Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
hy Rit~bard C. 1\lielenz
Denver, Colorado
October 1948 95 cents
(R.evised September 1961)
United States Department of the Interior
Bureau of Reclamation
Engineering Monograph
No. 1
by Richard C. Mielenz
Revised 1959. by
William Y. Holland
Head. Petrographic Laboratory Section
Chemical Engineering Laboratory Branch
Commissioner's Office. Denver
Fl'ontispiece
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
General Basis of Classification of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Relation of the Petrographic Character to the
Engineering Properties of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Engineering J?roperties of Igneous Rocks ................................ :. 4
Plutonic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Hypabyssal Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Volcanic Rocks..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Application of Petrography to Engineering Problems of the
Bureau of Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
A Mineralogic and Textural Classification of Igneous Rocks . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Textures ................................................... , . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Mineralogic Composition................................................. 10
Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Follows page 10
Photographs ................................................... Begin on page 11
INTRODUCTION
Rocks, as a whole, are divided into three cooled and crystallized far below the sur-
classes: igneous, metamorphic, and sedi- face. Igneous also are the lavas poured
mentary. Igneous rocks originated through from volcanos, and those which did not quite
solidification of molten material either at or reach the earth's surface but froze at small
below the surface .of the earth. Igneous depths as small intrusive masses, such as
rocks comprise such types as the common dikes and sills.
granites which formed from tremendously
large masses of molten material intruded Metamorphic rocks were formed through
from depths of the earth into the crust, then recrystallization, in an"essentially solid
1
state, of igneous or sedimentary rocks sub- _fectly is the mode of origin related to the
jected to high temperature, high pres·sure, composition, texture, and !:!trUcture that a
· or high shearing stresses within the crust of petrographer ccin almost always determine
the earth. They include slates, schists, the origin of the rock and hence classify the
phyllite, gneisses, marbles, and many other rock from the characterist~cs determinable
less ~mman rock types. in th~ hand specimen. Consequently, rocks
could be fitted into a threefold classification
SedimentarY rocks originated through dep- merely on the b3.sis of composition, texture,
osition and consolidation of materials weath- and structure, without primary consideration
ered and eroded from the earth's surface. of origin. In fact, the petrographer ordi-
'lbe decomposed and broken material after narily must determine whether a rock is
be in~ transported over the earth 1 s surface sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous by
by water, wind, gravity, or ice was depos- examination of individual fragments, for the
ited in valleys. Jakes, or along the margins circwnstances under which the rock formed
. of the oceans. fllbsequently, they may have usually no longer exist, but the large-scale
been tightly or .loosely cemented by mineral geologic relations of the rock formation ·
substances pre·cipitated from groundwater,· commonly are now known.
or they may have .been more or less indu- Certain textures, structures, and com-
rated by compaction·due to the weight of positions are typical.of each petrographic
overlying materials or as a resUlt of earth classification because they are controlled
stresses. The process of consolidation by the physical and chemical conditions of
may have proceeded rapidly or ·slowly de- formation. Thus, sedimentary rocks are
pending upon many factors, such as the formed by grain-by-grain accumulation. of
composition of the interstitial groundwater, small or large, angular or rounded parti-
the clayey, sandy, or gravelly character cles. subsequently compacted or cemented
of the sediments, and the weight of over- together. creating a fabric in which the
burden. grains are not interlocked or keyed together
at their margins. but which are knit ·by
Because of the great variety of textures, secondary cementing substances or by ad-
structures, and compositions occuring in hesive or cohesive forces. Stratification,
rocks of each of the three classes, sub- the most typical structure of sedimentary
classes or families of rocks can be dis- rocks, represents discontinuities in the
tinguished. Thus, sedimentary rocks com- · conditions of formation, such as change in.
posed of grains 2 mm to 0. 05 mm in diam- composition of grain size of the sediments
eter cemented by substances in the intergran- deposited, or in the type of mineral sub-
ular spaces are called sandstones, whereas stances deposited interstitially by ground-
sedimentary rocks composed of mineral and water. Metamorphic rocks develop from
rock grains less than 0. 05 mm in diameter _originally igneous or sedimentary rocks
are ~ed siltstones. Sedimentary roc:;Ks subjected to temperatures. pressures, and
composed of clay are called claystones, if shearing stresses so high that the compo-
they are massive: shale, if they are charac- nents are crushed and recrjstallized, com-
terized by a flaky or platy structure. Rocks monly with development of new minerals.
