Agricultural Development

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
AND
POLICY
Edited by:
OLATOMIDE .W. OLOWA

And
TIMOTHY. T. AWOYEMI (PhD)
1
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND POLICY
© OLATOMIDE W. OLOWA
TIMOTHY T. AWOYEMI (Ph.D)
First Printing 2010
ISBN 9788047102
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system

or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written
permission of the publishers.
Published by; Unique Educational Publishers, Palm grove, Lagos.

Nigeria.
+2348055057256, +23407060923799
2
Preface
Agricultural Development and Policy is a text borne out of the concern to
help students surmount the problems of non-availability of, or in-
accessibility to published materials and the rarity of scientific and
authoritative opinions on agricultural development and policy issues.
These problems have prevented students from getting suitable texts that
are home-made and tailored to meet the needs of the students.
The text is a collection of chapters written by experienced lecturers
drawn from various institutions across the nation.
Deliberate attempts have been made in it to ensure that the contents of

the book are adequate enough to meet the needs of students in tertiary
institutions with respect to Agricultural development, policy and
planning.
Each chapter offers many exercises or revision questions and adequate

referencing for additional in-depth reading, with meticulous attention to
relevance and level of coverage.
Agricultural Development and Policy is a text which should appeal to

students, policy-makers, administrators and the general reader, with
topics that reveals the structure, working and problems of Agricultural
planning, policy and development. In an age of desired accelerated
economic development and growth with recommended shift of emphasis
from mono-economic based on crude oil, an understanding of the trends
3
and underpinnings of Agricultural development and policy augurs very
well for the mobilization of efforts to engender integrated agricultural
development. It is with these thoughts and objectives that we prepare
and recommend this text designed to make teaching more meaningful
and structure-conduct-performance of our Agriculture more adapted to
plans for modernization and accelerated growth.
We are particularly grateful to the contributors. Their responses were

prompt and timely. Taiwo Olayanju provided expert computer-editing
support throughout the project. Lastly, our gratitude goes to the
publishers of various texts and authors of the various articles cited for
their blanket permission assumed given in using their works.
The Editors
March, 2010.
4
CONTRIBUTORS
Ayodabo, Labaeka is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural
Education, Federal College of Education (Technical) Akoka, Lagos.
Ojelade, A.Y.P. is a Principal lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Ibiyemi, E.O. is a Principal lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Umaru, J.I.A. is a Lecturers in the Department of Agricultural

Olowa, Ayodele, O. is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Awoyemi, Timothy T. is an Associate Professor in the Department of

Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Ajibade, Augustine, S. is a Senior lecturer in the Department of

Agricultural Education, Federal College of Education (Technical)
Akoka, Lagos.
Olowa, Olatomide W. is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Oyekale, A.S. (Ph.D) is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Omonona, Bolarin T. (Ph.D) is a Senior lecturer in the Department of

Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Oladipo, S.A. is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Education,

Federal College of Education (Technical) Akoka, Lagos.
Falade, A.A. is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Education,

Federal College of Education (Technical) Akoka, Lagos.
5
Sanyaolu,Adeniyi is a lecturer in the Department of Biological Sciences(Environmental
Biology Programme), Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos,
Sanyaolu,V.T is a lecturer in the Department of Science Laboratory Technology, School

of Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu,Lagos
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
1. Meaning of Development and Growth
Ayodabo Labeaka-------------------------------
2. Livestock Policy in the National development Plan
A.Y.P. Ojelade-----------------------------------------
3. Problems of Livestock Production and Development in Nigeria.
E.O. Ibiyemi -------------------------------
4. Role of Government in the Development of Agriculture in Nigeria
John Issah Umaru----------------------------------------
5. Characteristics of Nigerian Agriculture.
Omowumi A. Olowa.---------------------------
6. Theories of Agricultural Development
Timothy T. Awoyemi (Ph.D)---------------------------------
7. Community Development Policy, Strategy and Models-
Olatomide W. Olowa --------------------------
8. The Role of Extension Work inNigerian Agricultural Development.

A.S. Ajibade.-----------------------------------------------------
9. Colonial Policy in Nigerian Agriculture and Its Implementation.
Olatomide. W. Olowa -----------------------------------------------------
10. State Planning of Agriculture.
Bolarin .T. Omonona (Ph.D)----------------------------------------------
11. Policy Alignment in Nigerian Agricultural Development.
Timothy. T. Awoyemi (Ph.D)-------------------------------------------
12. Trends In Agricultural Development in Nigeria.
Ayo Oladipo -------------------------------------------
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13. Institutions and Programmes for Agricultural Development in
Nigeria (1959– 2006).
A . Falade.---------------------------------------------------------
14. The Concept of Agricultural Fundamentalism as a Development
Policy.
O.W. Olowa.-------------------------------------------------------------------
15. The New Nigerian Agricultural Development Policy

O.A. Olowa ----------------------------
16. Effect of Climate Change on Agricultural Development

Sanyaolu,A .A.A and Sanyaolu,V.T
7
MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH
LABAEKA, AYODABO
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECH), AKOKA – LAGOS.
Highlights:
Introduction
Types of Development and Growth
Agricultural Development and Growth
Industrial Development and Growth
Educational Development and Growth.
Drive towards Development and Growth in Nigerian Economy
Revision Questions
Suggested further reading
Introduction
Development: Development generally means the improvement of
people’s life styles through improve education, Agricultural
development, incomes, skills development and employment.
Development also means that people should have decent housing
and that they should have security within those houses.
Development means too, that people should be able to read and
write and in Africa this is a problem as most people are still
illiterate. In order to develop or have better lives, people must get a
good education. Because illiterate people do not develop as much
as educated people do, it is therefore important that people should
get themselves a good education, or send their children to school to
get that education. The term development has been used in variety
8
of contexts, which imply social change, evolution, progress, growth,
modernization and advancement; Fletcher (1974) says
“development can mean the actualization of an implicit
potentiality”. Thus any change that promotes or actualizes the
physical health of the society represents development.
Growth: Dictionary meaning of growth means – an increase in

amount, number or size or an increase in the value of goods or
services produced and sold by a business or a country.
Types of Development and Growth

1. Agricultural Development and Growth:- Agriculture,
which is the oldest profession in the world, remain the
basic of life and traditional occupation of Nigerians.
Agriculture employs about 60 percent of the labour force in
Nigeria while not less than 65 percent of the country’s
population still lives in the rural area (Idochaba, 1994).
The Nigeria economy is so bad today that every Nigerian
needs to find alternative sources of meeting immediate
needs. Various sub-sectors of agricultural production
such as crops, livestock and fishery enterprises form a few
of numerous areas that Nigerian can look into to meet the
increasing needs of families. The sector can therefore be
seen as the engine of economic growth and social
development.
9
Problems of Agriculture Development in Nigeria
Agricultural sector in Nigeria has contributed to the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) and provision of employment. For
examples during 1982 –86, agricultural production accounted for
over 40 percent of the GDP and rural activities absorbed over 60
percent of the nation’s labour force (Agbabiaje, 1988). With the
advent of crude oil, agriculture which was the nation’s foreign
exchange earning suffered severe neglect since the 1970, as a
result of which the nation started to import food and other
agricultural products that hitherto were produced in the country.
The agricultural sector has been a drug on the economy of the

country since independence. This is due to several problems and
constraints on agricultural development in Nigeria. Among these
problems and constraints include insufficient capital arising from
low capital allocation to agriculture by government and the
ineffective credit delivery system to farmers. Most Nigerian farmers
are self employed, operating on small scales due to land tenure
problem and using age – old method of cultivation. They lack
initiatives to adopt possible innovations, and hence, their level of
poverty remains unimproved, poor storage and processing facilities
lead to wastage of agricultural produce. Improper storage reduces
the quantity or quality of farm produce. Agricultural production
has been restrained by labour and manpower problems with farm
labour shortages in supposedly labour surplus economies.
Marketing systems has not been served by adequate infrastructure
and information while erratic price policies have not encouraged
large farm productivity in Nigeria. Bad roads or total lack of roads
10
prevent evacuation of produce to market. Most farms in rural
areas are not linked by roads and this eventually leads to wastage
of food. The country is adversely affected by environmental
problem especially the instability of rainfall. Incidence of pests and
diseases, and low soil fertility due to high population pressure.
Technology constraints arise from use of crude and inefficient

implements, inadequate innovation coming out of research findings
for enhancing the application of farm inputs. Inconsistent
government policies on agriculture reduces agricultural
productivity. These policies failed to recognize the peasant farmers
that produce food for the country. Poor implementation of these
policies reduce agricultural productivity due to these problems, the
role of agriculture in the economic development of Nigeria, has
largely been passive and subsistence agriculture still remains the
norm throughout Nigeria but its pattern is being changed by the
large scale farming system (especially in the Northern parts of
Nigeria), introduction of fertilizer and other modern methods of
farming, and the realization of the fact that if Nigeria is to feed
herself, agriculture will have to be developed into a thriving
business.
Strategies for Developing Agricultural Sector in Nigerian Economy .

In meeting the strategic agricultural growth, sustainability and
increasing agricultural productivity, broad based agricultural
development driven by cost – reducing productivity, enhancing
technological change has to be of paramount strategic importance
(Labaeka, 2004).
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In developing the agricultural sector within the Nigeria economic
there is a need to put in place the following strategies.
i) Rural Development and Growth.

Particular attention should be focused on improving life of small-scale
farmers who form about 70 percent of the farming population.
Provision of basic amenities such as water, good road, electricity,
health centers, schools in rural communities will reduce rural-urban
migration of able bodied men and women. Rural Dwellers can then be
gainfully engaged in the field of agriculture. Provision of effective
transportation and communication networks make it possible for farm
produce to be moved to the urban centres at a faster and cheaper rate,
thus wastage is reduced and the farm income is increased. It also
creates easy accessibility into the international market, encourages
export and improvement of the quality of the farm produce to meet
international market standard.
ii) Provision of Agricultural Production Enhancers in the Rural
Areas:- Farmers should be supplied, through the extension

services, good quality seeds and seedling that are capable of
withstanding pests and diseases and producing higher yield.
Government capital budgetary allocations to agriculture on

annual basis had been comparatively low. This trend should
however be reversed so as to stop the present state of a
depressed economy. Provision of agricultural capital will
encourage farmers to adopt improved technology, buy quality
seeds, employ more labour, invest on cash crops and expand
the size of their farms. Plans should be put in place to
synchronize research and extension services. Emphasis
12
should be placed on biological, chemical and small-scale
mechanical technologies that can serve the needs of small-
scale farmers. The development of on-farm and off-farm
storage system together with proper disinfestations
procedures for controlling storage pests will reduce wastage
on the farm, stabilize prices and encourage farmers to
venture into large scale farming. The cuts down looses
during storage, processing and transportation ensures
efficient distribution of farm produce and provide the farmers
with up-to-date market information. All these assure the
farmers of a dependable market where goods can be sold at
competitive prices and therefore encourage the farmers to
produce more.
Exporting of agricultural produce has a long comparative

advantage in Nigeria. It helps to finance the imports, of other
commodities, expand the country’s market, enhance the
income of farmers and aid the rapid growth and development
of agriculture sector.
iii) Risks And Uncertainties Reduction:- Stabilization of producer

prices reduces farmers uncertainty about expected prices and
thus encourages the farmers to produce more and adopt new
technology for increased profit. According to Ojo (1991),
improved agricultural prices have enhanced agricultural
exports and likewise encourage farmers to produce more.
Traditional agriculture is vulnerable to pests, diseases and
climate changes. This has made farmers to suffer losses,
crop failure and bankruptcy, hence discouraging investment
13
in farming. Therefore farmers will be encouraged to invest
more in agriculture, if government could insure farmers up to
certain percentage of the average of their past yields. This
will shift the major risk in agricultural production from the
farmers to the government. Crops insurance instrument will
ensure:-
a) Adequate and reliable food supplies.
b) Fair and reasonable producer income
c) Adoption of appropriate technology
d) Export of agricultural goods and
e) Development of the agricultural sector.
iv) Good and Stable Agricultural Policy:- Government of Nigeria
should provide the right incentives through government policy
reforms. This will help to overcome the weakness in the
agricultural sector of the economy. Properly formulated
agricultural policy, encourages foreign exchange earning,
provision of adequate food, provision of raw materials for the
country’s agro-allied industries, import substitution,
employment opportunities in the agricultural sector, and
consequently rapid development of the agricultural sector
within the Nigerian economy.
2) Industrial Development and Growth.

Industrial policy was almost non-existent during the colonial era. The
economic plan which span the periods 1914 – 1945 and 1945 – 1956
were silent on industrial development (Florence O.A., 2004). In
particular, the 1945 – 1956 plan sought to provide for the acute
shortage of export crops brought about by the second world war, and
on the recommendation of the world bank mission which visited
Nigeria, a 5 – year development plan for 1955-1960 was adopted. This
plan, which lacked economic targets, placed emphasis on improved
14
communication and transport system and also agriculture for export.
On this policy, Nigeria was to remain a primary raw material
producing area for Great Britain. Even at the eve or our independent,
there was virtually no effort to make industrialization a national
priority. The 1962 – 1968 National Development plan is what can
really be called the first national plan since it specified target to be
achieved. Government planned to invest 15% of the GDP annually on
the productive sector of the economy which was to ensure an average
growth rate of 4%. The commissioning of the Kainji Dam and the
Ughell Thermal plants marked the major achievement of this plan by
paving the way for the virtual infrastructure needed for setting up of
industries. An oil refinery, a development Bank, a Mint and Security
plant were established all of which constituted a boost to the
industrial take-off in Nigeria. For the first time also trade and
industry started receiving both the Federal and Regional government
attention. It should be noted however that the attention was
concentrated on large scale (Multi-national) establishments to the
utter neglect of small scale enterprises, where existed the
concentration of self-employed. Even till this time, both the Federal
and State Governments focused their attention to the large scale
companies.
Shift in Attention From Big to Small Scale Industries (SSI)

However, by the second-half of the 1970s the government’s official
attitude to small scale industries (SSI) began to improve and in
subsequent development plans, both the federal and the state
governments have been eloquent on the importance of the small-scale
industrial sub-sector to the over-all economy. Small scale enterprises
have since been given increasing policy attention partly because of the
growing disappointment with the results of the development of large
scale industrial plants on labour absorption but most importantly
because of the realization of the potentials of Small Scale Industries
(SSI) in terms of positive contributions to economic development.
Since the 1970s attention has shifted to the small and medium scale
industries in big way and was followed by the creation of financial
institutions to provide sources of institutional credit for Small and
Medium Scale Industries (SMES) e.g. Nigeria Industrial Bank (NIB),
Nigeria Bank for Commerce and Industry (NBIC), Nigeria Agricultural
15
and Cooperative Bank (NACB), people’s Bank, Community Banks and
so on. The Federal Government has since continued in its effort to
support small and Medium Scale Enterprises (MESs). Specialized
credit schemes were also set up to enhance the spread and productive
efficiency of small and Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs). Among such
schemes are:-
a) The World Bank Assisted SME Schemes.
b) National Economic Reconstruction Fund (NERFUND).
c) The Export Stimulation Loan Scheme (ESLS).
d) The Rediscounting and Refinancing Facility (RRF).
The National Directorate of Employment (NDE) established in 1986 is

another channel through which government has promoted the
development of SMEs whilst the Work for Yourself Programme (WEYP)
introduced by the Federal Ministry of Industries and assisted by the
International Labour Organization (ILO) aim at developing
entrepreneurial skill and putting innovative ideas to fruition.
3). Educational Development and Growth.

The first colonial policy on education was in 1925. This policy was for
Africa and it touched on primary, secondary and adult education.
Further policies in 1935, 1940 and 1945 built upon the 1925 policy,
modifying it with little addition here and there, emphasis being on
adult education on the production of literate nationals who were
required to man positions, which would strengthen the colonial
administration. Thus our educational institutions, few as they were
remained factories for producing clerks, interpreters, forest guards
and sanitary inspectors as no special professional nor entrepreneurial
skill was envisaged in the educational system (Akinyemi, 1987). The
complete absence of enterprise education in the educational policy had
continued till now.
Technical and Vocational Training and Enterprise Education.

The Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) has been recognized to
play a pivotal role in the economic and social development and in poverty
alleviation. In Nigeria as early as the 1980s technical and vocational
education had been made an integral aspect of general education. The
6-3-3-4-education system saw to the vocationalization of the secondary
school curriculum in Nigeria.
16
The acquisition of relevant vocational technical and business skills is
generally regarded as one of the critical factors in the success of small,
micro and medium sized enterprises (SMME) especially in lifting them
from survivalist activities, to larger and better earning enterprises.
However, the challenges of technical and vocational education and

training in Nigeria are:-
i) There is need to reorient Technical and Vocational Education
(TVE) more towards self-employment by the active teaching of
enterprise education in every technical and vocational school
/college.
ii) There is need to address the tendency to look down on
Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) as being inferior to
secondary education. The minimal attention accorded to
technical and vocational education programmes by the
University has contributed to the negative attitudes, which TVE
has earned due to the lack of opportunities for further
education (Kerre 1998). A possible solution to this problem
may be the introduction of vocational courses oriented towards
self-employment to the curriculum of some Universities. People
in vocational institutions should be able to find their path
through University if they so desire and specialize in their
chosen career.
Drive Towards Development and Growth in Nigerian
Economy
Today, unemployment has reached an embarrassing level and the loss of
employment opportunity for young graduates has led to frustration,
insecurity and uncertainty about the future. At present most industries
which could have absorbed this pool of unemployed graduates have shut
down while those still in existence operate well below their capacity. The
educational institutions have continued to produce graduates while there
is no effective national policy in place on industrialization or self-
employment to create jobs for the graduates or to motivate them to create
jobs for themselves. If Nigeria is to develop, Nigerians needs to go back
17
to farming and if the trend of downward development in agriculture is
not immediately reversed, the other sector of the economy will be equally
affected and the Nigerian economy may eventually die a natural death.
In view of these the following recommendations are hereby suggested:

i) Provision of factors that will enhance or aid agricultural
production should be made e.g. provision of good quality
inputs, finances, transport and communication networks,
storage and processing facilities etc.
1b) List and Explain types of development and growth that can
move the economy of your country forward.
2(a) How can Agriculture contribute to Nigerian economy?
b) What are the problems of agricultural development in
Nigeria?
c) State the strategies for developing agricultural sector in
Nigerian economy.
3a) Why the shift in attention from Big to small scale industries
in Nigeria.
b) List the financial institutions that provide credit for small
and medium scale industries.
c) Highlight the Channels through which government has
promoted the development of small and medium scale
enterprises.
4a) Highlight the challenges of technical and vocational
education and training in Nigeria.
b) State the pivotal role played by Technical and Vocational
education in the economic and social development and in
poverty alleviation in Nigeria.
Agbabiaje, J.O. (1998). Nigeria Journal of Agricultural Education.

Vol. 1 (Nos. 1 & 2).
18
Akinyemi, A.O. (1987). “Effects of Government Policies on the
Development of Small – Scale Industries in Nigeria”. Paper Presented
at the National Conference on Small-Scale Industries Organized by
Business and Projects Consultancy of NISER Ibadan. 23 – 25th, Feb.
1987.
Florence, O.A. (2004). Nigeria Educational Policy and

Entrepreneurship”. J. Soc. Sci. 9 (2): 75 – 83.
Idachaba, F.S. (1994). “Nigeria’s Food Self-Sufficiency Programme:

Cornucopia or Pandora’s Box” in Invited Paper in proceeding of 1984
Annual Conference of Nigeria Economic Society.
Kere, B. W. (1998). “The Role and Potential of Technical and

Vocational Education in Formal Education System in African”. Paper
Presented at the Conference, held in the Centre for African Studies,
University of Edinburgh. 26-27th May 1998.
Labaeka, A. (2004). “Developing Agriculture in Nigerian economy”

Wonder Hands. Journal of Vocational Education. Federal College of
Education, Osiele Abeokuta, Nigeria. Vol. 5, No. 1 Pp. 49 – 55.
Ojo, M.O. (1991). “Agriculture and Structural Adjustment in the

ECOWAS: Review of the Nigerian Experience”. West Africa Journal
Agriculture Vol. 6.
19
LIVESTOCK POLICY IN THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN
BY
OJELADE, A. Y. P.
Department of Agricultural Education
Federal College of Education (Technical) Akoka,Lagos
Highlights
Introduction
Meaning and Scope of Livestock Production in Nigeria
Contribution of Livestock to Peasant Farmers
Problems and Strategies for improving Livestock Production in Nigeria
Functions and Objectives of Livestock Sub-sector in the National
Development Plan
Meaning of Livestock Policy
National Livestock Policy Objectives
The Importance of Policy Issues in Livestock Sub-Sectors
Policy Element and Processes in Livestock Sub-Sectors
Introduction
Nigeria’s agricultural policy is the synthesis of the framework and action
plans of government designed to achieve overall agricultural growth and
20
development. The policy aims at the attainment of self-sustaining growth
in all the sub-sector of agriculture and the structural transformation
necessary for the overall socio-economic development of the country as
well as the improvement in the quality of life of Nigerians. Nigeria faces
serious poverty challenges and it is estimated that two-thirds of
Nigerians now live below the poverty line of US$1 per day, most of them
in rural areas. Recognizing these challenges, the Federal Government of
Nigeria has identified investment in agriculture and rural development as
a major priority in the National Development Plan.
In the past four years, various rural development strategies have been
formulated that offer a promising strategic direction to achieve poverty
reduction, food security, and accelerated economic development. Yet,
despite the articulation of these strategies and the commitment of
government to the broader framework of pro-poor rural development,
many complex issues remain to be resolved regarding the design;
implementation, and monitoring of the progress of the strategies as they
unfold. The National Development Plan provides an ideal for the
international community to support Nigeria’s effort to revitalize
agriculture as an engine for pro-poor growth and employment creation in
Nigeria. Livestock production is a sub-sector under agriculture that is
concerned with production of farm animal, such cattle, goat, sheep, pig,
poultry, rabbits, snail, fishes and their products. This chapter discussed
livestock policy in the National Development Plan.
Meaning and Scope of Livestock Production in Nigeria

Livestock farming involves the rearing of animals. Animal’s products in
Nigeria include cattle, poultry, sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits etc. Cattle are
prominent in the savanna area of the north. Animal products form an
important source of protein fish. Farming, fishing constitutes important
occupation of people who live along the coasts and major rivers in
21
Nigeria. Fish is also a source of protein. Hunting is carried out in
forested areas. Wild animals are caught which also constitute a source of
meat production.
The major scope of livestock production includes:
(i) Animal Production and Management.
(ii) Animal Nutrition.
(iii) Animal Physiology and Anatomy
(iv) Animal Breeding and Genetics
(v) Meat and By-product Processing, Preservation and Packaging.
(vi) Livestock Extension Service and Education.
(vii) Livestock Marketing; and
(viii) Animal Health.
Contribution of Livestock to Peasant Farmers

Farm animals supply peasant farmers, and the entire citizens of a
country with the much needed animal protein. These proteins come in
form of eggs meat and milk and are very essential in sustaining the help
of the peasant farmers. This enables them to provide necessary labour.
From poultry the products are meats and eggs, from sheep we have meat
otherwise known as mutton, from goat we have goat meat, from cattle we
have beef while from pig we have pork and bacon. Peasant farmers derive
part of their income by selling of animals such as poultry sheep and
goat, pigs and cattle in addition to arable farming. Livestock keeping
serves as insurance against crop failure for peasant farmers. Farming is
like any other form of business with its attendant risks and uncertainty.
The risks and uncertainty may be in form of drought, pest, and disease
attack, flood and fire disasters. It may also come in form of fall in price.
22
Whenever this happens, peasant farmers can seek solace in selling their
livestock thus cushion the adverse effects.
Derive from above explanation, livestock help to reduce uncertainly and
risk of the farmer. When animal production is integrated into arable crop
farming, less cost is incurred on fertilizer. This is because the manure
can be used to fertilize the soil. This method of fanning commonly
referred to as mixed farming is adjusted to be suitable for peasant
farmers i.e. crop-livestock integration. Animals like goat are used for
controlling bush encroachment through their destructive eating habit.
By-product of livestock animals such as hides and skins, hooves, horns
are used as raw material by local industries for manufacturing of
leathers, button and gelatin, respectively. By-product of livestock
production such as bone meal, blood meal and tank age serve as
feedstuffs. Some farm animals supply labour on the farm such animals
include horse, donkey, oxen etc. These animals are either used for
drawing plough or as a means of transporting other farm produce from
one place to another.
Problems and Strategies for improving Livestock Production in

Nigeria
The growth of animal industry in the tropics has been retarded by a
number of problems. This retardation has seriously limited the
availability of animal protein for human consumptions most especially in
Nigeria. It has been estimated that African has nearly 4 times as many
cattle as Northern America, nearly 4 times as many sheep more than six
time as many goat. Yet, the average animal intake in the Northern
America is over six times that of Africa.Some of the problems that are
responsible for these are discussed below:
1. Breed of Animal Available: One of the greatest limitations to
livestock production in Nigeria is the type of animals that are
23
indigenous to this area. The animals are small in size have high
mortality (death rate) during growing and reach market weight
slowly. Furthermore, they are generally low producers of milk and
meat. Worse still, little effort have been made towards their genetic
improvement, by importation of exotic breed which often meet with
great failure as a result of differences in climatic conditions.
2. Climatic Problem: The climate of Nigeria can be divided into:
(i) Tropical rain forest region
(ii) Savannah area and
(iii) Semi arid region. Each of these climatic zones has some adverse
effect on livestock production and development.
The tropical rain forest even though contains adequate water and feeding
materials year round, is limited by the facts that it is conducive for the
multiplication of pest and disease organisms that destroy livestock
animals. For example, Tsetse fly which is a vector of trypanosomiasis is
prevalent in this zone of Nigeria. Also, the warmth and humid conditions
favours the development of Fungus, Bacteria and other Pathogens.The
Savannah area is limited by the fact that forage availability is seasonal
which expose the livestock to semi-starvations during the dry season of
the year. The animals thus have protracted growth and take longer
period to reach slaughter weight.The Semi arid Region on the other hand
is limited by both water and feed and animals have to trek long distances
in search of these vital and basic needs of life.
3. System of Husbandry: The system of livestock husbandry that is
prevalent in Nigeria is extensive system of livestock management and in
the case of cattle and sheep; it is mostly in the hand of Fulani’s which
moves their stock in response to seasonal availability of grasses. Under
the extensive system of management grazing and watering of animal pose
a great problem. The animals depend mostly on the natural grass land
24
for the supply of required nutrients both for maintenance and for
production.
These grass species are mostly annual of very poor feeding quality and is
largely responsible for the poor performance of animals as measured by
growth rate and productivity. The poor condition of grassland is further
aggravated or compounded by the unusual drought which occurs from
time to time. The climatic conditions placed serious limitations on both
the quality and quantity of the available grazing to the extents that most
animals loose weight during period of scarcity and some even die as a
result of lack of adequate grazing pasture lands.
4. Problems of Unreliable Data: Livestock census figures in Nigeria
have generally been based on various form of livestock taxation figure or
small sample count. The results have therefore been variable and
unreliable. The variation is even greater with other species of livestock
that are not subject to taxation and which are uniformly distributed
throughout the country. Nevertheless, adequate statistics are required in
order to be able to objectively assess the present status and construc-
tively plan for the future of livestock development.
5. Feeding and Nutritional Problems: The problem of feeding is one
of the most serious one facing livestock farmers in the tropics.
Nutritional requirement for various classes of livestock have been well
documented in temperate region but little is known about the effect of
warm environment on nutrient requirement and utilization in the tropics.
The formulation of livestock ration in the tropics is therefore based on
the requirement data in the temperate region. The cost of feeding is too
high and has been estimated to account for more than 60% of the total
cost of production.
6. Disease Problems: The tropical region to which Nigeria belong is
very conducive to pest and disease proliferation. The tropical rain forest
region of Nigeria is highly infested with tsetse fly vector of
25
Trypanosomiasis which almost makes cattle production impossible in
this region. Some other diseases like Rinder pest, foot and mouth disease
and pestesdepetit ruminae (PPR) are endemic to the tropical countries of
the world.
7. Marketing and Distribution: Most of the cattle, sheep and goat
that are produced in Nigeria are produced in the dry area of the North.
They are sold in urban areas of the South. Three types of transportations
are used such as trekking, trailers and rails. Movement by trekking is
slow, animals are exposed to disease and injury because they trek for
weeks also constitutes a severe constraint (limitation), using trailers. is
fast and reduces shrinkages losses but a lot of risk is associated with it
due mainly to frequent accident on the relatively poor roads, bad driving
habit by drivers and over-crowding coupled with over-speeding.
8. Inadequate Personnel: Livestock production is a complex

undertaking which requires a lot of professionals such as veterinarians,
animal scientist etc all working together to ensure that production and
marketing and distribution system operates effectively. Even though
Nigeria cannot be said to have inadequate personnel in the area of
livestock production but most of the professionals are bound to waste
away through unemployment soon after huge amounts have been
expended on their training.
9. Problem of Inadequate Infrastructure: Infrastructural facilities
are needed for livestock production in Nigeria. There are no good roads
for the transportation of livestock products to the marketing centre,
dams are not available, electricity and pipe-borne water are either absent
or unreliable. All these constitute serious set back to livestock
development.
10. Land Problem: Livestock production requires a large expense of
land most especially ruminant production. Land acquisition is not
26
always easy in the tropics due mainly to the system of tenure that are
prevalent in these areas. In Nigeria, land tenure by inheritance makes it
difficult to get large area of land.
11. Capital Problem: A lot of money is needed to build dam, roads
and to purchase foundation stock and to pay for personnel. This is
beyond the reach of most farmers in Nigeria. The loan facilities available
to farmers is limited due to the fact that the amount of money that is
voted for agriculture is small and further reduced for livestock. Most of
the farmers are not credit-worthy because of their lack of collateral
security.
12. Lack of Subsidy & Inadequate Funding by the Government: The

government of Nigeria has not been given adequate place to livestock
production in her annual budget, also research institutions are not
properly funded and their results are not boosted commercially to benefit
the society e.g. NPRI at Zaria., Veterinary Research Institute at Vom and
the little vote made available are mismanaged by those in the realms of
power.
Functions and Objectives of Livestock Sub-sector in the National

