Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
SYSTEMS OF VEHICLES
SISTEME SENZORIALE I DE
CONTROL
ALE AUTOVEHICULELOR
Radu ȚÂRULESCU
1
Sensors definition
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) defines a sensor
(transducer) as "a device which provides a usable output in response
to a specific measurand" in year 1975. An output is defined as an
"electrical quantity," and a measurand is ''a physical quantity,
property, or condition which is measured." The conclusion was that
the output of a sensor may be any form of energy. Many early
sensors converted (by transduction) a physical measurand to
mechanical energy; for example, pneumatic energy was used for
fluid controls and mechanical energy for kinematic control.
• a sensor element;
• sensor packaging and connections;
• sensor signal processing hardware.
3
Componentele funcționale ale sistemului
Technological components in current
sunt:
sensor systems are:
• elementele sensibile ale senzorului și
• sensor element(s) and transduction materialele traductoare;
material(s); • conecxiunile dintre elementele
• interconnection between sensor sistemului (electrice și/sau mecanice);
elements (electrical and/or mechanical) • "poarta" de intrare;
•“ poarta" de ieșire;
• input "gate";
• carcasa;
• output "gate" and interconnection; • modulatorul interconexiunilor de intrare;
• package; • dispozitivul de calibrare;
• modulator of input interconnects; • dispozitivul de modulare a semnalului de
• calibration device; ieșire (amplificator);
• output signal modifying device • sistemul de procesare a semnalului la
(amplifier); ieșire.
• output signal processing system. 4
History of sensors
Men has been experimenting
with sensors of various kinds
from the third century before
Christ, when Philo of Byzantine
constructed a device capable of
demonstrating how much air is
expanded or contacted in
response to temperature
changes.
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Expansion of air by heat with Philo of Byzantine thermoscope
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Each bubble is also attached to a specific Bilele aveau atașate niste plăcuțe metalice
mass, labeled with the temperature it pe care erau inscriptionate valori ale
represents, to calibrate its density. The temperaturii . La schimbarea temperaturii,
temperature can be read by interpreting bilele de lichid se ridicau sau coboarau în
the distribution of these bubbles. The funcție de densitatea lichidului pe care îl
principle of buoyancy states that if an conțineau. Termometrul a primit numele
object is less dense than a liquid, it floats lui Galileo pentru ca acesta a descoperit
and if the object is denser than the liquid, principiul pe care se bazează acest
it sinks. When the temperature of the termometru și anume că densitatea
liquid in the glass tube begins to warm up, lichidului variază în funcție de
it expands, hence lowering the density of temperatură. Prin urmare, dacă densitatea
the liquid, as its mass now occupies a lichidului dintr-o bilă crește în comparație
larger volume. The opposite occurs when cu apa, aceasta se scufundă și dacă
the temperature cools (if density of the densitatea lichidului dintr-o bilă scade în
liquid increases). Therefore, if a bubble comparație cu apa, aceasta pluteste.
becomes denser compared with the liquid,
it sinks and if less dense, it floats.
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In 1784, an English engineer
named George Atwood had
designed the first accelerometer,
although it remained merely an
instrument for demonstrating the
truths of Newtonian physics,
until it was rediscovered in the
late twentieth century as a
gadget capable of multiple
applications, as its the auto-
rotate function on smartphone
and tablet devices depends upon
accelerometers.
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Sensors in powertrain applications
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For engine applications the listed sensors measures:
Crankshaft position;
Camshaft position;
Manifold air pressure;
Secondary air valve;
Turbo Charger functioning;
Throttle position;
Variable valve position;
HEV Electric motor;
Pedal position;
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) functioning.
Pentru aplicațiile privind motorul, senzorii enumerați anterior determină:
Poziția arborelui cotit;
Poziția arborelui cu came;
Presiunea aerului în galeria de admisie;
Presiunea aerului în sistemul secundar de admisie;
Funcționarea turbosuflantei;
Poziția clapetei de accelerație;
Poziția supapelor;
Funcționarea motorului electric HEV pentru vehiculele cu propulsie hibridă;
Poziția pedalei de accelerație;
Funcționarea sistemului de recirculare a gazelor arse (EGR).
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For transmission applications the listed sensors measure:
Clutch position;
Clutch actuator functioning;
Transmission speed;
Transmission actuator functioning;
Transmission gear position;
Oil pump functioning;
Park lock functioning;
Gear stick position.
Pozițía ambreiajului;
Funcționarea sistemului de acționare a ambreiajului;
Turația;
Funcționarea sistemului de acționare a transmisiei;
Poziția la schimbarea vitezelor;
Funcționarea pompei de ulei;
Funcționarea sistemului de blocare a transmisiei;
Poziția schimbătorului de viteze.
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Sensors in body applications
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For body applications the listed sensors measures:
Battery monitoring;
Wipers functioning;
Heating, ventilation and air conditioner (HVAC) flaps;
Heating, ventilation and air conditioner (HVAC) compressor functioning;
Gear stick control element;
Steering lock;
Power seat;
Window lifter;
Seat comfort.
Wheel speed;
Brake booster functioning;
Brake pedal position.
