HYDROGEOCHEMISTRY OF A SMALL CATCHMENT IN

NORTHEASTERN AMAZONIA: A COMPARISON BETWEEN

NATURAL WITH DEFORESTED PARTS OF THE CATCHMENT
(SERRA DO NAVIO, AMAPÁ STATE, BRAZIL)

M. C. FORTI1,3 , R. BOULET2,3, A. J. MELFI3 and C. NEAL4

1 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espacias, INPE; CP 515, São José dos Campos, SP, CEP
12201-970, Brasil; 2 ORSTOM, Instituto de Geociências DGG USP, CP 20899, CEP 01498-970,
São Paulo/SP, Brasil; 3 NUPEGEL, Instituto Astronômico e Geofísico USP, CP 9638 CEP
01065-970, São Paulo/SP, Brasil (address for correspondence); 4 Institute of Hydrology, Maclean
Building, Wallingford, OXON OX10 8BB, U.K.

(Received 3 June 1998; accepted 7 April 1999)

Abstract. To undertake a comprehensive study of the disturbance effects due to mining activities
(manganese ore exploitation) on the chemical composition of drainage waters, a 164 ha catchment
in North-eastern Amazonia tropical forest was sampled weekly for a year period (June 1993 to June
1994) to determine the contrasts in rainwater, throughfall and stream water chemistry between the
upper undisturbed area and the lower part affected by deforestation and mining works. During the 3
dry months season only about 15% of the total annual input-output of chemical species to and from
the catchment occurs. In the three wettest months, about 30% of the flux occurs, except 60% of the
potassium and nitrate release from the catchment occurs in these three months. The rain waters are
slightly acidic (pH ≈ 5.2) with low alkalinity, while the stream water is nearly neutral (pH ≈ 6.9):
alkalinity is generated within the soil and soil water system. The rainfall-throughfall relationship of
the chemical species in the natural areas exhibits strong internal recycling and little export from the
catchment. In the area changed by deforestation and mining works almost all chemical species show
a net export in surface waters: these are mainly derived from the deforested area of the basin, where
most probably due to enhanced weathering processes because the vegetation cover has to re-establish
itself.

Keywords: Amazonia, deforestation, hydrochemistry, rainforest, water quality

1. Introduction

Environmental problems have long been studied in small catchment areas in U.S.A.
and Europe (Moldan and Cerny, 1994). However, in tropical areas only a few
such studies have been conducted (Bonell et al., 1993; Gaillardet et al., 1995) and
long term studies (>10 yr) are totally missing. Bruijnzeel’s (1991) review work
spanning many rainforest sites concluded that there is a need for more and careful
studies of (sub) tropical forest nutrient budgets. In Brazil, for example, where
the largest tropical area in the world is located, intensive small catchment work
has been undertaken but the efforts are of low significance and its gain has been
small due to (1) the extended areal coverage and the diversity of environments;

Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 118: 263–279, 2000.

© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
264 M. C. FORTI ET AL.

(2) the limited number of environmental Brazilian scientists working in this field
and (3) the limited amount of funds available. Furthermore, the efforts are discon-
tinuous and there are few permanent experimental stations running continuously:
the exceptions are for studies in the Atlantic Forest, among them the Tijuca Forest
(Silva Filho, 1985) and Cunha Reserve (JICA, 1986). In Amazonia there are few
continuous and lasting for more than two years chemical and hydrological studies,
most of then are in the Central Region (Forti and Neal, 1992a; Lesack, 1993) while
very few short term (less than 4 yr) interdisciplinary projects have been completed
(Harris et al., 1990; Gash et al., 1996). Owing to the necessity of long term biogeo-
chemical processes studies at small catchments (<5 km2 ) in tropical forested areas,
a new research program was established which would permit the development of
small catchment research in the North-eastern region of the Brazilian Amazon
(Tropical Rain forest). This program started in 1993 with a first phase which had
almost no field instrumentation but rainfall collectors and some basic devices for
field measurement of basic chemical and physical determinants (pH, conductivity,
temperature, volume, etc.). The first phase of the work, lasting for one year (June
1993–June 1994) is now completed, and the initial results are presented here. The
objective of this paper is to present these data and give a preliminary interpretation
of the temporal and spatial variations in the concentrations of major dissolved
species and evaluate the influence of the altered area of the basin on the export
of these solutes.