Development Plan
It is necessary to know the present functions of livestock sector in order
to gauge how well it is performing in relation to policy objectives, and to
ensure that new policies designed to achieve new objectives do not,
unintentionally or to an unexpected degree, disrupt the performance of
existing socially desirable functions. The government should beware of
multiple functions of livestock and of the complex relationship between
those functions. The government should also know which functions are
important to which social classes or ethnic groups in which areas of the
states. The policy analysts should understand the different kinds of
27
products system found in every part of the country and how those
systems are changing over time. It is important to understand that
expanding the output of one function may double the output of another.
There are several ways of classifying livestock sector functions. The first
step in the classification process is to quantify the relative importance of
different present functions as a prelude to judging how much they may
be disrupted by new policy. However, two widely used classifications are
conventionalized in terms of:
(i) Kinds of output; and
(ii) Uses to which these outputs are put.
Among the kinds of outputs produce are: food (i.e. meat, milk, eggs);
inputs to croppy (i.e. manure and farm power in form of animal traction);
and raw materials (e.g. wool and skins to make other goods).Among
output uses are: subsistence consumption by the livestock holder’s
household; direct supply of inputs (e.g. tradition and manure to crop
production); cash income through sales of live animals or their output;
saving and investment through increasing the size and quality of the
herd; and social functions such as paying bride wealth, helping destitute
families by lending them livestock or providing animals for communal
feasts or sacrifices. Addis Anteneh et al (1988) analyzed the relative
importance of livestock sectors functions in the sub-Saharan African.
They reported the relative importance during the late 1970’s of different
kinds of outputs when these were calculated in terms of monetary value.
These authors reported that meat remains the most valuable output
accounting for 47% of the total of the meat, beef accounts for 57%, and
small ruminant meat for 22%. The second most valuable output is
animal traction accounting for 31%, milk, the third most valuable output
account for 15%. At the same time, regional variation in terms of the
relative contribution of output was noted. Specifically, the functions of
livestock sub-sectors include:
28
(i) Provision of balanced protein for human consumption in terms of
milk, meat and eggs.
(ii) Provision of horns, hooves for gelatin, comb, buttons, spoons,
handles etc, feed, manure and maggots for fish culture.
(iii) Provision of farm power for traction and transport.
(iv) Provision of feedstuffs for livestock e.g. bones meal, blood meal,
meat scraps and offal etc.
(v) Provision of employment for citizens.
(vi) For leisure and social entertainment.
The Specific Objectives of the Sub-Sector are:
1) To improve the nutritional status of Nigerians through the domestic
provision of high quality protein rich livestock products.
2) To make Nigerian self sufficient in the production of livestock.
3) To improve locally all necessary raw materials input for the livestock
industry.
4) To allow for a meaningful and efficient use of livestock by-product.
5) To improve and stabilize rural income emanating from livestock
production and processing.
6) To efficiently protect the rural livestock farmers from the
unpredictable changes and risks incidental to livestock production.
7) To provide rural employment opportunities through expanded
livestock production and processing.
8) To affect proper land use and maintenance of the ecological system
for expanded livestock production.
The targets of Nigerian government are to attain self-sufficiency in

livestock production in the shortest possible time. The government
planned the following strategies:
1) Ecological Specialization: The government intends to divide the
whole country into various zones and each zone to specialize in the
29
keeping of the type of animals in which it has comparative
advantage.
However, government does not intend to discourage anybody from
keeping animals of his own choice.
2) Sedentarisation: Under this category, the government intends to

settle the nomadic Fulanis and provide them with necessary
infrastructure like water, hospital, school and irrigation facilities.
3) Livestock Feeds Production: Government plans to make feeds
and feed ingredients available to the livestock farmers. Government
also plans the production of cereals on a large scale knowing that
it constitutes more than 60% of livestock feeds.
4) Livestock Breeding: Government plans to embark on livestock
breeding programmes aimed at improving the indigenous breeds.
Where the rate of progress is slow, government also plans to
upgrade the indigenous breeds by crossing them with more
superior exotic breeds.
5) Animal Health: Government plans to make veterinary drugs
available to the livestock farmers at affordable prices, efforts is also
being made to manufacture these drugs locally e.g. at Vom.
6) Incentives: Government plans to give incentives to livestock
farmers in form of tax exemption from import duty.
7) Veterinary Public Health: Programmes and campaign aims at
eradicating diseases.
8) Animal by Products Development: Government plans to make
efficient use of livestock by products.
9) Input supply: Government plans to supply necessary inputs to the
livestock farmers.
10) Input Subsidies: Government plans to subsidize inputs used for
animal production.
30
Meaning of Livestock Policy
The word “policy is not a lightly defined concept but a highly flexible one,
used in different ways on different occasions. Webster’s Dictionary has a
number of closely related meanings. They are:
“A definite course or method of action selected (by government, institution,
group or individual) from among alternatives and in the light of given
conditions to guide and, usually to determine present and future decision”.
“A specific decision or set of decisions designed to carry out such a course
of action”.
“Such a specific decision or set of decisions together with the related
action designed to implement them”.
“A projected programme consisting of desired objectives and the means to
achieve them”.
In English usage, policies are “made” and “implemented” in the same way
that decisions are made and implemented. Yet, it is possible to have
policies that are not or cannot be implemented, so that, conceptually,
action that implements policies need not necessarily be part of policy
itself. Although, a policy is a set of coherent decisions with a common
long-term purpose(s). When decisions are one-off, incoherent or
opportunistic, complaints are made that a government “does not have a
policy”. Government policies are often supported by special legislation.
The term “policy”, “plan”, “programme” and “project” are progressively
more specific in time and place. Policies are usually national policies (not
state or local government) and are not normally limited in time: one does
not usually speak in terms of 2- years policies, as one does of 2-year
programme or 5-year plans.
For the purpose of this chapter, livestock policy will be defined as:
“A coherent set of decisions with a common long-term objective(s) affecting
or relevant to the livestock sub-sector”.In the countries of sub-Saharan
Africa, livestock policy may mean either a complete package of decisions
31
covering all aspects of the livestock sub-sector or a particular set of
decisions dealing with a single aspect. Examples of the former are the
Livestock Policy of Tanzania (1983) and the National Livestock
Development Policy of Kenya (1980). Examples of the latter are:
“Livestock-related land tenure policies, such as the Tribal Grazing Land
Policy of Botswana or the policies and related laws covering grazing
reserves in Nigeria or group ranches in Kenya”.
“Pricing policies, such as those embodied in the purchase prices
established by the Cold Storage Commission in Zimbabwe or the Meat
Commission in Kenya”.
Disease-control policies, as for foot-and-mouth-disease in
Bostwana,Zimbabwe and Kenya
National Livestock Policy Objectives
A key step in identifying the most important policy issues on which to
concentrate is to identify the government’s own policy objectives and to
gain some idea of the relative importance of each of these objectives.
While they are sometimes difficult to prioritize, a rough ranking is both
possible and essential if overall policy is to be effective and not deflected
by internal or external interest groups. Government objectives for the
livestock sub-sector are determined partly by an overall political
philosophy and partly through an assessment of the direction and speed
at which change in the current functions of the sub-sector is desired.
The terms in which governments state their objectives vary in each
country. However, most objectives can be classified as falling into one of
five broad groups:
 independence objectives
 economic efficiency objectives.
 resource conservation objectives.
 stability objectives.
32
 equity objectives.
Independence Objectives
Independence objectives are concerned with obtaining and preserving a
satisfactory degree of political and economic autonomy. Independence
implies that a country neither depends on foreign aid to meet the basic
needs of its population nor is susceptible to external political interference
(the former is often linked to the latter). Meeting the independence
objective requires a high degree of self-reliance, in the sense that a
country will wish either to be entirely self-sufficient in basic food
commodities or to dispose of sufficient foreign exchange to meet part of
its demand through imports. “Self-sufficiency” in all basic foodstuffs,
meaning that the country produces domestically enough to meet its
entire demand, is sometimes advocated. But self-sufficiency in this sense
can involve very high costs if the country does not have the natural or
other resources to produce a particular food commodity at low cost. It
may be better to produce some other (e.g. non-food) commodity for which
it does have the appropriate resources and to sell that to raise the foreign
exchange to buy the food commodity.
Economic Efficiency
Economic efficiency objectives “Efficiency” are concerned with increasing
the level of real national income and its growth rate over time. Economic
efficiency is a very complex concept. Efficiency implies that a country use
existing, and generates new, technology to minimize costs per unit of
output, and seek a combination of outputs consistent with its
comparative advantage in the international market. Efficiency will
usually be closely related to the appropriateness of price signals
conveyed through the market mechanism. Government intervention often
distorts these signals, resulting in a mix-allocation of resources within
33
the economy. However, the market mechanism alone will not necessarily
lead to optimum long-term development. Carefully thought out
government interventions are often needed to ensure that the conditions
for long-term efficiency in livestock sub-sector are fulfilled.
Resource Conservation Objectives
Resource conservation objectives are concerned with preserving the
natural resource base in order to ensure long-term efficiency and
independence. These objectives are of particular importance to Nigerian
livestock policy makers because of serious environmental problems, such
as overgrazing, often attributed to livestock.
Stability Objectives
Stability objectives are concerned with avoiding abrupt and large
changes in incomes, in the price and availability of domestically
produced basic commodities and inputs, and in the consequent need for
foreign exchange to buy essential imports. Since stability is rarely
secured without cost, absolute stability of prices and quantities should
not be the aim. Indeed, absolute price stability when production is
inherently unstable can worsen both supply problems and farmer
viability. Nor should food security be confused with self-sufficiency in the
production of all food types. Livestock markets, in particular, are
inherently unstable. As a result, livestock policy should be directed
towards achieving an adequate degree of stability.
Equity Objectives
Equity objectives are concerned with the fair distribution of income and
wealth within society. Important equity considerations in relation to
livestock include the distribution of income and assets among different
types of farms within and among regions, and the allocation of land use
rights between producers. The equity objective also concerns the relative
well-being of producers and consumers, the distribution of purchasing
34
power between different groups of consumers and the availability of
employment opportunities. The market process alone will not normally
lead to greater equity. Indeed, it may actually increase inequity,
especially when the status quo is already inequitable or when economic
power is becoming increasingly concentrated. Improving equity is,
ostensibly, considered essential to policy formulation.
Perhaps the most frequently encountered and best known example of an

undeclared objective is evinced by fixing livestock prices at levels that
favour urban consumers rather than rural producers. While governments
publicly espouse equity, efficiency or independence, their real objective
may be self-preservation which could favour the interests of certain
groups over others. A government’s real objectives may thus be at
variance with its declared objectives. Moreover, whether declared or
undeclared, governments’ objectives may be incompatible with those of
certain social groups or classes, whose interests may, in turn, also clash.
Political reality is such that governments are frequently “captured” by
interest groups which, through their superior wealth, power or ability to
organize, have developed greater political leverage. Thus, in Nigeria,
urban consumers of livestock products often have greater leverage than
rural mixed farmers who account for the bulk of production. These, in
turn, tend to have more influence than the pastoral groups, who produce
less, are fewer in number and inhabit more remote areas.
The Importance of Policy Issues in Livestock Sub-Sectors
The performance of the livestock sub-sector and of agriculture in general
in sub-Saharan Africa has been poor over the past two decades, and in
getting worse. The output of livestock products has grown only slowly,
exports and per caput consumption has declined and imports have risen
at a time when the regions can ill afford such trend. Tables 1.1 provide
performance data on the livestock sub-sectors by the region.
35
Table1.1 The Performance of African’s livestock sub-sectors by
region Annual change (%).

Performance Indicator Sub- West Centra East Souther
Saharan Afric l Africa n Africa
Africa a Africa
Total Output
Beef 1.5 2.7 2.7 0.9 0.2
All meat 2.5 3.9 1.7 1.8 1.3
Cow milk 3.1 1.5 1.3 3.7 3.0
Per Caput Consumption
Beef -0.9 -0.2 1.6 -1.9 -0.8

All meat -0.4 0.7 0.4 -1.1 -0.4
Dairy product 0.2 -1.5 1.5 1.2 0.1
Imports
Beef -0.4 -0.5 -1.4 1.1 0.2

All meat -0.5 -0.5 -1.4 1.2 0.2
Dairy product 3.9 1.2 7.3 12.1 4.9
Exports
Beef - - - - -
All meat -4.5 -22.2 -45.1 -14.3 -2.7
Source: ILCA (1993).
The causes of this poor performance are complex, and differ from
country to country. In general, four conditions are essential for
satisfactory progress in the livestock sub-sector:
(i) Adequate resources both physical (land, labour, good wealth) and
financial.
(ii) New technology to improve productivity.
(iii) Suitable institutions (for research, extension, marketing, credit
etc).
36
(iv) Appropriate policies, both in the economy as a whole and in the
livestock sub-sectors.
All or nearly all of the conditions have remained unfulfilled in most
countries of the region over the past two decades. This makes it difficult
to pinpoint exactly how important contributing factor poor policies have
been. Nevertheless, there is some evidence. A 1982 study of 30 livestock
project is sub-Saharan Africa financed by a major donor Over the
previous 15 years showed that for more than 75 percent of the projects,
policy issues external to them had been major factors leading to poor
performance. In addition, two arguments may be adduced as follows;
(i) Policy issues and approaches tend to be very similar in the
livestock sub-sectors to those in other agricultural sub-sectors
(food and cash crops). There is now substantial body of evidence to
show that policies have been a major determinant of progress or
the lack of it in these other sub-sectors; it seem highly probable
that the same will be true for livestock.
(ii) An internal review by ILCA of the published evidence throughout
the world on the factors determining throughout world on the
factors determining progress in livestock production indicated the
every large influence of economics factors such as prices (which
are heavily influenced by policy) in comparison with technology or
other factors. What is time of the world in general is possibly also
time of Nigeria. In short, inappropriate policy has not been the only
cause of poor performance, but they have been an important
factor.
Policy Element and Processes in Livestock Sub-Sectors
When analyzing government policy, it is often helpful to distinguish
between two elements which are essential part of any policy. These
elements are:
37
(i) Policy Objections: These are the “end” of a policy and reflect the
overall purpose or long-term aim(s): (e.g. more beef exports or
farmer access to grazing land).
(ii) Policy Instruments: These are the “means” of a policy, the action
used to carry it out and the methods by which its objectives are
achieved (e.g. imports tariffs on dairy products or a subsidy on an
artificial insemination services). The distinction is useful because
the same objective can be served by several alternative
instruments. It is only by distinguishing between objectives and
instruments that one can begin to assess the relative efficiency of
different instruments. Conversely, a single policy instrument may
affect several policy objectives. For example, an instrument used to
raise dairy price will normally welfare of the producers and
consumers as the level of milk production. In order to define the
role of policy analysis, there is the need to distinguish between two
major policy processes. These are:
(i) Policy Formulation: This is a process of considering alternative
policy option and deciding to implement one or several of them.
(ii) Policy Implementation: This is a process of carrying out the
policy (or policies) decided on during the formulation stage.
Within policy formulation, we can further distinguish between policy

analysis and policy making. Policy analysis is the process of investigating
issues and options, and of drawing up and comparing different
proposals. Policy making on the other hand, is the act of deciding which
objectives should be met and selecting the instrument by which to do so.
The purpose of policy is to affect the real world. To do this, political
realities must be fully taken into account. While imagination - and even a
degree of dairy – may be vital ingredients at the policy formulation stage,
there is no point in proposing a policy which is bound to be rejected for
38
political reasons. Policy proposal will not be accepted – and policies will
not be effective, unless they have the support of prominent politicians
and interest groups. Policy analysts must understand and take into
account the concern of politicians if viable policies are to be formulated.
Politics and politicians are in fact, central to policy issue and should not
be viewed as irritating side –issues, to be ignored whenever possible.
Livestock Policy in the National Development

Livestock production is one of the sub-sectors under agricultural sector
in the national development plan. It has been recognized to bridge the
gap of animal protein deficiency. Emphasis has been on cattle, pigs,
sheep, goats and poultry production while some attention has also been
given to rearing of rabbits. Cattle production has always enjoyed higher
priority over other livestock species. Between (1975 - 80) the livestock
industry took about 15.5% percent to total provision for the agricultural
sector of this about 20% was estimated for the development of
commercial ranches, the allocations are used for the establishment of
pasture and animals installation.
In the area of beef production, the state and federal government directed
efforts towards the establishment of ranches in livestock breeding. The
Federal Government livestock breeding and improvement centred on the
importation of Ndama Cattle from neighbouring West Africa countries.
This breed of cattle was used for cross breeding purpose in the tsetse fly
infested area of the country. The government also embarked on the
establishment of grazing reserve and the development of pasture. The
government helped in the establishment of pasture, and has reserved
11km2 of grazing area and constructed necessary assess roads. In
Gongola State, reserve areas were established and five others were
surveyed and demarcated.
39
Under the national animal help programme about 4.5 million animals
were vaccinated against contagious Bovine pleuro - pneumonia
(CBPD).The various state governments embarked on the establishment of
various clinic investigating centre, control post and purchase of
equipment and drugs.
Major Area of Policy Emphasis
The major areas of policy emphasis of the government is to achieve self
sufficiency in poultry and pork production and substantial improvement
in the production of beef, sheep and goats as well as encourage small
scale livestock farmers all over the country. Others are:
1. Establishment of large scale feed and livestock multiplication for
the production of parent stocks of poultry and pigs.
2. Subsidization of livestock inputs such as feeds, breeding stock
drug, and equipment etc. livestock producers.
3. Encouragement of private ranching of birds, sheep and goat
through the provision of improved pasture and fodder facilities for
facilities for the grazing. Improved breeding stock and settlement
skills for the nomadic herdsmen.
4. Intensification of veterinary and livestock production extension
services.
5. Provision of more intensive services -such as credit, processing,
storage and marketing facilities to stimulate increases in
production.
6. Encouragement of livestock producer co-operative to be involved in
production, processing and market functions.
Under the beef production programme, the federal government would
make provision for the expansion of existing cattle ranching in the
country to accommodate a total of about 32,500 breeding stock by 1985.
Four new ranches with a capacity of 60,000 heads of cattle would also be
established in different parts of the country for breeding and fattening
40
purposes. It was also planned that about 167,000 heads of cattle would
be breed and fattened in the cattle producing states during the five year
period. More livestock investigation and breeding centre as well as
artificial insemination centre and equipment will be constructed and the
existing ones be expanded to serve government and private farms.
Diary Production
At state level attention will be focused on dairy production in 8 states
their activities would include establishment of new farm and
maintenance of the existing one. The new farm would be stocked with
about 2,292 improved local and exotic breeds with high milk yielding
traits. The offspring from these would also be located outside government
specifically directed at obtaining fresh milk from the local herdsmen to
be processed into pasteurized milk, ice cream, skim milk and condensed
milk.
At federal level branches at Kaduna and Minna diary farm would be
expanded in order to attain milk output of about 20,000 litres of milk per
plant annually; new breeds from each farm has a capacity of 600 litres
e.g. Friesian cows would be established in four centres to provide local
source of raw materials for the dairy industry.
Grazing Reserves, Pasture Development and Supplement

Foodstuffs Feed schemes
Under the programme 5 million hectares of land would be acquired and
demarcated for pasture development and for the establishment of
livestock service centre in a bid to provide assistance to 10,000 nomadic
families to settle down permanently. The service centres would be
established in semiarid guinea and derived savannah zone and would
provide management services treatment facilities, pasture seed and
supplementary feed to farmers at subsidized price. About 335,000 tons
of supplementary feed were planned to be distributed at state level, state
41
efforts would be geared towards the establishment of grazing reserves,
production of supplementary feeds and settlement of the nomadic
herdsmen about 1,250,541 ha of new grazing reserves would be
established while the existing one would be maintained for the
supplementary feed programme. Feed mills would be established to
produce about 720,000 tonnes of feed annually while hay production
and forage improvement schemes would be undertaken. Over 1 million
ha of land had been earmarked for resettling the nomadic herdsmen.
Poultry Production
The Federal Government programme on poultry included provision of
assistance to ten states for expansion of their hatcheries so as to
increase the national annual production of day old chicks to 5 million. A
poultry grand Poultry farming has also transformed from an unorganized
small scale business with low rate of return into a big profitable industry
operating on different scale throughout the country.
parent’s stock farm with a capacity of 20,000 layers would be established
in Jos to produce about 600,000 day old pullets annually. Similarly, a
grandparent farm with a capacity of 20,000 birds will be established in
Port Harcourt to provide 600,000 day old broilers parent stock annually.
Four satellite complexes would be established for broilers and layers
each possessing one parent stock and ten commercial farms. To ensure
readily available poultry and pigs feed ingredient, the federal government
would purchase large quantity of grains and concentrates to be re-sold to
the state to enable them utilize a greater proportion of their feed
capacities to support the planned poultry and piggery deve1opment
programme.The efforts of local government were to supplement those of
the various state governments which will equally be geared towards the
production of more poultry products for the Nigeria markers. New poultry
farms would be established and existing ones expanded. Establishment
42
of poultry development centre, purchase and installation of feed mills
and incubators and the construction of feed stores would be pursued.
About 120 new poultry farm were to be established by LGA’s involved in
various poultry project.
Pig Production
Development activity were carried out in the Southern States where
efforts were directed towards the expansion of existing units and the
supply of breeding stock of existing units and the supply of breeding
stock to private farmers. The Federal Government planned to establish
two pigs breeding centre and special assistance would be provided to ten
states where pig production and consumption were widely accepted to
enable them execute their planned programme. The Minna piggery would
be re-activated to supply breeders to other parts of the country, it would
hold 1,300 sows to produce 15,000 gilt’s, meat and bacons. Over 300
pure line sow and 30 boars parent stock would be established. The
Jebba piggery would produce about 150,000 sows annually. It would
have a pig farm feed processing, packaging and marketing unit.
Sheep and Goat Production
The Federal Government planned centre would be established while the
existing centre at Tuma and Ladnaun would be expanded. The centre
would appropriate sheep and goat husbandry method for maximum meat
production. This programme would involve pasture development,
introduction of better management practice and superior breed. The
commercial ranges each will have a stock of 500 improved sheep, goats
units each. Exotic breed would be imported to cross-breed the local
breed for better quality meat or faster attainment of slaughter weight
while 2,100 hectares of land would be developed for pastures.
Rabbit Production
Eight states had programmes for rabbit production to its advantage as a
prolific breeder and cheap source of animal protein, rabbit production is
43
giving more attention by a larger number of states during the planned
period than what obtained previously. Breeding, multiplication and
demonstration centres would be established in various locations to
produce more than 90,000 breeders annually for distribution to
interested farmers. In some states, rabbit production would be
established in farm centres under the animal production schemes for
demonstration purposes to indigenes.
Veterinary Services
At L. G. Level, the veterinary services programme includes campaign
aimed at the eradication of contagious bovine plueroneumonia (CBPP).
They would be increased from 40 - 60% of exposed cattle population
during the planned period under animal health programmes. Control of
other Bovine diseases including anthrax, Hermorahagic, black quarter
and Rinderpest would be undertaking. Feasibility study on foot and
mouth diseases control would also be carried out, about 3 - 5 million
small ruminants would be vaccinated against pleuroenthrities and
control measures for both external and internal parasite would be
undertaking. A compulsory vaccination would be administered against
new castle, fowl pox and fowls typhoid disease in poultry.
Quarantine Services
Facilities would be expanded at three international airports while new
ones would be established along Nigerian boarders; inter-state cattle
control posts and a holding centre. Due to the incidence of loses caused
by pests; a permanent control team would continue to be made available
on tsetse fly control through the various on going projects. “Persistent
insecticides would be applied on Glossina spp at their resting places by
the ground spay unit. Three new units will be established in the middle
belt and southern states to increase the total number to eight and each
will cover 1,500km annually.
44
The units would carry out spraying operation and protective measure
around ranches. Trypanosomiasis and tsetse survey would be conducted
in reclaimed area and in the southern part of the country. At the state
level, veterinary service would be given prominent attention. The major
programmes to be executed include, the construction of about 115
veterinary clinics/sub-clinics and diagnostic laboratories hospital
complexes, rural treatment centre and control post and the purchase of
17 mobile clinics. Attention would be given to massive vaccination for
protection against CBPP would be undertaken at Local Government level,
about 230 veterinary clinics and veterinary centres and control post and
cattle diseases would be constructed in strategic areas. Stock routes
would also be demarcated in a few states.
Fish Production
The development and modernization of the means of fishing, processing,
storage, marketing etc. by the adoption of improved technology and
management practices. The promotion of export trade in shrimps, crabs,
oysters, periwinkles, turtles etc. The improvement of the quality of life in
fishing villages through the provision of fisheries infrastructure and basic
utilities such as portable water, schools, electricity, health centres,
roads, market etc. The provision and improvement of employment
opportunities in the rural areas by engaging the rural population and
school leavers gainfully in fisheries and ancillary functions. The
acceleration of research on all aspects of fisheries with a view to
determining the potentials and parameters for development and
management. Consolidation and improvement in existing training
programmes designed for the development of the manpower requirement
to help meet the fish production target. The promotion of fisheries
curricula in the nation’s institution of higher learning, ensuring the
proper utilization of all agro-industrial by-products of crops and animal
residues which are found to be suitable for cultivable fish species.
45
Major Problems of achieving Livestock Policies in the National
Development Plan.
Although, the third national development plan contains some of the most
progressive measures aimed at alleviating the animal protein shortage in
the country, a number of problems and constraints have been militating
against the realization of the objectives and target of the programme.
These include:
1) Shortage of various categories, of manpower.
2) Inadequate extension activities due to shortage of trained
personnel or refusal to employ the qualified ones available.
3) Inadequate marketing facilities and marketing information.
4) Inadequate supply, high cost and poor quality feeds and other
inputs
5) Shortage of grazing area and water supply and tsetse fly infestation
in the central southern region of the country.
6) Lack of adequate credit facilities especially for small scale
producer.
Revision Questions
1. What is livestock farming?
2. List and explain the scope of livestock production
3. Classify and explain livestock sub-sector functions
4. Specifically state the function of livestock sub-sector in Nigeria
5. Enumerate the specific objectives of livestock sub-sector in Nigeria
6. List and discuss the various strategies that can be use to attain
self-sufficiency in livestock production in Nigeria.
7. Discuss the major problems that militate against livestock production
in Nigeria
46
8. Discuss in details the contribution of livestock to peasant farmers
in Nigeria
9. State the six major livestock policy emphasis as contain in the
National Development Plan.
10. Discuss the following fields of livestock production with reference to
livestock policy in the National Development Plan:
(a) Diary production (b) Poultry production (c) Pig production (d) Sheep
and goat production (e) Rabbit production and (f) Fish production
11. What consideration does livestock policy gives to :
(a) Veterinary service (b) Quarantine service and (c) Grazing reserve,
Pasture development and Supplement feedstuff scheme.
12. Discuss livestock policy with reference to National Development
Plan .
13. In a broad sense, state the objective of new Nigeria livestock policy .
14. Explain the key features of the new livestock policy in the National
Development Plan.
15. List the major content of livestock policy framework.
16. What are the new government policy direction for livestock
production ?
17. Critically discuss the roles of the following stakeholders in the new
livestock policy:
(a) Federal Government (b) State Government (c) Local Government and
(d) Private sector
18. Discuss the key livestock development support and service
programme of the Federal Government
19. Define and explain the term ‘Policy’ as it relate to livestock
production in Nigeria
20. Differentiate between ‘Policy objectives’ and ‘Policy instrument’
21. Explain what you understand by Policy processes.
22. Write notes on the following:
47
(a) Independence objectives (b) Economic efficiency objective (c) Resource
conservation objectives (d) Stability objectives and (e) Equity objectives
Suggested Further Reading.
1. Addis Anteneh, Standford, S. and Berhanu Anteneh.(1988):Policy,

Finance and Technology in livestock development in sub-Saharan
Africa: Some critical issues. ILCA Bulletin 31:2-
13.ILCA(International Livestock Centre for Africa ),Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia
2. Dahi,G. and Hjort,A.(1978):Having herds :Pastorial herd growth
and household economy. Stockholm studies in social Anthropology
2.Department of social Anthropology.University of
Sweden,Stokeholm Sweden,335pp.
3. Gryseels, G. (1988):Role of livestock on mixed smallholder farms in

the Ethiopian highland. Ph.D thesis,Wageningen Agricultural
University, The Netherlands ,249pp.
4. Sandford, S. (1988); Livestock in the communal area of Zimbabwe,

A report for the Ministry of Land Resettlement and Development.
Overseas Development Institute, London, UK.169pp.
5. Sandford, S. (1985); Better livestock policies for Africa .ALPAN

(African Livestock Policy Analysis Network) Network Paper 1.ILCA
(International Livestock Centre for Africa) Addis Ababa Ethiopia, 22
pp.
6. Solomon Bekure, de Leeuw P.N Grandin G.E and Neate P.3 H

(1991) Maasi heading: An analysis of the livestock production
system of Maasi. Pastoralists in eastern Kajiado District, Kenya.
ILCA system study 4 ILCA (International Livestock Centre for
Africa) Addis Ababa Ethiopia, 172 pp.
48
7. Sulter, J.W (1987) Cattle and inequality: herd size difference and
pastoral production among the Fulani’s of the north eastern
Senegal., Africa 57 (2)
8. Wyclkoff J.B and Ngutter L.G.K (1984), Livestock policy

identification and formulation. Theory and practice in Kenya,
Paper presented at the conference on livestock policy issues in
Africa 24 – 28 September 1984, ILCA (International Livestock
Centre for Africa) Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
9. Williams’s T.O (1993) Impact of livestock pricing policies on meat

and milk output in selected sub-Sahara African countries. ILCA
Research Report 20 ILCA (International Livestock Centre for
Africa ) Addis Ababa Ethiopia
ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN NIGERIAN