composed by calcium carbonate are called The recrystallization proceeds without fu-
limestones, if fine-grained:· marble·S., if sion, by progressive dissolution of the old
medium or coarse-grained. With incipient and precipitation of the new minerals, the
metamorphism. a sandstone is designated a mass of the rock being essentially solid
metasandstone, but with recrystallization throughout the process. Metamorphic rocks
and development of new minerals, the rock such as schists and slates which formed
may be changed to a mica schist. which is under conditions of high shearing stress
a metamorphic rock possessing a stl"'ong are characterized by planar internal struc-
planar structure. A .metamorphic rock tures, being composed in part of platy min-
composed of alternating schistose zones and erals like mica, or prismatic minerals like
massive granular zones is called a gneiss. th~ amphiboles which develop in response
to the stress conditions. 'Metamorphic rocks
such as gramilites and ·some marbles formed
'Although the threefold classification of' at elevated temperature and pressure but
rocks is based upon their origin, so per- with_ little shearing stress are massive in
2
structure and are cha.ract~rized by a tightly characteristics of the melt itself (mainly
lmit interlocking equigranular texture. temperature and viscosity). The miner-
alogic composition of igneous rocks is
. Igneous rocks~ more so than sedimentary largely controlled by chemical composition .
or metamorphic rocks, lend themselves to of the magma; but in part the minerals
classification on a fundamental basis, since which develop arE' determined by the envi-
they are formed in a relatively narrow range ronmental conditions of solidification.
of physical-chemical environments, and
because they represent the solidified phase For example, volcanic rocks which are
of siliceous melts typified by chemical com- characterized by rapid cooling commonly
positions which vary within comparatively are crystallized only partially, since some
narrow limits. Igneous rocks differ from of the melt was congealed as glass before
one another because of variations in en- crystallization was completed. The min-
vironmental conditions of formation and erals which exist in equilibrium with half-
variations in chemical composition. En- crystallized melt may be different from
vironmental conditions include (1) the tem- those which would exist in equilibrium with
perature of the melt (magma), (2) the rate the last residues of the melt. Thus, a ba-
of cooling, (3) the pressure. and (4) the saltic magma. the mineral olivine, forms
viscosity of the melt. The chemical com- early in the progressive crystallization.
position of a magma may control many of But, if the melt is comparatively rich in
its physical-chemical properties, such as silica, the olivine may subsequently be con-
melting point and viscosity. The most im- verted through reactions with the melt to
portant aspects of chemical composition are pyroxene. The final completely crystallized
silica content (which ranges from 45 per- rock could be designated as gabbro and would
cent to 77 percent iJ) common igneous rocks) be completely free from olivine; yet the
and the content of gases and vapors occuring partially glassy basalt which could be formed
within the melt. Viscosity increases with by quick chilling of the partially crystallized
silica content; whereas viscosity is de- magma would contain crystals of olivine.
• creased, and ease of crystallization, at any Comparable progressive changes occur in all
given temperature below the melting point, igneous melts, especially the plagioclase or
is increased by increasing content of volatile soda-lime feldSpar which becomes increas-
constituents. ingly sodic and less calcic during crystalli-
zation.
Igneous rocks are classified through the
simultaneous consideration of two factors: Thus, an engineering- classification of
(1) the texture and structure of the rock, and igneous rock must use the mineralogic com-
(2) the chemical and mineralogic composi- position as a basis. ·A knowledge of the
tion. Textur~s and structures of igneous chemical composition is valuable for cor-
rocks are controlled by the physic8.1-chemi- relation of, for instance, separate but ad-
cal conditions existing within the magma jacent masses, or where the minerals arP.
during solidification. In turn, these condi- not determinable microscopically. However,
tions are most strongly influenced by the the rocks can be adequately classified ac-
depth at which solidification took place cording to this scheme only after chemieal
(which controlled the rate of cooling and the analyses have been performed. This is an
hydrostatic pressure) and the physical expensive and time-consuming process.
3
position can· be changed by secondary proc- bility, or impermeability of th·e material,
esses, and the innate properties of the rock the degree to which the expansive poten-
thus caused to vary significantly. An ori- tialities of clay constituents will deleteri-
ginally weak rock may be strengthened by ously affect the engine_er~·properties, and
slight metamorphism. An originally strong the engineering significance of other physical
rock may be weakened by weathering or hy- ·and chemical attributes of material.
drothermal alteration; or an originally mas-
sive rock ~ be rendered pervious by frac- ·Many examples of the interrelation of
tures resulting from geologic processes. petrographic character and engineering
To the extent that rocks are altered, de- properties of materials can be cited. Petro-
composed, or fractured, they partake more graphic examination Qf schists from the
and r;1ore of proper1Ies tjpicaliy. relateci to foundation of Hiwassee Dam, North Carolina,-
rocks of other origins. Thus, with increase demcnstrated that schistosity, stratification,
in content of clayey decomposition products, and microscopi~ fractures in quartz grains
and breakdown of the original internal texture were present. It was anticipated that these
and structure, igneous and metamorphic internal structures would control the failure
rocks progressively will approach the sedi- of specimens in compression. Subsequent
mentary c1ays and shales in their properties. tests corroborated this prediction. Portions
Therefore, determination of petrographic of the shore o! Lake Roosevelt, Washington,
identity of a rock is merely the first step are composed of the Nespelem formation
in the application of petrography to engi- known to contain a series of stratified silts
neering. and ciays having petrographically unstable
$racteristics. As a result of wetting by
the reservoir waters, the strata of clay
Texture, structure, and composition of softened and became ·so unstable that exten-
rocks are determined by petrographic meth- sive sliding occurred, involving areas ex-
ods, comprising microscopical examination, tending as much as 1, 000 feet back from
microchemical analysis, X-ray diffraction the shoreline. Apparently insignificant
analysis, and certain physical tests. With variations in composition of rocks actually
skill, experience, and good judgement, the can cause gre~t changes in properties. At
engineering petrographer can anticipate a proposed dam si~e on the Colorado River
the degree to which the observed charac- in Utah, the great ·decline in strength of
teristics will be reflected in adverse prop- sandstones as a result of wetting was found
erties of the material. ·With continued re- ·to correlate with variations in the amount of
search, the correlation between the petro- determinable interstitial clay, which in no
graphic characteristics and the engineering case constitutes more than 5 percent of the
properties will be improved further. By rock. Petrographic examination of the clay-
his examination, analyses, and semiquan- stones and shale forming the foundation of
titative tests, the petrographer establishes the Malheur River Siphon, Owyhee Project,
the need 'for detailed testing of materials. Oregon, would have revealed their poten-
He must determine the probability that the tialities for expansion with wetting, a proc-
stratification, schistosity, or fractures ess which within 8 years raised the siphon
will reduce critically the strength, dura- supports more than 1 foot in some places.