2. Methods

2.1. T HE STUDY AREA

This study was conducted at Serra do Navio Experimental site located in the Cent-
ral Region of the Amapa State in Northeastern Amazonia (00◦ 550 5400 N; 51◦ 590 1600 W).
The ‘Igarapé’ (small stream) Pedra Preta catchment is of 164 ha total area, with
height varying from 320 m at the highest point of the water divide going to 100 m
in a lake to 80 m at the mouth. The lower part of the catchment was partially
altered due to deforestation and mining related activities (road contructions and
sterile material deposits). Around two third of the area concerns natural forest; in
the middle third, the stream course was altered and a lake formed due to a blockage
caused by the sterile material deposits; in the lower course the area was altered due
to deforestation and road construction and sterile material deposits forming piles
up to 50 m height from the ground level what has caused a topographic alteration
(Figure 1).
The geology of the manganese district at Serra do Navio consist of a meta-
morphic sequence from 2.0Ga old (Vila Nova Group). Amphibolite, gondites, schist
and carbonates are among its components.
The soils in the catchment are dystrophic red-yellow latosols (oxysols in Amer-
ican classification). The profiles of the landscape upper parts consist of a homogen-
 HYDROCHEMISTRY OF SMALL CATCHMENT
265
Figure 1. Topographic map of the Pedra Preta catchment with the collecting points localization.
266 M. C. FORTI ET AL.

eous argillaceous horizon overlying a ferruginous and manganous nodular horizon

that grades downward to an iron duricrust. The downslope profiles are formed,
from top to bottom, by a homogenous argillaceous horizon, a ferruginous nodular
horizon, a transition zone and a mottled clay horizon. The soils are acidic with
pH-H2 O = 3.5–4.0 in the surface, pH-H2 O = 4.5–5.0 within the first meter and pH-
H2 O = 5.0–5.5 below one meter. The base saturation is around 11% in the humus
layer and between 1% and 3% below. The exchangeable aluminium ratio is high
and varies between 40 to 80% of the exchange capacity.
The climate of the area is tropical with the main wet season occurring during
the months of February, March and April, while the driest season months are July,
August and September (Ratisbona, 1976). The mean temperature varies between
20 ◦ C during the wet season to 30 ◦ C during the dry season. The stream water
temperature is 25±2 ◦ C in the forest and 25 to 30 ◦ C at the mouth of the stream.

2.2. S AMPLING PROCEDURE

Rainfall, throughfall and stream water were collected during one year period (from
June 1993 to June 1994) on a weekly basis. Polyethylene funnels with 167.4 cm2
of collecting area were coupled to a 2-L polyethylene bottle as a rainfall collector.
A small funnel covered with a nylon screen (5 mm mesh) was placed inside the
collecting funnel to avoid debris entering into the collecting bottle.
Simultaneous rainfall samples (C1, C2 and C3) were collected in three cleared
areas inside the basin and throughfall samples were collected in a transect with 20
collectors, each collector being 5 m apart (Forti and Neal, 1992b). The transect line
was approximately perpendicular to the stream course following the topographic
gradient. The stream samples were taken at the outlet of the natural area (named
Forest) and at the outlet of the whole basin (named Mouth). The deployment of
collectors and sampling points of the stream waters are schematically shown in
Figure 1.
The samples were transported to the laboratory at Serra do Navio, 6 km from the
catchment, where they were prepared in the same day for storage and subsequent
sending to the University of Sao Paulo State (NUPEGEL Laboratory, 3000 km
from the catchment). At the Serra do Navio laboratory the sample volume (rain-
fall and throughfall) was measured utilizing a scale. One unfiltered aliquot was
utilized for measurements of pH, conductivity and alkalinity, while the remaining
were filtered using a membrane Millipore filters with 0.22 µm of pore diameter.
This pore diameter was chosen to eliminate bacteria and fungi seeds. One ali-
quot was stored in a dark glass bottle without preservation, for anions analysis.
The second aliquot was stored in polyethylene bottle with supra-pur Nitric Acid
(1% in volume), for the metal analysis. Also, specific samples of rainfall with
one extra collector at site C3 were collected for pH, conductivity and alkalinity
measurements for comparison.
 HYDROCHEMISTRY OF SMALL CATCHMENT 267

