Emotional Labour- Burnout Relationship 1

Emotional Labour-Burnout Relationship: A Critical Evaluation

Binayak Shankar, Sandeep Kumar, A. P. Singh

Department of Psychology
Banaras Hindu University

Address for Correspondence:

Sandeep Kumar
Department of Psychology
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi-221005 (India)
e-mail: skumarbhu@gmail.com
 Shankar, Kumar and Singh 2

Emotional Labour-Burnout Relationship: A Critical Evaluation

Abstract

This study reviews the current literature available on the Emotional Labour and its
relationship with burnout. The main objective of the study is to operationalise the concept
of Emotional Labour and Burnout and study the relationship between them established
theoretically or found empirically, and to find the possible explanation for discrepancy
found, if any.

Emotional Labour was coined by an American sociologist A. R. Hochschild

(1983). She defined it as “management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial
and bodily display” (p.9). But, there persist some ambiguity in conceptulisation of the
term, even though a general common thread binds all definitions “emotional labour
involves managing emotions so that they are in accordance with organizational or
professional display rule” (Grandey, 2000).

There are two basic forms of emotional labour (Hochschild, 1979):- (i) Surface
acting; involves” painting on” affective display or faking. The sales executive may not be
happy at all, but he is supposed to greet the customer with charming face and body, so as
to increase his buying tendency. The executive has just painted charm on his face. (ii)
Deep acting; involves modification of inner feeling to match the emotional expression
required by the organization. As in the case of nurses, they feel sympathetic towards the
suffering of the patients, they modify their sympathy into empathy.

The term Burnout was proposed by Herbert Fredenberger (1980); Bob Veninga
and Jim Spardley (1981); and Crisstina and Maslach (1982). The term is defined as “the
extinction of motivation or incentive, especially where one’s devotion to a cause or
relationship fails to produce desired results” and is stress related state (Scott, 2005). The
burnout may be explained as the depilating psychological state brought about by
unrelieved work stress, resulting in:- (i) Depleted energy and emotional exhaustion; (ii)
Lowered resistance to illness; (iii) Increased depersonalization in interpersonal relations;
(iv) Increased dissatisfaction and pessimism; and (v) Increased absenteeism and work
efficiency. The key word in the above explanation is “unrelieved” and not the “stress”
(Maslach, 1983).
 Emotional Labour- Burnout Relationship 3

In studies it was found that there was relation between the burnout and the level
of emotional labour, but it was also found that one form of emotional labour, the surface
acting is positively related to burnout. But the deep acting is negatively related to
depersonalized, where as it is positively related to personal accomplishment.

Keywords: emotional labour; surface acting; deep acting; and burnout.

Introduction

Emotional labour is result of social interaction, and influenced by social, cultural,

interpersonal and situational factors of lives. Individuals suppress feelings for displaying
socially accepted emotion appropriate in the situational context. For example, showing
excitement about a colleague’s promotion or suppressing anger when being cut off by
someone in a waiting line.

The client interact with frontline employees of the organisation while their visit.
The consumers could not separate the service quality from the quality of experience they
have during their visit. This has compelled organisations to have control or regulation
over the employee emotions at the work place. As the interaction between the service
provider and guest is at the core of the service experience, this study emphasizes the
important role of managing behavior and emotions in the delivery of quality service. The
common perspectives in these works are (1) that emotions play a critical role in the
delivery of service excellence and customer loyalty and (2) that organizations ensure this
delivery of quality guest services most often by implementing organizational display
rules.

Emotional labour

The individual has to show particular type emotions in certain set of situations,
irrespective of their real emotional state in accordance with collective norms. The
individual either conceals or exaggerates actual feeling, to confirm with collective norms
(called display rule). Some effort is required in concealing or exaggerating the real
emotions, the effort is called emotional labour. Aril R. Hochschild (1983), an American
sociologist coined the term in her seminal book “The Managed Heart: Commercialization
of Human Feeling”. She defined the term as “management of feeling to create a publicly
 Shankar, Kumar and Singh 4

observable facial and bodily display” (p.9). She emphasized the impression management
by service employee is emotional labour. Further, she also specified three features of jobs
involving emotional labour; as:

a) must have face- to- face or voice- to- voice interaction;

b) must have some organizational or professional display rules; and

c) must induce a favorable emotional state.