4
as extending indefinitely in depth. For ex- ·soda-lime (plagioclase) feidspar·~ and Df
ample, the sites of Grand Coulee, Arrow- dark-colored minerals increases as the
rock, Kortes, and Anderson Ranch Dams silica content decreases. The basic plagi-
lie entirely within granite.
oclase feldspars and the dark-colored· min-
erals are more susceptible to weathering
The individual crystals or grains com- or hydrothermal alteration. Consequently,
posing plutonic igneous rocks usually range diorites and gabbros are more likely to
from about 1 millimeter to 1 centimeter in ·exhibit local or general decomposition than
size; although considerably larger. crystals are granites and monzonites. Howev~r,
dO occur in some less common types (e. g .• all primary constituents of plutonic igneous
the pegmatites). Because some of the min- rocks are sufficiently stable to withstand
erals precipitated from the melt crystallize chemical attack by the alkalies released
early and others late, granites are charac- during hydration of portland cement. and·
terized by a poorly interlocked texture with even if calcined and pulverized, they produce
the last crystallized minerals being molded inferior or worthless pozzolans.
against the essentially smooth surfaces of
the early formed crystals. However, in Despite their chemical stability, even
gabbros, the main constituents, plagioclase some unaltered granitic rocks ·may con-
feldspars and pyroxenes,. develop simul- tribute to poor durability of concrete. For
taneously. Consequently, gabbros typically example, the bond of cement paste onto the.
a
possess well-interlocked internal texture. smooth, impermeable surfaces of the large
As a result of the poorly interlocked texture, exposed crystals of quartz and·feldspars may
granites tend to disintegrate with weathering. be inadequate, or, because of the poorly
impact, or abrasion to their granular com- interlocking texture of tYPical granites, the
ponents. The excellent service of granitic grains may be loosened hi even moderate
rocks as road aggregate relates in part to weathering, thus decreasing strength, elas-
the. ease with which disintegration occurs, as ticity, and durability of the rock. Large
a consequence of which a·uiuformly graded crystals possessing adverse properties
road metal is produced by traffic and natural may affect the quality of the aggregate. For
weathering. Conversely, gabbros charac- example, orthoclase and microcline crystals
teristically are tough and disintegr-ate less whose thermal coefficient of expansion dif-
readily, their average Young's modulus of fers markedly from that of the cement paste
elasticity being about 1. 7 times that of gran- may contribute to rupture of bond and dis-
ite. tress of the enclosing-mortar. These feld-
. spars are characterized~ a thermal co-
Because the plutonic igneous rocks develop efficient of 0 to 0. 6 x 10- per degree F.
by slow and complete crystallization of the With changes in temperature of concrete,
molten magma, porosity and permeability severe stresses arise in the cement paste,
of the igneous rock masses are typically low. bond between aggregate and cement fails,
However, jointing and fracturing of plutonic and consequent overall deterioration of the
. masses are commonly sufficient to permit concrete may occur. No deterioration of
localized passage of groundwater. The this kind is known to be associated with
fracturing and jointing are unusually abundant diorites or gabbros, probably because the
·because the originally massive structure plagioclase feldspars possess a thermal.
precludes local and progressive release of . coefficient of expansion considerably greater
earth stresses. At Kortes Damsite, Wyo- than that of the alkali feldspar and-because
ming, intense hydrothermal alteration con-· the individual grains of these rocks are more
trolled by jointing has produced zones of . firm.Jy interlocked.