2.3. A NALYTICAL PROCEDURE

The rainfall and throughfall volumes were measured utilizing a scale with 0.01 g of
sensitivity and 8% precision. The three rainfall samples collected were proportion-
ally mixed to provide one composite rainfall sample; the same scheme was used
for the 20 throughfall samples: this was necessary owing to the limited analytical
capacity of the laboratory. The two stream water samples was analyzed separately.
The pH was measured utilizing a glass Ag/AgCl combination electrode cal-
ibrated for low ionic strength solutions. The alkalinity was measured by a Gran-
titration procedure.
The major dissolved ions (Na+ , K+ , Mg2+ , Ca2+ , NH+ − − 2−
4 , Cl , NO3 and SO4 )
were analyzed by Liquid Ion Chromatography utilizing a DIONEX DX500 equip-
ment. For the cations it was utilized a Dionex-CS12 column with Methanosulfonic
acid as eluent and for the anions a Dionex-AS4A column and Carbonate/Bicarbonate
as eluent. The precision of this analysis was better than 10% and the accuracy
was tested comparing the utilized standard with standards from the Institute of
Hydrology/U.K. (House and Frickers, 1995).
The total amount of rainfall and throughfall was estimated as the volume in
each collector divided by the collecting area of the funnel. The stream flow was
estimated using a floating object to measure the water speed utilizing the mean
area of the vertical section of the stream channel at the water sampling point to
give the instantaneous flow at the moment of sampling.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. R AINFALL AND THROUGHFALL

The temporal variation of rainfall and throughfall is shown in Figure 2. The rainfall
and throughfall for the studied period (June 1993–June 1994) amounted to 2279
and 2077 mm, respectively; the total intercepted water, 202.1 mm, represents 9%
of the total rainfall. This value is comparable with the value of 12% found by
Lloyd et al., 1988, in Central Amazonia, and values found by Ubarana (1996) in
Southeastern and Eastern regions of Amazonia (between 12.5 and 17%).
The mean concentration of the major ions for the studied year is within the
values found in continental remote areas (Berner and Berner, 1987) and higher
than that found in Central Amazonia (Lesack and Melack, 1991), though this
region may be influenced from some marine input (it is located about 200 km
from the coast). The statistics for the solute contents in rainfall and throughfall
are presented in Table I; the free acidity is higher in rainfall than in throughfall
because, in throughfall, the H+ ions are counterbalanced by basic ions washed
out and/or leached from the vegetation. Also, an ionic enrichment in throughfall
is observed. This enrichment is greatest during the dry season due to enhanced
deposition of airborne matter and a lower dilution volume for the rainfall (Forti
268 M. C. FORTI ET AL.

Figure 2. Time sequence of rainfall and throughfall in mm for the studied period (June 1993 to June
1994).

TABLE I
Rainfall and throughfall chemistry in µM for the period (June 1993–June 1994). WM:
weighted mean, STD: standard deviation, Max and Min: maximum and minimum
values observed, ALK: alkalinity in µEq L−1 and N: sample number

(µM) Rainfall (N = 44) Throughfall (N = 44)

WM STD Max Min WM STD Max Min

H+ 6.94 10.1 31.6 0.48 1.20 1.16 3.39 0.21

ALK 1.03 3.19 20.2 0.00 27.4 32.1 148 0.00
Na+ 20.4 21.5 123 4.78 60.2 31.1 174 32.2
K+ 11.6 18.0 378 2.03 36.9 18.3 281 17.1
Mg2+ 7.89 6.13 23.1 1.65 13.3 8.12 40.9 6.23
Ca2+ 40.2 42.0 134 2.49 51.1 49.8 175 10.5
NH+4 2.02 2.89 18.0 0.00 5.60 6.34 177 0.00
Cl− 18.4 9.57 87.3 5.72 39.2 18.8 294 12.5
NO−3 2.99 5.01 36.3 0.00 1.84 1.83 26.7 0.00
SO2−
4 3.12 2.23 18.7 0.35 6.41 3.03 24.3 2.78