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT.
AJIBADE A.S

FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECHNICAL), AKOKA LAGOS.
Highlights:
Introduction
Meaning of agricultural extension
49
Origin of Agricultural extension in Nigeria
Meaning of Agricultural Development
Role of Agricultural Extension in Agricultural Development
Problems of agricultural extension in Nigeria
Solutions to problem of agricultural extension
Revision Questions
INTRODUCTION
Nigerian agriculture is dominated by peasant farmers who reside
in rural communities and engage in primary production raising crops
and animals for food and for sale. Before independent, agriculture was
the most active sector of the economy providing food, employment, raw
materials for agro-based industries and export and earning a significant
proportion of foreign exchange. The discovery of crude oil in the Niger
Delta in the early sixties led to a shift from agriculture to petroleum
export. The consequence of this is low productivity. This situation was
further aggravated by factors such as rapid urbanization, migration of
able-bodied men and women from rural to urban areas, high level of
illiteracy among the rural farmers, ineffective rudimentary farm
technology, poor rural infrastructure menace of pests and diseases and
limited access of farmers to land, finance, improved seeds and breeds of
animals agricultural information. The dwindling agricultural fortunes
50
has had an adverse effect on the economy. One of such effects is the
pressure on the food sub sector to import food for feeding the teaming
population. This also constitute a drain on the economy.
It has since been realized that no meaningful development can
take place if the declining agricultural productivity is left unchecked.
There is therefore an urgent need to revamp agriculture so that it can
continuously fulfill the traditional role of providing food as well as raw
materials for export. Any effort made in this direction must involve the
transformation of the rural communities so that the bulk of the farmers
who reside there can accept modernization and civilization. It has been
acknowledged that the rate of agricultural transformation is directly
related to the educational standard of the rural communities.
Modernization of agriculture must be rooted in an increase in the general
level of education of the rural populace so that they can handle complex
agricultural practices and techniques. Agricultural education both
general and specialized will induce motivation, widen farmers social and
economic horizons and predispose them to greater receptivity of new
innovations and techniques (Ogunfowora, 1981).
MEANING OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENTION
Many authors have attempted various definitions of agricultural
extension. Maunder (1973) defined agricultural extension as a service or
system which assists farm people through educational procedures in
51
improving production efficiency and income, bettering their level of living
and uplifting the social and educational standard of rural life.
William, Williams and Fenley (1983) defined agricultural extension
as a voluntary out of school education programme for adults consisting
of relevant content derived from researches in the physical, biological
and social sciences synthesized into a body of concepts, principles and
procedures. It employs teaching and learning principles that affect
changes in farmers generally carried out in an atmosphere of trust and
respect between the agricultural extension personnel and the farmers.
Some authors also equate agricultural extension with technology
transfer. This is however not correct because technology transfer
includes the additional functions of input supply and agric services.
Besides this agricultural extension needs to teach farmers management
and decision making skills and also assist rural people in developing
leadership and organizational skills so that they can better organize,
cooperate and participate in cooperatives, credit societies and support
organizations and play active roles in the development of their local
communities, (Swanson and Claar, 1984).
Agricultural extension is a crucial variable for achieving economic
growth and human progress. It has three basic educational tasks which
include dissemination of useful information related to agriculture and
home economics, enhancing practical application of such knowledge to
help farmers and house wives analyze their problems and bring
52
improvement in a systematic way through carefully planning and
organized programmes and assisting farmers and housewives in using
the technical knowledge gained to solve their own problems.
ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN NIGERIA
The term extension was first used in connection with education in
England over 100 years. Some lecturers in Cambridge University then
used it in describing the method of spreading knowledge from the
institution to a large number of people outside its walls. In the same vein
extension was used in connection with agriculture in the United States of
America in 1914. During this period lectures given by the university
lecturers to the public were called extension lectures but with the
passing of Smith Lever Act in that same year the term came to be used
mainly for the non formal education for the farming community. (Adams,
1982 and Swanson and Claar, 1984 ).
In Nigeria, the colonial government recognized the importance of
agricultural extension as the only means of transferring innovations and
technologies to the African farmers. In 1893 the colonial administrator
established a botanical garden in Lagos for the purpose of introducing
new crops from outside the country and for collecting indigenous ones.
In 1904 the British Cotton Ginning Association established the Moore
Plantation in Ibadan for experimental work on cotton under R.D. Moore
53
and by 1910 the Department of Agriculture was created to guide the
agricultural training. Agricultural graduates were trained in Yaba Higher
College and the Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture in Trinidad. On
completion they were attached to experimental stations to learn more
research before meeting the farmers. It was the policy of government
then that nobody should become an extension officer who had not done
basic research nor could any innovation be passed to the farmer without
being tested in the experimental station. Other research institutes such
as the West African Institute for Oil Palm Research (WIFOR) and the
Cocoa Research Institute (CRIN) also came on board. Up to
independence, agricultural research achieved some landmarks in
developing rotational bush fallow to replace the shifting cultivation
system, improving soil fertility introduction and improvement of dairy
and cattle and expansion of cocoa, oil palm and groundnut. The major
limitations were lack of publicity and neglect of indigenous food crops.
In 1951, agriculture was regionalized and in 1954 the Department
of Agriculture was created in each region. Each Department of
agriculture had its separate extension and research division. Agricultural
officers were recruited to Mann each of the political divisions while the
zones were manned by agricultural assistants. The Northern region made
tremendous impact in research while the Western region was foremost in
extension. The Eastern region played no significant role in any of these.
54
After independence agricultural extension was taken care of in the
National Development plan. The question of manpower training and
needs received more attention. The National Policy on Agricultural
Development emphasized the need to train personnel at both
professional and technical levels which was actively pursued in the
universities and colleges of agriculture. Projections were made over the
years beginning with the Ashby report of 1959. It was also further
emphasized that there was the need to train more extension agents
particularly the intermediate grade with the likely expansion of food and
cash crops and to meet the needs of the private sector.
MEANING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Akande and Osuntogun (2000) viewed agricultural development as the
shift from traditional methods of production that include new
technological components such as new varieties, cultural practices, new
crops and/or even new farming systems. This process is the essence of
agricultural development and each step in the process will require
educational and or communication inputs”.
Agricultural development can also be seen as the “process by which
continuous increase in agricultural efficiency produces the conditions
which result in general upliftment of the farmers. Upliftment in this
context can be material and quantitative while it can also be
psychological and quantitative; in the latter it is hardly quantifiable.
55
Thus both the raw materials (physical) and psychological well-being of a
people mutually reinforce each other in process of general upliftment.
Simply put the material progress and the psychic upliftment of the
collectivity of the rural people are indispensable and constitute elements
in agricultural development process” (Adewale, 1997).
If efficiency in agricultural production is to be attained and the peasant
farmers who constitute a bulk of the farming population is to be uplifted,
a functional agricultural extension must be provided. It is only when this
is done that a radical change in agricultural development can take place.
ROLE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT
Agricultural extension is a veritable tool for widespread and sustainable
agricultural development. Nigeria needs it so as to reduce the high level
of illiteracy among the farming population and liberate them from
ignorance poverty and diseases. The roles of agricultural extension in
agricultural development includes the following:
- Educate the farmers. Agricultural extension is an educational
process with dual goals. It brings information on new innovations
and technologies to farmers. It teaches the farmers how to use
them. It enables the farmers specify their own needs and provides
a feedback on the effectiveness of extension in meeting them.
Through this two way communication between farmers and
56
researcher, extension can provide effective transfer of relevant
information and technology to farmers. Extension thus provides
the vehicle for increasing agricultural productivity because it links
the farmers with the outside world – the scientist, the creditor and
consumer of his products (Pickering, 1983).
- Extension provides the link between farmers and research
institutes. “Agricultural extension elicits information about
farmers concern and problems with different technologies and
convey them to technology centers and research institutes. The
solutions provided to the problems are again brought to farmers. A
partnership is therefore needed between the research institutes
which develop the technology, the extension agency which
transfers technology and the farmers who use the technology.
Extension is most effective when relationships among the partners
encourage dynamic, open communication and feedback” (Saito and
Weidemann, 1990).
- Agricultural extension helps to increase agricultural
productivity and rural income. It achieves this task by bridging
the gap between technical knowledge and farm practices. Several
studies have shown that extension is generally cost effective and
has significant impact on farmers knowledge and adoption of new
technology and hence on farm productivity. Thus agricultural
extension service can improve agricultural productivity by
57
collaborating with farmers and researchers in development of
technologies (such as cultural practices, varieties, chemicals and
tools) in response to todays rapidly changing circumstances,
providing these technologies to as many farmers as possible in a
timely and accurate manner using a variety of communication and
training methods, encouraging farmers to informally test, adapt
and adopt the technologies thus increasing productivity (Saito,
Mekonnen and Spurling 1994). In Nigeria agricultural extension
has greatly influenced the diffusion of improved technologies
relating to cocoa, coffee, rubber, groundnut and oil palm
production.
- Encourage formation of farmers cooperative societies. Farmers
are encouraged to form cooperative societies which are used as
avenue to acquaint members with what is being done to improve
agriculture and to establish local organization and disseminate
agricultural information through publications, public lectures and
newspaper articles. Cooperative societies are particularly useful in
dissemination of information on new technologies, distribution of
farm inputs and establishment of demonstration farms.
Cooperative societies in Nigeria especially the group farming
cooperative societies have reduced the cost of transferring
innovations to farmers. For example, information on new seeds
and other input including methods of application are imparted
58
during the regular meetings of the societies. Also new seeds and
chemicals are introduced on group farm and consequently copied
and used on individual farms.
- Help farmers locate proper marketing channel. It supplies
marketing information and strategies to farmers. It provides
knowledge of pricing policies, use of standard weight, measures
and quantity which price variations may be determined, marketing
forms and other related aspects. Such information help farmers
sell and get a good price for their produce and also save them from
being exploited by middlemen.
- Equip farmers with managerial ability to operate in a
commercial economy. It achieves this by providing training and
guidance to farmers in decision making. In such an economic
situation, prices of products and factors of production have to
guide the farmers in their decisions on farm operation rather than
the quantities of production or utility of products. To farmers who
are largely farming in a subsistence economy this is a major
change and which has to be made if agriculture in developing
countries is to be made increasingly productive. Agricultural
extension helps farmers to develop proficiency in this type of farm
management (Williams, Williams and Fenley, 1984).
- Extension organizes farmers to gain access to farm inputs
such as improved varieties of crops, breeds of animals,
59
agricultural chemicals, fertilizers, labor saving devices and
loan or farm credit. If farmers obtain and use these inputs, their
productivity is enhanced and they have more food to eat and other
produce to sell and make money and hence their financial security
is guaranteed.
- Agricultural extension helps in collecting and collating basic
information relating to the rural economy. Such information
are used for planning, organizing and implementing auxiliary
programmes.
- Persuade farmers to adopt agricultural innovations and
technologies in their farms. Extension gets farmers into a frame
of mind and attitude conducive to acceptance of technological
change. Majority of the peasant farmers who engage in agricultural
production in Nigeria are largely illiterates, tradition bound and
afraid to take risks that will involve them in great financial loss.
They will only accept and use an innovation if they are convinced
beyond all doubts that it is technically viable, economically feasible
and compatible with their farming system. Through effective
training and dynamic agricultural extension programme new
knowledge and technology can be transmitted and acquired by
farmers. Simple change such as adoption of a new variety of crop
involves a minimal extension input. However if such change
involves a new time of planting, a higher plant population, more
60
fertilizer or the use of pesticides, farmers may have much to learn
to adopt the new technologies. Therefore the work of agricultural
extension no matter how it is done involves developing the minds
of people so that they can show readiness to venture, try new
things – be it creative or enterprising, take calculated risks, plan
ahead wisely and execute plans confidently.
PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN NIGERIA
The following problems tend to render agricultural extension ineffective
in meeting the needs of the farmers.
 Low extension agent to farmer ratio. The situation is such that we
have 1 extension agents to 1000 or more farmers. There is no way
any one working in this kind of condition can be effective. This
may account for the reason why many farmers have not received
the desired attention from the extension agents assigned to their
locality.
 Poor motivation of extension workers. Most of the agents are poorly
remunerated in terms of salary and fringe benefits. This tends to
reduce their morale as well as attitude to work.
 A larger proportion of rural farmers have unfavourable attitude
towards government programmes. This is largely blamed in failure
of government to fulfill some promises made to assist farmers in
61
areas of finance and inputs. The farmers for this reason have no
confidence in government programmes.
 Uncoordinated efforts by government agencies may lead to
confusion and rejection by farmers.
 There is the problem of language barrier. Nigeria is a multi-ethnic
state with diversity in languages spoken. Many extension agents
find it difficult working outside their locality due to language
problems. Language barrier may cause improper dissemination of
information to farmers.
 Inadequate evaluation machinery also makes it difficult assessing
the achievement/success of extension work.
 Poor rural infrastructure: Many rural communities lack motorable
roads. Roads leading to farms are mere footpaths. Extension
agents find it quite difficult visiting farmers in their farms to attend
to their problems.
 Shortage of subject matter specialist. There is dearth of subject
matter specialists available to attend to the needs of the farmers.
This hinders passing the right information to farmers.
 Inadequacy of inputs. The inputs required by extension agents to
do their work are grossly inadequate. The agents may also not
have enough inputs such as improved seeds, stems cutting,
fertilizers and agro chemicals for distribution to his clients on
62
request. This may hinder adoption of technologies introduced to
the farmers by the extension workers.
 Inadequate funding. This affects extension agent in his training
and work. Poor funding renders it impossible obtaining farm
implements necessary for carrying out some tasks on the field.
 Bureaucratic bottleneck. The field workers are often forgotten by
the administration. They prepare reports which are sent to
administration for action. A lot of bureaucratic bottlenecks are
encountered before actions are taken on such reports. This is
largely due to the fact that authority is highly centralized and
decisions have to be referred to headquarters. There are often
cases of delayed action, misrepresentation and neglect of field
workers.
 Inadequate content. Sometimes the content of extension teachings
are borrowed from advanced countries and they tend to be of little
use to our local farmers who may not be able to apply what is
learned to farm practice. Setbacks are encountered due to
inappropriate technology and institutions borrowed from advanced
countries. Many recommended practices have been insufficiently
profitable to justify their inclusion in extension programmes
 Lack of practical skills. Extension workers often lack practical
ability as a result of poor training and selection. Frequently their
63
involvement in demonstration plot show how much they learn from
the farmers they are supposed to teach.
 Lack of supporting services. Extension services in developed
countries are aimed at rural societies which are highly specialized.
Usually there, the extension worker is supported by
representatives of commercial firms selling a multitude of
products. The situation in developing is very different. Extension
here is directed to people who are quite poor and illiterates
receiving no support from private commercial suppliers of
agricultural chemicals tools and spare parts.
SOLUTION TO PROBLEM OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Extension work must be seen by government as an integral part of the
total effort to improve agriculture. The following steps can be taken to
make extension service effective.
 Government should recruit more extension agents. The ratio of
extension agents to farmers should be 1:350. This is necessary so
that the agents can visit and attend to the farmers.
 Extension work should not be the monopoly of government. Private
individuals and companies should be encouraged to set up
extension and supporting services for the greater public.
64
 Develop agricultural research centres to set up linkages and
disseminate useful information to the farmers. Such centres
should be involved in the following:
- Transformation of research findings into agricultural media
materials with emphasis on electronic and print media;
- Providing radio programmes and other methods of information
device;
- Providing farm management advisory services whereby all available
resources are at the disposal of the farmers;
- Encouraging farmers to form cooperative societies
 Training should be provided for extension staff so as to update
their knowledge. Aspects of practicals should be emphasized in
such training programmes.
 Content of extension teaching should be related to the needs of the
farmers. Appropriate technology could be introduced so that the
farm can readily use them.
 Ensure adequate funding of extension work. The
budgetary allocation to agriculture should be increased and special
attention given to extension.
 Extension workers should be proper
remunerated. Salary for extension agents should be reviewed
upward. Hazard allowance and other fringe benefits should be
65
given to extension agents so as to motivate them to put the desired
efforts in their job.
 Government should live up to expectation by fulfilling promises
made to assist farmers. This is necessary so as to make farmers
develop interest and confidence in programmes initiated by
government.
 Inputs necessary for effective extension job should be made
available to extension agents timely.
 Rural communities should be provided with the necessary
infrastructure. Access roads should be constructed to link the
villages with the towns. This will enable extension agents have
an easy access to farms where their services are required.
 Recruit and train subject matter specialist who can pass the
right knowledge and skills to the farmers.
 Bureaucratic bottleneck should be reduced by decentralizing
authority and allowing field officers take some decisions relating
to their work on the field without necessarily referring them to
administration.
Issues relating to extension workers request should be given the
prompt attention they deserve.
66
 Extension information should be given wide publicity in print and
electronic media. Such information should be presented in local
languages spoken in the area.
 Extension agents should be trained and deployed to work in their
local communities so as to overcome language problem.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1.Define the term agricultural extension
2.Trace the origin of agricultural extension in Nigeria
3.Explain the concept of agricultural development
4.Discuss the role of agricultural extension in agricultural
development in Nigeria.
5.Explain the problems of agricultural extension in Nigeria
6.Discuss the steps that could be taken to make agricultural
extension effective in Nigeria.
Suggested Further Reading
Adams, M.E (1982) Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries UK

Longman Group Ltd. PP 7-13.
67
Adewale, L (1997) “Community Development Education: A Futuristic
Scenario” in fajonyomi, A.A and Biao, I (Eds) Policy Issues in Adult
and Community Education. Maiduguri Mainasara Publishing
Company, pp 58-70
Akande J.O and Osuntogan O.A (2000) Illiteracy Eradication among the
Nigerian farmers for Sustainable Agricultural Development;
Implications for Promoting Adult Education – International Journal
of Continuing and Non – Formal Education 1(1) pp 80 – 88
Mannder A.H (1973) Agricultural Extension: a reference manual (abridge

edition) Rome. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations
Ogunfowora O. (1981) “Educating Rural Communities for Progress” In

S.O Olayide, O. Ogunfowora, S.M Essang and F.S Idachaba (Eds)
Elements of Rural Economics Ibadan University Press Publishing
House. 263 – 276
Pickering D.C (1983) “Agricultural Extension: A Tool for Rural

Development” In Meemea, J Coulter and J, Russell (Eds)
Agricultural Extension by Training and Visit Washington D.C the
World Bank.
Saito, KA. And Weidman C.J (1990) Agricultural Extension for Women
Farmers. Washington D.C. World Bank discussion papers 103 PP 1-
3
Saito, K.A Mekonnen H and Spurling D. (1994) Raising the Productivity of

Women Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington DC World Bank
Discussion Papers African Technical department series 230, PP 4-
13, 60-71
Swanson, B.E and claar I.B (1984) History and Development of

Agricultural Extension in B.E Swaanson(Ed.)Agricultural Extension: A
Reference Manual 2nd Edition Rome Food and Agricultural
organization of the United Nations PP 1-18
Williams, S.K.T Williams CT and Fenley J.M (1984) Manual of

Agricultural Extension Ibadan Shyraden PP 1-7, 10-21.
TRENDS IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA.
OLADIPO, A.S.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION’
68
FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECH.), AKOKA
Highlights.
-Introduction
-Historical survey
-Present day agricultural policy
-Objectives of agricultural policy
-Features of agricultural policy
-Development programs in agricultural policy
-Revision Questions
Introduction
The rate of agricultural development in Nigeria has always been hinged
on the rate of development of the country’s agricultural technology.
Interestingly, since the country’s independence, her agricultural
development has undergone significant fundamental changes and
evolutionary processes that have not improved the sector’s performance.
These changes have been manifested in the significant shift in emphasis
from commercial agriculture in food crop production (for domestic
consumption) and tree crop production (for domestic) during the early
1960s to food importation starting from late 1970s. Development
economists have always put the blame for this shift in emphasis on the
emergence of petroleum as the chief source of foreign exchange for the
country, and government’s resulting neglect of the agriculture sector.
Within the same period of time, the effect of new and improved
agricultural technologies that, in other countries, had led to a green
revolution has been negligible in Nigeria. Viewed in retrospect, Nigeria’s
agricultural development up to date can be seen to have evolved in three
distinct phases. The first phase covered the colonial period (1914 –
1959) and the first post independence decade (1960 – 1969); the second
69
phase spanned the period 1970 – 1984; and the third phase started from
1985 and has continued to our present day.
HISTORICAL SURVEY
FIRST PHASE ERA: During the first phase, agricultural
development was almost entirely in the hands of millions of private
sector small scale farmers with minimum direct government
intervention in agriculture. Government support for these farmers
has, at the time, largely regional in scope and character and came
in the form of regional government enacting policies and
establishing institutions for research, extension and crop
export/marketing. The federal government contributed only
through agricultural research support. The attitude of government
during that first phase was regarded as a residual sector in the
economy. However, the sector performed well then, and did not
attract any government undue interference up till 1960 after which
some regional government established farm settlement scheme as a
way of modernizing agriculture. Soon after the country’s
independence in the 1960, there appeared sign that the agriculture
sector was running into some difficulty. Such signs included
declining export crop production and food shortage that were at
first non-alarming. These signs were, at the time largely believed to
be transitory especially given the Nigeria civil war that soon
provided an acceptable excuse for poor agricultural performance.
SECOND PHASE ERA: Generally declining and poor performance

in the sector characterized the second phase of agricultural
development in Nigeria, this subsequently, led the government to
70
fundamentally change its former posture of almost non-
intervention to one of complete control of agriculture.
Government’s raw approach took on maximum intervention in the
form of multi-dimensional direct involvement through aggressive
agriculture policies, programs and projects. It was during this
period of full government involvement that crude oil was discovered
and that provided a good excuse for government to tactfully
withdraw from agriculture and leave the plaguing problem on the
sector to the farmers. These began the neglect of the sector from
the 1970’s. Later average attempts by government through
enacting generally ineffective and unimplemented macro and micro
policies did not help the situation.
THIRD PHASE ERA: The third phase of Nigeria’s agricultural

development has witnessed the ineffectiveness of many of
government’s policies and programs. In order to tackle the
problem, government had to shift from supply-side to demand –side
management policies. These started with the:
 Enactment of an economic stabilization act in 1982 to
control foreign exchange and restrict imports.
 Reduction in capital and recurrent expenditures of federal
and state government.
 Placement of all imports under specific import license in
1984 and
 Declaration in 1985 of a fifteen month economic
emergency period during which several austerity measures
were adopted and specified percentages of workers salaries
and corporate profits were paid to government. This
71
market the beginning of the introduction of the structural
adjustment programmed (SAP) that was finally launched in
1986.
At that time agriculture was explained to be the chief corner-stone

of the structural adjustment program and farmers were informed
that SAP would provide the best basis for attaining self-sufficiency
food and raw material through increased domestic production
resulting in increased farm incomes of the rural poor.
Unfortunately, the structural adjustment program was not allowed
to run its full course before it was unwittingly terminated by the
Abacha regime. They left the agricultural sector high and dry such
that initial benefit like increased agricultural output, higher
agricultural produce prices, and reduced food prices for consumers
that has started showing quickly turned into hardship for the
ordinary farmers. Many of the farmer laudable policies and
programs that have been put in place to support agricultural
development were abandoned.
Such policies and programs included:-

 agricultural commodity marketing and pricing policy which
set up and operated six commodity boards for cocoa,
groundnuts, palm produce, cotton, rubber and food grains
(maize, miller, sorghum, wheat, rice and cow-peas).
 Input supply and distribution policy which ensured
adequate and orderly supply of modern agricultural
inputs,
72
 agricultural input subsidy policy for fertilizer, seed, agro-
chemicals, and tractor-hire services,
 land use policy which controlled land ownership and land
use pattern,
 agricultural research policy which concerned the provision
of institutional mechanism for coordinating research and
extension nationally,
 agricultural extension and technology transfer policy
which eradicated the former practice of state-based
agricultural extension and instituted a new country-wide
extension system in which extension personnel were
deployed to specific national programs and projects in
order to facilitate the adoption of new technologies by
farmers,
 agricultural mechanization policy which encouraged the
operation of tractor hiring units by state and substituted
the use of some appropriate forms of mechanical power for
human labour,
 agricultural cooperatives policy which mobilized rural
people for social and economic development through
membership in agriculture cooperatives,
 water resources and irrigation which established eleven
River Basin Development Authorities in 1977 with the
overriding responsibility for developing land and water
resources in the country for agriculture,
 establishment of government – owned companies in the
1970s for producing oil palm, cocoa, grains, roots and
tubers, fish, livestock, etc and
73
 launching of operation feed the nation (1976 – 1979) and
Green revolution programs (1980 – 1983) to spearhead
increase food production in the country.
The last agricultural policy document that was produced, adopted

and launched by the Babangida administration in 1988 for a fifteen
year implementation span has remained in the shelves of officials of
the federal ministry of agriculture without being used as the
agricultural development guide it is intended to be. Administration
after administration since Babangida has ignored the policy
document and the programs and strategies recommended for
achieving the stated policy objectives.
The picture of the agricultural sector in 1999 when President

Olusegun Obasanjo came into office was not a rosy one as the
sector had become unattractive, with low profitability and no real
incentives for investors. The government has tried to change the
situation by pushing in place the National Economic Empowerment
Development Strategy (NEEDS) in March 2004. This is supported
at the state levels by the State Economic Empowerment
Development Strategy (SEEDS) with initiatives in areas of Cassava,
rice, vegetable oil, sugar, livestock and fisheries, tree crops and
cereals.
74
Nigeria’s Agricultural Policy Today-a Summary.
The first national policy on agriculture was adopted in 1988 and
was expected to remain valid for about fifteen years, that is, up to
year 2000.The new agricultural Policy came in 2001 during
Obasanjo regime.
Objectives of the Policy includes:-

i) Attainment of Self-sufficiency in basic food commodities
with particular reference to those which consumer
considerable shares of Nigeria’s foreign exchange and for
which the country has comparative advantage in local
production.
ii) Increase in production of agricultural raw materials to
meet the growth of our expanding industrial sector;
iii) Increase in production and processing of exportable
commodities with a view to increasing their foreign earning
capacity and further diversifying the country’s export base
and sources of foreign exchange earnings.
iv) Modernization of agricultural production, processing,
storage and distribution through the infusion of improved
technologies and management so that agriculture can be
more responsive to the demands of other sectors of that
Nigeria economy.
v) Creation of more agricultural and rural employment
opportunities to increase the income of farmers and rural
dwellers and to productively absorb an increasing labour
force in the nation;
75
vi) Protection and improvement of agricultural land resources
and preservation of the environment for sustainable
agricultural production;
vii) Establishment of appropriate institution and creation of
administrative organs to facilitate the integrated
development and realization of the country’s agricultural
potentials.
Development Programmes In The Agricultural Policy.

i) Research and Development Including Biotechnology:-
The effort in this direction is to finance agricultural
research including bio-technology and breeding of
predators for biological control of crop pest. The output of
the research system would be disseminated by extension
services of states and local governments to farmers.
ii) Animal Vaccine Production:- The objective is to raise the
level of vaccine production in Nigeria to self sufficiency
status and to also later for the entire West Africa Sub-
region. Towards this end, the premier institution, for
animal vaccine production in the sub-region, The National
Veterinary Research Institute (NVR) at VOM, would be
strengthened, enlarged and modernized to actualize this
objective under a three year programme.
iii) Agro-Chemical Manufacture:- The effort in this direction
is to manufacture and promote the production of agro-
chemicals by the private sector and to ensure the
protection of the users, the eco-system and the
76
environment. Effective mechanism to ensure compliance
with the law is put in place.
iv) Water Management:- The objective is shift to development
of small dams as a more cost effective way of utilizing
water resources for irrigation in the country. The
maintenance of the existing large dams will continue to be
the responsibility of the Federal Government. Moreover,
rain harvesting for irrigation, is to be promoted where
surface and underground water is not readily available.
v) Adaptive Technology:- This is geared toward improving
the efficiency of production, a simple labour and cost
saving devices that are appropriate for the current level of
agricultural production and processing in the country will
be developed and mass produced. The National Centre for
Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM), established for the
purpose will be strengthened with animal traction and
hand tools technology development encouraged.
vi) Agricultural Development Fund:- This is to provide the
necessary impetus for the sustainable development of the
agricultural sector with emphasis on all facets of
agricultural research, market development, extension
delivery, long-term credit, rural institutions development
and enterprise promotion.
Revisions Questions
1) Briefly trace the phases of agricultural development’s
policy in Nigeria.
77
2) Distinguish the essential features that differentiate
the respect levels.
3) Discuss the solutions to the neglect of agricultural
sector by the government in the second phase era.
4) What re the differences in the declaration made
between 1982 to 1986.
5) Enumerate the policies and programs to support
agricultural development that were abandoned.
6) What are the benefits of Agricultural Technology
Policy to National Development?
7) What are the benefits of the Agricultural
Development Programme (ADP) to the Agricultural
sector?
8) Discuss briefly the areas cover by the policy of
Agricultural Development.
9) How would the Development Programs revive
Agricultural Production?
SUGGESTED FURTHER READING.

Agricultural in Nigeria: The new policy thrust. http://arcnigeria.org
policy . htm
Akanji, O.O. Ofu, M.F., Essien, E.A. nd Onwioduokit, E.A. (1999):

http://arcnigeria. Orglagricpolicies,htm. Issues in
Agricultural input policy: An empirical evaluation of fertilizer
production distribution and price subsidy in Nigeria.
Research and International Economic Relation Department
Monography, CBN. 8-10.
Aribisala, T.s.B (1983): Nigeria green revolution: achievement,

Problem and Prospect: Distinguished lecturer No 1, Nigeria
78
Institute od social and Economic research (NISER), ibadan,
Nigeria.
Bukar Shaib, Adamu Aliyu and Bakshi, j.B. (1997): Nigeria

National Agricultural research Strategy Plan: 1996 – 2010 (5-
15).
Development Policy Centre (DRC) (1977): Economic Intelligence

Food Price: Past, Present and Future No. 2, July.
Evenson, E.R. (1982): Benefits and Obstacles of Appropriate

Agricultural Technology. Yale University, Economic Growth
Centre. SAGE Publication, INC 275, South Beverly Drive Hills
California 90212 (54 – 63).
Olayemi, J.K. (1998): Food Security in Nigeria Research Report No.

2. Development Policy Center (DPC), Ibadan, Nigeria.
Pardey, P., Rosebiom G.T. and Anderson (Eds) (1991). Agricultural

Research Policy: International quantitative Perspective,
University Press.
The World Bank (1981): Accelerated Development in Africa: An

Agenda for Action, Washington, DC, USA.
79
PROBLEMS OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT IN
NIGERIA
IBIYEMI, E.O.
FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECHNICAL), AKOKA, LAGOS.
Highlights:
 Introduction
 Problems of Livestock Production in Nigeria and Suggested
Solutions
 Review Questions
 Further Reading
INTRODUCTION
Livestock are kept primarily for subsistence or commercial production in

Nigeria. They include cattle, sheep, goat, pig, poultry and rabbit. They
are kept on the farm for productive purposes. These may mean the sale
of meat, milk, eggs or wool, or may concern the use of these stock
products at home. In addition to these saleable commodities, other
products such as hides, manure, draught and social prestige can be
included when livestock are kept for home use.
Since livestock are kept for their products, good husbandry demands
that they are cared for in such a manner that they will produce to the
highest possible level with the management available. This means that
the housing and feeds should be those that will provide for optimum
production. This in turn has necessitated sound knowledge on basic
principles and practices of livestock production so as to achieve and
maintain higher levels of productivity.
PROBLEMS OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA AND

SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS.
80
Many factors are responsible for low livestock production in Nigeria that
is characterized by poor weight gain of the animals, low productivity of
meat, eggs and milk and poor reproductive ability. These factors include:
1. Poor Productivity of Indigenous Livestock: The growth of

animals indigenous in Nigeria has been retarded due to a
number of problems. The animals are small in size, have high
mortality during the growth period. They reach market or
slaughter (mature) weight slowly and are generally low
producers. It is this low productivity that has seriously limited
available protein in Nigeria.
Solution: Crossbreeding, upgrading and other breeding programmes

should be carried out using exotic breeds noted for high productivity.
2. Poor System of Animal Husbandry and Management: This includes

inadequate provision of feeds and water,
overstocking/overcrowding, inadequate ventilation, poor sanitary
conditions and exposure of animals to extreme climatic conditions.
The employment of cheap untrained attendants result in inefficient
management and unprofitable operations.
Solution: Practice good animal husbands and management system.

There is also the need to train the attendants on efficient husbandry and
management systems to be adopted.
2. Feed: The problem of feed is one of the most serious problems

facing the farmers. At a given level of management and disease
control, livestock production is a function of the level of feeding.
Nutrient requirements for various classes of livestock have been
81
well documented in the temperate regions when compared to
the tropical regions (developing nations). Formulation of
livestock ration is therefore based on the nutrient requirement
data from these regions (temperate). Also, little work is done on
the incor[poration of locally available agricultural and industrial
by-products into livestock ration. There may also be the
problem of adulteration of feed by feed millers. The
compounded feed is very expensive and some of the ingredients
used are difficult to be sourced for. There is also the problem of
grazing and watering especially for ruminant animals. The
animals depend mostly on the natural grassland for the supply
of required nutrients for maintenance and production. The
grass species are mostly annuals of very poor feeding quality.
This low feeding quality is largely responsible for the poor
performance of the animals as measured by growth and
productivity. The poor condition of the grassland is further
aggravated by the unusal droughts, which occur from time to
time. The climatic conditions also place serious limitations on
both the quality and quantity of available grasses to the extent
that most animals lose weight during periods of scarcity and
some even die as a result of inadequate grazing.
Solution:
(i) Feeds should be compounded based on the nutrient requirements
of different classes of livestock in the tropics.
(ii) Locally available agricultural and industrial by-products should be
incorporated into livestock ration as substitute to conventional
feeds ingredients.
(iii) Well formulated and unadulterated concentrate feed should be fed
to farm animals to ensure increased production.
82
(iv) Establish and maintain a pasture.
(v) Government should also provide adequate grassland for farmers.
4. High Incidence of Diseases, Pests and Parasites:- There is a high
prevalence of infectious and parasitic diseases that affect livestock
resulting in their low productivity. Diseases such as rinderpest and
trypanosomiasis affect ruminant livestock while Newcastle disease of
poultry can wipe out the whole flock. The nomadic system also offers
opportunities for the spread of contagious diseases such as rinderpest,
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), anthrax and foot and mouth
disease (FMD).
Solution:
(i) Vaccination programme against diseases should be embarked
upon by the farmers. They must not skip any vaccination
schedule.
(ii) Ensure good sanitation and maintain hygienic conditions on the
farm.
(iii) The farmers should adopt an appropriate control measure
whenever there is an occurrence of pests and diseases.
(iv) The farmers should use animals that are tolerant to pests,
parasites and diseases.
(v) Effort should be geared towards the control and total eradication of
deadly diseases of livestock.
(vi) More vaccines production centers should be sited in the country by
the government.
(v) Manufacturers of drugs and vaccines from abroad should be
encouraged to site their manufacturing industries in Nigeria.
5. Transportation (Marketing and Distribution): Ruminant

livestock production is majority carried out in the north and these
83
animals have to be transported to urban centers in the south for
sale. Different means of transportation employed include trekking
and by trucks. The deplorable road condition in Nigeria hinders
transportation of livestock and products to the market. This
causes delay in arrival of the products to the market and at times
leads to wastage. Vehicles are also inadequate for use, and when
available, they may be in bad condition. Cost of transportation is
high, thus leading to high cost of production and selling price,
which eventually result into low demand of products and
consequently low profit margin.
Marketing as a constraint to livestock production in Nigeria arises

mostly from inadequate provision for planned production. There
are no arrangements for parallel marketing and processing
facilities to take care of output on time and also to eliminate the
chain of exploitative middlemen within the system.
Solution:
(1) Government should rehabilitate existing roads and construct new
ones linking the rural areas to the urban centers (i.e. the farm to
the market).
(ii) Spare parts must be readily available for the regular servicing and
maintenance of vehicles used in transportation of farm produce.
(iii) More agro-based industries that use livestock products, as raw
materials should be sited so that livestock farmers will be rest
assured of immediate market for their products. This will generate
more employment opportunities and encourage many people to
invest in livestock production.
84
6. Shortage of Qualified Personnel:- Livestock production enterprise
requires a large team of different professionals, all working
together to ensure that the production, marketing and distribution
system operate efficiently. There is acute shortage of qualified
personnel and underutilization of qualified manpower at all levels
of livestock production in Nigeria.
Solution:
(i) More qualified personnel should be trained in our higher
institutions and research institutes.
(ii) Incentives should be given in form of scholarships to encourage
would-be animal scientists and veterinarians.
7. Land: This is the uppermost layer of the earth crust on which

agricultural and non-agricultural activities are carried out. Large
area of land is needed for livestock production especially
ruminants. The land tenure system (command, inheritance or
leasehold) constitutes a problem to adequate livestock production.
It leads to fragmentation of land and does not make it easily
available for large-scale production. Prospective farmers find it
difficult to acquire enough land because of the system. Individuals
who have no interest in livestock production may also hold the
land. Land is also scarce and very expensive to purchase.
Solution:
(i) Government should provide adequate land for farmers to practice.
(ii) The land use act should be well implemented so that individuals
will have access to land easily.
85
8. Inadequate Capital /Credit Facilities: The financial status of the
farmer is poor, as a result of this; he is unable to meet up
adequately with daily expenses on the farm. Would-be farmers are
also hindered due to inadequate capital, since livestock production
is highly capital intensive. The risk that is involved hinder banks
from granting loans to livestock farmers. High interest rate
charged by banks also discourage farmers from requesting for
loans.
Solution:
(i) Farmers should form cooperative society in other to pool resources
together for the benefit of members and to gain better attention of
banks and other credit-lending agencies.
(ii) Granting of loans /credit facilities to farmers with reduced interest
rate.
(iii) Farmers can also borrow money from friends, relatives and money
lenders.
9. Inadequate Dissemination of Research Findings/Poor Funding

of Research Institutes: There is very application of research
results to animal production. The flow of information to farmers is
not direct because of inadequate extension workers. There is
therefore a communication gap between agricultural institutions,
research institutes and the livestock farmers. The government also
poorly funds the universities and other research institutes. This
negatively affects research work and dissemination of the findings.
Solution
86
(i) More extension workers must be trained and given adequate
incentives to be able to go to the farmers and demonstrate new
innovations and disseminate research findings to them promptly.
(ii) Seminars, workshops, summit and conferences can be organized
for farmers in collaboration with universities and research
institutes.
(iii) Government must adequately fund universities and research
institutes.
(iv) Livestock programmes can be sponsored on radio, television and
print media by individuals, government and non-governmental
organizations.
10. Poor Animal Breeding Programmes: In temperate regions, animal

breeding programmes are well planned and organized. This is not
so in the developing countries such as Nigeria. There is poor
animal breeding selection programmes and inadequate information
on the genetic worth of different breeds.
Solutions:
(i) Animal breeding programmes such as crossbreeding, upgrading
etc should be well planned and organized by animal breeders.
(ii) Government should support this programme by providing the
necessary facilities and funds.
11. Inadequate Infrastructural Facilities:- Farmers need social

amenities like electricity, hospitals, pipe-borne water and good
communication network etc to live comfortable. The absence of
these facilities affects their productive capacity and result in rural-
urban migration, thus reducing farm labour.
87
Solution:
(i) Government should ensure the provision of these facilities in all
areas in Nigeria.
(ii) The farmers should construct boreholes and purchase
generator for use on the farm.
(iii) The Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) should be
made readily affordable by the government.
12. Political Instability And Government Policies: Political

instability, changes in leadership, and inconsistent government
policies affect development of livestock production. The planning
and policy formulation of the government has generally not been
done with objectivity, neither has implementation been carried out
with commitment. There is no continuity in policy formulation and
implementation with successive governments. There is
bureaucracy, corruption and embezzlement of funds in government
administration. Policy formulation has remained a general
problem, with the consequent effect on the entire economy, which
in many cases can be described as unplanned. And even where
attempts have been made at livestock policy formulation, policy
coordination has been difficult owing principally to the fact that
central planning is lacking throughout the national economy. The
resulting conflicts create impediments for the livestock sector most
of whose inputs such as feed grains, supplements, vaccines, drugs
and equipment, are derived from outside the sector.
Solution:
(i) Government must ensure political stability and prevent
unnecessary heat up of the polity in the country.
88
(ii) There must be commitment on the part of the government to
implement formulated policies concerning livestock production.
(iii) Corrupt individuals who embezzle funds must be dealt with in
accordance with the law of the land.
13. Low Literacy Level / Education of The Farmers: Some of the

farmers lack basic knowledge of livestock husbandry and
management system needed for effective and efficient livestock
production.
Solution:
(i) Literacy programme (training) in livestock production should be
organized for the farmers.
(ii) They should be encouraged to attend seminars, workshops,
summit and conferences in livestock production.
14. Climate: This is the average weather condition of a place

measured over a period of time. Factors of climate include
rainfall, wind, temperature, relative humidity and solar
radiation. Livestock production is affected by these
factors; for instance, high temperature and relative
humidity is conducive to proliferation of pests and
disease pathogens that reduces the performance of
livestock. High temperature may be harmful and causes
sudden death in livestock. High intensity of solar
radiation causes heat stress in farm animals and thus
reduces their growth, production and reproduction. High
relative humidity also affects food intake and productivity
of livestock. Livestock production is also affected by the
variations in temperature and relative humidity.
89
Maximum productivity can be achieved only at a
particular range of temperature and relative humidity.
Solution:
(i) Livestock should be kept at temperature and relative humity
optimum for production and avoidance of heat stress.
(ii) Consider the climatic condition of the place before embarking
on rearing a particular livestock because rainfall in particular
determines the vegetation types found in different parts of
Nigeria, which in turn determine the types of livestock that can
be raised in the different ecological zones. Much animal rearing
does not take place in heavy rainfall areas because of high
humidity and tsetse fly infestation.
(iii) Provide adequate ventilation for the comfort of farm animals.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1(a) List and explain ten (10) problems of livestock production in
Nigeria. (b) Suggest two (2) possible solutions to each problem.
3. Discuss ten (10) factors that are responsible for low livestock
production in Nigeria and suggest two (2) possible solutions to
each.
SUGGESTED FURTHER READING

Desmond, H. (1988). Cattle and Buffalo Meat Production in the Tropics.
Longman Group UK Ltd.
Ibraheem, K. (2005). Basics of Livestock Production Kalyani Publishers,

New Delhi.
Job, A. (2000). Effective Poultry Feed Production and Supply. Nig.