Researchers have defined the emotional labour differently along time; Mumby
and Putam (1992) defined emotional labour as the way the employees manage to hide
their real emotions to conform to display rule. They professed wider range of emotions
for employees is required to enhance productivity and nurture subjective well-being for
them and their family.

Ashforth and Humhery (1993) defines emotional labour as an act of displaying

appropriate emotions considering the objective if impression management to better social
perception of himself/ herself as well as to condition of interpersonal climate (Grander &
Martinko, 1988).

Grandey (2000) defines emotional labour involving managing emotions so that

they are in accordance with organizational or professional display rule. This
conceptualization has an inherent assumption that some organization or profession has
some set of emotions which are to be displayed during personal interaction with clients.

There persist ambiguities in conceptualization of emotional labour (Bono & Vey

2005; Glomb & Tews 2004), even though a common thread running through every
conceptualization is emotional labour involves managing emotions so as to confirm to
organizational or professional display rule; individual put some effort to conceal or
exaggerate their true feelings to satisfy organizational requirement (Diefendorff, Croyle
& Gosserand 2005; Glomb & Tews 2004; Grandey 2003; Mann 2004). Thus, emotional
labour is the deliberate cognitive effort of the employees to display emotions as per
organizational or professional display rule, and are paid for their meliorate performance
in developing positive identification with clients in interpersonal interaction. Emotional
 Emotional Labour- Burnout Relationship 5

labour focuses primarily on behavioral expression and non- expression or suppression of

felt emotions to be confirming to display rule.

The emotional display is not spontaneous process so the employees may modify
their display in two ways (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1999; Hochschild, 1979, 2000), either
by modifying their true feelings or through deliberate skin thick emotional display. The
former strategy to modify emotional display will lead to Deep Acting, as nurse may be
sympathetic towards a gravely ill patient, she may modify her feeling to look empathetic
towards him. The latter strategy will lead to other type of emotional labour called Surface
Acting, for instance a restaurant attendant who has just been called down for billing
mistake, will greet next guest with smile and charming body, he just have painted on/
doing affective display or faking emotion without any resemblance with his true feeling.

The varieties of emotional labour are all intrinsically false, though they differ in
intentions. The deep acting is modifying internal emotions to fit the organizational or
professional display rule, in good faith of the concerned, whereas surface acting involves
skin thick, fake or cunning emotional display.

Thus emotional labour is concluded to be the amount of effort put into by service
employee in concealing or exaggerating their true feeling in a planned and controlled way
with an intention to induce behavioural satisfaction to client, as well as managing better
social perception of himself/ herself along with organization. The emotional labour may
be majored on dimensions (Hochschild, 1983 & Morris and Feldman, 1996):

I. Type of emotional labour: III. Attentiveness:

a. Surface acting, a. Intensity of emotions,
b. Deep acting. b. Duration of interaction.
II. Frequency of interaction; IV. Varity of emotions required;
and emotional dissonance.
The emotional labour has been related to various job behaviours in researches, as
it was found to be negatively related to job satisfaction, memory performance,
depersonalization, and positively with job stress, hypertension, heart disease, and even to
exacerbate cancer (Mann, 2004), emotional exhaustion and burnout (Zapf, 2000).
 Shankar, Kumar and Singh 6

Burnout

Burnout is a state of emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion caused by

excessive and prolonged stress (Freudenberger, 1975). It occurs when one feel
overwhelmed and unable to meet constant demands. As the stress continues, individual
begin to lose the interest or motivation that led you to take on a certain role in the first
place. The use of the term burnout for this phenomenon began to appear with some
regularity in the 1970s in the United States, especially among people working in the
human services. This popular usage was presaged by Greene’s 1961 novel, A Burn-Out
Case. The importance of burnout as a social problem was identified by both practitioners
and social commentators long before it became a focus of systematic study by
researchers. Burnout as a psychological term for the experience of long-term
overwhelmed of emotional exhaustion, loss of energy, and withdrawal from work was
introduced in the mid 1970’s by two American researchers, Herbert Freudenberger and
Christina Maslach, who independently described the phenomenon.

Burnout is the result of remorseless stress, but it isn’t the same as too much stress.
Stress, as a rule, involves too much: too many pressures that demand too much of
individual physically and psychologically. Stressed people can still imagine, though, that
if they can just get everything under control, they’ll feel better. Burnout, on the other
hand, is about not enough, being burned out means feeling empty, devoid of motivation,
and beyond caring. People experiencing burnout often don’t see any hope of positive
change in their situations. If excessive stress is like drowning in responsibilities, burnout
is being all dried up. One other difference between stress and burnout: While you’re
usually aware of being under a lot of stress, you don’t always notice burnout when it
happens.