decomposed granite as wide as 7 inches in
which the rock contains secondary mont- Other granitic aggregates are connected
morillonite-type (bentonitic) clay and is so with inferior quality of concrete. For ex-
weakened as to yield to granulation in the anlple, granitic aggregates from near Ander-
hand. son Ranch Dam, Idaho, and Vallecito Dam,
Colorado, produce concrete of satisfactory
In the granite-gabbro. seri~s the content of durability ·only if special care is used in its
quartz and alkali feldspar (such as_ ortho- manufacture. Extensive investigations have
clase) de_creases and the con~ent of basic shown th~t only by the addition of crushed_
5
·limestone gravel is it possible to obtain good and (3) decreased content of orthoclase and
concrete with the apparently sound, highly microcline, the feldspars characterized by
granitic sand-gravel aggregate of the Kan- very low thermal coefficient of expansion.
sas-Nebraska Area. Natural granitic ag-
gregates in the vicinity of Denver, Colorado,
produce satisfactory but not superior con- Hypabyssal rocks
crete only with adequate control of mixing,
placing, and cur~. Igneous rock solidified at moderate depths
in the earth's crust (the so-called "hypa-
byssal" zone) are charac:terized by textures,
With weathering or hydroth.ermal altera-
structures, and composition intermediate
tion, plutonic igneous rocks may produce
between those of the plutonic and volcanic
compounds which themselves contribute to
rocks. Consequently, their physical and
reduced qualitY of concrete. For example,
chemical properties are likewise inter-
an altered anorthosite from Soledad Canyon,
mediate. Because of the high viscosity of
California, containing the zeolite laumontite
highly siliceous melts and the common as-
(or leonhardite) is known to have caused
sociation of abundant gases and vapors with
rapid deterioration of cast stone and stucco
the more siliceous magmas, rocks of the
in the vicinity of Los Angeles. An appar-
ently sound, crushed granodiorite containing granite-rhyolite family exhibit. a very close
relation between environment of solidifi-
a zeolite is associated with surface scalirig
cation and internal texture and structure.
and efflorescence of concrete on the down-
Rocks of the gabbro-basalt family do ~ot
stream face of a dam in Southern California.
demonstrate a comparably close relation
At Green Mountain Dam, Colorado, it of this kind; thus the characteristics of the
rocks may not always reveal the mode of
was noted that a small number of boulders
occurence of the igneous bodies.
in stockpiled riprap had weathered to a rub-
ble. The rock had been identified petro-
graphically as monzonite porphyry. Exam- Hypabyssal igneous rocks occur as com-
ination of the excavation from which the paratively small bodies, which are called
rock had been obtained revealed shear zones · "dikes" if they are thin and tabular in form
along which the rock had lost its physical and cut across the structure of the country
coherence by deep-seated alteration. The rock, or "sills" if they are thin and tabular
rock was in sound physical condition except in form and intrude along structures (such
along these zones. Exposure of the rock to as stratification) of the country rock. Hy-
natural weathering resulted in rapid disinte- pabyssal intrusions of irregular or lenticular
gration of the altered material. Examination shape, such as laccoliths, are.less common
during 1959 of the riprap that had been placed than are dikes and sills.
on the dam about 18 years previously showed
that the small number of contaminating Because of their small· size, these intru-
boulders had completely disintegrated by sions typically constitute merely a portion
exposure to the weather while the sound rock of large construction sites.· If they are ex-
remained unaffected. ploited as sources of construction materials,
only small quantities may be available. For
These comments in regard to the quality example, an andesite intrusion occurs at
of plntonic igneous rocks should not be taken the left abutment of Palisades Dam site,
to imply that granitic rocks in general in- Idaho, but the remainder of the site is under-
·variably contribute to inferior quality of lain by sedimentary rocks. Because the
concrete. On the contrary, plutonic igneous competence of the igneous rock and the in-
rocks, or sands and gravels containing par- creased strength of the sedimentary rocks
ticles of plutonic igneous rocks, have been indurated under the influence of the heat of
widely and successfully used as concrete the intrusion, the left abutment was selected
aggregate. It is to be anticipated that ad- by the designers as the site of the spillway
verse qualities will be reduced by (1) de- structure. Unfortunately, close jointing in
creased grain size of the crystals composing the ancfesite restricted use of the rock as
the rock, (2) increased interlocking of the riprap because of the limited quantity of
grains, such as will accompany metamor- larger sizes available. At Davis Damsite,
phism under· high pressure and temperature, Arizona_.Nevada, granite and granite gneiss
6
constituting the greater part of the founda- hardened surface crust. These zones of
tion and the abutments are cut by rhyolite fragmental material- -the lava tunnels, the
dikes deeply altered (even· to clay) along fractured zones, and to some extent, the
contacts. Because of this incompetence, vesicular zones--contribute to the charac-
these zones, in some places more than 10 teristically high permeability of thin bedded
feet in width, required excavation to good lavas. Because of the higher viscosity and
rock prior to construction. Basalt dikes commonly higher contents of gases and va-
cutting the foundation were strong and com- pors of acidic and intermediate lavas, rhyo-
petent, and presented no design problems. lite. dacite, and andesite tuffs and agglom-
Rock of suifable size, quality, and gradation erates are considerably more common and
for slope protection could not be obtained widespread than tuffs and agglomerates of
from the excavated rock; therefore, a quarry basaltic composition.
was opened at some distance from the dam.