and Nordemann, 1991). It is observed an imbalance between cations and anions of

0.11 and 0.13 mEq L−1 in rainfall and throughfall, respectively, these values are
equivalently lower than the values of 0.86 and 1 mmolC L−1 (Eyrolle et al., 1996)
found in rainfall and throughfall, respectively, in Central Amazonia, therefore it is
possible to attribute the imbalance to the lack of organic anions measurement.
The annual variation of the major ion concentration in rainfall and throughfall
is shown in Figure 3. During the wet period (February, March and April 1994), the
 HYDROCHEMISTRY OF SMALL CATCHMENT 269

Figure 3. Rainfall and Throughfall chemistry annual variation for the major cations and anions in
µmol L−1 (alkalinity in µEq L−1 ).
270 M. C. FORTI ET AL.

free acidity increases by about one order of magnitude owing to the lower amount
of airborne material during this period when rainfall is almost continuous.
The mean pH value for the rainfall is 5.4 while in Central Amazonia pH values
of 4.6 (Forti and Nordemann, 1991) and 4.9 (Lesack and Melack, 1991) was found.
The temporal variability of the ionic concentration of the rainfall and throughfall is
similar to most of the ions although the coefficient of variation for the throughfall
chemistry is smaller than that for rainfall. The rainfall coefficient of variation varies
from 46% for Potassium to 157% for Nitrate owing to the high variability of the
generation mechanisms by vegetation. The species sources are variable as well as
is their probability distribution. During the dry period the larger standard deviation
of chemicals is observed. This is explained by the presence of larger amounts of
suspended soil dust.
The enrichment factor (EF) of throughfall chemistry, in relation to rainfall, was
calculated as the ratio between the throughfall and the rainfall concentration: it
provides a measure of the relative amount of material that has been picked up from
the vegetation and incorporated by the rainfall passing through the canopy. The
paired comparison of the differences in EF between wet (11 samples) and dry (9
samples) periods is shown as a box-and-whisker plot in Figure 4 for the cations
and anions.
Although limited due to the small number of samples in each data set this ana-
lysis indicates that the Potassium EF has the largest difference (60% in absolute
values) between dry and wet season, this variation indicates that its main source in
throughfall is the leaching and washout of exudate from the vegetation. Magnesium
absolute value decreases in EF by 53% from dry to wet season, indicating that
there is a significant dry deposition source on top of a leaching/exudate component,
mainly during the dry period. Calcium presents an absolute EF decrease of 13%,
not statistically significant, from the dry period to the wet period; also for Na the
30% decrease in the absolute values is not statistically significant, although for
these ions some atmospheric contribution may occur. The mean values of EF for
Nitrate show that this species is being absorbed by the vegetation, in agreement
with previous works done in Central Amazonia (Franken et al., 1984; Forti et al.,
1995). For chloride the variation is not significant although a decrease of 32% is
observed for the absolute mean EF values from dry to wet period. The EF mean
values for sulfate show no statistical difference and a small variation in the absolute
EF values is observed throughout the year; therefore, the main source of sulfate in
throughfall is the vegetation.

3.2. T HE STREAM WATERS

In the outlet of natural area (Forest), the flow and its chemical composition have a
relatively small variation (Figure 5). Chemical concentrations decrease with the in-
crease in flow, because of dilution due to the rainy period. For NO−3 the slightly in-
 HYDROCHEMISTRY OF SMALL CATCHMENT 271

Figure 4. Box-and-Whisker plots for the Enrichment Factor (EF) comparing wet and dry mean values
for cations (a) and anions (b).

crease in concentration with flow is related to the decomposition/uptake of organic

material (Table II).
The presence of the lake, the alteration of the topography and the deforestation
in the lower part of the basin modify the hydrology of the system. This is evidenced
by the large variations observed in the instant flow measured in the outlet of the
basin (Mouth).
272 M. C. FORTI ET AL.