The burnout concept was developed from field observations – not from theory.
Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North have theorized that the burnout process can be
divided into 12 phases, which are not necessarily followed sequentially, nor necessarily
in any sense be relevant or exist other than as an abstract construct.
 Emotional Labour- Burnout Relationship 7

• A compulsion to prove oneself

• Working harder

• Neglecting one's own needs

• Displacement of conflicts (the person does not realize the root cause of the
distress)

• Revision of values (friends or hobbies are completely dismissed)

• Denial of emerging problems (cynicism and aggression become apparent)

• Withdrawal (reducing social contacts to a minimum, becoming walled off;

alcohol or other substance abuse may occur)

• Behavioral changes become obvious to others

• Inner emptiness

• Depression

• Burnout syndrome

There may be various sources contributing to the burnout, and the have been
broadly divided into three categories (Scott, 2006):

1. Job related: unclear and impossible requirements; prolonged high time with no
down time; big consequence of failure; lack of personal control, recognition; and
poor leadership.

2. Lifestyle causes: too much work with little balance; no help or supportive
resources; too little social support, sleep, and time off.

3. Psychological factors: perfectionist tendency; pessimism; excitability; type A

personality; poor fit for the job; and lack of belief in what individual do.

Burnout is the devastating psychological conditions brought about by unrelieved

work stress, which can cause:

a) depleted energy and emotional exhaustion;

b) lowered resistance to illness;

 Shankar, Kumar and Singh 8

c) increased depersonalization in interpersonal relationship;

d) increased dissatisfaction and pessimism; and

e) increased absenteeism and reduced work efficiency.

Burnout is the index of the dislocation between what people are and what they
have to do. It represents erosion in values, dignity, spirit, and will; a corrosion of human
soul (Maslach & Leiter, 1997).

Maslach and Jackson (1986) described these four phases of burnout as measures:

a) Depersonalization;

b) Diminished personal accomplishment; and

c) Emotional exhaustion.

Zapf (2002) found that emotional work combined with organizational problems
were associated with high levels of burnout. High emotional demands and high role-
conflicts had an impact on all three dimensions of burnout. High quantitative demands
and low possibilities for development are associated with personal - and work-related
burnout, whereas low role clarity is associated with personal and client-related burnout
(Borritz, 2005).Burnout research had its roots in service jobs and profession, in which the
core of the job was the relationship between employee and client (Maslach, Chaufeli &
Leiter, 2001). The interpersonal context of the job implied, from the beginning, burnout
was studied not as an individual stress response, but in terms of an individual’s relational
transactions in the workplace and focused attention on the individual’s emotions, and on
the motives and values underlying his or her work with recipients. The service employees
are emotionally taxed (Maslach & Jackson, 1982), thus service employees are more porn
to burn out.

Emotional dissonance is root of all major problems of the service employees

(Hochschild, 1983). Inability to express what one feel may cause the individual to feel
false and hypocritical and, in the long run, may lead to the alienation from one’s own
emotions, poor self-esteem, and depression. Brotheridge and Lee (1998) provided
evidence that it is emotional dissonance which is related with psychological strain
whereas other variables of emotion work were not, except through their relation with
 Emotional Labour- Burnout Relationship 9

emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance is highly correlated to role conflict and role
ambiguity which are found as predictors of burnout (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). Some
authors treat it as a dimension of emotion work (e.g., Grandey, 1998; Kruml & Geddes,
1998; Morris & Feldman, 1996, 1997); some see it more as a dependent variable
(Adelmann, 1995; Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993) while other authors conceptualize it as a
stressor that is anchored in the social environment (Zapf et al., 1999). Emotional
dissonance measures the amount of effort done by the service employee. Emotional
dissonance should be treated as a component or dimension of emotional labour, leading
to emotional exhaustion a component of burnout (Abraham, 1998; Brotheridge &
Grandey, 2001; Grebner et al., 2003; Heuven & Bakker, 2003; Lewig & Dollard, 2003;
Morris & Feldman, 1997; Nerdinger & Roper, 1999; Schaubroeck & Jones, 2000; Zapf,
Vogt et al., 1999; Zerbe, 2000). Similar results were found for emotional dissonance and
depersonalization (Dormann & Zapf, 2004; Dormann, Zapf, & Isic, 2002; Zapf, Vogt et
al., 1999).