Poultry
Science Journal. Vol. 1, 18.
Mc. Nitt, J.I. (1983). Livestock Husbadary techniques. Granada
90
Publishing Ltd London.
Ositelu, G.S. (1981). Animal Science. Cassel Ltd. London.
THEORIES OF GROWTH AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

T.T. AWOYEMI
Department of Agricultural Economic

University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Highlights:
 The Distinctions between Growth and Development
 Theories of Growth and Development
- The classical and New-Classical Theory
- The basic Resource Theory
- Internal combustion Theory
- The Dual Economy Theory
- The Export-led growth Theory
- The Urban Industrial Impact Theory
- The High Input pay off Theory
- Diffusion Theory of Rural Development
91
- Induced Development Theory.
 The contribution of the Theories to Agricultural Development.

 Revisions Questions.
Introduction
This Chapter draws extensively on the work of Essang (1975) on Growth
Models and Rural Development. In this chapter we shall undertake a
brief review of some of the economic growth theories which are used to
explain the process of economic and rural development in the less
developed world. The primary objective of this review is to assess the
extent to which these theories throw light on the rural development
problems faced by policy makers in the less developed countries. Before
discussing these models, however, it is essential that we clarify the
distinction between economic growth and economic development since
much of the confusion in academic discussion and policy making circles
is due, in a large measure, to the failure to make a clear distinction
between these concepts.
The Distinction between Growth and Development.

Economic growth is defined as an increase in per capita real income over
time. In this definition, nothing is implied as to the sources of the
increase in per capita income, or the character of factors of production
and infrastructural facilities. Economic development, on the other hand
is defined as the process whereby the real per capita income increases
over time through changes in the quality and quantity of productive
factors, and the institutionalization of the growth process. In particular,
development implies not merely the growth of per-capita real income, but
92
also its distribution, the sources of growth, the development of
infrastructure, and administrative framework essential to sustained and
cumulative growth. As such, it is a much broader concept than
economic growth.
The distinction between economic growth and development is important

in several respects. First, it suggests that a country may be ranked very
high in the scale of economic growth and yet be found at the bottom of
the scale when the criteria of development are used. Second, if a country
is interested primarily in economic growth, it may not bother very much
about the process by which it is achieved. This has implications for rural
development strategy in the less developed countries. Many countries in
their quest for higher per capita incomes, adopt a development strategy
which emphasizes capital intensive and large scale projects in the
industrial as well as in the agricultural sectors. Consequently, though
these countries achieve high growth rates of per capita incomes, they are
plagued by problems of unemployment and inequitable income
distribution. Third, the failure to distinguish between growth and
development partly explains the nature of disappointed expectations
characteristic of countries in the under-developed world. For while the
leaders of these countries appear committed to development, they very
often embark on policies which foster the growth in per capita incomes at
the expense of development. For instance, they often fail to make
adequate investment in the training of man power, or the building of
rural infrastructure, consequently, they usually discover, much to their
bitter disappointment, that in spite of years of development planning, the
rural sector is still stagnant, there is still an acute shortage of skill and
they still have to import virtually all their non-farm consumption and
capital goods.
Manifestations of Growth:
93
 Increase in Gross Domestic Product(GDP)
 Increasing Economic activities in terms of production
 Increasing in population leading to decrease per capital income
 Export promotion drive to stimulate back exportation of
agricultural product.
Manifestations of Development:
 Infrastructural development and distribution
 Increase awareness of poverty reduction measures
 Some welfare indicators e.g. health facilities, electricity, access to
good motorable roads, availability of portable water etc.
 Quality initiatives foster even an equitable distribution of income.
The general awareness that income should be equitably distributed
is a mark of development.
 Appropriate records of factors production through market
liberalization for their worth.
 When productivity is matched with earning.
Theories of Growth and Their Relevance.

The Classical and Neo-Classical Theory: According to the classical and
neo-classical economists, the growth of any economy, whether rural or
non-rural is a function of capital investment and employment of labour.
However, capita tends to flow into sectors characterized by high rates of
return and high marginal productivity of capital. Labour similarly moves
into a sector characterized by high wage rates. From this emerges the
classical and neo-classical proposition that, to promote economic growth
in the rural areas, it is necessary to undertake measures which will raise
the rate of return to capital investment and the earnings of labour.
94
To a certain extent, the classical and neo-classical model has relevance
for rural development in the less developed areas such as Nigeria where
out-migration of labour and capital from agriculture is usually attributed
to much lower returns to these factors of production in rural than in
urban investments. Nevertheless, the model has a number of
limitations. First, it ignores the importance of improved quality of labour
as a factor in economic development. Yet it is a well known fact that in
both the developed and the less developed countries, agricultural and
economic development is positively related to the quality of the labour
force. Second, the model ignores the role of communities services and
infrastructure which by generating external economics, account for high
rates of return to capital investments. Third, the classical and the non-
classical model places an exaggerated emphasis on factor and input
prices as a determinant of investment and growth, thereby ignoring the
role of institutional and organizational arrangements. Even if the prices
of input and output were to give perfectly accurate signals to
entrepreneurs, it would still be necessary to devise appropriate
institutional frame work to facilitate the mobility of resources and raise
the incentives of entrepreneurs and other productive factors. In practice,
owing to market imperfection the present of externalities and the
magnitude of development efforts, planning and organization are
essential not only for resource mobilization, but also for allocation of the
resources in the interest of greater efficiency and equity. Finally, the
classical and neo-classical model ignores the crucial role of technology
which, by shifting the production function to the right, tends to reduce
cost and increase the rate of return to capital investment.
The Basic Resource Theory: The basic resource theory states that
economic growth depends on (a) the presence, (b) the quality, and (c)
magnitude of basic natural resources within particular areas or
95
economic regions. The development of these resources attracts
investment capital to these areas, and increases income and
employment.
There is considerable truth in the proposition of the basic resource

model. In any part of the world, economic development consists, at least
in the initial stages, in efforts to exploit the readily available natural
resources. Within a particular country, regions or areas with basic
resources tend to have a higher income and to grow faster than those
with meager resources. In Nigeria, the cocoa, groundnut and cotton
growing areas of the country experience, until recently, much faster
growth than the resource poor areas. At present the States in the Niger-
Delta region of Nigeria are experiencing rapid economic growth based on
the production of a highly valuable resource – Petroleum.
However, it would be wrong to assume that the mere availability of basic

resources is a sufficient guarantee of rapid growth. Instances abound
where regions or countries continue in stagnation despite the availability
of basic resources. In colonial territories, poverty and stagnation co-
existed with the existence and exploitation by the colonial entrepreneurs
of mineral and other resources. In the U.S.A., the Tennessee region
remained for long an economic back-water despite the availability of
resources. On the other hand, both the Israelis and the Japanese have
demonstrated that scantiness of basic resources need not constitute an
insuperable barrier to development, so long as the available man power
is of a high technical quality and is strongly motivated. In short, what
really counts in the long run is not availability of basic resources. It is
the existence of a technically competent labour force and a leadership
strongly dedicated to the objective of economic development.
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Another limitation of the basic resource theory is that it does not
sufficiently emphasize the operation of diminishing returns. This failure
is unfortunate since most natural resources are characterized by
diminishing returns to labour or capital in the face of rapid population
growth and essentially static production technology. Besides, in many
countries, the exploitation of basic resources is undertaken without
regulation and with no thought of conservation – a circumstance which
intensifies the operation of diminishing returns.
The third limitation of the basic resource theory is its abstraction from
technological change. In practice, the role of natural resources in
promoting development is a function of technological change. For
instance, much of the impact of petroleum production on economic
development owes a lot to petroleum technology, geology and hydrology.
The use of water for hydro electric power is purely a function of
technology – developments in the areas of hydro-statics and dynamics.
Similarly, the dramatic expansion in agricultural exports is made
possible by technological developments which reduce transport cost and
widens export market possibilities.
Internal Combustion Theory: Internal combustion theory attributes

economic growth and development to forces within the region or country
other than the presence of basic natural resources. These internal
sources of growth include technology, specialization, economics of scale
and the existence of growth stimulating institutional, political and
administrative arrangements. The message of this theory is that the
requirements of growth can be deliberately created, or modified. As such
growth can occur in any region or country of the world.
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As a description of historical experience, the internal combustion theory
has several short-comings, however. It is only in exceptional
circumstances that, in the absence of basic resources, appreciable
economic growth occurs purely as a consequence of internal processes.
What usually happens in practice is that in the attempt to exploit basic
resources, entrepreneurs are compelled to become creative and inventive.
For example, in countries with plentiful supply of land, the attempt to
use the land fully encounters a bottleneck by way of labour scarcity and
high wages. To break this bottleneck, entrepreneurs produce labour
saving technology. It need not be stressed that apability without
opportunities is of little account. Certain economies may have people of
inborn entrepreneurial and technological capacity. But these talents will
avail nothing unless opportunities for exercising them are available. A
brilliant farm manager will remain ineffective and unable to contribute to
development unless there is adequate land for commercial farming in the
region. Moreover, world economic history shows that though internal
forces are important, they are not always crucial. On the other hand,
external forces tend to exert a critical influence on the pace of
development. Among such forces are the emergence of foreign demand
for the products of the developing country, the influence of externally
created technological ability, government intervention which comes
outside the economic systems and industrial and technological
revolution. In any case, countries are so increasingly influenced by
external forces that development in any part of them cannot proceed in
isolation from external influences. This fact is acknowledged by the
external combustion theory according to which economic development
owes a lot of external influences.
The Dual Economy Theory: In the dual economy theory typical less
developed country is characterized by the existence of two distinct
98
sectors, namely, the modern sector and the subsistence (rural) sector.
While the modern sector is market oriented and uses considerable
capital equipments and technology, the subsistence sector produces for
family consumption and relies on non-purchased inputs such as family
labour and land for production. Unlike the modern sector, the
subsistence sector is characterized by absence of savings and capital
formation – a circumstance which, along with the virtual absence of
technology, largely explains why the productivity of labour is very low
and why resources are underutilized in this sector.
Given the above characteristics of the two sectors, the authors of the
dual economy theories had no difficulty in prescribing what to them the
most appropriate development strategy was. This strategy consisted in
concentration of resources from the subsistence sector for this purpose.
It was believed that this strategy would ensure cumulative growth of
incomes, employment and rapid structural transformation of the
underdeveloped economies. Indeed, Ranis and Fei were at pains to
emphasize that as development proceeded in the modern sector, a time
would arrive when surplus labour would cease to exist in the subsistence
sector. At this point, government was to undertake measures to raise
labour productivity in the subsistence sector in an effort to prevent
inflationary prices of farm products from putting a damper on the
process of industrialization of the urban areas.
In one respect, the dual economy theories sketched above resemble the
classical and neo-classical theory in their emphasis on the need to
channel resources to the growing and more dynamic sector where
returns to investment are presumably higher. As a guide to rural
development, however, the theories have very serious short-comings.
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First the theories do not give an accurate representation of the structure
and performance of a typical underdeveloped economy. There are no
countries where the agricultural (subsistence) sector is characterized to
the small and fast growing industrial sector, the savings and capital
formation in the rural sector is quite small. But this is not to say that
there are no savings and capital formation. Second, the authors of these
theories have a very narrow conception of development which they view
as a process of concentrating resources on already developed areas. As
the experience of most developing countries shows, such a strategy does
not lead to development. This is because the resulting neglect of the
rural areas where the vast majority of the population live crease a
situation where food and raw material shortages and low income and
inflation of food prices adversely affect both demand and cost structure
and therefore impede the process of industrial development. In addition,
the concentration of efforts on the dynamic sector in line with the
prescriptions of the dual economy models causes a gap in the earnings of
urban and rural resources and contributes to the outflow of the capital
and labour resources from the rural to the urban areas. The effect of all
this is massive unemployment in urban areas, tremendous demand for
urban social services and the diversion of scarce funds from productive
investments to the provision of costly social services. Third, the dual
economy theories assign a very restricted role to agriculture. In the
opinion of the authors of these models the role of agriculture is to serve
the ends of industrialization via the provision of cheap food, cheap raw
materials, and the release of labour and other resources. It is not
realized that a strategy of cheap food, cheap raw materials and cheap
labour has adverse effects on rural purchasing power and can seriously
undermine the capacity of agriculture to play the very limited role
prescribed for it. Fourth, the theories generally mislead policy makers in
the underdeveloped countries by emphasizing and even exaggerating the
100
capacity of urban industries for cumulative growth. This emphasis rests
on assumptions regarding entrepreneurial ability of urban industrialists,
the capacity of urban industrialists for savings and investments of profits
and the availability of worthwhile and profitable investments projects in
the urban areas of the underdeveloped countries. However, the
development experience of most less developed countries bears ample
testimony to (i) the scarcity of real entrepreneurial talents in these
countries (ii) the inability of most urban industries to make substantial
profits despite their monopoly of the domestic markets (iii) the very small
value added in a number of manufacturing industries (iv) the tendency
for most of the profits to be sent away as dividends to foreign share
holders and (v) the failure of industries to train a sizeable number of
local skills and generate employment. Faced with this disappointing
record, policy makers in the less developed nations are now employment
in their economies. To carry out this task, what they need is a model
which accords a role to rural development in its own right and not as an
appendage of industrial development.
Export-Led Growth Theory: Export led-growth theory explains

economic development in terms of the emergence and expansion of
markets for export production. According to Myint, the foremost
exponent of this view, the opening of markets in other parts of the world
expanded the demand for exports whose production was intensive in the
use of the abundant land and labour resources of the less developed
economies. This led to a fuller utilization of previously underutilized
land and labour. The result was cumulative growth in incomes,
employment and government revenue. The expansion of exports also
induced investment in infra-structural facilities such as ports, roads,
railways, and banking institutions which are essential to growth.
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The export-led growth theory pretty well explains the process of economic
development in many African and Latin American countries, at least in
the early stages. In West Africa, economic growth was closely associated
with expansion of agricultural exports until the middle of the sixties
when petroleum assumed a dominant role in Nigeria. Despite the oil
boom, the Nigerian governments are alive to the close association of
agricultural exports with farm incomes and employment in many
Nigerian states. Accordingly agricultural strategy still emphasizes export
expansion in the country – in line with the prescriptions of the export-led
growth model.
As a guide to policy makers grapping with rural development problems in

the second half of the twentieth century, however, the export-led growth
model is defective in important respects. By assuming the existence of a
perfectly elastic export demand for agricultural exports, the model
ignores the crucial question of demand and market access for the
agricultural exports of the less developed countries. Yet in practice, most
underdeveloped countries face demand and market access problems
arising from competition from synthetics, the declining income demand
elasticity for agricultural exports, the internal agricultural problems of
the main consuming countries such as U.S.A., Britain and France, and
the considerable protection given to agriculture and the processors of
agricultural products in these countries. Partly because of these
reasons, the share of the less developed countries in world export trade
had fallen from 30 per cent in 1948 to 18 per cent in 1969 . In contrast,
the share of the developed market economics has risen from 64 per cent
to 71 per cent within the same period. Moreover, the expected growth
model has little to offer policy makers in their attempt to grapple with the
problem posed by the trade off between export crop production and find
crop expansion under conditions of increasingly limited supple of land
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and rural labour. At present, if one were to be guided solely by the rate
of return criterion, there is no doubt that almost all the investments in
agricultural would be export oriented. But such a strategy would worsen
the land situation, aggravate inflationary pressure and foster a risky
reliance on imports. Further, the theory offers no guide in an
increasingly industrialized economy where there is competition for
agricultural raw materials between export market and domestic agro-
allied industries. As Nigerian policy makers have since learnt, this
competition places he decision makers are the fact a dilemma. If the raw
materials such as cotton, groundnuts and ……. Sold at world market
prices, the country may achieve foreign exchange increases at the cost of
stifling the growth of domestic agro-allied industries. If, on the other
hand, the marketing boards were to discriminate in favour of domestic
agro-allied industries, the governments of the states and the farmers
would lose considerable revenue which must be made up by the Federal
Government – a course of action fraught with complex political and
constitutional implications. Finally, the theory has nothing to offer
policy makers interested in finding the most appropriate strategy of
promoting agricultural production – whether for exports or for domestic
consumption.
The Urban Industrial Impact Theory:

The objective of this theory is to explain the variations in agricultural
productivity and the U.S.A. According to the theory, economic
development takes place in a locational matrix which is essentially
industrial-urban in composition. The nearer the location of agricultural
production to urban areas, the greater the probability of increased
agricultural output, employment and incomes. This is because nearness
to urban areas reduces transportation cost of both output and input and
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creates an expanded market for agricultural products, thus encouraging
specialization.
Although this theory was formulated to explain the variations in

agricultural productivity in a predominantly industrial economy, it has
relevance for underdeveloped countries. Generally speaking, villages
which lie close to large urban centres have advantage of large markets
and lower transportation cost. Moreover, their agricultural production
tends to be much more specialized, and hence more productive than the
agricultural activities of villages far removed from large urban centres.
However, it should be pointed out that the mere proximity of a rural area
to a large urban centre does not automatically guarantee the
development of a progressive and dynamic agriculture. It is conceivable
that the nearness of a rural area to urban centres causes considerable
rural-urban migration of labour which creates a serious bottleneck in the
production and harvesting of farm products especially where the
technique of production, as in most less developed countries is labour
intensive. It is also possible that the proximity of the rural areas to
urban environment gives rise to land speculation by urban elites for
whom the possession of land is more a matter of social prestige rather
than a source of income. In that case, much of the land may not be
developed for agricultural purposes. Finally, there is the crucial issue of
the opportunity cost of staying in agriculture. If, as it is generally the
case, perspective farmers in the villages consider the opportunity cost of
farming too high, the nearness of the urban centres may make them
invest their capital and labour in the thriving urban industries.
The High Input Pay Off Theory:

The high input-pay off theory which assigns a strategic role to new high
yielding input varieties and educated rural labour, was formulated by
104
T.W. Schultz to explain why traditional agriculture is characterized by
low incomes and low productivity despite its highly competitive
structure. In this theory, farmers in traditional agriculture are pictured
as rational, and positive responsive to price incentives. In addition, they
are efficient resources allocators under the constraints imposed by static
technology and the existing factor endowments. In spite of all this,
however, farmers in traditional agriculture remain poor because they
have exhausted all the profitable opportunities to invest in the factors at
their disposal. The operation of diminishing returns in a situation of
static technology ensures that hard-work and thrift do not bring high
rates of return. In this circumstance, and considering that farmers have
already allocated their resources efficiently, no useful purpose is served
by farm management and extension programmes directed at a more
efficient resource allocation in traditional agriculture. To be worthwhile,
such programmes must include a package of high yielding and profitable
new inputs on which farmers can invest. And given the positive price
response exhibited by farmers Schultz argued that agricultural
modernization strategy must also emphasize a price policy which lowers
input prices and raises those of output in an effort to obtain favourable
input-output price ratio. More important, agricultural modernization
cannot proceed far unless there is investment in research to produce and
disseminate inputs embodying new technology and in the education of
rural people on whom rests the task of allocating the resources for
development. In Schultz’s opinion, such investments are associated with
very high rates of return compared to investments in alternative
projects. So crucial is the role of research, technology and education in
this model that Schultz regards differences in agricultural incomes and
productivity among countries as essentially a reflection of differences in
the scope and quality of investments in research, technology and
education among the countries concerned.
105
The high input-pay off theory has considerable relevance for agricultural
development in the less developed countries. First, it provides a
theoretical basis for a positive price policy in the context of agricultural
development. Second, the theory provides a justification for government
investment in agricultural research and the training of agricultural
scientists. By showing that investments in research and education have
higher social returns than comparable investments in alternative
projects, the model lends strong support to current efforts to step up and
intensify investments in agricultural education, extension and research.
Third, the model gives part of the explanation for the observed failure of
farm management and extension programmes to increase productivity in
agriculture. For until recently, extension and farm management experts
busied themselves with resources allocation problems and ignored the
critical questions of price incentives, new technology and the opportunity
cost of following the extension agents advice. Fourth, the theory also
provides strong support for current efforts in boost export and food crop
production through subsidization of the purchase of pesticides,
fungicides, fertilizer and higher yielding seed varieties.
Nevertheless, the high input pay off model can be criticized on several
grounds. It can, for example, be criticized for assigning an exaggerated
role in market forces in the course of economic development. Although
market forces are important, it must be conceded that for a number of
reasons, they are not enough. It is vitally necessary to devise
arrangements to ensure first that the educated people are properly
deployed, second, that the new varieties and chemical inputs get to
farmers in time, and third, that access to these new technology and other
sources of income is not closed against low income farmers with no
political influence.
106
Further, the theory ignores the fact that an agriculture which rests on
new technology must be served by new institutions which, in conception
and performance, are different from the old. For example, it would be
unrealistic to expect wide spread adoption of new techniques where land
tenure is archaic and imposes constraints on labour and capital
utilization. In other words, any technological innovation in agriculture
necessarily calls for parallel efforts directed towards institutional
innovation – no easy task. Finally, the theory , while emphasizing the
role of technological change ignores the welfare implications. That
underdeveloped coutnri3es cannot afford to ignore the welfare
implications of technological change is evidence from the experiences of
India, Pakistan and some Latin American countries where the Green
revolution involves considerable economic gains and political cost.
Diffusion Theory of Rural Development: The diffusion theory of rural

development attempts to explain the existence of substantial productivity
differences among farmers in the same economic and geographical
region. According to this theory, such differences arise because of
differences in farmers’ adoption of new varieties of seeds, mechanical and
chemical inputs. Since the path of agricultural and rural development
lies in narrowing the existing productivity differences through the
diffusion of technological innovations, the authors of this theory
concentrate on the analysis of the various techniques for diffusion
innovations to the farmers. In particular, attention is focused on the
techniques of communication.
The diffusion theory has considerable appeal in many less developed

nations. It imparts an extension bias to agricultural development and
leads to the streamlining and enlargement of extension services in
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developing countries. In their search for the most effective method of
diffusion innovations, many policy makers and extension administrators
resort to a number of devices such as experimental stations and
demonstration farms, which are supposed to help in the spread of new
techniques through demonstration effects. In other countries, emphasis
is placed on ‘progressive’ farmers and local leaders whose production
techniques and farm organization are held up as examples to be followed
by farmers in the immediate locality. The diffusion theory also gives
impetus to national and international efforts to transfer new technology
from the advance to he less developed countries.
In recent years, however, the enthusiasm generated by the diffusion

theory has started to wane, for several reasons. First, policy makers
have not been particularly successful in spreading new technology on the
basis of the strategies prescribed by the diffusion model. Experimental
stations and demonstration farms have negligible demonstration effects
on farming in the areas in which they are located. The use of farmer
leaders or progressive farmers yields disappointing results in terms of the
number of farmers converted to the use of modern techniques and new
technology. Even the farm settlement approach which was hailed as
capable of ensuring a rapid spread of modern farming techniques and
organization has not lived up to expectations in this respect. Second, the
diffusion of innovations poses much more complex organizational
problems than had been foreseen by the authority of this model.
Experience shows that to adopt a new idea is more than a matter of
conveying information about the existence, use and profitability of the
innovations. It involves the presence of an administrative frame-work to
ensure the regular availability and timely delivery of the new input to
farmers. It also involves the existence of a credit arrangement designed
to ensure that shortage of funds presents no barrier to adoption. In
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many of those less developed countries which have fervently embraced
the diffusion model, these organizational arrangements are either absent
or grossly inadequate. Third, the attempts to apply the strategies
presecribed by the diffusion model were not always accompanied with
painstaking collection and analysis of microeconomic data which would
have thrown light on the resource situation on different farms and how
this could affect the farmers response to innocations. Rather than try to
evaluate the adoption of new technology in terms of cost and returns,
many extension agents show considerable lack of understanding
whenever the farmers resist change, since, in their view, this is evidence
of the conservation of the traditional society. Fourth, it must be
admitted that the diffusion model works successfully where the farming
population is educated and where the change agents have a thorough
understanding of what they are trying to sell or explain to the farmers.
In most less developed nations, these conditions are absent. The rural
areas are characterized by mass illiteracy. The extension on agents are
usually men with very rudimentary knowledge of the basic sciences,
without which they cannot understand the properties of the biological
and chemical innovations they are supposed to explain to the farmers.
Fifth, there is widespread disappointment regarding the role of
international transfers of technology in agricultural and rural
development. Contrary to the idea fostered by the diffusion model, many
agricultural technologies are location specific and cannot be adopted by
farmers without considerable adaptation to the local situation. Such
adaptation, however, presupposes the existence of research stations and
applied agricultural scientists in the countries using the innovations.
While this condition is fulfilled in a few countries, it is not a practical
proposition in most developing countries. The result is a tendency to
wholesale transfer of new technique or technology to areas with widely
different ecological and economic circumstances – an important
109
explanation for the limited diffusion. Finally, it has been argued that the
diffusion models are plagued by several theoretical and conceptual
inadequacies such as lack of over-all integrating frame-work, inadequate
attention to developments in information and decision theories, and
inadequate attention to institutional arrangements.
Induced Development Theory:_According to induced development

theory, every country which embarks on the course of economic
development necessarily encounters a set of constraints to development
imposed by inelasticity in the supply of strategic inputs. Unless efforts
are directed to the loosening or breaking of these constraints to
development imposed by inelasticity in the supply of strategic inputs.
Unless efforts are directed to the loosening or breaking of these
constraints by producing substitutes for these factors of inelastic supply,
the whole process of economic development is bound to be greatly
depressed. Historically, changes in relative factor prices and in
input/output price ratios have induced the production of substitutes
which effectively loosen the constraints imposed by the inelasticity of
factor supply. This has happened because such changes convey
information to policy makers, farmers and research administration
regarding the relative priorities which must be placed on the goals of
agricultural research. The interaction which leads to the production of
innovations tends to proceed at four levels: (a) the level involving basic
and applied scientists as the latter incessantly demand from the former
body of new knowledge and techniques essential to the fulfillment of
their mission, (b) the level of farmers and policy makers as the former
put pressure on the latter to invest in research and engage scientists
who will produce new knowledge designed to solve their input supply and
production cost problems, (c) at the level of policy makers and research
administrators who, taking their cues from policy makers, re-order their
110
research priorities and (d) at the level of researchers and input suppliers
in the private sector where the new knowledge is tested and made
commercially worthwhile.
The theory attaches considerable importance to institutional innovations

such as changes in land tenure and the introduction of new
organizational arrangements which enable the economy to take full
advantage of innovations from the basic and applied scientists. Another
institutional innovation which receives emphasis in the model is
socialization of research.
The hypotheses advanced in this theory are tested using the data and
experience of the U.S.A and Japan between 1880 and 1960. The results
of the analysis show that in Japan, increased agricultural productivity
was associated with a continuous stream of biological and chemical
innovations which, by increasing yield per unit, of land, actually
loosened the constraints imposed by the fixity of land and high land
prices. On the other hand, the dramatic increases in U.S.A. agricultural
productivity was a consequence of the introduction of mechanical power,
which being labour saving, loosened the constraint imposed on
agricultural development by labour scarcity and high wages. The
empirical evidence also suggests that the problems of constraints
imposed by the inelastic supply of productive factors does not admit of a
once and for all solution. The solution of one problem crease a
constraint in another sphere which must be removed. Thus, the
mechanization of harvesting the U.S.A., which solved the labour
problem, created the need for threshing machines. The implication is
that research administrators and scientists must be continually engaged
in the tasks of producing inputs and devices to ease the ever increasing
bottlenecks created by economic development.
111
The Contribution of the Growth Theories to Agricultural
Development.
In some respects, the theories reviewed in the previous pages have
influenced development strategies in many developing countries.
First, they identify for the attention of policy makers the critical
variations in agricultural development. Among such variables are
research, technological innovations, the growth of the urban industrial
sector and expansion of export opportunities.
Second, the construction of these theories has given impetus to research

aimed at testing some of the hypotheses and assumptions underlying the
theories. Thus Schultz’s high input pay off model led to empirical
studies showing the relationship between input/output price ratios and
up-take of innovations, the nature of resource allocation in traditional
agriculture and the rate of return to investment in the education of farm
people compared to the return in alternative investment. While these
empirically oriented studies do not give a hundred per cent confirmation
of the propositions in the model, they tend to give strong support to
many of them and to provide a basis for policies. The empirical studies
also provide estimates of a number of parameters of interest to policy
makers. Moreover, these studies sometimes force the policy makers to
revise or modify previously held opinions. For example, studies showing
the positive price responsiveness of peasant farmers have compelled a
change of attitude and policy from one which emphasized cheap food and
raw materials to one which recognizes the need for remunerative prices
for agricultural producers.
112
Third, the ideas in these theories somehow filter through various
national and international reports, studies and papers prepared for the
consideration of policy makers in the less developed world. This is
because the generation of economists who write these reports and
conduct these studies necessarily absorb consciously or unconsciously
some of the postulates of these models. Besides, there are a number of
policy makers especially in young nations of Africa and Latin America
who received their training in American or European Universities and
have attachment to one or more of these models. Such people are often
sympathetic to policy suggestions based on some of these models.
However, it should be pointed out the usefulness and relevance of these

models for policy are limited by several consideration. First, there are
limitations arising from the nature of policy environment. Second, there
are limitations arising from the character of the models themselves.
Among the limitations arising from policy environment are those imposed
by political factors – the existence of pressure groups, conflicting
interests, constituencies and other power groups which no intelligent
policy makers can afford to ignore or treat with levity. The result is that
economic policy or development strategy tends to be the child of
compromise between what is ideal in economic terms and what is
politically practicable. In a number of cases, the weight attached to
political considerations is so heavy that decisions may be taken in utter
disregard of the economic variables clearly identified in the models.
Another limitation arising from the political environment is the tendency
for agricultural development strategies to be based on crises,
emergencies or episodes, rather than on well thought out and logical
analysis. For example, much of the emphasis on food production in the
third Nigerians plan derives from the current food price inflation and the
113
drought which afflicted the northern part of the country. The relative
absence of well thought out policy strategy is a consequence partly, of
political instability, unpredictable changes in government and a
consequent tendency to devote more energy to devices for staying in
power rather than on long term strategy for development.
The limitations arising from the character of the theories are many.
Generally, these models pursue rigour, logical and consistency at the
cost of realism. For instance, all the models reviewed in this chapter
abstract from the influence of political and institutional arrangements
which, as is well known, have a profound impact on the course of
economic development in the less developed countries. Also, reflecting
the environment in which their authors operate, the theories place
overwhelming faith on the market solution of the development problems.
Thus Schultz’s models and that of Ruttan and Hayani emphasize input
prices as the chief factor in profitability and innovations essential for
agricultural development. The classical theory emphasizes the rate of
return based essentially on the operation of market forces. Yet in
practice, many countries are compelled to look for non market solutions
because of ideology, imperfection in output and input markets, price
distortion, pervasiveness of externalities, the tendency for market
solutions to encourage income disparities and the need to use physical
measures where, as in the case of peasant farming, market solution is
not always practicable given the subsistence orientation of production/.
Furthermore, many of these models do not pay much attention to the
variations in factor endowments, institutional arrangements and other
peculiarities characteristic of individual less developed countries.
Consequently, there is a tendency for their authors to make
generalizations which they consider applicable to every underdeveloped
country. For instance, in the induced development model, the
114
impression is created that the American and Japanese experience in
promoting agricultural modernization through induced innovations
which broke the constraints imposed by the scarce factor can be
repeated in other less developed countries. Little account seems to have
been taken of the fact that there may be countries lacking in strong
agricultural lobbies and dedicated scientists who could be relied upon to
bring pressure on the policy makers and to conduct research aimed at
easing the supply constraints of strategic inputs. Further, there are a
number of cases where agricultural modernization proceeds because
policy makers had planned in anticipation of bottlenecks rather than
wait for such bottlenecks to induce innovations. As the Nigerian
experience shows, it is better to anticipate these bottlenecks and plan for
their removal before they assume intractable dimensions.
Revision Questions
1. Distinguish between Economic Growth and Economic
Development and discuss the Implications of this distinction for
rural development.
2. To what extent would you consider Nigerian agricultural
development strategies in the 1970s as a response to crises
situations?
3. “The fundamental weakness of economic growth models is their
reliance on the market for the solution of development
problems”. Discuss with detailed reference to any two growth
models.
115
4. According to T.W. Schultz, farmers in traditional agriculture are
efficient but poor. Explain and discuss.
5. “The dual economy models of A.W. Lewis and his followers have
a pernicious influence on the course of agricultural
development in most less developed countries”. Explain and
examine this statement.
6. “The prescriptions of the export-led growth model are largely
irrelevant in the second half of the twentieth century”. Evaluate
this statement with reference to your country.
7. According to the induced development model, “failure to choose
a path which effectively loosens the constraints imposed by
resource endowments can depress the whole process of
agricultural.
Suggested Further Reading:-