Figure 5. Stream chemistry annual variation for the major cations and anions in µmol L−1 (alkalinity
in µEq L−1 ) for the natural area (Forest) and in the outlet of the basin (Mouth).
 HYDROCHEMISTRY OF SMALL CATCHMENT 273
TABLE II
Statistical results for the two collecting points of the ‘Igarape’ Pedra Preta stream water
chemistry (µM); Forest: forest area and Mouth: outlet of whole basin, ALK: alkalinity in
µEq L−1 ), N: sample number, TSS: total suspended sediment (in mg L−1 ); ♦ mean values
statistically different (level of 5% of significance) between Forest and Mouth

(µM) Forest (N = 45) Mouth (N = 45)

WM STD Max Min WM STD Max Min
♦ H+ 0.58 0.67 1.26 0.12 0.20 0.21 0.50 0.05
♦ ALK∗ 85.5 34.4 152 37.3 108 45.2 169 28.8
♦ Na+ 83.5 19.3 114 31.8 76.1 8.79 94.8 64.8
♦ K+ 15.4 8.86 41.9 8.52 49.6 130 506 5.55
Mg2+ 40.4 19.3 77.0 29.2 42.6 21.0 76.7 3.27
Ca2+ 70.0 48.7 277 8.73 70.5 17.7 156 7.18
♦ NH+ 2.28 3.07 5.55 0.45 7.88 8.55 20.2 0.00
4
Cl− 75.4 41.8 90.3 22.1 71.9 33.2 91.0 62.5
♦ NO− 6.50 4.48 25.3 0.50 10.7 7.90 20.2 3.81
3
♦ SO2− 6.62 2.05 9.72 1.14 99.6 74.9 253 56.9
4
♦ TSS 5.51 4.20 29.3 1.74 46.2 101 600 2.03

It is observed an anion deficit of 0.13 mEq L−1 in waters from the outlet of the
natural area (Forest) and an anion excess of 0.14 mEq L−1 in the outlet of the catch-
ment (Mouth). Measurement of organic carbon in the stream waters (Forest) gave
values within the interval [47–104] mmolC L−1 (Fostier, unpublished data) what
accounts for the observed difference; the anion excess (Mouth) is compensated by
the manganese mean value of 0.15 mEq L−1 found in the waters from the outlet of
the basin (Melfi et al., in prep.).
The lowest solute concentration values are observed during the three month of
dry season and the highest during the three month of wet season. This situation
may arises because during the dry season the main flow component has its origin
in ground water (with low content of chemical species); during the wet season a
large component of superficial flow (with higher content of chemicals due to the
washing out the litter and top soil) may well be present.
The statistical comparison of the mean values of solute concentration in the
outlet of the natural area (Forest) with the values found in the outlet of the catch-
ment (Mouth) gives a significant difference with 95% of probability and 5% of
significance level (marked ♦ in Table II) for all chemicals except for Mg2+ , Ca2+
and Cl− . The main sources of these species for the stream waters are within the
natural area of the basin while for the others the waters are being enriched in the
way to the outlet of the catchment.
274 M. C. FORTI ET AL.

Figure 6. Measured flow (mm) for the studied period (June 1993 to June 1994) for the Pedra Preta
stream in the natural area (Forest) and in the outlet of the basin (Mouth).

TABLE III
Water balance for the ‘Igarape’ Pedra Preta catch-
ment for the year (June 1993–June 1994)

Rainfall 2279.0 mm
Interception 202.1 mm 9%
Runoff 1352.0 mm
Evapotranspiration 724.7 mm 32%

3.3. T HE ION BUDGET

3.3.1. The Hydrological Component

The hydrological data, presented in Table III, enables to estimate the evapotran-
spiration (ET) at 32%. This value is lower than that (44.6%) of Shuttleworth et
al. (1987). If it is assumed that Cl is conservative (Claassen and Halm, 1996),
owing to a concentration effect due to evapotranspiration, the difference between
the input and output of chlorine can be write as [Cl]throughfall = (1–ET)∗[Cl]stream .
For this case, the calculated ET, considering the throughfall concentration as the
actual input to the soil, is 45%, in close agreement with Shuttleworth hydrological
estimate. The discrepancy with the estimate from the present catchment study
probably reflects an error in our estimates of flow: weekly spot readings were
probably insufficient even though instantaneous flows were correctly assessed. The
measured flow for the sampled points in the ‘Igarapé’ Pedra Preta is shown in
Figure 6.
 HYDROCHEMISTRY OF SMALL CATCHMENT 275