The crystals composing the greater portion
Along the Feeder Canal, Columbia Basin of volcanic rock types are minute, usually
Project, Washington, sills and flows of being invisible to the unaided eye. Typi-
basalt were involved in ancient landslides _cally. volcanic glass, representing the un-
and possibly in renewal of sliding of the crystallized residue of the melt, is present
shales and siltstones of the Latah formation. constituting in some instances, merely in-
These slides greatly impeded progress of _terstitial segregations, in others, virtually
construction. the entire rock. Most volcanic rocks are
porphyritic; i.e. , embedded within the fine-
grained or 'glassy groundmass of the rock
Volcanic rocks are crystals which are considerably larger
than those in the groundmass. Rhyolites
Igneous rocks which form at or near the commonly are highly glassy because of the
surface of the earth are characteristically high. viscosity of the melt, whereas basic
very fine-grained or partially to completely volcanics. such as basalt, usually contain
glassy. They may be massive, or they merely small amounts of glass held inter-
may contain few or many vesicles owing . · stitially in the groundmass. Because of the
to release of gas from the melt, or they content of glass, volcanic rocks are usually
may be banded as a result of flow of the hard and brittle. rhyolites typically being the
plastic lava. Thus, the structure of the ·most brittle because of their greater glass
·volcanic rock may be massive, vesicular. content.
-pumiceous, or flow-banded. Comparable
·to the granite-gabbro series is the rhyolite- · Volcanic glasses are unstable chemically,
"basalt series of volcanic rocks. · and are therefore decomposed easily by
weathering or hydrothermal activity. Con-
Lava flows are sheet-like in form; that sequently. during examination of volcanic
is, the area which they cover is large com- formations to establish their structural
pared to their thickness. Because.of their stability. diligent investigations should be
greater fluidity, basic lavas, such as basalt, made to assure that all zones of alteration
commonly extend over large areas even are discovered. For example, along some
though the flows are thin. Acidic lavas, ·sections of the Main Canal. Deschutes Proj-
such as rhyolite, usually are limited in area ect. Oregon, locally intense alteration of
and typically are thicker for a given distance andesite and rhyolite tuffs to bentonitic clays
of flow: Because of their small thickness .is responsible for drastic instability of cut
or limited areal extent, lava flows are likely slopes and displacements in the canal sec-
to underlie merely a portion of a large con- tion. Because of their chemical properties,
struction site. glassy rhyolites. andesites, and dacites are
deleteriously reactive with the alkalies re-
Lava flows are commonly interbedded leased during hydration of portland cement.
with tuffaceous or other fragmental volcanic .As a consequence of their widespread occur-
~aterial blown from the volcano. Also. rence. these rocks are by fa.r the most im-
particularly in the basic (basaltic) lavas, portant rocks participating in cement-ag-
tunnels or tubes may occur wherever the gregate reaction. In addition. because of
still fluid lava flowed o~t from beneath a -their chemical activity. acidic. intermediate,
7
·and alkaline volcanic rocks and tuffs are concrete to such an extent that another ag-
excellent sources of pozzolans for use in gregate had to be substituted. Deposits of
concrete. highly basaltic Sands and gravels near Pasco,
Washington, which are satisfactory sources
Basalts also are susceptible to decom- of concrete aggregate, are underlain by
position by weathering and hydrothermal deeply weathered sands and gravel but of
action. But, because basalts typically con-. similar composition. Because of the sus-
tain less glass than rhyolites and andesites, -ceptibility of basalt to weathering. the older
equivalent alteration ~rdinarily impairs the portions of deposits have been rendered
structural quality of basaits less than it im- unsuitable for use. Exploration must be
pairs the quality of rhyolites and andesites. conducted to determine the extent and depth
On the other hand, the decomposition of the of. the satisfactory aggregate to prevent con-
glass in the basalt can decrease critically tamination by the unsound material. Also,
its durability and soundness. For example, because of the ease with which basalts are
an altered dolerite proposed for use as con- decomposed by groundwater, basaltic sands
crete aggregate on a project in Oregon was and gravels commonly become coated with_
found to contain about 30 percent of the clay opal. which represents the silica leached
mineral nontronite, formed by alteration of from the basalt pebbles. These opal coat-
interstitial glass and minerals. Tests of ings are deleteriously reactive with cement.
concrete proved that this rock caused rapid alkalies.
freezing and thawing breakdown of concrete
when used as aggregate, even though the Although basaltic glasses are not resistant
crushed rock passed tests of soundness. to weathering they are not delete~iously
The deterioration of the concrete was deter- reactive with cement alkalies. Their in-
.mined to be caused in part by large volume. nocuous character apparently relates to the
changes .of the dolerite. low content of silica and the high content of
magnesium and calcium. Because of their
toughness, ,:;trength, and a surface texture
The occurrence of montmorillonite clay· conducive to good bond with cement, ba~ts
in basaltic fine aggregate at Prineville Dam, as group constitute one of the best sources of
Oregon, caused premature stiffening of the concrete aggregate.