Elements of Rural Economics by Olayide, S.O; Ogunfowora, O; Essang,
S.M; and Idachaba, F.S. 1975. University of Ibadan Press. Ibadan.
116
CHARACTERISTICs OF NIGERIAN AGRICULTURE
O.A OLOWA
Federal College of Education (tech), Akoka
Highlights
 Introduction
 Characteristics of Agriculture in Nigeria
 Revision questions
Introduction
Nigeria covers 924000 kms on the west coast of Africa vegetation ranges
from tropical forest in the south to the Sahel savannah in the north.
Nigeria’s land stretches from latitude 40N to 140N and from longitude 30E
to 140N. 71 million ha (77 per cent) of this land area are considered
cultivable, about 32 million ha (45 percent) of the total cultivable land
area are actually cultivable.
Prior to the discovery of oil in the Nigeria in the 1970’s, agriculture was
the mainstay of the Nigerian economy accounting for about two-thirds of
the gross domestic product (GDP), with the 0il boom, agriculture’s
contribution to GDP declined to 25percent by 1980 and Nigeria moved
from being a large exporter to a major importer of agricultural products.
Since the mid-1980’s, as a result of a decline in oil revenue and policy
measure implemented under a structural adjustment programme (SAP),
agriculture’s contribution to GDP has risen to about 40 percent.
Characteristics of Nigerian Agriculture
117
Nigeria agriculture is fully embedded with a lot of characteristics. These
are as follows:
i.Exploitation of the natural communities of plants and animals in the
forest, rivers and lakes for food and other human needs;
ii.Modern Nigerian agriculture employs scientific and technological
tools to control the factors and conditions which affects the growth
and development of useful plants and animals husbandry or modern
farming, in addition to organized husbandry of crop and animal;
iii.Integration of farm and household to produce food and other
products. Most of the production activities on the farm are closely
inter-related because they all utilize the same resources(i.e. land,
labour and capital);
iv.The farm size is usually small, although large scale group and
corporation farms are being developed now, work on the farm is
mainly done with human labour using simple farm tools;
v.Animals and crop husbandry are separated which limit the use of
animal power for farming operations;
vi.Mixed and relay inter-cropping system although high value cash
crops, particularly tree species, are grown in monoculture;
vii.Cropping is more dependent on rainfall (i.e. rain fed agriculture),
although irrigation is being practised in some areas;
viii.Agricultural production takes time and is beset by unpredictable
natural hazards, which cannot be controlled. Consequently, unlike
industries, agriculture cannot adjust rapidly to changing conditions.
ix.In areas with limited land and strong family attachment to land,
high population lead to fragmentation of farm holdings resulting in
farm sizes which are below the minimum to function as economic
units;
x.Burning is widely used a means of clearing the land in preparation
for planting although tree stumps are not always removed re-growth
of native species occurs immediately after a cropping cycle;
xi.Permanent cultivation is restricted to homestead farms. But with
increasing population the classical forms of shifting cultivation are
118
disappearing, giving ways to land rotation or permanent cultivation
especially on irrigated flood plains and other productive soil regions;
xii.Mixed cropping, where a variety of crops are grown together on
the same farm is widespread. This provides foods, artefacts and
protection of the homestead;
xiii.Root tuber and trees crops dominate in the welter forest belt
while grain crops are associated with the farming systems of the
grassland or savannas belt;
xiv.Inorganic fertilizers are used only in more progressive crop
production because of the cost;
xv.Soil fertility is maintained by the peasant farmers through regular
fallowing or the application of manure in the form of household and
animal refuse on heavily cropped homestead farms and gardens.
xvi.Animals, particularly poultry are kept on free range;
xvii.Farm animals are fed with fodder while kitchen wastes provide
food for the few ones kept in the homestead;
xviii.Poorly implemented policies;
xix.Low level of research work meant to transform agriculture.
Revision Questions
I. Mention ten (10) characteristics of Agriculture in Nigeria.
II. Briefly explain how peasant farmers maintain the soil fertility.

Akinyosoye, V.O. (2005). Government and Agriculture in Nigeria.
Lagos: Macmillan Publishers.
119
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT POLICY, STRATEGY AND MODELS.
OLATOMIDE W. OLOWA

Federal College of Education (Technical) Akoka.
Highlights
- Introduction
- Features of Community Development
- Aims and Objectrives of Community Development
- Community Development Policy
- Community Development Strategy
- Community Development Models
- Revision Questions
- References
120
INTRODUCTION
“Community development is a structured intervention that gives
communities greater control over the conditions that affect their lives.
This does not solve all the problems faced by a local community, but it
does build up confidence to tackle such problems as effectively as any
local action can.
Community development works at the level of local groups and

organizations rather than with individuals or families. The range of local
groups and organizations representing communities at local level
constitutes the community sector.
Development process is the empowering and enabling of those who are

traditionally deprived of power and control over their common affairs. It
claims as important the ability of people to act together to influence the
social, economic, political and environmental issues which affect them.
“Community development is a skilled process and part of its approach is

the belief that communities cannot be helped unless they themselves
agree to this process. Community development has to look both ways:
not only at how the community is working at the grass roots, but also at
how responsive key institutions are to the needs of local communities”.
Features of Community Development
121
This is adopted as a move towards our understanding of Community
Development.
 Community Development is crucially concerned with the issues
of powerlessness and disadvantage: as such it should involve all
members of society, and offers a practice that is part of a
process of social change.
 Community Development is about the active involvement of
people in the issues which affect their lives. It is a process
based on the sharing of power, skills, knowledge and
experience.
 Community Development takes place both in neighborhoods
and within communities of interest, as people identity what is
relevant to them.
 The Community Development process is collective, but the
experience of the process enhances the integrity, skills,
knowledge and experience, as well as equality of power, for each
individual who is involved.
 Community Development seeks to enable individuals and
communities to grow and change according to their own needs
and priorities, and at their own pace, provided this does not
oppress other groups and communities, or damage the
environment.
 Where community Development takes place, there are certain
principles central to it i.e the first priority of the community.
Aims and Objectives

 Community Development aims to encourage sharing, and to
create structures which give genuine participation and
involvement.
122
 Community Development is about developing the power, skills,
knowledge and experience of people as individuals and in
groups, thus enabling them to undertake initiatives of their own
to combat social, economic, political and environmental
problems, and enabling them to fully participate in a truly
democratic process.
 Community Development takes the lead in confronting the
attitudes of individuals and the practices of institutions and
society as a whole which discriminates unfairly.
Community Development Policy

In many projects there may be some objectives related to changing the
environments (political and administrative) within which community
development interventions are carried out. These may include, for
example, “leaders, technical experts, and civil servants changing from
a provision approach to a facilitating self-help approach.” Other
objectives may refer to developing and institutionalizing programmes
and actions of empowering low income communities by the relevant
ministries and departments, and in guiding non-governmental
organizations in carrying out this work. To create a legal and
institutional framework as well as to allow Government to provide a
leadership role in community development, it is necessary to have an
official policy paper, approved by Government, which codifies its
principles and policies regarding community development.
1. Procedures For Developing Community Development Policy

To ensure a policy paper is comprehensive, useful, relevant and a
reflection of the “will of the people,” its production should be as
participatory and consultative as possible. Those participating in
its creation and development should definitely not be limited to
123
civil servants, or to community development practitioners, or to
any specific professional category; participation should be broad
based. It should include stake holders at all levels: advocacy
groups, CBOs and implementing committees, civic engagement
groups, farmers, health workers, illiterates, lawyers, local
authorities, national and international NGOs, students, teachers,
i.e. people from all walks of life.
Full participation by everybody (e.g. listed above) is impossible.

The practical alternative is to set up a procedure that allows
maximum input by stake holders. A small “task force” composed
of, say, four persons, should be assigned the job of co-ordinating
the creation and production of the document. The task force
should include at least one academic (knowledgeable about
community development), a professional community worker, and
an officer of an NGO. The job of the task force should be to
produce a rough first draft, circulate it to others for feedback, and
set up a series of workshops for editing and finalization, and
prepare a final copy to be presented to parliament.
When the document is finalized, it should be taken by ministry

officials to the minister, for presentation to parliament, for
approval. It can be accompanied by any appropriate documents
for parliament members to read along side it (e.g. description and
analysis of conditions and needs; relative advantages of facilitating
participation).
2. Contents of the Policy Paper.

The following is a collection of issues about what to include or not
to include in a policy paper.
124
Policy Should be Policy.
A policy paper should be an encoding of a country’s policy. As an
“acid test” of content, you can ask of every sentence: “Does it say
what to do, or what not to do (by whom, to whom, with whom or
through whom)?” Many policy papers are diluted or weakened by
descriptive material about the sociology or history of communities
or community development. A policy paper is not a university
essay; descriptive and analytical material can be put in an
accompanying “profile” paper (perhaps to convince members of
parliament about the need for codified policy) but should not be
included in the policy paper itself.
Clarity and Precise Definitions.

Community development and Community participation are
plagued with different and conflicting interpretations. The use of
key words in the text of the policy should be precise, specific, and
unambiguous. They should be supported by a list of definitions
that is attached (as an appendix) to the policy paper and approved
as an integral section of the paper. Words and phrases defined in
such an appendix should include (but not be limited to) the
following:-
Accountability, animation, capacity, CBO, CBR, a community,
community empowerment, community management, community-
based, consultation, development, functional literacy, human
settlement, income generation, intervention, local authority,
mobilizing, NGO, participation, partnership, PHC, poverty,
sustainability, training, transparency, unity organizing, and value
added. You might think of other key words and concepts. All
definitions, and the use of these words in the text, should not be
125
vague or able to be interpreted in more than one way. This will
help to avoid misinterpretations and conflicting or contradictory
actions by those implementing community work.
Non Governmental Organizations.

NGOs are here to stay. They are growing in number, size, variety,
impact and influence. Governments do not have the resources,
flexibility, or mandate to do all community work without being
supplemented by NGOs. Those that are mature, professional,
ethical, and development oriented will desire to be an integral part
of a country’s policy of poverty reduction, community
empowerment and democratization. They will see a well
formulated policy paper as a much needed clarification of
leadership and guidance for their work.
Not only should NGO representatives be invited to participate in

the drafting of community development policy, an important
segment of the policy should be devoted to the guidance of national
and international NGOs. At the very minimum, the policy should
define what information NGOs should provide the ministry;
including: objectives, methods, areas of operation, results of
activities, monitoring and evaluation, in the form of plans, budgets,
records and reports. Quarterly reports, every three months, are
recommended.
The ministry, in return, has a role to play in collating and

summarizing all NGO reports, assessing areas (professional and
geographic) of weakness and needs, and providing guidelines and
leadership to the NGOs.
126
Communication and Networking
The ministry should facilitate the sharing of experiences and skills
between all the local government officers working in community
development and all the NGOs doing community work. This could
be in the form of a regular newsletter, supplemented by occasional
news briefs,. Annual meetings would be beneficial. The ministry
should also be in the forefront of using electronic information
technology, by establishing and maintaining an Inter Net web site
on which its communiqué’s be established, as well as training
material and experiences shared by Local Government
development officers and NGOs.
Training and Upgrading

The Government should be the focus of in-service training and
upgrading of professional Intervention skills of community workers
in and outside of the government. (Community workers can easily
get stale, outdated or burned out, and training is one way of re-
invigorating them). Many such services are available, often
available for free, mainly unknown by practicing community
workers.
The policy of the Government should be towards the continual

upgrading and professionalization of community development
workers in the field, learning the new methods and techniques as
they appear, and integrating practical experience with theory and
literature.
Purpose and Focus

The purpose of the policy paper should be clearly stated. Its
intention is to clarify and codify the country’s policies related to
127
community development, it should emphasize empowerment over
dependency, transparency over secrecy, affirmative action towards
vulnerable persons, gender balance, good management,
democratization and planning.
Roles of Actors
A chapter of the policy paper or (better) an appendix should define
the roles of the key actors and stake holders. As each role is
identified and described, relations between actors also can be
sketched. The list should include, but not be limited to:
Community members, community leaders, coordinators, local
government or regional authorities, donor representatives,
executing agencies, implementation agencies, local authorities,
ministers, mobilizes /animators, NGO officers, Ngo boards, Ngo
country representatives, politicians, senior ministry officials,
department officials, steering committee, target (group or
individual) and others responsible for or participating in
community development. The list should encompass governmental
and non governmental actors and stake holders.
3. Utility of the Policy Paper.

A policy paper, even if approved by parliament, will not make any
effect if it is then shelved and ignored. Its usefulness (utility)
mainly will be a result of what happens next. The policy should
not only be read, but also discussed and understood, not only by
community workers, but by their supervisors, manager and
planners, by leaders and officials, at all levels, who control or
influence what goes on in the communities.
128
The production of the paper should be treated as an opportunity to
advocate for the principles embodied in the paper. Many copies,
each with a shiny cover and a few illustrations, should be printed
and made available at bookshops, at subsidized rates, throughout
the country. Free copies should be sent to every local government
office and to every Ngo working in community development.
Several workshops, at national and distinct levels, involving all

levels of stake holders should be held. There workshops should
not remain limited to awareness raising and understanding of the
policy, but should challenge the participants to then formulate
programmes of community empowerment, based on the principles
embodied in the policy.
The ministry can do all this, produce, approve and utilize, a policy
paper, without increasing its budget. Many external donors
(governments, the UN, NGOs) are willing to contribute to such
work, so long as leadership, motivation, commitment and will are
shown by the ministry to carry this out.
Community Development Strategy

The strategy sets out the role of the community development team,
its priorities, its working practices, principles and values.
The team could potentially get involved in most pieces of work, to

do with a ‘community’ – however, limited resources mean that
there is need to identify priorities.
Community development prioritizes communities under two

headings – geographic communities and communities of interest,
129
where communities of interest are those that share similar
experiences (e.g. disability, age group). Priorities are listed on the
strategy, geographical areas considered at ward level, sub-ward
level and rural areas – with particular villages emphasized due to
rural isolation.
Strategy Content
i) Key issues facing both geographical communities and
communities of interest, with examples of how community
development practices impact on these issues.
ii) Values and principles agreed by the Standing Committee for
Community Development – widely accepted as the model for
community development practitioners.
iii) Practical approaches used to deliver community development
work – including consultation, participation, partnership
working, volunteering, community assets and sustainability.
iv) Action plan for the period. This work plan is linked to the
corporate plan and budget framework. The actions are
subject to existing budgets being continued.
Community Development Models

There are two models that have resulted from research. They are
presented separately, but are interrelated. A model of reflection in
community development practice can be found on the last page of this
chapter. Elements of the proposed model are:
* Implicit practice-based Theory In the course of doing their work,
practitioners tended to development personalized and practice-
based theories based on their field experiences. They formulated
strategies and theories about community development work to
inform their practice. We have labeled them implicit because they
130
tended to become something that wasn’t articulated but influenced
their actions.
 Beliefs about Community:- Practitioners must assess how

capable a community is to chart its own course and how to
assist them. Community development practitioners struggle
with the appropriate blend of local knowledge, involvement of
outside experts, accepting directions from local leaders, and
when to call upon their own knowledge in community
development activities. They are challenged about when and
how to bring in outside knowledge such as new government
regulations or activities in neighbouring communities.
 Talking /Working Together/Observing:- Practitioners learn by
working each other and community residents, working together
on projects, visiting other communities, and soliciting ideas and
suggestions from their peers.
 Literature-Based Theories:- Participants turned out to read
widely in business, environmental, policy studies, law,
psychology, agriculture, and adult education. A synthesis of
multiple theories is their guide rather than a single theory
derived from community development literature.
 Field Experience and Practices:- This is the central
component in reflective practice. It is through experience and
ongoing practice, in which a practitioner attempts to assist
communities, that a practitioner reflects on his/her work and
formulates his/her implicit practice-based theories. While each
element of the model is described separately, they do not exist
in isolation. Practitiopners are guided by a synthesis of these
elements to address needs in the community. What links the
different elements is constant reflection.
131
Guides to community development practice has been influenced by
several theories relating to reflective practice. Concepts such as double
loop learning (Argyris & Schon, 1978; Bright, 1996), reflective practice
(Boud and Walker, 1990), reflective thought and action (Barnet, 1989),
and communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) are relevant. Schon (1983)
suggests that many practitioners engage in reflective practice, and that
they may develop theories-in-use that are based in knowledge that is
used daily to make judgments about what actions to take in a particular
context and situation. Reflective practice “is an active, proactive, reactive
and action-based process defining a set of skills concerned with
understanding and dealing with real, complex, and difficult situations”
(Bright, 1996, P. 167). For example, Wellington and Austin’s (1996)
model suggests that professional efforts can be both domesticating and
liberating, depending on the value and belief systems of the professional.
Bond & Walker (1990) offer a framework of reflective practice that relates
preparation, experience, and reflective processes about how professional
conduct their work. Their inclusion of the social milieu elegantly
captures the ideas we have represented by talking, working together, and
observing. Wenger’s (1988) social theory of learning views learning as a
fundamentals talking about meaning, identify, practice, and community.
The elements of his model are meaning, practice, community, and
identity with learning as the central component. Wenger refers to the
various items being as deeply interconnected. It does not seem very
important which element occupies the centre space. The certainly
appears to resonate with our model.
Wenger elaborates on the concept of communities of practice, which he

suggests are an integral part of daily life and include our family and work
132
life, schooling, and recreational activities. In a profession such as
community development, ways of practice develop in community created
over time by the sustained pursuit of a shared enterprise.
Several models of reflective practice exist in the literature. However, to

date the practice of community development has not been explored from
this perspective, and neither have these previous studies been conducted
on an international basis. While the models of reflective practice existing
in the literature are informative, we found them inadequate for
explaining the complexities of what guides community development
practitioners in their work. Several factors differentiate the work of
community development from other professions: 1) the diversity of their
work, (2) its location in the community, (3) practitioners travel to the
communities they work with but are usually not members and (4) the
situations they work with are complex involving decision making,
problem solving, and interacting with many people.
Revision Questions
1. define Community Development
2. Mention two aims of Community Development
3. Enumerate Five features of community development.
4. Explain the Procedure for developing community policy.
5. What should be the context of a community development policy
paper.
6. Explain two elements of community development model.
7. What strategies are involved in carrying out community
development Activities.
8. What roles are government expected to play in a community
development.
133
Argyris, C., & Schon, D.A. (1978). Theory in practice: Increasing

professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Barnett, B.G. (1989, October), Reflection: The Cornerstone of learning

from experience. Paper presented at the University Council for
Educational Administrators Annual Conventional, Scottsdale,
Arizona.
Bright, B. (1996). Reflecting on “reflective practice”. Studies in the

Education of Adults, 28(2), 162-184.
Boud, D., & Walker, D. (1990). Making the most of Experience. Studies
in Continuing Education, 12 (2), 61-80.
Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design:

Choosing among five traditions.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, Inc.
POLICY ALIGNMENT IN NIGERIAN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
T.T. AWOYEMI (Ph.D)

Department of Agricultural Economics
Highlights:
134
- Introduction
- Problems with Policy Alignment
- Nigerian Experience
- Need for Policy Alignment
- Revision Questions
INTRODUCTION
Nigerian Agriculture is bedeviled by poverty and many other ills. There is
an avalanche of writings chronicling the ills of the sector. The following
are the areas of emphasis for these writings:
a) General declining productivity of staple crops over the years at
1.5% per annum.
b) A land tenure that is neither secure nor certain in its
constitution with a consequent multiplicity of ownership rights
and cultivation practices.
c) A large, untrained and poorly nourished labour force (70%) in a
national population (140million) growing at the rate of 2.5 – 3%
per annum.
d) Unending, unfavourable term of trade; and
e) An ever-increasing pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest food
losses (20-30%) due to microbial, physical and other factors.
All the above factors have been given as the root causes of the country’s
agricultural ills.
Efforts towards tackling this ill have generated various policies at the
three levels of government (local, state and federal). These policies are
135
most times overlapping, duplication or unnecessary competition at one
time or the other.
One notable factor that has received little if any attention is the absence
of a reliable co-ordinated policy or set of policies in Nigerian agriculture
from federal to the local government.
To harness the potentialities in Nigerian agriculture and enhance its

development, there is a need for virile policies and proper administration
of such policies.
Problems With Policy Alignment

Given the characteristics of Nigeria Agriculture as seen in earlier chapter
with different operatives; a federal structure that gives virtual autonomy
to federal, state, local government, autonomous community authority
over agricultural occupation. In this situation, an effective two-way
communication from the farmer through the bureaucratic hierarchy and
vice versa becomes a dilemma. And worse still, policy actions over
research, education, marketing price and rural development, become
ineffective and confusing.
The problem is ameliorated in a military regime with its centralized

structure. Even here, the reverse will be the case if there is no will in the
various hierarchies to give or take orders.
The centre-piece of Nigerian agricultural policy has been acclaimed to be

the farmer. The efforts of all governments are therefore geared to the
improvement of his level of living. What is expected of various
governments is to streamline and synchronies their policies to effectuate
this objective. But instead of doing this, we see the different
136
governments pursuing different policies with different instruments
towards the same goal – improved agriculture, overlapping, duplications
and unnecessary competition substitute coherence, compromise and
alignment.
We shall now examine the subject using Examples of past Observations:

(a) There are varying degrees of emphasis or priority. In the first
National Development plan, the federal governments higher
priority was industrialization, in the states it was agriculture.
In the Fourth development plan, government laid maximum

weight on agriculture while some states laid it on education or
transportation. Also, owing to the non-cooperation of some
state agencies, such as banks, it was not possible for the
Federal Government to carry thought its fiscal and monetary
policies.
(b) Another examples is the question of retail prices. The price
control board (PCB) failed because it could not adequately
control the rise in prices due to a protracted shortage in most
consumer goods. Its successor, the Resale Price maintenance
scheme did not fair better. It allowed the manufacturers to
supervise or police the distribution of all their commodities, to
ensure that retailers and consumers were not cheated. But, as
it happened, not all state governments then cooperated in this.
(c) The abandonment of Agro-Service centres by the states to the
Federal government in the third development plan is another
example. Less than 15% of those earmarked in 1976 had been
completed by 1978; and only less than 30% had been
completed ever since. On the other hand, various states
137
embarked on their own projects rather than see to the
completion of the federal schemes.
(d) Delivery of input services such as fertilizers, pesticides,
insecticides, tractors, seeds, and poultry product. State
governments would rather be the agencies for the above than
allow the federal government to distribute them directly. Early
in 1980, for example, the Federal ministry of Agriculture
through the Federal Department of Agricultural Cooperatives
delivered some quantities of tractors and farm inputs. They
were rejected or abandoned by some states on the grounds that
they were handled by the presidential advisers or members of
opposing political parties.
(e) Land acquisition for Agricultural Projects: The land use Decree
is inoperative in some states and made a mockery in others.
Even the High Courts of some states are giving conflicting
interpretations as to its meaning. In practical terms, it is not
easy for federal authorities to find land for housing, and
agricultural projects, to name a few. At the best, considerable
delay is occasioned, that the project is launched far believed
schedule.
(f) Integrated Rural Development that was ushered in by the 3 rd
National Development plan had the Objective: to increase rural
productivity and income, diversify rural economy and generally
enhance the quality of life in the rural areas”.
This programme, otherwise known as Agricultural Development

is uniquely suited to raising farm output through intensive and
extensive agriculture, as well as the provision of basic social
amenities in the rural areas. Apart from the fact that these
ADPs were largely politically motivated, and serve urban rather
138
than rural interest, it is clear that in their conception they did
not involve the local government Areas, nor were the States
Ministries brought into the show. On this, Idachaba (1980) said
that “though there is formal provision for Local Government
Councils to take over ADP feeder roads, there are no adequate
provisions for (1) training of LGC technical personnel, and (ii)
financial arrangements for LGC funding of regular and periodic
maintenance of feeder road network”.
(g) The Green Revolution Programme:- While the Federal
Governmen operated the Green Revolution programme, the then
Anambra State was pre-occupied with its food for the people
programme. Similarly, every other State has its own particular
mass movement, with limited attention to the federal.
(h) Finally, we discuss the coordination of cooperatives society in
the various ministries. Examples of these conflicts and
problems in coordination are the following:
1) Cooperatives located not in one but in different types of
ministries (Agriculture, rural development, community
development, trades etc)
2) No central leadership in cooperative matters till 1975 with the
birth of the Federal Ministry of Cooperatives and Supply.
3) The unexpected dissolution of the same ministry in 1979.
4) Absence of a National Cooperative Education Programmes, thus
creating disparities in Standards and Certificates.
NEED FOR POLICY ALIGNMENT

1. The imperative of a coherent long term strategy for agricultural
development, so that policy is not subject to passing fashions,
political pressures, hasty campaigns and brief –enthusiasms.
139
2. The need for collective actions of Federal, States and Local
Government areas in planning, monitoring, analysis and
implementation of programmes.
3. A greater use of the nation’s human and materials resources,
the avoidance of wastages due to duplications and
misallocations.
4. Maximization of available financial resources in the service of
the same objective – agricultural development.
5. The creation of a healthy two-way system of communication
and responsibilities from the federal to the local government
areas and vice –versa.
6. Greater responsibility of data collection, analysis and
publication.
7. Ease in monitoring, follow-up, evaluations and alignment.
Revision Questions.
1. What do you understand by term Policy alignment?
2. Justify the need for Policy alignment in the development of
Agriculture in Nigeria.
3. Discuss Four examples of emphasis or priorities in the past that
shows the need for policy alignment in Nigerian Agricultural
development.
Suggested Further Reading.

Idachaba, F.S. (1980) Concepts and Strategies of Integrated
Rural Development: Lessons from Nigeria”. Department of
Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan P.P. 30 – 44.
Fourth National Development in Nigeria 1973 – 85
140
Federal Ministry of Agricultural and Natural Resources, Lagos
1974. P. 531.
Third National Development Plan 1975 – 80 Vol.1
Central Planning Offiec, Lagos P. 292.
Ijere, M.O. (1983) Reading in Nigerian Agricultural Policy and

Planning Port-Harcourt.
ADMINSITRATIVE AND POLITICAL FACTORS IN AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT POLICY
A.S. OYEKALE (Ph.D)

Department of Agricultural Economics.
Highlights:
- Introductions
141
- Nature/Uniquenes of Agriculture and its policy implications.
- Structure and operation of Administrative and political factors.
- Guidelines for future Agricultural Development.
- Revision questions.
INTRODUCTION
The Agricultural development strategy of any nation should be the
outcome of the cooperative undertaking of theoreticians, bureaucrats,
political leaders and farmers. The extent to which each group is
prepared to compromise in areas of conflict and to pull resources for the
common goal will determine the level of success possible.
While attempts are made in most developing countries to evolve

reasonably acceptable agricultural development policies, little or no
attempt is made to consider the administrative and political factors
affecting policy.
This chapter will take a closer study of the structure and operation of
administrative and political factors affecting policy. As a prelude, we
shall look at the nature of the agricultural industry and the policy
implications.
1) Nature/Uniqueness of Agriculture and Its Policy Implications:

a) The Nature of Agriculture:
There are six major characteristics of agriculture that makes it
unique and distinguished from industry and other economic
sectors namely:-
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i) Degree of variation in specific requirements for efficient
production from crop to crop, from country to country
and locality to locality ever within larger regions.
Agriculture is different from industry in this respect. An
industry (e.g. steel making) can be established any where
with minimum adaptation.
ii) High degree of interdependence among the relevant
factors in agriculture, where a single physical input
involves many non-physical factors like fertilizer,
incentives, and extension services, each having
implications for the organization of programmes for
promoting agricultural productivity.
iii) Large number and dispersion in decision –making units
whose behaviour must be changed if the agricultural
sector is to be modernized. Farmers are widely
geographically scattered, vary in economic status and
potential, cover a broad political spectrum, and exhibit
varying pattern of attitudes and motivations. In contrast,
it is easier to organize an industrial labour force
managerial controls industry are highly concentrated.
iv) The need for effective two-way communication in the
administrative process as a result of the variations in
factors and the dispersion and number of farmers. This
is however easier to achieve in industry than in
agriculture because of the decentralization and variability
of the local circumstances of farming.
v) Sustained growth in agricultural output requires
technical, economic, attitudinal and political
transformations of the whole structure or rural society
and cannot be brought about quickly. If we compare this
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with industry, in which a simple decision can, with
appropriate outside help lead to the building of a dam,
rradway or factory. We find that agricultural
transformation requires a series of interlocking changes
in some many different aspects of rural life, that a
perspective of decades is required.
vi) Finally, agriculture in under-developed countries is
conceived of as a low-status occupation. This attitude
influences the manpower employed in all aspects of the
agricultural industry. It also affects the amount of money
budgeted for it.
(b) Policy Implications of the Nature of Agriculture.
1. The Need for Adaptation:- As a result of the variations in physical,
economic institutional and motivational factors, compounded, by
the all-embracing interdependent of agricultural productions, no
meaningful rule of thumb can be applied to the generality of
agricultural problems. No matter how successful a breeding
technique is, we cannot reasonably apply it to all situations
irrespective of time, place and other local conditions. In short, our
innovation must be adapted to the area under consideration. If
there is no such adaptation, the new idea may become foreign
body and will be thrown out.
ii. Policy decisions must be carried out with minimum delay in clear
unambiguous directives and executed with maximum efficiency.
Consider what would happen if yams and maize were supplied or
planted either too early or too late as consequences of bureaucratic
protocols. That will mean loss of revenue and food of a high
magnitude.
iii) The manpower to carry out the various stages of activities in
agriculture must possess a minimum of administrative and
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organizational talent and competence. Action programmes in
agriculture are bound to fail in a country without at least a small
group of indigenous professionals trained in agriculture.
iv) Balancing considerations of productivity and of equity is another
area of agricultural development policy. Policy makers in
agriculture are constantly confronted by the dilemma of achieving
maximum pay-offs in investments and ensuring at the same time
an equitable redistribution of resources particularly to the under-
privileged. If we concentrate resources on the more promising
regions for example, we shall be meeting the principle of
productivity, but will it satisfy that of equity? In reality, it may
widen the gulf between the more and less privileged in the society.
We find that administrators are generally attracted to the principle
of productivity.
II. Structure and Operation of Administrative and Political Factors:

(a) Administrative Factors:-
The colonial rule bequeathed on the nation personnel unprepared
to take responsibilities, to assume risks of administration and that
is totally committed to the observance of rules of precedence and
procedure. Innovation is rare, while aloofness from the masses is
the hallmark of the successful civil servant. Colonial heritage
(some good attributes notwithstanding) poses insurmountable
problems in a dynamic society with many development problems
which call for quick action and sometimes radical changes. As
long as administrators refuse to become development – minded
and change their emphasis from status to performance, the
structural and procedural changes, however far-reaching are not
likely to be very effective.
145
It is this consideration that has raised question as to the suitability
of ministry of Agriculture in Africa as now constituted for
agricultural development. In fact, it has been suggested that such
a ministry should be scrapped and its functions given to an
agricultural development Authority which sufficiently insulated
from civil service norms and procedures (as found in sport sector)
to be able to carryout agricultural work with expedition and
innovativeness. This Ghana set the pace when, under President
Kwame Nkrumah, it abolish its ministry of Agriculture, though it
later reintroduced it in a modified forms
The Ministry of Agriculture as it is presently constituted in Nigeria

has, a cabinet minister, a minister of State, Permanent Secretary,
Directors, other Senior Cadre Staff and Junior Cadre Staff with
Headquarters in Abuja. The Ministry supervises, various
Agricultural research Institutes, Colleges of Agriculture
Universities of Agriculture and other Parastatals under it and
coordinates such toward achieving its functions. This form of
administration though inherited from the colonial regime is quite
different because of the modified structure and indigenous ideas
and operating pattern.
Agriculture, under colonial regime was not meant to produce food

or deal with masses. Under colonial administration the Ministry of
Agriculture was dedicated to the collection of data, anthropological
studies of rural communities and the management of a few market
gardens and demonstration farms for a handful of Europeans.
Though post-Independence African leaders inherited it they failed
to change its functions. They expected it to undertake food
production, operate large –scale extension and education
146
programmes, and even yield revenue to government. This
accounts for the conflict in aims and aspirations of administrators
and politicians, and the tendency for the latter to discredit the
former when the new agricultural policies are not carried out.
(b) Political Factors:

The way political power is exercised has a marked influence on the
allocation and mobility of economic resources. In Nigeria, Political
considerations are more dominant than the economic. Politicians
are usually their own economic advisers. And their impact is
greatest in the agricultural sector because of their need for
agricultural resources and the farming population for their
retention of power. The operation of political factors in
Agricultural development can be illustrated with a few examples.
Let us take the case of land policy. In many parts of Africa

Colonial administrators reserved certain areas as “Crown land”
and laid down rules and regulations preventing certain groups of
people from acquiring specific areas of the country. That practice
was continued after independence. As a result, for example,
intractable difficulties were put in the way of Southern Nigerian
acquiring land in the North. Many Southerners therefore
contended themselves with being share – croppers or engaging
entirely in business.
If the land policy had been flexible, it would facilitate labour

mobility and the development of the vast virgin land in the North.
Thus, the over 80 per cent of suitable but unoccupied land in the
North remains uninhabited while population pressure increase in
the South where only about 35 per cent of the land is unfarmed.
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The same restraining influence of policies on land is felt in the area
of human resources to carry out agricultural projects. Due to the
Craze for extreme regionalism and rabid tribalism, Africans tend to
be limited in their regions or states of origin. The regions would
rather hire expatriates than engage their fellow nationals from
other tribes or excellent programmes because attempt to achieve
national Unity through Youth employment in areas away from
their states. Such serving youth should be accepted in the State of
posting and made to feel as citizens of the same country and not as
expatriates on contract.
The struggle to establish and maintain regional, state or National

Self-sufficiency and political stability robs Nigerians of the energies
to concentrate on actual development. Political powers are so busy
intriguing among themselves that production and distribution
interests of farmers suffer. There is definite lack of political
commitment to agricultural matters. After elections farmers are
taken for granted. Up to the ever of next election, the leadership is
pre-occupied with politics, giving verbal patronage to agriculture.
And where the Political leadership is weak, there will be a
consequent lack of political guidance, supervision and control.
III. Guidelines For Future Agricultural Development.