3.3.2. Ionic Flow through the System

The input/output relationships were calculated for the driest (July, August and
September of 1993) and the wettest (February, March and April of 1994) periods
and for the whole year. The flow was calculated from the expression below:

Qi [g m−2 y−1 ] = Mi [mg L−1 ]∗V [L m−2 y−1 ] ∗ 10−3 , (1)

where, Qi is the flux of species i, Mi is the weighted mean of species i for the
considered period and V is the total water flow for the same period. The calculation
was done separately for the natural (Forest) area and for the entire basin (Mouth)
to infer the contribution due to the altered area of the catchment. These results
are shown in Tables IV and V. The high ionic flow values observed during the
wet period reflect a larger amount of water circulating in the system. The relative
amount of each species entering or leaving the catchment through the Mouth during
the dry period is around 15% of the yearly whole: during the wet period it is around
30% of the year. K+ and NO− +
3 are exceptions: 60% of K is released from the
whole basin (Mouth) during the wet period and 62% of NO− 3 is released from the
natural area (Forest) of the basin during the wet period. The large output of sulfate
from the basin (Mouth) during both the wet and dry periods, can be explained by a
high mechanical erosion and weathering that occurs in the lower part of the basin
due to the poorly vegetated soil and some residual proto-ore present in this part
of the catchment. The input of NO− 3 through rainfall and throughfall has almost
the same mean value (there is no statistical difference between both mean values).
However, for the year, as a whole, there is a net retention (see Table V). Most
of the Nitrate come out of the system during the wet period when there is higher
organic matter decomposition. Also, during this period, decomposition processes
are accelerated by the larger amount of water circulating within the system (30%
larger than the mean total amount).
During the dry period, a strong recycling component exists for all the considered
species, for the natural forested area (Forest). For the basin as a whole (Mouth) it
is observed a marginal loss for magnesium, calcium and nitrate and a strong loss
of sulfate. During the wet period, within the natural area, Mg2+ is lost while NO− 3
is being absorbed (64%) from the rainfall by the vegetation. The basin as a whole
provides a loss of all species during the wet period and these losses are attributed
to the increase of erosional processes induced by the higher rainfall amount during
this period.
In Table V the input/output values for the year are shown. In the catchment area
of the ‘Igarapé Pedra Preta’, the alkalinity of the superficial waters is generated
within the soil; although these waters may be derived from ground water of long
residence time with, characteristically, a higher concentration of base cations and
high alkalinity.
In the natural area (Forest), all the species but alkalinity and Mg2+ are being
retained because throughfall is a major component of the recycling processes of
276 M. C. FORTI ET AL.

TABLE IV
Input and Output values, in kg ha−1 , for the natural forest area (Forest) and for the catchment as a
whole (Mouth), for the driest months (Dry): July, August and September 1993 and for the wettest
months (Wet): February, March and April 1994. C: Rainfall; TR: Throughfall

(kg ha−1 ) Rainfall input Throughfall input Forest output Mouth output
Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet Dry Wet
N=9 N = 11 N=9 N = 11 N=9 N = 11 N=9 N = 11

Alk∗ 0.59 0.00 4.01 2.10 2.59 6.40 8.46 12.4

Na+ 1.46 4.67 5.23 8.25 1.71 5.30 3.89 6.75
K+ 0.93 5.28 7.22 7.24 0.59 1.50 2.00 25.5
Mg2+ 0.51 0.99 1.23 1.56 0.92 2.57 2.20 3.85
Ca2+ 4.43 6.35 5.88 9.88 3.05 5.82 6.41 10.8
NH+4 0.08 0.23 0.51 0.27 0.02 0.15 0.16 0.66
Cl− 2.72 5.12 6.20 8.05 2.29 7.78 5.63 10.0
NO−3 0.65 1.15 0.32 0.41 0.07 1.96 1.00 2.65
SO2−
4 1.29 2.37 2.43 3.32 0.43 2.02 13.2 42.8