8
sence of zones of shearing and faulting can petrographic examination to select speci-
be established by correlation of strata a- mens representative of the group frequently
cross the site. For example, at Canyon will frimplify·the test program without sacri-
Ferry Damsite the sedimentary formation ficing significance .of the results.
constituting the foundation and abutments
contained thin sills of altered andesite, dis- Engineering petrography and engineering
ti.Dguisbable onzy- .after petrographic analysis, .geology in coordination serve to relate the
whose continuity proved the absence of sig- ·properties of individual specimens subjected
nificant faulting beneath tbe river alluvium. to laboratory tests to the properties of the
rock formations in place. For example,
·Petrography is a valuable tool for deter- _the petrographer and geologist may be called
mination of the properties of rocks, either upon to decide: To what extent should the
when applied independently or as a means to fractures. joints, and planes of shear in the
select those quantitative tests necessary to rock in place be cause for reducing, below
_measure specific properties. The latter the measured strength of rock specimens,
function is the more important. Most tests the strength of the _rock mass; or to what
to measure properties of rock materials are ·extent might the swelling clays remain stable
expensive and time- consuming, and they by virtue of their impermeability; or to what
uSually require carefully selected samples so degree would discontinuities, such as joints,
protected that at the time of test they truly bedding planes, and faults, augment the
represent the character of the rocks and known permeability of the rock itself. Not
mater~s in place, especially with regard infrequently. the results of tests of rock
to moisture content and fractures. eon.:. specimens. hOwever selected, may be more
sequently, it is wise to determine the ne- delu~ tha.n: instructive. Only experience,
cessity for certain tests before they are geologic and petrographic skill, and good
requested. For example, testing the .quality judgement will permit adequate translation of
of an aggregate by performing tests of con- test results into the data required for engi-
crete ~ntaining the aggregate may be a- neering design.
voided by application o~ physical and chem-
ical tests and petrographic examination of The petrographer can assist the engineer
·the aggregate. Tests of concrete need be in design, construction, and maintenance
performed only when the results of-~e phys- problems. By working with the engineering
ical and chemical tests of the aggregates are geologist, the petrographer facilitates selec-
anomalous, or if the petrographic examina- tion. exploration, and subsurface investi-
tion indicates adverse properties not eval- gation of construction sites. Tilrough appli--
uat~ by the aggregate tests. Determination cation of petrography to materials testing,
of volume increase of rock materials with specific ~ests to be applied and samples to
wetting is significant only if clay minerals of be tested can be seiected with minimum
-the montmorillonite type (bentonitic_) ~e ·hazard of iriefficiency. Petrography is ef-
_present. The presence and abundance of fective in predicting the engineering prop-
these clays can be determined quickly by erties of rocks because those properties are
petrographic and X-ray diffraction analysis. determined by the rocks' texture, structure,
If the number of samples available for test and composition, chal-acteristics which can
"is so great as ·to preclude testing.of all, be. discerned by petrographic methods.
9
cation of described rocks if all pertinent near the surface of the earth and which are
mineralogic and textural data are known; therefore exceedingly fine grained or are
or definitions of rock types can be obtained partially or completely glassy. These rocks
from the chart. It is to be noted that many are generally related to volcanism. The
of the rocks shown in the chart can be-iden- topmost row represents fragmental mate-
tified only after microscopic examination; rials thrown from volcanic vents. At the
thus ad~quate facilities for preparation and extreme left side of the chart a note has
examination of specimens are necessary for been added to describe the interrelation of
complete petrographic analysis. The organ- occurrence, chemical composition, and
ization of the chart is described below. texture of igneous rocks.
Textures
Mineralogic Composition
Rocks shown in the same vertical column
are similar in chemical and mineralogic Along any horizontal row the rocks are
composition. For example, except for some different in chemical and mineralogic com-
natural glass which may occur in the rhy- position, and therefore are classified dif-
olite, granites and rhyolites are essentially ferently even though they may have originated
the same in composition. However, as is In precisely the same physical situation.
noted in the column headed "Typical Tex- Feldspars are the most abundant minerals
tures, " the characteristic texture and struc- in the crust of the earth, and they occur in
tures of the rocks in any given vertical col- ~p.ost igneous rocks. Therefore, igneous
umn are different. Rocks which solidified rocks are classified on the basis of the kind
at comparatively great depths in the earth and relative abundance of the feldspars.
are characterized by completely crystalline, Feldspars may be classified as alkali feid-
fine- to coarse-grained textures. These spars which are of the potassium or sodic
rocks are shown in the bottom lines of the ahlminum silicates, and plagioclase or soda-
chart. They possess textures similar to lime feldspars, which represent an iso-
granite and represent igneous bodies which morphous series between NaAlSi30s and
solidified in the so-called plutonic zone of CaA12 Si2o8 • AJkali feldspars predominate in
the earth's crust. igneous rocks which are rich in alkalies (e.