The future of agriculture development lies in the knowledge and
appreciation of the many-sided problems of administration, politics
and policy discussed already. It also hinges on the elimination of
the deficiencies militating against them. Based on this a few
guidelines based on the three broad areas of administration,
politics and policy are offered.
148
1) Administrative Arrangements:_
Changes in the present administrative set-up are desirable if
agricultural development policies are to be achieved. An
Institutional arrangement where the personnel are observers and
not actors and which is distantly connected with the “patient” (the
farmer) only be remote control is inimical. The following
suggestions are made for improvement:-
(a) The administrative class should have more freedom to take
responsibilities and be accountable for them. In short, there
should be levels of competence and each officer should be praised
or blamed for the way he carries out his own assignment.
(b) New schemes of work incentives other than seniority should be
introduced to get out the best in administrators. These are
honourable mentions, certificates for meritorious service, paid
token holiday and salary increments.
(c) The agricultural ministry should be, as far as possible
decentralized. Agricultural personnel should operate from rural
areas as teachers, pastors and medicos do.
(d) Finally, ministries of agriculture are due for change. They have
outlined their usefulness. As constituted they are two or more
decades behind time. As it were they can not be a veritable tool of
achieving the millennium development goal of halving hunger and
poverty by 2015.
2) Political Set – Up.

The political factor in Agricultural development policy is a reality.
Our task then is to put in its rightful place rather than try to
ignore it or Brush it aside.
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a) One of the pre-conditions for agricultural development is the will
by political leadership to promote the interest of agriculture. This
goes beyond mere recognition and acceptance. Politicians and
government should be directly involved.
b) The second is, political consciousness, stability and continuity.
Agriculture needs political stability to develop. If political stability
is not evident planning will be distorted and haphazard.
c) The winning of an election or the assumption of political power by
any means does not in any way confer on the bearer omniscience
or extraordinary wisdom. Consultations with agricultural
researchers and experts is inevitable to avoid moribund and white
–elephant projects, wastages and to as far as possible put the
interest of productivity before that of equity (federal character
/quota system) in economic matters.
3) Formulation of Agricultural Policy.
It will be wrong if we gave the impression that the fault for
agricultural ills lies only with administrators and politicians.
Perhaps, it is right to say that in developing countries policy-
makers are equally to blame for the many failures in agriculture.
(a) Planning is fundamental to agricultural development. In times
past anthropologists parade the view that what was needed in
Nigerian agriculture was to sow seeds, relax and let nature provide
an abundance harvest. This ldylic picture of the “noble savage”
cannot be taken seriously today” the truth is that agricultural
development requires planning in order to define problems,
establish goals and evolve suitable policies.
(b) Many agricultural development planners ignore the fact that
planning requires proper emphasis on administrative and
organizational aspects of government which have political and
social implications. Since administration is important to
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agricultural development any policy for the attainment of the latter
must take into account the strengths and weakness of
administrative machinery and its possible reforms if the policies
are to be fully implemented.
(c) Another weakness in agricultural planning is the creation by
planners of administrative bottle-necks and lags between promises
and performance by the inclusion of a series of improvisations
calculated to be self –executory. If a plan is to be implemented it
should be formulated realistically taking into consideration the
limitations imposed by the economy, the political and social
systems, and the capacities of administration.
(d) Another weakness in policy formulation according to Meier (1965)
is the high degree of sophistication and econometric models in
formulation of plans. This tendency to bookishness is popular
among researchers, consultants and PhD student and it is also
styled as “Documentation – orientation” as against” action –
orientation”. In other words, the over-riding objectives of planning
technicians is a neat and elegantly written plan and not the
implementation.
In conclusion, Agricultural development policies are bound to get more

complex and intricate in future. Strategies for their achievement must
therefore be mounted on many fronts. Policy –makers, administrators
and politicians shall heed training in their own and in one another’s
spheres. This will put agriculture on a sound foundation for further
development.
Revision Questions
151
1. Explain Six Uniqueness of agriculture that distinguish it from
industry or manufacturing sector.
2. Highlight Five administrative challenges in Agricultural
development policy.
3. explain two policy implications of the uniqueness of agriculture
discussed above.
4. Suggest two measures each as remedies to flaws in administrative,
political and policy factors in agricultural development policy.
5. Who is to blame – politicians or administrators for the ills in the
agricultural development of Nigeria.
6. With the trends in global agricultural development, do you think
ministries of Agriculture are still relevant in Nigerian System.
7. Which is better in Agricultural development administration – the
colonial regime or post independent governments.
Suggested Further Reading:

Meier, G.M. (1965). The Development Decade in Perspective. Paper
Presented at the Cambridge Conference on “Obstacles to Development”
(MIMEO) P. 20.
Akinyosoye, V.O. (2005). Government and Agriculture in Nigeria. Lagos:

Macmillan Publishers.
Ijere, M.O. (1989). Reading in Nigerian Agricultural Policy and Planning.

Port Harcourt.
152
COLONIAL POLICY IN NIGERIAN AGRICULTURE AND ITS
IMPLEMENTATION
OLATOMIDE W. OLOWA
Federal College of Education (tech), Akoka
Highlights;-
- The Policy Thrust
- The Strategies and Implementation
- Summary
- Revision Questions.
Introduction and Policy Thrust.
The Nigerian Land Policy of the Nineteen Century encapsulate the

colonial policy in Nigerian agriculture. The main thrust of colonial policy
in Nigerian agriculture at that time was that agriculture be carried on in
the traditional forms of African land tenure without mechanization or
plantations. The reason for this given by colonial authority was the
economic and social upheavals connected with plantation agriculture
that had occurred in East Africa.
In 1926, Sir Clifford who was the governor at that time clarified the
colonial policy as follows: “Great Britain is a manufacturing country
which depends very largely for is new products upon other countries and
largely upon tropical countries. It is important that the tropical
countries within the British Empire should produce these products in
ever – increasing quantities of the highest quality. It is important that
153
Nigeria should be able to produce, and not Nigeria (only) but other
colonies, the maximum of raw materials”.
British policy was therefore the creation of money economy in which

commercial agricultural export was the key factor. Its prosecution and
expansion would rest on the shoulders of the native peasantry.
Strategies and Implementation:

To achieve this, the people would be educated in scientific and economic
methods of agricultural implements of a superior type to those locally
manufactured. The British administration evolved a clean division of
functions from the start. While African peasants grew agricultural
products, European trading companies processed and marked the, and
the administration would prepare and maintain the conditions – political,
moral and material – upon which the success or failure of such
enterprises in a very large measure depends.
Although the colonial administration in Nigeria had areserved the

country’s trade and commerce to British Private companies, the latter
were not allowed to enjoy their monopoly uncontested. German proved
to be a stiff competitor. The effect of this competition is seen in
fluctuation in agricultural exports’. For example, British’s share of Palm
products in the International trade fell from 65 percent in 1922 to 31
percent in 1937. Cocoa rose from 5 percent in 1921 to 19 percent in
1937, and groundnuts from 4 percent in 1923 to 24 percent in 1933.
Great Britains share in Nigerian exports amounted to 67 percent in 1921
– 1923, but declined in 1923 – 1938. It was 55 percent in 1926, and
44.2percent in 1929; 37 percent in 1931 and 51 percent in 1938. On the
other hand German trade showed a rising trend: 7.6 percent in 1921; 8.5
154
percent in 1922; 12 percent in 1923; 19.4 percent in 1929, and 17.4
percent in 1938.
To obviate German encroachment in its economic preserves, Britain

during the world war took over oil crushing machines established by
German before world war 1. Further Britain imposed a preferential
export duties, a 2 pounds per tone in 1919 and had it withdrawn in July
1922, largely as a result of French competition and alternative sources of
supply, mainly whale oil.
To focus attention on Peasant agriculture, the government restricted

manufactures of the 102 foreign nonmining farms in 1921 in Nigeria only
7 were allowed to engage actively in manufacturing. The figure rose toll
in 1936.
Secondly, there was to be no manufacture of cotton textiles in Nigeria.

The United African Company (UAC), for example, was discouraged from
starting a spinning and weaving mill near the cotton area in Nigeria. In
1934 the government enacted an imported textiles ordinance which
diverted the sources of supplies for manufactured commodities. Finally
a high export duty was imposed on palm product extraction. The
government was determined to do everything in its power to promote
peasant agriculture for the export sector.
Cotton production was to be encouraged hence colonial government

embarked on the following:-
- Supply of healthy seeds
- Provision of free cotton and buying station established.
- A fixed price of one penny per pound was adopted.
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- Low rates were fixed for the shipment of ginned cotton by
railways
- Local authorities were allotted grants to encourage the planting
of cotton in the Kano districts.
- The Empire cotton Growing Association was established to
popularize the growing of cotton in Northern Nigeria.
In spite of this, cotton was not grown enthusiastically in the Kano region,
as farmers found it more profitable to plant groundnuts instead.
In 1920, Agricultural Extension Officers were supplied – to visit the

farmers and undertake practical demonstrations. The work of
demonstration could not, however, be carried on without the
establishment of model farms and research stations. This led to the
establishment of the Moor Plantation in 1899, the British Cotton
Growing Corporation research Station 1905 (abandoned in 1910). The
department of Agriculture assumed the function of British Cotton
Growing Corporation with the establishment of three agricultural
stations in the North (Ilorin, Margaina and Kaduna) and Four in the
South (Agege, Calabar, Ibadan and Onitsha). These stations also serve
as research centre.
Agricultural research was regionalized along with agriculture in 1951,

and as a result each region undertook research projects, specific to its
own area. There remained a Federal Ministry of Agriculture with the
research arm at moor plantation in Ibadan.
To cover domestic food crops a shift of emphasis was needed which came
in 1955 with the establishment of the Agricultural Technical Committee,
156
a body dedicated to making possible a more abundant supply of food for
a growing population.
The department also distributed hand presses and pedal-driven nut-

cracking machines in the extractive process of palm oil production to
enhance productivity.
The extent of success achieved through state intervention can be

demonstrated by two crops – palm produce and cocoa. In 1960, the
combined earnings of both palm oil and palm kernel accounted for 40.1
million while cocoa production attain 100 000 tons in 1939 and 150,000
in 1960 and inspite of summary:
Summary
In summary, there was no consistent plan or blue print by Colonial
administrators for Nigerian agriculture, but there was nonetheless a
clear – cut policy of what role agriculture was expected to play in the
economy. First, agriculture was to serve as the major for the satisfaction
of the economic needs of the mother country, providing raw materials
and offering a training ground for British experts experimenting a
tropical agriculture.
Second, there was a division of functions between the participants,

namely British administrators and commercial interests, on the one
hand, and African peasants on the other. In words and by examples
there objectives were prosecuted with great fervor, and no stone was left
unturned to lead the weight of government to their realization. As a
result certain export crops became dominant in the Nigerian economy,
earnings foreign exchange, absorbing labour and saving as the nuclei of
the rising middle class of entrepreneurs.
157
Revision Questions
1. Highlights the Policy thrust of the colonial administration in

Nigerian Agriculture.
2. What major export crops were dominants and in what region of the
country were they produced during the colonial era.
3. Would you say the policies during the colonial administration in
Nigeria was beneficial to the country?
SUGGESTED FURTHER READING:-
Ijere, M.O. (1983), Reading in Nigerian Agricultural Policy and Planning.

Port Harcourt . Pp 7-13.
Tokuro, M.F. (1977). Economic Development in the third World. New

York; Longman.
158
STATE PLANNING OF AGRICULTURE – NIGERIA EXPERIENCE
B.T. OMONONA
Department of Agricultural Economics.
University of Ibadan, Ibadan
HIGHLIGHTS:-
- Introduction
- Capital Investment
- The World Bank and Development Plans
- The Post – Independence Experience
- Some Lessons of Agricultural Planning
INTRODUCTION
State planning for Agriculture in Nigeria started with Colonial
administration and is best studied as part of planning of the general
economy of which agriculture forms a part. Looking at the whole scene,
we shall be able to see state action as it affected agriculture in a better
light.
159
Capital Investment
The first capital investments in Nigeria were undertaken by the British
government and foreign commercial and trading companies. Amount
invested in Nigeria between 1870 – 1937 amounted roughly 77.087
million pounds; 25 million pounds of which came from foreign private
enterprises (Frankel 1955). These investments were done with other
aims, which though not coordinated were nevertheless part of the
colonial interest. For example, for creation of trading relations and
connections the suppression of slave trading relations and pacification of
the country. A proper development programme however demands that
capital should not only be invested, but be employed according as the
needs of the people demand it. In other words, it should be done
according to a definite plan.
The British Government Instituted the “Colonial Development and

welfare Act” in 1929, which provided capital for the development of the
colonies of which Nigeria was a part. This Act aimed at relieving the
economic depression in the United Kingdom, and stimulating
agricultural activity in the colonial territories.
In 1940, a new development Act was passed to encourage the

development of any colony or the welfare of the people. The Act was
however noted to have driven British interest to provide themselves
materials and food from their colonies. When it was realized that to get
these services based upon improved economic efficiency and increased
production was needful, A new commonwealth Development and And
Welfare Act 1945 was enacted. The Act made provision for a sum of 120
million pounds for the period 1945 – 1956. The sum was meant to form
the nucleus of colonial development finance and the allocations were to
give a valuable impetus to the planning of development. The fund was
160
for the purpose of raising standard of health, education social welfare
and general well being of the people in the colonies who were the
perceived tools in the realization of their goals.
As a British Colony, Nigeria received the sum of 26 million pounds as

part of her share from the “Colonial Development and Welfare Fund” of
the period 1945 – 1956. The sum were distributed as follows:-
21.4% for Transport
19.6% for Health
14.6% for Schools
12.9% for Agriculture
8.2% for Town and Village Planning
31.3% for Miscellaneous.
The post colonial era witnessed large capital investment by all levels of
government. A number of irrigation dam were constructed with northern
part of the country’s, while Research Institutes were established. In the
Southwest farm settlement stations were established with adequate
provision of infrastructure to attract youngs hands unto the business of
farming. Programmes such as operation feed the Nation (OFN), Green
Revolution (GR) Back to land, National Agricultural Land Development
(NALDA) were also capital intensive ones meant to develop agriculture
and farm-families by various civilian and military regime in Nigeria.
The World Back and Development Plans:

The first time The World Bank would show interest in Nigerian Economy
was in 1953 when it sent 15 experts (from 7 different countries) to study
the economic conditions of the country and submit a comprehensive
report that will how it was to be financed.
161
The Report placed a great importance on agriculture, emphasizing the
need for its promotion since it forms the basis of the economy of the
country. The respective regional governments were expected to
undertake research into soil, plant and animal food. Model farms were
to be further expanded, to bring to the home of farmers the various
modern cultivation methods and techniques and the application of
manure. The report further recommended an improvement of the credit
institutions, a mobilization of local savings and the encouragement of
foreign investments.
The Development plan for the year 1955-60, which was based on the
report of the World Bank already mentioned, aimed at the promotion
above all, of education and health, agriculture, urban and rural water
supply and road construction.
On a federal level the plan recommended the establishment of

agricultural and research institutes. On the regional, the North
undertook projects for the fighting and control of tse-tse flies,
mechanization of agriculture and promotion of fodder economy as well as
the application of chemical manures. The West concentrated on the
establishment of agricultural schools, and promotion of poultry and milk
production. The Eastern region established experimented stations and
agricultural mechanization where possible. The Southern Cameroon’s
emphasis on the control of cocoa pod disease, improvement, of
plantations and cultivation.
In addition, regional government (in 1954) undertook the resettlement of
over populated regions. Hand in hand with resettlement projects were
the partnership schemes which were most note worthy in Western
Nigeria. Regional production Development Boards were set up to provide
162
the capital and trained personnel while the people supplied labour, so
that the population first of all learned, and in the end was in the position
to take over the administration and management of the farms.
Since the fields in agriculture are dependent not only on the basic
production requirements, but also considerably on the knowledge and
efficiency of the farmer, the development Boards later the Development
corporations which either instruct the farmers in their farms or which
themselves establish farm estates, new and better techniques were
discovered and introduced into agriculture.
The extent of capital requirement to finance the development projects of

Nigeria in the 1955-6- Plan deviated considerably from those of the World
Bank, because of the rise in prices since the time of the report. For the
period 1955-60 the Government of Nigeria estimated the expenditure of
the sum of 189.553 million pounds compared to 123.951 of the world
bank the breakdown of the estimates of the governments according to
Ijere (1983) are:
19.3% for Reads
8.8% for Education
6.7% for Post and Television
2.02% for Agriculture (Despite its alleged importance).
In the estimates of the World Bank:

16.3% was for road
15.3% was for health
8.7% was for Public works
8.1% was for education
2.3% was for agriculture
163
In 1954, on the advise of the International Bank Mission, The Regional
production Development Boards (RPDB) and the loans Board were fused
to become Regional Development Corporations. The RPDBs were
established to develop the economy by stimulating the production of
various agricultural products.
The Development Corporations were saddled with heavy undertakings as

such created divisions to cater for these. Four divisions were created
namely agricultural and plantations division, the industrial and
commercial division, the Accounts and the administration.
The aims of the Agricultural divisions had not been the same throughout
the years and regions. At the initial stages, the aim was to set up a few
plantations in various parts of the regions so that the local community
could copy from them. This meant that a great emphasis was placed
more on demonstration than on profit.
The Development Corporations were an ambitious innovation to carry

out agricultural projects. Their success in Great Britain Encouraged
Nigerian leaders to utilize them in the service of Nigeria agriculture and
industry. They were, however, not as successful in Nigeria. Their
projects were in many cases grandiose, ill-conceived, without feasibility
studies and lacking in qualitative and quantitative guide lines.
Nigeria Agriculture at Independence in 1960 has had over 60 years of

experience in a colonial-oriented, dependent economy. Demands of post-
colonial development in area of Industry, employment and dynamic
transformation to meet the needs of an independent country changed the
role of the state from that of legislation and bureaucratic support to one
164
of active involvement and the engendering of realistic planning and
diversification within the context of an integrated national economy.
Post – Independence Experience (A Summary)

Government policy actions are made known through budgets; plans and
Rolling plans. We shall take brief look at various plans and government
priorities post-independence that is from 1960 to 2010.
The following are the National plans and Rolling Plans. The country have
had since independence till date:
First National Development Plan 1962 – 1968
Second National Development Plan 1970 – 1974
Third National Development Plan 1975 – 1980
Fourth National Development Plan 1981 – 1985
First National Rolling Plan 1990 – 1992
Second National Rolling Plan 1991 – 1993
Third National Rolling Plan 1992 – 1994
Fourth National Rolling Plan 1993 – 1995
Again, we shall do an overview of these Plans and rolling plans in terms

of the general economy of which agriculture forms a part in a stylized
summary. After Independence, the direction of economic policy was
dictated by a number serious problems facing the country such as high
rate of illiteracy, low per capita income, low purchasing power
inadequate infrastructures, and very few modern industries. The foreign
exchange base of the country was very narrow comprising mainly of
agricultural commodities which were vulnerable to economic cycles of the
Industrialized nations. Among those Crop that were reknown then were
cocoa, palm produce, groundnut, cotton and rubber. The first
development plan covered the period 1962 to 1968 but its
165
implementation was interrupted by the Civil War from 1967 to 1969.
This was followed the Second National Plan (1970 – 1974), third
development 1975 to 1980 and the rest of them.
Generally, the fundamental objectives of the macro economic policy

pursued within the period under reviews in Nigeria are:
- Economic growth and development
- Price stability
- Self reliance and
- Social equity
Economic development activities carried out in Nigeria since the nation

got her Independence can be grouped into two major periods namely
1960 to 1985 and 1986 to 1993. The first period concides with the (1986
to 1993) was characterized by more liberal policies involving greater
reliance on market forces in the coordination of economic activities. For
any of the planned documents, the policy instrument used are:-
- Fiscal policy instruments
- Monetary policy instruments
- Income policy instruments
- Trade and Commercial policy instruments
- Exchange rate policy instruments.
Some Lessons of Agricultural Planning

There was no doubt that Nigerian Colonial administration regarded
agriculture as crucial. When critically examined the investments in
agriculture do not justify the acclaimed high place given to it by the
colonial regime. The same is true when again we find agriculture
claiming the lowest per cent of the budget in the 1955 -60 Development
plan as also it did in that of the World Bank Report.
166
The period after the Independence also revealed that with various plans
and rolling plans plus various policy instruments utilized agriculture
continues to decline in its contribution to the economy and gross
domestic product (GDP), when it declines from nearly 60% of GDP and
80% of export earnings to a negative agriculture is still in it state of
commatus as the state planning instrument is bedeviled by politicking.
Revisions Questions
1. Draw an assessment of colonial Administration planning for state
as it affect agricultural development in Nigeria.
2. What the lessons to be learnt from the World bank
recommendations and colonial administration budget of 1955 to
1960 in Nigeria.
3. In your own view, How has Nigeria fair so far in terms of planning
for Agriculture.
Frankel, S.H. (1955). The Economic Impact on Underdeveloped

Societies. Oxford P. 138.
Federal Republic of Nigeria 0 First National Development Plan 1962 – 68

Lagos.
Federal Republic of Nigeria – Fourth National Rolling Plan 1993 – 1995

Abuja.
167
THE CONCEPT OF AGRICULTURAL FUNDAMENTALISM AS A
DEVELOPMENT POLICY
OLATOMIDE W. OLOWA

FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECH), AKOKA
HIGHLIGHTS:-
- Introduction
- Dimensions in Agricultural Fundamentalism
- Limitations in Agricultural Fundamentalism
- The Farmer’s Rightful place.
168
INTRODUCTION
Agricultural fundamentalism argues that agriculture is the most
important and bedrock of other Industries (in terms of development), and
that farmers are Kings and livewire of a society and as such deserve
special consideration. This believe has inadvertently moulded policies,
affected national budgets and influenced resource allocation in many
countries. To Neglect or allow indifference on the other hand is regarded
as unpatriotic and a misplacement of priorities.
Four other dimensions is discernible about / in Agricultural

fundamentalism. They are:-
1. The believe that rural life is the only embodiment of the highest
and noblest virtues of which the fabric of a nation is formed (the
orthodox concept).
2. The modern tendency for extreme protectionism for agriculture
(concern for rural life).
3. The maintenance that only the disciplines which deal with food
production are the true promoters of agriculture.
4. The promotion of agriculture as a cloak for political gain (Pseudo-
agricultural fundamentalism).
We shall now do a survey of agricultural fundamentalism in its historical

perspective under the above- mention sub-divisions.
1. The Orthodox Concept

Agricultural fundamentalists maintain that farmers are the ones
whose sweat and toil produced the food that has nourished people
these millions of years, and whose tie to the good earth made the
169
foundations for the cultures and civilizations of their own
generation and following generations.
According to History, The great Civilizations of Egypt Assyrias Babylonia

in ancient time, the epoch – making Industrial revolution that England
pioneered in the 18th Century, the great African Ecpires of S’onghay,
Mali, Ghana and many more, had their basis on agriculture.
Little wonder then, that agriculture has been regarded by many as

primus inter pares among industries, and the fundamental, absolutely
controlling Keystone of the nation’s economic and business structure.
The farmer is seen as the most essential cog in the driving wheel of
Industrial Society, the greatest producer, and buyer and the sustenance
of a nation’s prosperity.
According to Greig (1929) “From the standpoint of area, or wealth, or

population employed, agriculture is by far the most important activity in
British Empire; The true wealth of the world, the wealth which
determines the standard of living of nations, is limited by the capacity to
produce cereals, milk, meat, wool, cotton, hides and other prime
necessities of life, of soil origin, without a sufficient supply of these,
progress in the art of living is impossible Oyenuga (1967) in his book
Agriculture in Nigeria, said that “agriculture is the main source, not only
of the food supply, but of many other basic necessities of life ……
agriculture is the source of the bulk of the resources needed for
educating the young, for health and other forms of social service”.
All these bear witness to the widespread conviction that the prosperity of
the nation depends on agriculture.
170
Concern For Rural Life:
The attachment to agricultural fundamentalism is projected in a serious
concern for rural life. The Africans of Colonial masters days were called
“noble savage” leading a happy-go-lucky life in rural setting, carrying on
agricultural activities on traditional lines because, they are natural
growths, not artificial creations, are self-supporting as regards Labour.
The vision of Nigerian development by the colonial master, was of an
agricultural society, based on the village, technically improved, wisely
guided by more educated chiefs, and later by democratic counselors.
This according to them would least disturb the cultural pattern of
Nigerian.
An extreme form of the concern for rural life is the nostalgia for
primitivism. Adherents of primitivism engage in reconstructing the past,
and demonstrating that primitive man was better than contemporary
man. To the proponent the nearer we are to nature the better for
society.
3. The Agricultural Fundamentalism of Universities:-

Another kind of Agricultural fundamentalism is found in academic
circles, particularly in agricultural universities and colleges, where the
bio-physical aspects of agriculture are enthroned at the expense of the
socio-economic. These fundamentalists believe that only the food
production disciplines like plant and soil science, horticulture and
animal science are essential. To them there should be nothing like
agricultural economics and extension.
Discussions on agricultural planning, marketing, finance and the

absorption process are regarded as abstract and irrelevant to the farmer.
The problem of Nigerian agriculture, according to the academic
171
fundamentalists is lack of food production. Such incidents as famine or
drought are capitalized as evidence of the failure of agriculture to provide
the answer to the sufferings of the people. It does not occur to them that
famine or food scarcity can be the result, for example of market and
transport imperfections, and that except the crop has been consumed, it
is of no importance to the citizen. Therefore, the process of diffusing
innovation, just as the elements of marketing and finance are as
important as actual production.
Agronomists and their colleagues do not appreciate the extent to which

agricultural economics can be applied to agriculture. The experts put
their emphasis more on size of crops and quality of soil, and rations
being nutritionally balanced, and not on producing these at the lowest
cost which is basic to maximizing profit to the firm.
4. Pseudo – agricultural Fundamentalists:-

People sing the praises of agriculture, using it to achieve private
ends but do little or nothing to promote it. This is the attitude of Psedo-
agricultural fundamentalist. The farmer is most important at election
time but becomes nonentity in-between. It is easy for politician to shout.
The farmer is most important at election time but becomes nonentity in-
between. It is easy for politician to shout “agricultural fundamentalism”
thereby hypnotizing the farmer into believing that somebody is taking
care of his interests. But in reality, it is nothing but words and
promises, without the desire to implement them.
Every Nigerian development plan stresses that agriculture is the key

sector, and mainstay of the National economy, these plans set out in
elegant language and flawless economic logic the policies strategies for
realizing them; as well as the benefits to be derived by farmers if the
172
plans are implements. To the chargrin of many, the emphasis on
agriculture is not indicated by their budgets.
In no other sector is there so much confusion and inconsistency as in

agriculture. In the space of Nine years Nigeria have had atleast six
agricultural policies from Obasanjo to Yar’adua. Without any of them
implemented to the fullest. For example, the Cassava drive for export
was launched whereas farmers were not given incentives (loan,
processing facilities) to operate optimally within this policy framework.
Limitations in Agricultural Fundamentalism

1. Size alone is not the Supreme Index of Importance.
The importance of a man is very imperfectly indicated by his
height, his weight, his age, wealth or income. Nor is the
importance of a Nation or its wealth.
2. It is an exaggeration to insist that agriculture is uniquely essential.
Air and water can be said to be even more vital necessities than
food, though because of their abundance, only a small proportion
of human effort is required to provide them where they are lacking.
Although food is not likely to be as easily procurable as water, yet
beyond a certain point it is equally wasteful of human energy to
expend efforts increasing the supply, especially in advanced
countries. “ Man does not live by bread alone”.
3. Alternatives measures to increase food production have been
established. For example, there is the addition of food
supplements from chemists in the form of iron tablets, protein
capsules and vitamin pills.
4. There are countries where the farmers’ part in producing food is
not the largest fraction of the production process. It more often
goes into transportation, processing and merchandising for
173
example, than in actual production. What the consumer often gets
is different from what the farmer sells. Take the case of akara
balls, for example, the farmer’s share of the consumer’s Naira has
declined because an increased share of that Naira has been earned
by others who have contributed to the final product.
5. Then, not all farmers are essential to production. The aggregate
importance of farm products is very great, but not their marginal
importance. The elimination of farmer is unthinkable. But the real
questions concern the importance of the moderate additions or
reductions in the number of farmers and the supply of farm products.
With air and water relatively abundant, we properly regard those who
provide us water and air-conditioners as essential; but we do not magnify
their importance simply because air and water are initially necessary.
The two situations are essentially similar, except in regard to the number
of persons involved.
Why do so many people embrace agriculture despite the risks and

hardships? The answer lies in the fact that it demands minimum outlay
to enter and requires little training as well. Farming assures
independence similar to that found in retailing. It offers an opportunity
to co-operate with nature.
The Farmer’s Rightful Place

From the economic tendencies discussed above, it is pertinent to say that
there is little basis for fears about food shortage if the number in
agriculture is reduced. Efforts to ensure an adequate food supply persist
but they are not necessarily dependent on the efforts of farmers. It is
therefore not justified to increase the number of people in agriculture vis
“back-to-land”, farm settlement scheme programmes.
174
A declining importance of agriculture does not mean its decadence in
respect to the efficiency of farming or the quality of farm population.
Rather, the rise of farming efficiency always accompanies a declining
importance of agriculture, and the experience of advanced countries
bears this out.
On the question of rural life and virtues, agriculture has no superiority in

respect of healthfulness and wholesomeness of living conditions.
Industrial cities today have their parks, lawns, gardens and orchards.
Nor is the possession of noble virtues the monopoly of rural society, for,
with advances in modern sciences, the rural society, for, with advances
in modern sciences, the rural community is bombarded with the same
communications media as the urban.
The contention of academics that only food production is to be promoted

against planning, extension and marketing is a highly restricted view and
suffers from the same weakness as similar earlier hypothesis. Emphasis
on food production to the neglect of planning is faulty and misplaced.
In conclusion, the welfare of the farmer depends on his ability to earn a

respectable living as an individual and not whether agriculture is pre-
eminent or not. His share of the national income should not be based on
the economic sector or the size of the group, but largely on his efficiency.
Finally, there is no such thing as agricultural development except as part

of a broader programme for national development. If agriculture is to
develop in Nigeria or in other similar economics, changes must occur far
beyond the reaches of the agricultural sector. What is required is a
mutually – supporting process, involving simultaneous advance in both
agriculture and industry, with the nature and dimensions of the advance
175
in each sector being adapted to the resources, markets, and other
conditions of the country in question.
The doctrinal statements of agricultural fundamentalism might be

suitable for whipping up sentiments, but not as instruments of national
policy. And the condition of the Nigerian farmer is not likely to be
improved by more reliance on that philosophy.
Revision Questions
1. What do you understand by the concept of Agricultural
fundamentalism.
2. Mention Four other dimensions in Agricultural Fundamentalism.
3. Summarize the argument of Agricultural Fundamentalist of
Universities.
4. Who are the Culprits in Pseudo-agricultural Fundamentalism and
Why?
5. State the Limitations of Agricultural Fundamentalism.
6. Is it justifiable to send more people into the farm in the modern
Nigeria?

