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results (Moule and Goodman 2009). On the other Personal factors Many studies tried to answer the
hand, Maltby et al (2010) state that large sample question ‘What factors influence people when it
sizes can produce significant but practically comes to liking or disliking their job?’. Gruneberg
meaningless results, and that smaller sample sizes (1979) suggests that job satisfaction should be
are required to answer research questions. examined in relation to the individual variables
Two studies were qualitative and used thematic of employees, and different studies explored the
analysis of semi-structured interviews (Cortese 2007, association between job satisfaction and variables
Morgan and Lynn 2008). Morgan and Lynn (2008) such as gender, age and education (Table 5, which
included 20 participants from one academic centre, can be found online, see panel).
while Cortese (2007) used 64 randomly chosen Curtis (2008) investigated the effect of
nurses from three hospitals without declaring he biographical variables on job satisfaction among
had used this method. Curtis (2008) used mixed nurses in Dublin and there was a statistically
methods with a dominant-less dominant approach significant difference (P=0.05) in age groups. The level
with the quantitative aspect being the dominant of job satisfaction was highest among nurses in the
paradigm. With dominant-less dominant design, 36-to-45 and 46-to-55 age groups, and lowest in the
a researcher conducts a study with a dominant 18-to-25 and 26-to-35 age groups; over the age of
paradigm that also has a component that involves an 55, however, satisfaction levels started to decline.
alternative paradigm (Teddlie and Tashakkori 2009). Curtis’s (2008) findings showed no difference in job
For example, the researcher conducts a qualitative satisfaction between nurses who had worked in their
observation with a limited amount of information current place of employment for less than or more
and then undertakes a quantitative survey of than five years. Only 53 male nurses participated
a sample population. in the study, which represents 8.7% of the total
Burns and Grove (2011) define response rate as sample, and this could have affected the conclusions,
the percentage of people who agree to participate although Penz et al (2008) also indicated that women
but do not necessarily provide all the data are more satisfied than men in their current jobs.
required. The highest response rate in the reviewed An assessment of job satisfaction, job
literature searched was the Kwak et al (2010) study, performance and occupational stress among Ugandan
with 89%, while the lowest was 35% (Curtis 2008). nurses (Nabirye et al 2011) found different (P=0.001)
Low response rates can threaten validity (Cook et al levels of job satisfaction between age groups. Those
2009). Draugalis et al (2008) argue that minimum in the 20-to-29 age group had higher levels of job
acceptable response rate can vary between 30% satisfaction than those in the 30-to-39 or 40-to-49
and 75%, but Bowling (2009) suggests that 75% is an age groups. Enrolled nurses and midwives reported
acceptable minimum standard. higher levels of job satisfaction than registered
Different instruments were used in the nurses. The results indicated that differences in job
quantitative studies to measure nurses’ job satisfaction by level of education among nurses was
satisfaction, and three common instruments were significant (P=0.002), and that differences in job
used in 12 of them. These are listed in Table 4, satisfaction related to nurses’ experience; those with
which can be found online, see panel. Most less experience reported higher job satisfaction than
researchers reported that the reliability and validity those with more.
of the instrument they used was evaluated using Wilson et al (2008) explored job satisfaction
Cronbach’s alpha and stood between 0.70 and among different generations of 6,541 Canadian
0.91. Cronbach’s alpha provides a measurement of registered nurses categorised by year of birth.
the internal consistency of a scale using a number Results showed that baby boomers, born between
between 0 and 1, with 0.955 being the best result 1946 and 1964, were more satisfied overall than
(Tavakol and Dennick 2011). generation X babies, born between 1965 and 1979,
and generation Y babies, born from 1980 onwards.
Findings Baby boomers were more satisfied with scheduling,
Job satisfaction, particularly in nursing, is complex pay and benefits. More than one third of the baby
and relates to performance in work settings boomers and generation X nurses worked in critical
(Farquharson et al 2012). The literature discussed care, while half of the generation Y nurses worked
Online access different factors that influence nurse job in medical and surgical units. Nurses of generation
Tables 4 and 5 are available satisfaction, which can be categorised as ‘personal’ Y started their careers in medical or surgical units
to all readers at or ‘organisational and job related’. However, there to enhance knowledge and skills. The levels of
http://journals.rcni.com/r/ are many factors in these categories that affect satisfaction appeared to decrease in the younger
maqbalitables4-5
job satisfaction. generations of nurses.
consistency; language differences between the of 1,559 randomly selected registered nurses in
countries could also affect the study’s validity. Australia, found that around 67% were satisfied
Al-Dossary et al (2012) studied 50 Saudi nurses with their job and 72% with nursing as a profession;
and 167 non-Saudi nurses working in a teaching however, 28% said they intended to leave the
hospital in Saudi Arabia and found that most of profession within 12 months. The study concluded
the personnel-related factors, namely age, gender that an effective nurse unit manager or a highly
and level of education, did not influence nurses’ skilled leader could increase nurses’ job satisfaction.