g. , phonolites) or high in silica (e. g., rhy-
In the four rows of boxes above the bottom olites), whereas plagioclase feldspars occur
two rows, the rocks are generally com- in small or large proportions in virtually
pletely crystalline, but they are fine-grained all igneous rocks. A note concerning the
or porphyritic, since they commonly rep- relation of chemical composition to min-
resent small, rapidly cooled igneous bodies, eralogy of igneous rocks may be found at the
· such as dikes. They formed in the so- called bottom of the rock chart.
hypabyssal zone at moderate depths in the
earth. A horizontal row in the upper part of the
chart indicates the range of silica content
The three rows of boxes at" the top of the characteristic of the various groups of rocks.
chart represent r~cks which solidified at or
It is to be noted that these proportions rep-
resent Si02 determinable only by chemical
*Expanded from charts prepared by J. F. analysis, as distinguished from silica crys-
Kemp, A Handbook of Rocks for Use without tallized as quartz.
the Petrographic Microscope, D. Van No-
strand Company, P. 46; and G. D. Louder- Boxes within the chart which are empty
back, Index Table of Igneous Rocks, Min-. represent exceedingly rare types of classifi-
eralogic and Textural Classification. cations not exemplified by described rocks.
10
A MINERALOGIC AN.
Modified ofterJ.F.Kemp and G.D.Louderback ·0 F I (:. I
I
.6
1 .................... #
Q)-
.... ~
FeLDSPARS
Alkali feldspars include: CHIEF FELDSPARS ALKALl FELDSPARS ALKAL
I
! ....~~iH~~g~
_ ........
oooooo
~
Q:
·-::l orthoclase, microcline,
albite,onorthoclose,per-
IN RO.CK PREDOMINATE FELDS
I -...................._..,_...
-~
~&.~.5!
'2: thite,sonidine (in vofmics. Ratio of olkoli to sodo-lime 10010 t. 67/ 33 Ifsoda-lime feldspars~- Not critical
•0 02~5l~g a: ~-- Soda-lime feldspars ·feldspars. J prisec5Sprefix'blkali"used t
i: ~
gO (pkjgioclose)ore on isanor-
•o"' phous series of minerals Soda-lime feldspars in OLIGOCLASE TO ANDESINE {WHERE ALB
:~~
:8
#atat ....
~~~~~0
aeae
- ::...
~
~
;e.!!
co
Cl>
NoAISilOs to CoAI,SizOe
normal rock
NEPHELINE
OLIG
.!.!~.!.!.!
·~ l&lf whose virtual obsehce is characteristic. +QUARTZ -QUARTZ or +Qu.
I ~ ~~~~~~ "lCI>
0~ +Signifies presence in significant amounts•.
( ... 5%} lor .. S%1 LEIJCITE (>·
l<l • 1&1 ~
.... -Signifies virtual absence. ' {-QUARTZ}
1&.1
!
I
:aq
2:
_,
q
.
/ 011
.!!
· - CD CD
.,~...._.._
.· -·-"ttC.C:
~u
a c: o - -
"'O ~-
CHARACTERIZING
ACCESSORIES
One or more characterizing accessories moy
be present. If present in significant prop-
orlions, mineral is included in rock name.
BIOTITE HORNBLENDE
Diopside (Alkali pyroxenes and
ALKALI PYROXENE
or AMPHIBOLE, MICA
amphiboles characterize"olkoli"types) Soda lite, Cancrinite
B·
' 11::
1&.1 ·-&.,""oL..
.a._b.A:J~._o
Percentages of Si02 in normal ~ypes. 77 %to65% 68%to 55% 60% to 50% 75%
2: --c:o~c
~()~...llll'<:t
i. Frequency of occurrence of granitic types and Iovas Very common Common Rare Cor
en TYPICAL MODES OF TYPICAL
QUARTi'
ur~~
OCCURRENCE TEXTURES PHONOLITE OR
RHYOLITE TRACHYTE
::: :£: e ·-
c Uniform or irregular beds, Fragmentol,coarse blocks,.or ASH, BRECCIA, TUFF, ASH, BRECCIA, TUFF, LEI!C:iTE PHONO- (DELLEN
LITE,A'SH, BRECCIA, BRE:CCi~
o..._ c.J~ deposits, or accumulations fine osh, cemented or loose, OR AGGLOMERATE OR AGGLOMERATE
E oen ·-.a TUFF, .A~qLi>MERATE ORAGGi.
en o of volcanic ejectamenta. stratified or massive.
~
'c:-cc:
en~o~
;:, .._ .Q en .
0 ~ ~ ·:; ~
.._a·-
.~ ..... ::3:;:: 0
.,_ ·"1:1 en u
-
u
z
~
Surface flows ; shallow, small
intrusives.
G~assy (vitreous or hyaline)
crystals absent or nearly so.