1. Greg, R.B. (1930). Report of the 97th meeting of the British
Association of the Advancement of Science, London, P. 231.
2. Oyenuga, V. A. (1967). Agriculture in Nigeria. FAO/UN, Rome P.1.
3. Ijere, M.O. (1983) Reading in Nigerian Agricultural Policy and
Planning Port – Harcourt.
176
INSTITUTIONS AND PROGRAMMES FOR AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA (1959-2006)
A.A FALADE
Federal College of Education (Technical)
Akoka, Lagos.
177
INTRODUCTION
Before the discovery of crude oil, Agriculture has been the main
source of sustenance of Nigerian economy by providing food, raw
materials, employment opportunity and foreign exchange
earnings.
As a result of the importance of Agriculture to National
development, successive Nigerian governments brought about
different forms of agricultural programmes for the purpose of
facilitating improved production in the sector. Some of the
programmes and institutions are listed and discussed in this
chapter. These include:
1. Farm settlement scheme
2. Commodity Boards
3. National Accelerated food production programme (NAFPP)
4. Agricultural Development Projects (ADP)
5. Operation feed the Nation (OFN)
6. River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA)
7. Agricultural Credit Guarantees Scheme (ACGS)
8. National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS)
9. Green Revolution Programme (GRP)
10. Strategic Grain Reserve Programme (SGRP)
11. Directorate of food, Road and Rural Infrastructure (DIFRRI)
12. National Directorate of employment (NDE)
13. National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA)
14. Better life for Rural Women programme (BLP)
15. Family support programme (FSP)
16. Family Economic Advancement programme (FEAP)
178
Farm Settlement Scheme
This programme was first established by the Western Region
Government in 1959. The sole objective of this programme was to
attract young people such as primary school leavers to Agriculture.
Some selected youths were trained in farm operations before they
were given farm land in the settlement. Some years later, similar
programmes named Back-to-the-land and graduate farming
scheme (GFS) were established in 1984 by the River state and
Lagos state government respectively.
Commodity Board
The commodity boards were established in 1977. Seven of such
were launched but were abolished in 1986 following the
government’s market deregulation policy under the structural
adjustment programme (SAP).
Natinal Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP)

In order to increase farmer’s income, accelerate the rate of
disseminating new agricultural technology and serve as a tool for
testing, adopting and adapting agricultural research discoveries to
real farm situation, National accelerated food production
programme was established in 1973. The programme aimed at
raising the production of arable crops such as cassava, rice, maize,
guinea corn, millet and wheat by providing relevant inputs,
processing and storage facilities.
Agricultural Development Projects (ADP)

This programme was launched in 1974. Three pilot projects were
established at funtua in Katsina state, Gombe in Gombe state and
179
Gusau in Zamfara state. The aim of the programme was to improve
agricultural productivity and the quality of rural life. Considering
the success of the programme, the government extended it to cover
the whole Nation. The financial involvement was shared by the
World Bank (45%) the Federal Government (25%) and the state
Government (30%).
Operation Feed The Nation (OFN)

OFN was established in 1976 for the purpose of encouraging the
rural and urban people to bring about an increased publicity for
agricultural production. This was to induce more participation in
agricultural production so as to boost self-sufficiency through
agricultural production and to reduce food importation in Nigeria.
Although, this programme was replaced with the Green Revolution
programme in 1980, it recorded some success while in existence.
River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAS)

The main objective of launching this programme in 1976, among
others was to explore the water resources and enhance agricultural
and rural development. The government embarked on irrigation
projects to guard against the negative experience brought about by
drought in the 1970swhen the nation lost about 40-60 percent of
the grain crops to drought.
Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme (ACGS)

This scheme was established in 1977 under the control of the
central Bank of Nigeria. It was charged with the role of lending
180
money to farmers and ensure guarantee in respect of loans given by
commercial banks.
National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS)

The purpose of setting up this scheme in 1988, among others, was
to provide a kind of buffer to farmers against natural disasters and
other risks. This scheme was established such that all farmers who
receive loan from any bank take an insurance policy. The
government was bearing half of the premium while the farmers had
to bear the remaining half.
However, the insurance policy covers only a few arable crops such
as maize and rice. The animals that are covered include cattle and
poultry. The insurance for farm machinery, farm building and other
equipment are at the usual commercial rates.
Green Revolution Programme (GRP)

This programme was created in 1980 and the main objective was to
cater for some of the lapses observed in the operation feed the
Nation (OFON). It was meant to adequately meet the needs of
peasant farmers and generally enhance the development of rural
areas so as to boost food supply in Nigeria.
Although this programme (GRP) has been phased out, the purpose
has been incorporated into the ADPs.
Strategic Grain Reserve Programme (SGRP)

As part of the federal Government efforts to prevent lack or scarcity
of food during National disasters whether natural or man-made,
this programme was launched to store national grain seed at
181
strategic locations throughout the whole country. To this effect,
steel silos with a total capacity of 125,000 tones of dry grains has
been constructed in five locations in the country and another set to
store 250,00 tones was completed in 1989.
In addition, the federal government equally initiated other national
grain storage programme which include the grain buffer-stock
storage programme and an-on-farm grain storage programme.
Directorate Of Foods, Roads And Rural Infrastructure (DIFRRI)

The provision of rural infrastructure to enhance food production
and processing was the main aim of establishing DIFRRI in 1986.
Rural development through proper harnessing of human, natural
and mineral resources was the targets of this programme. The
immediate environment of the rural populace is improved through
provision of other infrastructures.
National Directorate Of Employment (NDE)

This scheme was launched in late 1986. The aim was to increase
food production, reduce poverty and create employment for the
unemployed. The programme emphasized the provision of adequate
training in agriculture in all the states of the federation. Youths
who were interested in farming were trained, given land and loans
to take off in farming business.
National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALADA)

This was launched as a parastatal under the monitoring of the
federal ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. It was
established by decree 92 of 1992 as part of the government’s efforts
182
in alleviating poverty. NALADA focused on land development,
provision of subsidized inputs to farmers and farmer’s cooperatives
as well as facilitating economic farm holdings.
Better Life For Rural Women Programme (BLP)

The rural women were the focus of this programme. BLP was
established in 1987 as another poverty alleviation strategy. The
objective include the development of the rural women towards
being self reliant, to realize their potential and encourage them to
positively contribute to National development. Also, the programme
was meant to introduce rural women to technique of food
processing, packaging and storage.
Family Support Programme (FSP)

This programme was launched in 1994 to enhance the beginning of
supportive programmes that will also help the craving of Nigerian
families to be better prepared to deal with the challenges of living
useful life in an increasingly complex world.
The programme was sectionalized into different groups such as;
education, Agriculture, child welfare and youth development,
disability and destitution, income generation and shelter. The
agricultural section of the FSP emphasized on increasing small
holder production of livestock, improving the diet and source of
income of the family, procurement and installation of low-cost agro-
processing and packaging equipment, providing credit facilities for
homestead fish production.
183
Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP)
FEAP was created in 1997 to improve the living standard of the
rural populace. The government, among other things, have some
goals for the programme. These include the establishment of
cottage industries, provision of locally fabricated machineries and
equipment to facilitate technology development at the local level.
Fadama I,II, III, Projects: A World bank rural and agricultural

development assisted programme. Under this Scheme,
benefitting community or groups are required to open an
account with a deposit of between 10-30% of the project cost,
they are seeking World Bank assistance. Such project must be
viable and capable of generating revenues for repayment of the
granted fund.
Cassava Drive for Export: This is a recent policy of the federal
government it was commenced in 2003 during the second term
of the Obasanjo administration.
Nigerian is the leading producer of cassava in Africa (43.09MT).
Cassava to be exported must be processed into dry chips.
Exportations are done to Thailand and Europe which are the
major end users. This major impediment to the success of this
policy is that most Nigerian farmers are not knowledgeable as to
the processing standard and there are inadequate processing
mills. It has also been speculated that continuous export of
cassava chips will make the product expensive to consumers at
home because few farmers that are producing for local
184
consumption will take advantage of the excess demand to like
the prices of cassava products.
Federal Government N50B loan to farmers: This policy

requires state government to make a counter part contribution
of N200m before citizens of their state origin can benefit from
the loan. Apart from this, a farmer who wishes to benefit from
the loan must compulsorily be a member of a farmer
association. The president/chairman of such association must
also append his signature before such farmer be considered for
the loan.
Cocoa Revitalisation Programme: Under the Obasanjo
regime, Erelu Obada, the deputy Governor of Osun State was
appointed the chairperson of this project. It was meant to raise
cocoa production by providing cocoa seedlings to new entrants
and existing cocoa farmers. The program is also expected to
provide loans and incentives to farmers so as to boast cocoa
production and exportation.
National Economic Empowerment And Development Strategy (Needs)

Nigeria faces serious poverty challenges and it is estimated that two-
thirds of Nigerians now live below the poverty line of 1 U$$ per day, most
of them in rural areas, a figure that is up from 43 percent in 1985.
Recognizing this challenges the Federal Government of Nigeria in March

2004 formally launched its National Economic Empowerment and
Development Strategy (NEEDS) which identifies agricultures and
reforming government and its institution as core elements of economic.
Growth. The table below outlines Nigeria’s key policy thrust for
agriculture and food security in the NEEDS document.
185
Table 1: Policy Trusts and Targets for Agriculture and Food Security in Nigeria
Policy Trust Targets

[
 Provide the right policy Achieve minimum annual growth

environment incentives for private rate of 6 percent in agriculture.
investment in the sector.  Raise agricultural exports to $3
 Implement a new agricultural and billion by 2007. A major
rural development policy aimed at component of these exports will be
addressing the constraints in the cassava.
sector.  Drastically reduce food import
 Foster effective linkage with from 14.5 percent by 2007.
industry to achieve maximum  Develop and implement a scheme
value added and processing for of land preparation service to
export. increase cultivable arable land by
 Modernize production and create 10 percent a year and foster private
an agricultural sector that is sector participation through
responsive to the demands and incentive schemes.
realities of the Nigerian economy  Promote the adoption of
in order to create more agricultural environment friendly practices
and rural employment  Protect all prime agricultural
opportunities, which will increase production
the income of farmers and rural
dwellers.
 Reverse the trend in the import of
food (which stood at 14.5 percent
of total imports at the end of
2001), through a progressive
programme for agricultural
expansion. The government is
committed to reducing the
growing food import bill to stem
the rising trade imbalance as well
as diversify the foreign exchange
earning base.
 Strive towards food security and a
food surplus that could be
exported
 Invest in improving the quality of
the environment in order to
increase crop yields
186
Source: Nigeria Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS), 2004
Rural Economy Knowledge Support System (Rekss):

The is a newly proposed knowledge-based agricultural policy support
programme. The central activity of the proposed program would be the
creation of a system for managing and streamlining existing and new
knowledge on the rural economy, in all its various dimensions, to provide
a much stronger foundation for policy analysis and for informing rural
development strategy decision. The proposed Rural Economy Knowledge
Support System (REKSS) would provide a framework for integrating on
continuing and timely basis relevant information that is already available
or planned into a coherent knowledge management system and for
identifying important information gaps that need to be filled.
It is expected that REKSS would be housed at the Ministry of

Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) but that some components
would also be housed at other Ministries and perhaps one or two state
government agencies, according to need. The program would help build
the capacity of relevant institution to fulfill this role.
Revision Questions
1.Mention the various efforts of different governments in
agricultural development in Nigeria since 1960
2. Give the full meaning of the following Acronyms ADP, OFN
GRP, FSP,NALDA,DFRRI,FEAP,BLRW

Ekemode K.O (2001) Agriculture for sustainable development
Aihonsu , J.O.Y (1999) Agricultural Transformation in Nigeria: A Critique
of Operation Feed the nation (OFN) and Green Revolution Programmes
(GRP) Nigeria Journal of Agricultural Education (NIJAGRED) 2 (1&2): 14-
20
187
Ekemode, K.O (1999). Institutional Design for the marketing of Schedule
Crops in Nigeria 1900-1999. Nigeria Journal of Agricultural
Education(NIJAGRED) 2 (1&2): 7-13
Federal Ministry of Agriculture (1984) Information Bulletin on Nigerian

Agriculture. Lagos: Government Press.
Source: Nigeria Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy

(NEEDS), 2004
The New Nigerian Agricultural Development Policy
O.A. Olowa
Department Of Agricultural Education
Federal College Of Education (Tech), Akoka
188
Introduction
The previous agricultural policy document was finalized in 1988 and was
supposed to remain operative until the year 2000. Hence, in year 2001, a
new policy document was launched. The new policy document bears most of
the features of the old one, but with more focused direction and better
articulation.
Objectives of New Agricultural Policy
In a broad sense, the objectives of the new agricultural policy (as stated in
the document) are very similar to those of the old one. They include:
(i) The achievement of self-sufficiency in basic food supply and the
attainment of food security;
(2) Increased production of agricultural raw materials for industries;
(3) Increased production and processing of export crops, using improved
production and processing technologies;
(4) Generating gainful employment;
(5) Rational utilization of agricultural resources, improved protection of
agricultural land resources from drought, desert encroachment, soil erosion
and flood, and the general preservation of the environment for the
sustainability of agricultural production;
(6) Promotion of the increased application of modern technology to
agricultural production; and,
(7) Improvement in the quality of life of rural dwellers.
Key Features of the New Policy
The key features of the new policy are as follows:
 Evolution of strategies that will ensure self-sufficiency and

improvement in the level of technical and economic efficiency in food
production. This is to be achieved through (i) the introduction and
adoption of improved seeds and seed stock, (ii) adoption of improved
husbandry and appropriate machinery and equipment, (iii) efficient
utilization of resources, (iv) encouragement of ecological
specialization, and (v) recognition of the roles and potentials of small
-scale farmers as the major producers of food in the country.
 Reduction of risks and uncertainties in agriculture, to be achieved

through the introduction of a more comprehensive agricultural
189
insurance scheme to reduce the natural hazard factor militating against
agricultural production and security of investment.
 A nationwide, unified and all-inclusive extension delivery system

under the Agricultural Development Programs (ADPs).
 Active promotion of agro-allied industry to strengthen the linkage

effect of agriculture on the economy.
 Provision of such facilities and incentives as rural infrastructure, rural

banking, primary health care, cottage industries etc, to encourage
agricultural and rural development and attract youths (including
school leavers) to go back to the land.
Major Content of the Policy Framework
The policies cover issues on:

(i) agricultural resources (land, labor, capital, seeds, fertilizer, etc) whose
supply and prices affect the profitability of agricultural business,
(ii) crops, livestock, fisheries and agro-forestry production,
(iii) pest control,
(iv) mechanization,
(v) water resources and irrigation,
(vi) rural infrastructure,
(vii) agricultural extension and technology transfer,
(viii) research and development (R&D),
(ix) agricultural commodity storage, processing and marketing,
(x) credit supply,
(xi) insurance,
(xii) agricultural cooperatives,
(xiii) training and manpower development, and
190
(xiv) agricultural statistics and information management.
The successful implementation of the agricultural policy is, however,
contingent upon the existence of appropriate macroeconomic policies that
provide the enabling environment for agriculture to grow in equilibrium with
other sectors. They affect profitability of agricultural enterprises and the
welfare of farmers through their effects on the flow of credit and investment
funds, taxes, tariffs, subsidies, budgetary allocation, etc.
The New Policy Direction
According to the document, the new agricultural policy will herald in a new
policy direction via new policy strategies that will lay the foundation for
sustained improvement in agricultural productivity and output. The new
strategies involve:
(1) Creating a more conducive macro-environment to stimulate greater
private sector investment in agriculture;
(2) Rationalizing the roles of the tiers of government and the private sector
in their promotional and supportive efforts to stimulate agricultural growth;
(3) Reorganizing the institutional framework for government intervention in
the agricultural sector to facilitate the smooth and integrated development of
the sector;
(4) Articulating and implementing integrated rural development programs to
raise the quality of life of the rural people;
(5 Increasing budgetary allocation and other fiscal incentives to agriculture
and promoting the necessary developmental, supportive and service-oriented
activities to enhance agricultural productivity, production and market
opportunities; and
(6). Rectifying import tariff anomalies in respect of agricultural products
and promoting the increased use of agricultural machinery and inputs
through favourable tariff policy.
Roles and Responsibilities of Stakeholders
The new agricultural policy has spelt out definitive roles and responsibilities
for the federal, state and local governments as well as the private sector in
order to remove role duplication and overlapping functions among them.
The revised roles and responsibilities are outlined as follows:
191
The Federal Government
Under the new policy regime, the Federal Government shall be responsible
for:
(i)the provision of a general policy framework, including macroeconomic

policies for agricultural and rural development and for the guidance of all
stakeholders;
(ii) maintenance of a reasonable flow of resources into agriculture and the
rural economy;
(iii) support for rural infrastructure development in collaboration with state
and local governments;
(iv) research and development of appropriate technology for agriculture,
including biotechnology;
(v) seed industry development, seed law enforcement and seed quality
control;
(vi) support for input supply and distribution, including seeds, seedlings,
brood stock and fingerlings;
(vii) continued support for agricultural extension services;
(viii)management of impounded water, supervision of large dams and
irrigation canals and maintenance of pumping facilities;
(ix) control of pests and diseases of national and international significance
and the promotion of integrated disease and pest management;
(x) establishment and maintenance of virile national and international animal
and plant quarantine services;
(xi) maintenance of favourable tariff regime for agricultural commodities;
(xii) promotion of the export of agricultural commodities through, among
others, the Export Processing Zones (EPZs); (xiii) establishment of an
agricultural insurance scheme; (xiv) maintenance of a Strategic National
Grain Reserve for national food security;
(xv) coordination of agricultural data and information management systems;
(xvi) inventorization of land resources and control of land use and land
degradation;
(xvii) training and manpower development;
(xviii) participation in the mapping and development of interstate cattle and
grazing routes and watering points; (xix) promotion of micro-and rural credit
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institutions;
(xx) promotion of agricultural commodity development and marketing
institutions;
(xxi) maintenance of fishing terminals and other fisheries infrastructure,
including cold rooms;
(xxii) promotion of trawling, artisanal and aquaculture fisheries;
(xxiii) promotion of fish feed production;
(xxiv) protection of Nigeria's Exclusive Economic Zone for fisheries
resources; and
(xxv) periodic review of agreements on international agricultural trade.
The State Governments:
The state governments will be primarily responsible for:
(i) the promotion of the primary production of all agricultural commodities
through the provision of a virile and effective extension service;
(ii) promotion of the production of inputs for crops, livestock, fish and
forestry;
(iii) ensuring access to land for all those wishing to engage in farming;
(iv) development and management of irrigation facilities and dams;
(v) grazing reserve development and creation of water access for livestock;
(vi) training and manpower development;
(vii) control of plant and animal pests and diseases;
(viii) promotion of appropriate institutions for administering credit to
smallholder farmers;
(ix) maintenance of buffer stocks of agricultural commodities;
(x) investment in rural infrastructure, including rural roads and water supply
in collaboration with federal and local governments; and,
(xi) ownership, management and control of forest estates held in trust for
local communities.
Local Governments:
The local governments will be expected to take over progressively the
responsibilities of state governments with respect to:
193
(i) the provision of effective extension service;
(ii) provision of rural infrastructure to complement federal and state
governments' efforts;
(iii) management of irrigation areas of dams;
(iv) mobilization of farmers for accelerated agricultural and rural
development through cooperative organizations, local institutions and
communities;
(v) provision of land for new entrants into farming in accordance with the
provision of the Land Use Act; and,
(vi) coordination of data collection at primary levels.
The Private Sector

According to the policy document, since agricultural production, processing,
storage and marketing are essentially private sector activities; the role of the
private sector will be to take advantage of the improved enabling
environment provided by the public sector for profitable agricultural
investment. In particular, the public sector is expected to play a leading role
with respect to:
(i) investment in all aspects of upstream and downstream agricultural
enterprises and agribusinesses, including agricultural commodity storage,
processing and marketing;
(ii) agricultural input supply and distribution;
(iii) the production of commercial seeds, seedlings, brood stock and
fingerlings under government certification and quality control;
(iv) agricultural mechanization;
(v) provision of enterprise-specific rural infrastructure; and, (vi) support for
research in all aspects of agriculture.
Key Agricultural Development, Supportive and Service Delivery

Programs of the Federal Government
Following the redefined roles and responsibilities of tiers of government and

the private sector, the main thrust of federal government programs and
activities will be directed at obviating the technical and structural problems
of agriculture in the following respects.
Development Programs and Activities
These will include research and development, (including biotechnology

development), animal vaccine production, veterinary drug manufacture, agro
194
-chemicals manufacture, water management, adaptive technology
promotion, and the creation and operation of an Agricultural Development
Fund.
(a) Research and development, including biotechnology: The effort in this direction
is
to finance agricultural research, including biotechnology and the breeding
of predators for the biological control of crop pests which the private
sector may not be willing to invest in due to the high capital outlay and a
relatively low return from agricultural investments. The output of the
research system will be disseminated by the extension services of the states
and local governments to farmers, ranging from small-scale to large-scale
farmers.
(b) Animal vaccine production: The capacity of the National Veterinary

Research Institute (NVRI), which is
the premier institution for animal vaccine production in the West Africa
sub-region, will be strengthened, enlarged and modernized in order to
raise the level of vaccine production in Nigeria to a self-sufficiency level
and also to cater for the
entire West Africa sub-region.
(c) Veterinary drug manufacture: A veterinary drug manufacturing outfit

with the capacity to meet the needs of the West Africa sub-region will
be established. Relevant agencies of government will collaborate with
the private sector for the accelerated take off of the factory.
Government interests in this venture will, however, be sold to the
private sector in line with the privatization policy.
(d) Agro -chemicals manufacture: Government will manufacture and

promote the production of agro-chemicals by the private sector and
will ensure the protection of the users, the eco-system and the
environment through appropriate pesticide legislation. Effective
monitoring mechanism to ensure compliance with the law will be put
in place.
(e) Water management: Currently, large dams constructed in the country

have impounded a lot of water with high fisheries and duck farming
potentials and having the capacity for irrigation. The completion of the
outstanding downstream irrigation infrastructure of the already completed
large dams in the country will be accorded top priority in order to
195
make them useful to the farmers and to maximize the benefits of the
huge investments already incurred in constructing them.
Emphasis will now shift to developing small dams as a more cost effective
way of utilizing water resources for irrigation in the country. The
maintenance of the existing large dams will, however, continue to be the
responsibility of the Federal Government. In addition, rain harvesting for
irrigation agriculture is to be promoted where surface and underground
water is not readily available.
(f) Adaptive technology: Economic deregulation has increased agricultural

production costs astronomically. At the same time, globalization of
trade, which thrives on comparative advantage in production, makes
efficiency of production and the application of economies of scale
mandatory if Nigeria is to get a sizeable market share in the highly
competitive global trade arena. In order to improve efficiency of
production, therefore, simple labor -and cost-saving devices that are
appropriate for the current level of agricultural production and
processing in the country will be developed and mass-produced. The
National Centre for
Agricultural Mechanisation (NCAM), the institution established for
this purpose, will be strengthened. Other initiatives in this direction,
such as animal traction and hand tools technology development, will
be encouraged.
(g) Agricultural Development Fund: The National Agricultural Development

Fund is to provide the necessary impetus for the sustainable
development of the agricultural sector. It will support both public and
private sectors in carrying out activities that will boost agricultural and
rural development, with emphasis on all facets of agricultural
research, market development, extension delivery, long-term credit,
rural institutions development, and enterprise promotion. The Fund
will derive its revenues from:
(i) savings from subsidy withdrawals on fertilizer,
(ii) 5 percent of the proceeds from the privatization of government
enterprises,
(iii) funds from international commodity organizations, (iv) 2 percent
levy on the profits of agro-based industries, (v) 50 percent of Sugar
Development Levy, (vi) 1.0 percent levy on the profits of oil
companies, (vii) appropriation from government annual budget of not
196
less than 2 percent of the total budget, and
(viii) take-off grant from the federal government.
Supportive Activities
These will comprise input incentive support and commodity marketing and
export activities.
a) Input incentive support: Government incentive support for inputs will be

administered in a cost-effective and focused manner to ensure that the
intended beneficiaries derive full benefit from the distribution of:
(i) seeds, seedlings, fingerlings, brood stock etc,

(ii) fertilizers,
(iii) agro-chemicals,
(iv) tractors and implements,
(v) vaccines
(vi) veterinary drugs, and
(vii) agricultural credit. State and local governments are also to be
encouraged to subsidize these inputs, as an additional incentive for
agriculture.
b) Commodity marketing and export: The development of an efficient

agricultural marketing system is being promoted through the provision of
adequate market information. The buyer of last resort mechanism built into
the marketing system will provide price stabilization effect on the system.
The three multi-commodity marketing companies already approved by
government will be the fulcrum of this system. The companies which will be
private sector-led and managed, but with initial substantial public sector
participation, will also ensure quality management and export promotion, in
conformity with international quality standards for Nigeria’s agricultural
commodities.
Service Delivery Activities
These activities will cover input supply and distribution, agricultural

extension, micro-credit delivery, cooperatives and farmer/commodity
associations, commodity processing and storage, agro-allied industry and
197
rural enterprise development, and export promotion of agricultural and agro-
industrial products.
(a) Input supply and distribution: Government is creating the more

conducive environment for profitable investments in the production
and distribution of inputs such as improved starter materials, animal
health drugs, fertilizers, etc. Fertilizer supply will be hinged on
complete privatization and liberalization in the production, distribution
and marketing of the commodity. The main role of the government
will be to strictly monitor the quality standard of all fertilizers (both
local and foreign) to ensure that only certified products reach the
farmer. Government will also encourage the use of organic fertilizers
to complement the inorganic fertilizers currently in use. The seed
industry development program will be reinvigorated and community
seed development programs will be promoted to ensure the provision
of adequate and good quality seeds to local farmers. The organized
private sector will be mobilized, encouraged and given incentives to
actively participate in the production of seeds, seedlings, brood stock,
fingerlings, etc, and also to be involved in out-growers mobilization.
(b) Agricultural extension : Agricultural extension is essentially an activity
that should be carried out by the lower tiers of government. But given
the overriding importance of technology dissemination, all the three
tiers of government in Nigeria will be involved in jointly financing
agricultural extension delivery and monitoring its impact. Also,
extension service delivery will be streamlined through the integration
of ADP and state extension services for greater effectiveness.
(c) Credit and micro-credit delivery: The strategies to be adopted will

include:
(i) provision and improvement of rural infrastructure to attract

investment and financial services;
(ii) integration and linkage of rural financial institutions to the formal
banking sector;
(iii) regulating and supervising the growth of non-bank financial
institutions with emphasis on savings mobilization at the grassroots;
(iv) expanding the mandate of the restructured Nigerian Agricultural
Cooperative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) to include
savings mobilization;
198
(v) supporting self-help groups in their savings mobilization and credit
delivery activities;
(vi) modification of the credit delivery system to include the
cooperative and community-based organizations as delivery channels
to reduce transaction costs; and,
(vii) modification of terms of credit such as interest rate, eligibility
criteria, legal requirement, etc, to enhance access.
(d) Cooperatives and farmer/commodity associations: Resource
mobilization and the promotion of group action are the thrust of
cooperative activities. This is to take advantage of group dynamics,
with its concomitant mutual guarantee, as a strategy for agricultural
development. Services which cooperatives can render include the
administration of government incentives to agriculture, such as inputs
supply, credit delivery and retrieval, commodity marketing, and the
pursuit of democratic ideals, in view of the democratic principles
embedded in their operations.
(e) Processing, storage, agro-allied industry and rural enterprise

development: The use of simple but effective on-farm and off-farm
storage facilities and agro-processing technology will be promoted to
add value to products and increase their shelf life. The Strategic Grain
Reserve Scheme will be modernized, strengthened and upgraded to a
National Food Reserve Program, which will enable it to handle all
staples and essential food products. This will be the launch pad for the
accelerated attainment of Nigeria’s national food security goal. The
Buffer Sock Food Storage Scheme of the states will incorporate the
use of private storage facilities to maintain a national strategic stock of
food that will be needed in times of national food emergencies. It is
also crucial to promote and develop agro-processing in the country for
the evolution of virile agro-allied industries and rural micro-
enterprises.
(f) Export promotion of agricultural and agro-industrial products: Nigeria

has comparative advantage in the production of a number of
exportable agricultural commodities, such as cocoa, palm produce,
rubber, ginger, spices, fruits and vegetables, flowers, shrimps and
199
ornamental fish, cassava products, hides and skin, cashew, gum arabic,
groundnuts and cotton (products). In order to diversity the base of the
Nigerian economy and widen the market for agricultural commodities
to absorb the expected increase in production, there is need to promote
the export of these agricultural and agro-industrial products. To
facilitate the acceptance of Nigerian agricultural commodities in the
international market, including taking full advantage of the US African
Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), there will be need to develop
appropriate capacities and institutional framework within the
agricultural sector as well as in other relevant sectors to meet the
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards (SPS) and comply with the
Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) agreements of the World Trade
Organization (WTO).
Other Policies, Institutions and Legal Framework
The range of macroeconomic and institutional policies as well as legal

framework that affect agricultural investment in particular and agricultural
performance in general is wide. The policies broadly cover fiscal, monetary
and trade measures. There is also a large body of institutional policies that
support not only the implementation of macroeconomic policies but also that
of agricultural sector policies. Then, there is a set of national and
international legal framework, including bilateral and multilateral
agreements and treaties that provide the enabling environment for foreign
and domestic private investment, promote international trade and, therefore,
promote economic growth.
Environmental concern has increasingly come into focus in the design of
policies for sustainable growth and development in Nigeria, as elsewhere in
the world. Hence, Nigeria has now put together a set of environmental
policies and strategies that are of important relevance to agriculture.
Macroeconomic Policies
The key components of macroeconomic policies are fiscal, monetary and

trade policies.
Fiscal Policies: These focus on budgetary, tax and debt management policy
instruments. Budgetary policy influences economic stability and rate of
inflation in the economy. These, in turn, influence the climate for the flow of
200
investment, especially foreign private investment. Tax policies that focus on
personal and corporate tax rates, tax reliefs, and other tax concessions are
key incentives (or disincentives) factors affecting consumption and
investment decisions. A favourable corporate tax policy regime enhances
after-tax profits and, to that extent, may promote increased investment. A
country's external debt burden affects its international credit rating and its
capacity to finance public investment. International credit rating affects the
flow of foreign private investment while the level and quality of public
investment directly affect the flow of both foreign and domestic private
investment.
Monetary Policies: In general, monetary policies refer to the combination of

measures designed to regulate the value, supply and cost of money in the
economy, in consonance with the expected level of economic activity.
Liquidity, interest rates and foreign exchange rates are the channels through
which monetary policy influences economic activities. Liquidity is affected
by money supply. Money supply influences credit supply and interest rate
(cost of capital). Interest rate, in turn, influences consumption, savings and
investment decisions in the economy. Basically, the existence of interest and
exchange rate differentials, resulting from monetary policy measures,
induces substitution between domestic and foreign assets (foreign
currencies, bonds, securities real estate, etc) as well as domestic and foreign
goods and services (CBN, 1997). Since 1986, the main instruments of
market-based monetary policies have included the open market operations
(OMO), changes in reserve requirements and discount policy. Open market
operations involve the discretionary power of the CBN to purchase or sell
securities in the financial markets in order to influence the volume of
liquidity and levels of interest rates that ultimately affect money supply.
The sale of financial instruments by the CBN restricts the capacity of banks
to extend credit, thereby affecting inflation and interest rates. The reverse is
the case when financial instruments are purchased.
Trade Policies: These are a very important component of structural

adjustment policies. The main focus of trade policies is on measures to
regulate export and import trade through such measures as tariffs, export and
import quotas and prohibitions. They influence the investment climate in
many ways. For example, a liberal trade policy constitutes an incentive for
foreign investors who may need to import raw materials and / or export
201
products. But a protectionist trade policy may also serve as an incentive for
investors in non-tradable products that are largely locally consumed, or
investors in import -substitute products.
Institutions
According to the World Development Report (2002), institutions are rules,

enforcement mechanisms and organizations put in place in an economy.
Distinct from policies that are the goals and the desired results, institutions
are rules, including behavioural norms, by which agents interact, and the
organizations that implement these rules and codes of conduct to achieve
desired outcomes. Policies influence the types of institutions that evolve
while institutions too affect the types of policies that are adopted. Appendix
4.1 presents some of the major institutions that affect or are affected by
investment -related policies in Nigeria.
1
Investment Legal Framework
Investment legal framework provides incentives for, regulates or protects

investments, especially foreign investment. According to Aremu (1997), a
foreign investor is first concerned with some basic questions like: What
areas of business are open to foreign participation? How easy is it to bring
capital into the country and repatriate profits and capital from the country?
What legal mechanisms exist to protect the investor's personal business
interest? These questions underscore the importance of investment legal
framework. Some of the important domestic investment legislations and
international legal arrangements governing foreign private investment are as
contained in the NIPC Act 16 of 1997
Environmental Policies
Environmental policies are very important for sustainable growth and

development. Hence, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA)
produced a revised version of the national policy on the environment in
1999.
The goals of National Policy on the Environmental is to achieve sustainable
development in Nigeria, and, in particular, to (i) secure a quality of
environment adequate for good health and well being; (ii) conserve and use
the environment and natural resources for the benefit of present and future
202
generations; (iii) restore, maintain and enhance the ecosystems and
ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere to
preserve biological diversity and the principle of optimum sustainable yield
in the use of living natural resources and ecosystems; (iv) raise public
awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages between the
environment, resources and development, and encourage individual and
community participation in environmental improvement efforts; and (v) co-
operate in good faith with other countries, international organizations and
agencies to achieve optimal use of transboundary natural resources and for
an effective prevention or abatement of transboundary environmental
degradation.
The strategies to be adopted include:
(i) addressing the issues of population growth and resources consumption in
an integrated way;
(iii) setting goals for the stabilization of national population at a sustainable
level;
(iii) integrating resource consumption and demographic goals with the other
sectors and economic objectives;
(iv) monitoring trends in population and resource consumption and assessing
their implications for sustainability;
(v) encouraging and involving the private sectors, NGOs and the public in
the implementation of strategies and actions aimed at achieving stated goals;
(vi) the prevention and management of natural disasters such as flood,

drought and desertification that more directly impact on the lives of the
populace;
(vii) integration of population and environmental factors in national
development planning;
(vii) solving public health problems associated with rapid urbanization and
squalid urban environments;
(ix) prevention of the depletion of forests through judicious search for and
adoption of alternative energy sources; and (x) control of the demands and
patterns of land resources usage.
An extract of the environmental policy presented in the appendix covers

policies, objectives of policies and policy strategies on human population,
biological diversity, natural resources conservation, land use and soil
conservation, water resources, forestry, wildlife and protected natural areas,
203
energy, environmental health, transportation, communication, and science
and technology. These are the policy instruments that are considered most
relevant to agricultural investment in Nigeria.
Stakeholders’ Perspective on the Effectiveness of Policies,