job satisfaction. However, the number of years A survey of 5,956 nurses in 19 Japanese hospitals
of nursing experience was significant (P=0.006). reported that 60% were dissatisfied (Kanai-Pak et al
Job satisfaction positively correlated with pay, 2008). Fifty nine per cent said that the ‘poor’ or ‘only
contingent rewards, co-workers, supervision, nature fair’ quality of care in their units was due to
of work and fringe benefits, while job promotion inadequate staff resources and that this was the
and operating conditions had a moderate association reason for their dissatisfaction; the second reason,
with job satisfaction. The most satisfying factor with 40%, was the relationship and collaboration
for nurses was the leadership style of their direct between nurses and physicians. The study had
supervisors. The study sample was small, 217, a large sample but types of unit were not identified,
and conducted in a single hospital, which affects and this raises questions about with which ones
attempts to generalise the findings. nurses were most dissatisfied. It is important to
A study of 436 registered nurses of different know this to help improve specific areas.
nationalities in five Kuwaiti government hospitals Cortese (2007) studied 64 Italian nurses and
(Al-Enezi et al 2009) found that nationality, found that 54% were satisfied and 46% dissatisfied.
education level and marital status were related to Job satisfaction factors were ranked as 37% job content,
job satisfaction, as were scheduling of duty, praise 21% professional relationships, 18% independence
and opportunities for recognition, and control and professional growth, 13% relationships with
and responsibility. The only dissatisfaction factors patients and their families, and 11% relationships with
identified were professional opportunities and co-ordinators. Job dissatisfaction factors were ranked
extrinsic rewards. The study sample was randomly as co-ordinator management style (43%), activity
selected using a stratified method, which can reduce programming and organisation (26%), relationships
levels of selection bias. However, the data were with doctors (21%), and relationships with patients
collated in 1999 and there have been many changes (9%). The study neither controlled the demographic
in the workforce, and in the rules and regulations of variable nor mentioned anything about participants’
Kuwait’s healthcare system, since then. age, gender, years of experience or level of education.
In Hong Kong, a study of 1,271 registered The sample heterogeneity here was questionable.
nurses in ten hospitals (Choi et al 2012) examined A causal model of job satisfaction was tested by
work environment in terms of job satisfaction and Larrabee et al (2010) in a survey of 464 registered
intention to resign, and identified five dimensions: nurses. The causal model has 11 independent
professionalism, management, co-worker relationship, variables to evaluate the association between
staffing and resources, and ward practice. Results job satisfaction and intention to stay, job stress,
showed 56% of respondents were satisfied overall stress resilience and psychological empowerment.
and 45% were dissatisfied, while more than 60% Results supported the view that low job stress
had considered resigning. The findings indicated and psychological empowerment influence job
that the five dimensions are significant in terms satisfaction. Five of the variables had a major effect on
of predicating nurse job satisfaction; however, job satisfaction: intention to stay (P =.01), age (P=.05),
the study instrument was newly developed so the years of experience (P >.001), low level of education
validity and reliability of the results are questionable. (P >.0001) and low situational stress (P> .003).
The instrument has to be tested in other settings to Morgan and Lynn (2009) demonstrated that
confirm validity and reliability. nurses’ autonomy is a strong contributing factor
Kwak et al (2010), from their study of in job satisfaction but also found that sparse pay
496 respondents working in 23 hospitals in South and benefits were not related to job satisfaction.
Korea, claimed that nursing professionalism is the Only 20 nurses were interviewed, but qualitative
strongest predictor of job satisfaction (P=0.001), methods can offer a holistic understanding that
alongside the opportunity for promotion (P=0.05). cannot be detected by quantitative methods (Tilley
Around one third of participants reported 2007). Most nurse participants had around 18 years’
dissatisfaction with their job related to these experience. These findings support Zurmehly (2008),
factors. Meanwhile Duffield et al (2010), in a study who found that job satisfaction was associated with
Lu et al’s (2012) review included publications person. Different factors have greater significance in
in Chinese and English, which could introduce different countries, mainly due to cultural and social
a language bias; Morrison et al (2012) suggest contexts. More recent studies reinforce the view
restricting systematic reviews to papers in one that job satisfaction is a complex phenomenon with
language to avoid language bias that could multi-causal factors, and the literature in general
lead to erroneous conclusions. The review suggests that these factors can be conceptualised in
also included grey, or unpublished, literature, two categories:
which can also introduce bias. Egger et al (2003) ■ Personal characteristics of nurses and
found that unpublished studies can be of poorer biographical factors. Most studies show varying
methodological quality than published studies. correlations of reporting between these factors
However, overall the review highlighted the and job satisfaction. Age, level of education,
importance of nurses’ job satisfaction and its effect gender, type of unit and level of experience are
on healthcare organisations. all linked to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
Overall, most studies report data on personal
Summary of organisational and job-related factors characteristics for descriptive purposes.
The literature suggests that job dissatisfaction can Biographical variables are important and can
result from issues related to either the job or the influence nurses’ job satisfaction.
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