Attentiveness is the second dimension of the emotional labour (Morris &

Feldman, 1996). There are various sub measures in the attentiveness as intensity of
interaction and duration of the interaction, which are positively correlated burnout
(Rafaeli, 1989; Sutton & Rafaeli, 1988). It seems as if researchers have taken for granted
that the specific nature of people-work is dealt with implicitly if people-workers are
investigated. But, surprisingly, only few studies analyzed whether it is, indeed, the
customer who causes burnout. Some studies investigated whether the structure of
interactions with customers (e.g., the number or length of interactions) or the content of
the interaction (e.g., the severity of clients’ problems to be solved) is related to burnout.
The effects emerging in these studies were often smaller compared with other stressors,
such as time pressure (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). The frequent interactions will be of
short duration and can be highly scripted (Sutton & Rafaeli, 1988), putting on less
emotional demand on the exhibiter (Morris & Feldman, 1996). On the contrary the longer
interactions will need more intention emotions and interactions are not scripted, costing
dearly (Zapf, 2002). Emotional dissonance was found to be resulting from external
demands rather than being reaction to emotion display or a behavioural strategy (Zapf,
Vogt et al., 1999). Morris and Fiedman (1996) proposed the more intention emotions
 Shankar, Kumar and Singh 10

need more effort to be displayed. These efforts are drawing from the cognitive resource
(Hobfoll, 1989) of the employee putting extra emotional strain on them. Some job stress
burnout researches (Hall, 1991; Karasek, 1979, 1990; MacDonald & Sirianni, 1996;
Radmacher & Sheridan, 1995) have found high strain to be related to high burnout. The
individual alienated from themselves (depersonalization) leading to feeling of a state
were one has not achieved any thing (self accomplishments).

Discussion and Conclusion

Hochschild (1983) in qualitative research found emotions not felt, i.e. surface
acting can lead to alienation from one’s own feeling causing psychological ill health.
Surface acting is positively related to emotional dissonance and thus to burnout
(Hochschild, 1979). But, there are differences in these findings of the quantitative
researches done latter. Brotheridge and Grandey (2001) reported positive relations
between deep acting and personal accomplishment in their studies, where as it is
negatively related to depersonalized, as the sense of being at service of others enhances
feeling of belongingness and reduces depersonalization; where as doing something
meaningful increases the personal accomplishments.

The present literature leaves some factors unexplained. It is assumes that the roles
of service employees are to manage their own emotions and make the clients feel good
(Hochschild, 2003; Pugh, 2001; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1990; Sutton & Rafaeli, 1988; Tan et
al., 2003), but there is no consideration of employees motivation, which will have
detrimental effect on emotional labour. These studies have barely considered some of the
moderating variables of burnout literature, as coping (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002;
Dormann & Zapf, 2004; Sutton & Rafaeli, 1988); personality (Brotheridge & Grandey,
2002; Diefendorff et al., 2005; Kokkonen & Pulkkinen, 2001); culture (Thoits, 1989;
Mills and Kleinman, 1988; Scherer, Wallbott, & Summerfield, 1986; Wallbott & Scherer,
1986). Further, Alvesson & Willmott (2002) argued that identity helps employee
commitment, involvement and loyalty. Ibarra (1999) noted that, organizational identity
provides resources that compensates for situations that would otherwise be draining or
depleting. The image also introduced to capture the clients’ perception of a company
(Burnstein, 1984 as cited in Alvesson and Berg, 1992). Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail,
 Emotional Labour- Burnout Relationship 11

(1994) explained organizational identity as the degree to which a member defines

her/him-self by the same attributes that she/he believes defines the organization.

The researches in the U.S. (Pugh, 2001; Sutton & Rafaeli, 1988), Canada (Rafaeli,
1989), and Israel (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1990) found a negative relationship between store
busyness and employee display of positive emotions, but contrarily in Singapore, Tan et
al. (2003) found no relation between store busyness and employee display of positive
emotion. Tan et al. (2003) suggested that it may be due to the cultural difference between
the two contexts. Gross et al. (1997) used culturally diverse set of samples to explore the
age-related changes in emotion and emotion regulation. They found that age was
associated with decreased impulse strength for European Americans but not Chinese
Americans. The present literature is silent on the issues of culture on emotional labour.

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