types of measurement
error?
A. Systematic and drift
B. Systematic and random
C. Random and drift
D. Repeatability and systematic Network Analyzer Basics
101
E. Repeatability and drift
Challenge Quiz (continued)
7. Which statement about TRL calibration is false?
A. Is a type of two-port error correction
B. Uses easily fabricated and characterized standards
C. Most commonly used in noncoaxial environments
D. Is not available on the HP 8720D family of microwave network
analyzers
E. Has a special version for three-sampler network analyzers
8. For which component is it hardest to get accurate transmission and
reflection measurements when using an 8711B scalar network analyzer?
A. Amplifiers because output power causes receiver compression
B. Cables because load match cannot be corrected
C. Filter stopbands because of lack of dynamic range
D. Mixers because of lack of broadband detectors
E. Attenuators because source match cannot be corrected
9. Power sweeps are good for which measurements?
A. Gain compression
B. AM to PM conversion
C. Saturated output power
D. Power linearity
E. All of the above 102

Communications Electronics Circuits (EEAP341)

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LE CTURE TOP I C S

1 Review of dc biasing and bias stabilization for BJT's

2 h- and hybrid-pi small signal models

3 frequency dependence of small signal parameters

4 FET characteristics and circuits

5 Power amplifiers: Class A, B, AB and C amplifiers

6 Types of gain: transducer, operating and available

7 Comparison of amplifier topologies

8 Superheterodyne radio concepts

iO N oise, signal / noise ratio

11 amplitude and frequency modulation and detection

12 Tuned circuits resonance: series and parallel

13 Tapped capacitor and inductor networks

14 Transformers, auto-transformers, single and double

16 Tuned rf amplifiers: frequency dependence of circuit

18 Conditional and unconditional amplifier design

19 RF amplifier design ( continued )

20 Mixers: spectral analysis, distortion, compression

21 Mixer design: JFET, MOSFET mixers

22 Mixer design: BJT, diode ring mixers

23 Basic oscillator principles

24 Colpitts oscillator design

25 BJT, FET oscillators, crystal oscillators

26 Basic phase locked loops

28 PLL frequency synthesizers

Network Analyzer Basics

Your IEEE 802.3 X.25 ISDN

Network Analyzer Basics

Filters T/R modules

Network Analyzer Basics

BER Full call

Imped. An. LCR/Z

Param. An. I-V

DC CW Swept Swept Noise 2-tone Multi- Complex Pulsed- Protocol

Simple Stimulus type Complex

Network Analyzer Basics

Network Analyzer Basics

filters to remove harmonics

amplifiers to boost LO power

mixers to convert reference signals

When used to pass communications signals, need to

linear phase / constant group delay

When absorbing power (e.g. an antenna), Network Analyzer Basics

need to ensure good match

Input DUT Output

Network Analyzer Basics

Constant amplitude over Linear phase over

Network Analyzer Basics

F(t) = sin wt + 1 /3 sin 3wt + 1 /5 sin 5wt

Network Analyzer Basics

Frequency Frequency Frequency

Network Analyzer Basics

Network Analyzer Basics

Network Analyzer Basics

Wire and bad antenna Proper transmission line and

5. Vector Accuracy Enhancement

Base Collector Error

3. Complex values needed for Measured

 Why do we test components?

Network Analyzer Basics

Network Analyzer Basics

Smith Chart maps Z L = 0 (short) Z L= (open)

rectilinear impedance = 1 ±180