TABLE V
Input and Output values, in kg ha−1 , for the forest area
(Forest) and for the catchment as a whole (Mouth), for
the studied year (June 1993–June 1994).C: Rainfall; TR:
Throughfall

(kg ha−1 ) Input Output

(C) (TR) Forest Mouth

H+ 0.16 0.02 0.005 0.003

ALK 1.37 34.1 41.0 89.1
Na+ 10.7 28.7 15.1 23.7
K+ 10.3 29.9 4.71 26.2
Mg2+ 4.33 6.65 7.46 13.9
Ca2+ 36.7 42.6 22.1 38.3
NH+4 0.91 2.08 0.31 1.89
Cl− 14.8 28.9 21.0 34.5
NO−3 4.33 2.28 3.14 8.93
SO2−
4 6.84 12.9 5.03 129
 HYDROCHEMISTRY OF SMALL CATCHMENT 277

these species. Here, the throughfall contents is considered as the input to the sys-
tem because it integrates the contribution of the bulk rainfall, the dry deposition
and the vegetation. The calculated percentage of each species participating in the
enrichment of throughfall and being internally recycled for this area is: 53% – Na+ ,
84% – K+ , 48% – Ca2+ , 85% – NH+ − −
4 , 27% – Cl , 47% – NO3 and 61% – SO4 .
2−

They came from the vegetation and from the dry deposition and these species are
absorbed directly by the vegetation and, in part, immobilized by the system, the
NO− 3 EF indicates that it is being absorbed within the canopy. The losses of nu-
trients from this natural part of the catchment are negligible and comparable with
that of lowland forest of moderate to very low soils fertility according to Bruijnzeel
classification (1991).
Comparison, for the export of chemical species from the upper natural part of
the catchment (Forest) with that from the whole basin (Mouth), shows that the main
losses originates within the degraded portion of the basin, preferentially during the
wet period. These species are lost mainly due to the lack of vegetation cover that
could minimize the mechanical erosion and establish a natural internal recycling
of these species. Also, the dissolution of the sterile material deposits may have
a significant contribution to the outflow of chemical species from the catchment.
However, with these data set it is not possible to infer any partition among the
different sources of the considered ionic species.

4. Conclusion

This year-long examination of water chemistry in a small Brazilian Amazon catch-

ment, shows rainfall acidity values slightly lower than those observed in Central
Amazonia (Forti and Nordemann, 1991, Lesack and Melack, 1991). Chemical
fluxes varied seasonally: during the wet season a high flux of the different species
is observed due to a larger amount of water circulating in the system. During the
dry period the recycling component is higher due to the low amount of water in
the system and consequently a low nutrient transport rates. Comparing output from
the whole basin with those from the upper natural area, the degraded area supplies
a high solute load preferentially during the wet period. These species losses are
due mainly to the lack of vegetation cover to inhibit the mechanical erosion and
to establish natural internal recycling of these species. The mine activities in the
neighborhood of the catchment have had a major effect on the catchment as a
whole: in the natural area of the basin the main effect was a high level of dry
deposition particularly during the dry season and for the degraded area, where the
sterile material was deposited, a loss of chemical species associated with an en-
hanced weathering and erosional processes was observed. Future investigations to
improve the hydrological parameters measurements, the inclusion of some metals
determinations as well as the mineralogy of suspended sediment is planed to allow
a better comprehension of the weathering mechanisms acting in this area.
278 M. C. FORTI ET AL.

Acknowledgement

Primary support was provided by a grant from ‘Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa

no Estado de São Paulo’ – FAPESP 92/0209-9; field support was provided by
‘Instituto Regional de Desenvolvimento do Amapá – IRDA’ and additional support
was provided by the ‘Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais – INPE’ through
the Amazonian Programme. A new project is being implemented with funds from
the World Bank: CNPq-PADCTII/CIAMB – (No.62.0375/92.2). One author, M. C.
Forti, wishes to thank Mr. N. M. Pinto for his permanent work in the field and in
the laboratory at Serra do Navio and R. Astolfo for the chemical analysis.

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