(Identified chemically or by
ACIDIC GLASSES
AND RARE PHONOLIT/C GLASSES
., ...
gneissosity moy be present. No plutonic leucife!l!,
~~~::._I.. enite hos been found)
~-u-....,
-e:OOQCD
C,J., ... c:.._ .- GENERAL INCREASE OF
·-.c:en.O;:,
~-;:,.:::..._
3t~~en= NOTE: Thv;Jistnbution of rocks in the horizon to/ direction is controlled in this clossifica t ion by the proportior
-
0 -.._._..._
o0>c g..._
-
0 progressivelyTiecreosing proportions of alkali feldspars and concomitantly increasing proportions ,
:::Q.o-t;
.f .c.J g "' absent from the"ultrobosic rock~,clossifie.d in the lost two columns. These minerologicol changes or-
E che"!icol composition, ~o that. from left _to 1 ~ight in the gro~it~-p_obbro series on~ i~to the u/trobosic rc
.~~-u~~
·~ Q 0 0 ... syen1tes,quorlz monzo,n1tes, and gronod10r'.t~s ore coiled oc1d 1gneous rtJ_cks; diO(Itesand chemically r
~ "ultra basic.· .Because of norma 1/y high con t~n ts of No eO and/or KeO.,.rocks containing ·the feldspothoids
-·
'•
C-LASS I FIGATION
KS Compiled by R.C. Mielenz
common Very comrrion Very common Very common Very rare Very rare Rare Uncommon
...
ACITE TEPHRITE OR
ANDESITE ASH, BASALT ASH, OLIVINE BASALT,
,BRECCIA, BRECCIA, TUFF, BRECCIA, TUFF, ASH, BRECCIA, TUFF. BASANITE ASH,
UFF, OR OR AGGLOMERATE OR AGGLOMERATE OR AGGLOMERAT~ BRECCIA, TUFF, OR
'LOMERATE AGGLOMERATE_
RTZ
'ORITE DIQRITE
DIABASE
IOLIVINE
DIABASE THERA LITE -Olivine
IJQLITE
PYROXENITE
HORNBLENDITE
PERIDOTITE
+BGsic soda-lime
(Rarely porphyritic) ESSEXITE feldspar
PORPHYRY .PORPHYRY Rarely porphyritic
IlLITE I +Olivine PICRIT.E
DRPHYRY) DOLERIT~ MISSOURITE DUNITE
GABBRO
APLITE OLIVINE
DIORITE GABBRO
4LCHITE NORITE APLITE
APLITE
APLITE
BEERBACHITE
~
GABBRO OLIVINE GABS -Olivine
+Hy{)!!rsthene or 1-Hy{)!!rsthene or THERA LiTE IJOLITE PYROXENITE PERIOOTiT£
~ DIORITE Enstatite Enstatite.
NORITE OLIVINE NOR IT E ESSEXITE +Olivine HORNBLENDITE
./ -Pyroxene
DUNITE
• Prj~XJ8f.ouTE
MISSOURITE
1 ANORTHOSITE
11
Photomicrograph of rhyolite showing marked
flow-banding. The rock is composed largely
of glass (cloudy) containing scattered minute
crystals and vesicles (white). The rock was
investigated as a source of riprap for Ochoco
Dam, Oregon. Magnification X 28.
12
Monzonite porphyry constituting the right
abutment and powerhouse foundation. Green
Mountain Dam. Colorado. The large crys-
tals (phenocrysts) are anorthoclase feld-
spal" and the smaller crystals are plagio-
clase feldspar. The groundmass is com-
posed of exceedingly minute crystals. About
natural size.
13
Photomicrograph of obsidian showing well-
formed crystals of quartz (Q). and the alkali
feldspar sanidine (S) embedded in a glassy
groundmass. The rock is deleteriously
reactive with cement alkalies when used as
a concrete aggregate. The sample was
obtained from near Georgetown. Colorado.
Magnification X 28.
14
Photomicrograph of altered rhyolite tuff
showing irregular fragments of glass em-
bedded in a Jine-grained matrix composed
largely of the clay mineral beidellite. When
pulverized and calcined at 14000 F., the
material produces a satisfactory pozzolan.
The sample was obtained near Wagon Wheel
Gap, Colorado. Magnification X 90.
15
Photomicrograph of biotite granite gneiss~
a rock of metamorphic origin similar to a
granite in composition. The rock is com-
posed of microcline feldsPar (M), quartz
(Q), and biotite (B). The well interlocked
texture contributes to high strength and
elasticity. The rock was encountered in the
excavation of Ra.mshorn Tunnel, Colorado-
Individual crystals of microcline feldspar Big Thompson Project, Colorado. Mag-
constituting whole pebbles in the 1-1/2- nification X 28.
to 3/4-inch gravel used as aggregate in
deteriorating pavements at Kimball, Ne-
braska. The feldspars reduce the durability
of concrete because of their abnormally low
coefficient of thermal expansion, and their
poor bonding characteristics. Natural size.
17
Photomicrograph of a granite. showing typ-
ical poorly interlocked texture and massive
structure. The rock is composed essentially
of quartz (Q}. plagioclase feldspar (P). and
microcline feldspar {M). The rock was
investigated as a source of riprap for Heart
Butte Dam. Missouri Basin Project. North
Dakota. Magnification X 16.
18