Regulations and Institutions on Nigerian’s Agriculture
Opinions on the effectiveness of policies and regulations in the

different areas of agriculture were sought from both policy makers and
policy implementers. In general, policies aimed at stimulating on-farm
production rank highest. These include those policies aimed at stimulating
agricultural production for domestic market, agricultural input demand by
farmers, domestic agricultural commodity trade, agricultural input supply to
farmers and domestic investment in agriculture. It is evident from the
ranking that the more effective policies and regulations are those targeted to
upstream agricultural production activities and geared towards the domestic
market. Policies geared towards enhanced post-production activities such as
commodity storage, commodity processing, transportation and distribution
services as well as commercialization of agriculture are generally ranked
low. Except for policies and regulations on food security and poverty
reduction (which are indeed offshoot of domestic agricultural production),
other policies and regulations associated with improved human welfare
ranked very low. But overall, policies on foreign investment ranked lowest.
From the foregoing, it can be seen that current policies are more effective in
the primary production subsector of agriculture than in the downstream
subsector. Impact of policies on the welfare status of the people and on the
environment remains weak. In general, the thrust of the effective policies is
on food self-sufficiency as most of these policies have bearing on boosting
agricultural production for food self-sufficiency.
The main factors influencing the effectiveness of policies and regulations on

agriculture include high demand for agricultural produce, availability of
improved technology, efficient dissemination of information by the ADPs,
and value added leading to improved income. On the other hand, the
common factors responsible for ineffectiveness of
policies and regulations, especially on the downstream segment of
agriculture, include instability of the political climate, insecurity of
investment, non-standardized product quality, non-competitive nature of
204
agricultural products from the country in the export market due to high cost
of production and lack of adequate processing facilities.
Revision Questions
1. Mention five objectives of the new Nigerian agricultural polices
2. Who are the stakeholders and what roles are specified for them in the new
policy?
3what are the contents of the new policy
4. Explain the new policy direction
5. In what way is it different from the former agricultural policy?
THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

AGRICULTURE IN NIGERIA.
UMORU, J.I.A.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,
FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECH) AKOKA
Introduction.
205
As a result of the importance of agriculture for human survival, the
government of nations of ten play an important role either directly
or indirectly so as to ensure adequate food production. Such role
of the government in the development of agriculture includes:
a) Setting up of agricultural policies.

b) Provision of Agricultural education.
c) Provision of loan and credit facilities
d) Provision of farm inputs and machineries
e) Provision of quarantine service
f) Direct establishment of farms.
a) Setting Up Of Agricultural Policies.

Every government has agricultural policies that regulates the
practice of agriculture in the nation. Agricultural policies
therefore vary from one nation to another but the most
important thing is that such policies are normally directed
towards increased food production.
For instance, the regime of former president Olusegun

Obasanjo in 2004 set up agricultural policies banning
importation and exportation of certain food products like the
ban on the importation of Vice, wheat and frozen chickens.
The goal of the policy is to favour the development of local
industries and so encourage employment opportunities.
There is also the policy governing the interest rate on
agricultural loans.
206
b) Provision of Agricultural Education.
The Government endeavour to educate 10 citizens in the field
of agriculture since education enhances economic growth and
development. For instance, the government encourage the
teaching of agricultural science in primary, secondary,
tertiary and higher institutions of learning. It equally award
scholarships to students to study agriculture at the
undergraduate and post graduate levels. There is also the
establishment of schools of agriculture for the purpose of
educating people on agricultural productivity.
The Nigerian government has established research agencies

or centres like the National Cereal Research Institute (NCRI),
The Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria (CRIN), the Nigerian
Institute for Oil Palm Research, (NIFOR), and the Rubber
Research Institute of Nigeria (RRIN) e.t.c. These research
agencies carry out various researches in different aspect of
agriculture and relay such research findings through
agricultural extension workers.
c) Provision of Loans and Credit Facilities to Farmers.

Since most agricultural enterprises are capital intensive, the
government sometimes provide loans and credit facilities to
farmers so that they can gainfully undertake their
agricultural production activities. Such loans and credit
207
facilities are sometimes given to the farmers with out interest
or with very little interest. Government agencies responsible
for the provision of such loans and credit facilities include
Agricultural Bank.
d) Agricultural Credit Co-operatives as well as the Credit and

Loans Divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture.
Provision Of Farm Inputs And Machineries.
The government sometimes assist farmers by providing them
with important farm inputs such as improved seeds and
planting materials, improved animal breeds, fertilizers,
pesticides, insecticides, machines, farm implements and
machineries such as tractors, ploughing/ harrowing
machines.
In the case of farm machineries, because of the high

maintenance cost, farmers are allowed to hire them for their
farm work at very cheap prices while the money realized are
used for the maintenance of the machineries.
e) Provision of Quarantine Services

Quarantine Service are regulatory service by the government
to ensure that pests and diseases are neither introduced into
the country from other countries nor moved out of the
country to other countries. Quarantine service therefore
ensure proper monitoring of agricultural product that are
either imported into the country or exported out of the
country. Before products are therefore exported or imported
208
into the country, they have to be inspected by the quarantine
service department for the presence or absence of inert
matters, pests and diseases. After such inspection,
agricultural products that meet up with the already
established quarantine standards are certified okay for either
importation or exportation. It is only the certified or approved
products that will be allowed into or outside the country.
f) Establishment of Government Farms.

The government sometimes establishes farms so as to
increase food production. Such farms are set up by the
Agricultural Development Project (ADP) of the each state
which is an arm of the Ministry of Agriculture. Money is also
raised for the government through these farms.
Other roles played by the government includes provision of

storage and processing facilities and that of extension
services provision. In order to prevent food wastage and
provide food in period of scarcity, the government decides to
provide storage and processing facilities through the
construction of Silos in all parts of the Country. Also,
Government have helped to employ qualified and experienced
extension offices to take new ideas and innovations to the
rural farmers.
209
Revision Questions
1) List Five (5) Intervention roles of government in the
development of agriculture in Nigeria.
2) Discuss Four (4) important roles of any government in the
development of agriculture in the country.

Adesope, O.M. (1999). Role of government in Rural and
Agricultural
Development. In Introduction to Agriculture for Sustainable
Development. The Nigeria an Association of Agricultural
Education (NAAGROD), Lagos.
Adeyeye, V.A. (1991). Group taking in Oyo State, Nigeia. A

Comparison of
Male and Female Participants. NISER Monograph Series No.
5. Ibadan, NISER.
THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT.
BY
SANYAOLU, A.A.ADENIYI.
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE (ENVIRONMENTAL
BIOLOGY PROGRAMME), YABA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY,
P.M.B 2011 YABA, LAGOS- NIGERIA.
AND
SANYAOLU, V.T.
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL
OF TECHNOLOGY, LAGOS STATE POYTECHNIC, IKORODU-LAGOS.
210
Highlights:
INTRODUCTION.
FOOD SECURITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE.
Climate change and Agriculture, the skeptics’ view point.
Climate change: the hunger and malnutrition connection.

Climate change and the emergence of new patterns of pests and
diseases.
Climate change and the threat to Fishing and aquaculture.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF AGRICULTURE TO CLIMATE CHANGE.

Greenhouse gases from agriculture.
AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE: SOME MITIGATIVE

MEASURES.
The Role of Stakeholders in mitigating emissions.
Sustainable livestock management and the reduction of Green House
Gas Emissions.
Strategies for adapting to the effect of climate change on agriculture.
INTRODUCTION.
The effect of Major Environmental problems such as ozone layer
depletion, Global warming, Land degradation, Erosion of Biodiversity,
deforestation, desertification, Acid rain and Environmental Pollution
cannot be over emphasized. Each of these problems is intricately
connected to the other, thus creating a major upheaval in the global
climatic conditions.
One major cause of climate change is the problem of Global Warming or
Green house effect (this is the increase in the average temperature of the
Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its
211
projected continuation) and this caused as a result of the continued
build- up of green house gases in the atmosphere. These gases which
include Carbon-dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and
Chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) - some of which are naturally occurring in
the course of natural events such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and
decaying vegetation and animals. When naturally occurring, these gases
do not normally cause a disequilibrium in the biosphere. Climate change
therefore can be referred to as any long-term change in the statistics of
weather over periods of time that range from decades to millions of years.
Climate change may occur in a specific region, or across the whole Earth.
In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, climate
change usually refers to changes in modern climate. The build-up of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is known
to be changing air and sea surface temperatures, rainfall and wind
patterns, ocean acidity, sea levels and the intensity of tropical cyclones.
Research has found that climate change is already modifying the
distribution and productivity of marine and freshwater species, affecting
biological processes, and altering food webs.
The sun is the Earth’s primary energy source. Its rays enter our
atmosphere and shower upon on our planet. About one third of this solar
energy is reflected back into the universe by shimmering glaciers, water
and other bright surfaces. Two thirds, however, are absorbed by the
Earth, warming land, oceans, and atmosphere.
Much of this heat radiates back out into space as albedo, but some of it
is stored in the atmosphere. This process is called the greenhouse effect.
Without it, the Earth’s average temperature would be a chilling -18
degrees Celsius, even despite the sun’s constant energy supply. However,
heat emitted from the Earth is trapped in the atmosphere, providing us
with a comfortable average temperature of 14 degrees.
Sunrays enter the glass roof and walls of a greenhouse. But once they
heat up the ground, which, in turn, heats up the air inside the
greenhouse, the glass panels trap that warm air and temperatures
increase. But our planet has no glass walls; the only thing that comes
close to acting as such is our atmosphere. But unfortunately, in here,
processes are way more complicated. Only about half of all solar energy
that reaches the Earth is infrared radiation and causes immediate
warming when passing the atmosphere. The other half is of a higher
frequency, and only translates into heat once it hits Earth and is later
reflected back into space as waves of infrared radiation.
212
This transformation of solar radiation into infrared radiation is crucial,
because infrared radiation can be absorbed by the atmosphere. Nitrogen,
oxygen, and argon make up 98 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. But
they do not absorb significant amounts of infrared radiation, and thus do
not contribute to the greenhouse effect. It is the more exotic components
like water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, and
chlorofluorocarbons that absorb heat and thus increase atmospheric
temperatures. But while we are still far from seeing major concentrations
of CO2 in our atmosphere, slight changes already alter the way the
planet’s heating system works. Measurements of carbon dioxide amounts
from Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii show that CO2 has increased
from about 313 ppm in 1960 to about 375 ppm in 2005. That means for
every million particles in our atmosphere, there are now 62 CO2-
particles more than in 1960. Even if this does not seem like much,
scientists say this increase – most probably caused by human activities –
is mainly responsible for rising global temperatures throughout the last
decades.
Figure 1: Illustration Of the Green House Effect.
213
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that
increasing greenhouse gas concentrations resulting from human activity
such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation caused most of the
observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century. The
IPCC also concludes that variations in natural phenomena such as solar
radiation and volcanoes are also responsible in part for the observed
elevation in temperature. An increase in global temperature will cause
sea levels to rise and will change the amount and distribution of rainfall,
will result in deserts encroaching existing land mass, and the continuing
retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice is expected, especially in the
Arctic. Other likely effects include increases in the intensity of extreme
weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields.
FOOD SECURITY AND CLIMATE CHANGE.
Climate change is full of risks and opportunities for farmers. Scientific

evidence leaves little room for doubt that our climate is changing, and
that agriculture will be affected. Climate change is the major, overriding
environmental issue of our time, and the single greatest challenge facing
environmental regulators. It is a growing crisis with economic, health
and safety, food production, security, and other dimensions. Shifting
weather patterns, for example, threaten food production through the
following amongst others:
 increased unpredictability of precipitation.

 rising sea levels contaminate coastal freshwater reserves and
increase the risk of catastrophic.
 a warming atmosphere aids the pole-ward spread of pests and

diseases once limited to the tropics.
By mid-century many semi-arid areas, for example the Mediterranean

basin, Southern Africa and northeast Brazil, will suffer a decrease in
water resources due to climate change.
Climate change and Agriculture, the skeptics’ view point.
214
On the other extreme, some people (especially in the developing nations)
have often maintained that climate change is not important to farmers so
it will be difficult to interest or engage Farmers who they believe are
small contributors to climate change so they should not be singled out.
They argue that short-term business survival is more important and
farmers don’t have the luxury of spending a lot of time on a long-term
global issue like climate change. They posit that Climate change
education would be nice but it is not a priority. In substantiating their
position, they opine that Educators need to develop their own knowledge
about climate change issues before they will be comfortable offering or
preparing programs for their clients. In this school of thought, there is
this fear of blaming agriculture disproportionately for its contribution to
global warming; why is action needed if farming is a relatively small
contributor? They therefore conclude that a lot more specific data needs
to be gathered to answer questions that producers and leadership will
have on the extent to which certain practices affect greenhouse gases
and global warming. All the above notwithstanding, it may be safe to
conclude that climate change is likely to have a significant impact on
farming whether people accept that or not at present. It is important to
improve our understanding of the issue even if we are not completely
sure of the agricultural implications or recommendations.
Climate change: the hunger and malnutrition connection.

Climate change will worsen the living conditions of farmers, fishers and
forest-dependent people who are already vulnerable and food insecure.
Hunger and malnutrition will increase. Rural communities, particularly
those living in already fragile environments, face an immediate and ever-
growing risk of increased crop failure, loss of livestock, and reduced
availability of marine, aquaculture and forest products. More frequent
and more intense extreme weather events will have adverse impacts on
food availability, accessibility, stability and utilization, as well as on
livelihood assets and opportunities in both rural and urban areas. Poor
people will be at risk of food insecurity due to loss of assets and lack of
adequate insurance coverage. Rural people’s ability to cope with climate
change impacts depends on the existing cultural and policy context, as
well as on socio-economic factors like gender, household composition,
age, and the distribution of household assets. In a recent study, Parry et
al (2004) reported that although climate change may not affect the global
food production significantly, it will nevertheless affect it significantly at
the regional level, especially to the detriment of the developing nations of
the world in the southern hemisphere.
215
Climate change and the emergence of new patterns of pests and
diseases.
Humans, plants, livestock and fish will be exposed to new pests and
diseases that flourish only at specific temperatures and humidity. This
will pose new risks for food security, food safety and human health.
Climate change and the threat to Fishing and aquaculture.

Climate change is having an impact on oceans, seas, lakes and rivers
and on the animals and plants that are found and/or cultured in them.
Climate change will affect the approximately 200 million people and their
families worldwide whose livelihoods depend on fishing and aquaculture.
Some fish resources will become less abundant while important species
may move to other areas where they are less available to the fishers.
Aquaculture practices may be threatened, among other factors, by
increased extreme weather events, droughts, and the warming of waters.
This will make it harder for many fishing communities to continue to
make a living from fish or to provide fish for feeding their families.
Coastal communities may also be displaced by rising sea levels and will
be forced to find new places to live and new ways to earn a living.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF AGRICULTURE TO CLIMATE CHANGE:NIGERIA

IN PERSPECTIVE
Between 1990 and 2005, emissions by agriculture in developing
countries increased by around 30 percent and are expected to rise
further. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the forest and agriculture
sectors contribute over 30 percent of the current annual total emissions
in the Nigerian case (deforestation and forest degradation 17.4 percent,
agriculture 13.5 percent). Agriculture, however, can also contribute to
reducing GHG emissions and their impacts through managing ecosystem
services, reduction of land use change and related deforestation, more
efficient crop varieties, better control of wildfires, improved nutrition for
ruminant livestock, more efficient management of livestock waste,
organic soil management, conservation
agriculture and agroforestry systems. As well as reducing GHG
emissions, well managed crop and pasture land can sequester significant
amounts of carbon. Forty percent of the land biomass, and thus the
biological carbon, are directly or indirectly managed by farmers, foresters
or herders. It is in their interests to adopt management systems that
combine mitigation and adaptation, thereby improving both local and
global food security.
216
Figure 2: Carbon emission scenarios in Nigeria. Source: PICCDM, 2008.
LULUCF (Land Use and Land Use Conversion Forestry).
Globally, agriculture is responsible for 20% of the greenhouse gas

emissions. In the United
States, the national average from agriculture is 8%, a figure much lesser
than Nigeria’s 39%.
Greenhouse gases from agriculture.

Agricultural emissions come from other greenhouse gases, namely
methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) in addition to CO2. While CH4
and N2O emissions are far less in quantity in the atmosphere, they have
a much more potent impact on the climate.
In an effort to make greenhouse gas accounting simpler, the different
gases were given
weighted values according to their potency as a greenhouse gas. This
potency of a gas is
referred to as a Global Warming Potential (GWP) and their common unit
is referred to as a
carbon dioxide equivalent or CO2e. As seen below, two common
agricultural gases, methane and nitrous oxide are 23 and 310 times
more potent than carbon dioxide.
Different gases have different Global Warming Potential (GWP):
The potency of a greenhouse gas is referred to as its global warming
potential.
The common unit is referred to as a carbon dioxide equivalent or CO2e.
carbon dioxide (CO2) = 1 CO2e
methane (CH4) = 23 CO2e
nitrous oxide (N2O) = 310 CO2e
To convert tons of methane to CO2e, simply multiply by 23. Nitrogen is a
significant source of GHG for two main reasons.
217
1) Producing commercial nitrogen is a very energy intensive process
2) After nitrogen is applied to the field, either as synthetic fertilizer or as
manure, a certain
percentage of it is volatilized off the field as N2O at the time of
application, this is referred to as
direct emissions. Indirect N2O emissions are a fraction of the nitrogen
that has leached through
the ecosystem to another site. Limiting N in a cow’s diet (and therefore
manure) and
conserving synthetic N applied to fields reduce N2O emissions from
agriculture
Enteric methane The gut of the cow is full of bacteria that produce
methane. About 6% of the
energy source of the cow is released as methane gas from the cow.
Optimizing the diet not
only improves the efficiency of the cow but also reduces the methane
emissions.
AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE: SOME MITIGATIVE

MEASURES.
Some actions that address climate change are simply good management
practices such as: efficient Nitrogen fertilizer and manure use, farm
energy efficiency, cover cropping, and development of local markets.
Innovative farming practices that may address climate change can also
enhance
profitability and/or air or soil quality (such as use of bio-diesel and
alternative fuels, on-farm energy generation, and reduced tillage
systems).
According to CAST (the Council on Agricultural Science and Technology),
agriculture has a role to play in the broader effort to reduce greenhouse
gas concentrations by:
 Taking CO2 from the atmosphere and sequestering it in biomass
and soils;
 Decreasing the rate of land clearing for agriculture and taking
marginal lands out of production;
 Changing agricultural practices on productive, established
agricultural lands;
 Increasing efficiency of farm inputs such as fuel, fertilizers, and
pesticides;
 Increasing production of agricultural biofuels (renewable
biological-based energy
fuels) to replace fossil energy emissions;
 Improving N-use efficiency as the primary means of decreasing
N2O emissions;
218
 Decreasing methane emissions by capturing or preventing
emissions from animal manure storage and by increasing livestock
production efficiency.
The scientific evidence leaves little room for doubt that our climate is
changing, and that
agriculture will be affected. The sooner Extension and other service
providers become
familiar with the issue and with the range of possible responses, the
sooner we will be able
to integrate climate change into our programming, as one of the many
factors that farmers
should consider when making management decisions.
The roles of stakeholders in mitigating emissions.

The stakeholders includes the farmer, various government agencies the
FAO and The UN.
In the words of Peter Holmgren, the FAO spokeman for the UN climate
change negotiations, Millions of poor farmers around the globe could
help in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but this requires massive
investments and information — to change unsustainable farming
methods and to train farmers in mitigation practices. Concluding,
Holmgren noted that current global funding arrangements such as the
Kyoto Protocol's Clean Development Mechanism are not reaching farmers
in poor countries. New and more flexible financing mechanisms are
needed that offer incentives to farmers, including smallholders, so that
they may participate in greenhouse gas emission reductions and
removals. If agriculture in developing countries becomes more
sustainable, if it increases its productivity and becomes more resilient
against the impact of climate change, this should help to reduce the
number of around one billion hungry people and offer better income and
job opportunities. The scope of the Clean Development Mechanism, for
example, could be expanded in order to include reduction of emissions
from deforestation and forest degradation, wetlands, croplands and
grasslands, in order to realize the high potential for sequestering carbon
in soils and above ground biomass.In addition to all the above, it must
be noted that reducing nitrogen and energy use is the greatest way to
save money and also mitigate climate change. Improving dairy cow diet
will also improve methane and nitrous oxide emissions. Capturing and
destroying methane created in manure lagoons would also reduce
emissions. However, the greatest opportunity may be to farm for biofuels
and displace the emissions from fossil fuel used by other sectors of
society.
219
Sustainable livestock management and the reduction of Green
House Gas emissions.
Land used for livestock production, including grazing land and cropland
dedicated to the production of feed, represents approximately 70 percent
of all agricultural land in the world. Overgrazing is the greatest cause of
degradation of grasslands. Improved land management practices would
help to achieve a balance between competing demands for animal food
products and environmental services. Improved pasture management
and silvopastoral systems are effective ways to conserve the environment
and mitigate climate change. Recent linking of pasture regeneration
policies and programmes to no-till based integrated
crop/pasture/livestock systems in Brazil appears promising for both
farmers and the environment. Sustainable intensification and improved
manure management are further options to reduce GHG emissions per
unit of livestock product, and the use of biogas from animal waste can
reduce dependence locally on fossil energy.
Strategies for adapting to the effect of climate change on
agriculture.
Disruption or decline in global and local food supplies due to climate
change can be avoided
through more efficient irrigation and watershed management, improved
crop varieties, improved
land cultivation, farm and livestock management and the development of
crop varieties and
breeds that are adapted to changing climatic conditions. An effective use
of climate data and forecasts, through early warning systems, can assist
in analysing the impacts of climate change
on agricultural production and the entire food chain.
Water management.
Raised productivity from improved agricultural water management will
be essential to buffer
the anticipated volatility of rainfed production. Managing the production
risk in the face of increasing aridity and more variable rainfall events will
require both rainfed and irrigated
agricultural systems to become much more responsive and flexible in
approach. Progressive
adjustment of large-scale irrigation schemes will be essential to maintain
and grow output
in line with demand and improved local water management practices will
allow vulnerable groups to adapt livelihoods.
Proper management Of Soils.
The global soil carbon pool exceeds biomass pools by a factor of four or
five, without taking into account that recent soil degradation has led to
losses of between 30 percent and 75 percent of their antecedent soil
organic carbon. Globally, therefore, a soil carbon increase offers great
220
mitigation potential. The restoration of wastelands, degraded/desertified
soils and ecosystems (e.g. forest restoration, improved pastures) and
adoption of improved farm management practices, can enhance and
restore soil organic carbon, control and reduce GHG emissions, and
improve soil quality and soil health. Such management practices can at
the same time improve food security as well as soil-related environmental
services.
The role Of agricultural biodiversity.
Agricultural biodiversity will be an important element in the development
of production strategies to meet the challenges of climate change, by
increasing resilience to changing environmental conditions and stress
(drought, salinity, flooding). Ecosystem services (such as genetic
resources, soil formation or nutrient cycling) build important measures
of resilience and risk mitigation into agriculture – elements that are
increasingly important under changing climates.
Adaptation and mitigation through sustainable forest
management
Around 13 million hectares of forests are lost annually due to
deforestation. Sustainable management of forests, reducing emissions
from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD),
afforestation/reforestation and forest restoration, as well as sustainably
produced wood products that replace more carbon-intensive materials
and fuels, are important mitigation options. Climate change is affecting
the health of forests through an increase of forest fires, pests and
diseases. Adaptation measures not only reduce the vulnerability of the
world’s forests and forest dependent people, but can help to protect
water and soil resources and biodiversity. Without economic or other
incentives and without political will, however, it will be difficult to reduce
deforestation and forest degradation and achieve long-lasting adaptation
and mitigation measures.
Strategies for mitigating the effect of climate change on Fisheries

and Aquaculture include the following:
 Adopt environmentally friendly and fuel-efficient fishing and
aquaculture techniques
 Eliminate subsidies that promote overfishing and excess
fishing capacity.
 Undertake assessments of local vulnerability and risk.
 Build local-level ocean climate models.
 Strengthen knowledge of the dynamics of biogeochemical
cycles in aquatic ecosystems, especially of carbon and nitrogen.
 Encourage sustainable, environmentally friendly biofuel
production from algae and seaweed.
 Explore carbon sequestration in aquatic ecosystems.
221
 Implement comprehensive and integrated ecosystem
approaches to managing oceans, coastal zones, fisheries and
aquaculture; to adapting to climate change; and to reducing risk
from natural disasters.
MDGs and Climate Change

Climate change presents significant threats to the achievement of the
Millennium Development Goals especially those related to eliminating
poverty and hunger and promoting environmental sustainability. An
increasing body of evidence are pointing to the disproportionate negative
impact climate change will have on the poorest countries who, ironically,
have contributed least to the problem. Climate change is expected to
increase the frequency and intensity of severe weather events. Poor
countries lack the infrastructure necessary (e.g. storm walls, water
storage) to respond adequately to such events. Diseases such as malaria
are likely to have wider ranges, impacting more people in the poorest
regions of developing nations that are already most affected by such
diseases. Changing rainfall patterns could devastate rain-fed agriculture
on which so much of the population in developing countries depends to
survive. In Africa, for example, only 4% of all cropped land is irrigated.
What Must Be Done:
Rich Countries
Whilst rich countries are most responsible for climate change, it is poor
countries that are paying the price. Rich countries must therefore
assume first responsibility and:
Immediately implement deep emission cuts
Meet their aid commitments to achieve the Millennium Goals
Provide additional aid for adaptation measures for dealing with climate
change
Transfer existing and new adaptation technology measures
Create incentives for poor countries to limit their emissions while
safeguarding their right to development
Poor Countries
Ensure rights to land, forests, water, energy and livelihood for their
poorest people
Integrate climate change initiatives into national MDG-based sustainable
development plans as part of their contribution to global mitigation
Prioritize renewable energy resources, where possible
Revision Questions
1.What is climate change?
222
2.What factors are responsible for climate?
3. Explain briefly some implications of climate change on agriculture
4.what mitigative measures can be adapted to effectively tackle the

vagaries of climate change
223

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AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

OLATOMIDE .W. OLOWA

First Printing 2010

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system

Published by; Unique Educational Publishers, Palm grove, Lagos.

Deliberate attempts have been made in it to ensure that the contents of

Each chapter offers many exercises or revision questions and adequate

Agricultural Development and Policy is a text which should appeal to

We are particularly grateful to the contributors. Their responses were

Ojelade, A.Y.P. is a Principal lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Ibiyemi, E.O. is a Principal lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Umaru, J.I.A. is a Lecturers in the Department of Agricultural

Olowa, Ayodele, O. is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Awoyemi, Timothy T. is an Associate Professor in the Department of

Ajibade, Augustine, S. is a Senior lecturer in the Department of

Olowa, Olatomide W. is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Oyekale, A.S. (Ph.D) is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural

Omonona, Bolarin T. (Ph.D) is a Senior lecturer in the Department of

Oladipo, S.A. is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Education,

Falade, A.A. is a lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Education,

Sanyaolu,V.T is a lecturer in the Department of Science Laboratory Technology, School

8. The Role of Extension Work inNigerian Agricultural Development.

15. The New Nigerian Agricultural Development Policy

16. Effect of Climate Change on Agricultural Development

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

Growth: Dictionary meaning of growth means – an increase in

Types of Development and Growth

The agricultural sector has been a drug on the economy of the

Technology constraints arise from use of crude and inefficient

Strategies for Developing Agricultural Sector in Nigerian Economy .

i) Rural Development and Growth.

ii) Provision of Agricultural Production Enhancers in the Rural

Areas:- Farmers should be supplied, through the extension

Government capital budgetary allocations to agriculture on

Exporting of agricultural produce has a long comparative

iii) Risks And Uncertainties Reduction:- Stabilization of producer

2) Industrial Development and Growth.

Shift in Attention From Big to Small Scale Industries (SSI)

The National Directorate of Employment (NDE) established in 1986 is

3). Educational Development and Growth.

Technical and Vocational Training and Enterprise Education.

However, the challenges of technical and vocational education and

In view of these the following recommendations are hereby suggested:

Suggested further reading

Agbabiaje, J.O. (1998). Nigeria Journal of Agricultural Education.

Florence, O.A. (2004). Nigeria Educational Policy and

Idachaba, F.S. (1994). “Nigeria’s Food Self-Sufficiency Programme:

Kere, B. W. (1998). “The Role and Potential of Technical and

Labaeka, A. (2004). “Developing Agriculture in Nigerian economy”

Ojo, M.O. (1991). “Agriculture and Structural Adjustment in the

Meaning and Scope of Livestock Production in Nigeria

Contribution of Livestock to Peasant Farmers

Problems and Strategies for improving Livestock Production in

8. Inadequate Personnel: Livestock production is a complex

12. Lack of Subsidy & Inadequate Funding by the Government: The

Functions and Objectives of Livestock Sub-sector in the National

The targets of Nigerian government are to attain self-sufficiency in

2) Sedentarisation: Under this category, the government intends to

Perhaps the most frequently encountered and best known example of an

region Annual change (%).

Beef -0.9 -0.2 1.6 -1.9 -0.8

Beef -0.4 -0.5 -1.4 1.1 0.2

Within policy formulation, we can further distinguish between policy