Viteza roții;
Funcționarea sistemului de servofrână;
Poziția pedalei de frână.
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For steering applications the listed sensors measures:
Steering torque;
Motor position;
Steering angle.
Funcționarea servodirecției;
Funcționarea motorului de antrenare a servodirecției;
Unghiul de virare.
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For seatbelt and airbag applications the listed sensors measures:
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Other applications in safety sensorial system are:
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Engine sensors
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The vehicle engine sensors
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The main sensors used in vehicles engine management are:
mass air flow sensor, manifold absolute pressure sensor,
throttle position sensor, air, oil and thermal agent temperature
sensor, vehicle speed sensor, knock sensor, exhaust gas
recirculation sensor, camshaft position sensor, crankshaft
position sensor and oxygen sensor.
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The engine sensors positioning
The throttle position sensor, located on the throttle body, reads the
angle of the throttle valve based on the position of the gas pedal and
transmits the data to the engine control computer. Throttle position is
sensed by a contact type switch, or a potentiometer.
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This sensor is a variable resistor (a resistor whose electrical
resistance value can be adjusted as per requirement by adjustable
component attached to it is called), also called a potentiometer, that
is directly linked to the throttle plate shaft. The throttle position
sensor outputs a voltage directly proportional to the throttle opening.
This sensor is also one of the main inputs to the transmission control
module. The transmission control module uses the throttle position
sensor input signal to control the transmission shift points.
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The throttle position sensor functioning scheme
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The throttle position sensor together with the mass air flow sensor
and the manifold absolute pressure sensor are the main ECM (Engine
control module) indicators of acceleration and load. In other words,
the engine control module looks at these sensors to calculate engine
operation upon acceleration. This sensor usually works with a 5 volt
reference voltage and the engine control module provided sensor
ground. The signal is output through the signal wire, where all
measurements are made.
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The mass air flow sensor
The mass air flow sensor (MAF) measures the mass or weight of
the air as it passes through the throttle body to the intake manifold. It
transmits this information to the engine control computer, which
helps control the fuel-to-air ratio.
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The mass airflow sensors use electrical current to measure the air
flow. The sensing element, which is either a platinum wire (hot wire)
or nickel foil grid (heated film). The sensing element is heated
electrically to keep it a certain number of degrees hotter than the
incoming air. In the case of hot film sensors, the grid is heated to
75oC above incoming ambient air temperature. With the hot wire
sensors, the wire is heated to 100oC. above ambient temperature. As
air flows past the sensing element, it cools the element and increases
the current needed to keep the element hot.
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The mass air flow sensor functioning scheme
Because the cooling effect varies directly with the temperature, density
and humidity of the incoming air, the amount of current needed to keep the
element hot is directly proportional to the air that entering in the engine.
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During idling, manifold pressure is low, which produces a
comparatively low output signal of the manifold absolute pressure
sensors. With wide open throttle, manifold pressure is closer to
atmospheric pressure, so output is higher.
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This sensor works like the throttle position sensor, being supplied with
a voltage of 5V from the engine control module (ECM). Inside of the
manifold absolute pressure sensor is a resistor that moves in relation to
intake manifold pressure. The resistor varies the voltage between 1V
and 4.5V (depending on engine load) and that voltage signal is returned
to the engine control module and indicates manifold pressure (vacuum).
This signal is essential for the engine control module to determine fuel
delivery and is also used some times to determine if the EGR system is
operating properly.
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The manifold absolute pressure sensor functioning scheme
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The intake air temperature sensor
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Temperature sensors have two wires (input and return). A signal with a
reference voltage of 5V is sent from the engine control module (ECM) to
the sensor. The amount of resistance in the sensor reduces the voltage
signal that then returns to the engine control module. The engine control
module then calculates air temperature based on the voltage value of the
return signal.
Senzorii de temperatură prezintă două fire, unul de intrare și altul de
retur. Un semnal cu tensiunea de referință de 5V este trimis de la modulul
de comandă al motorului (ECM) la senzor. Rezistența senzorului reduce
tensiunea semnalului, acesta fiind retransmis la modulul de comandă al
motorului. Modulul de comandă al motorului calculează apoi temperatura
aerului în funcție de valoarea tensiunii semnalului sosit.
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The coolant temperature sensor
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The coolant sensor is typically located near the thermostat housing in
the intake manifold. The sensor is positioned so the tip will be in direct
contact with the coolant. This is essential to produce a reliable signal. If
the coolant level is low, it may prevent the coolant sensor from reading
accurately.
Coolant inside the engine block absorbs heat from the cylinders when
the engine is running. The coolant sensor detects the change in
temperature and signals the engine control unit so it can tell if the engine
is cold, warming up, at normal operating temperature or overheating.
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The coolant sensor works the same as the air temperature sensor.
The coolant sensor is extremely important because the sensor's
transmitted signal affects the operating strategy of the entire engine
management system.
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The crankshaft and camshaft position sensors
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Engine control unit use the information transmitted by the crankshaft
position sensor to control parameters such as ignition timing and fuel
injection timing.
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For measuring the rotaion and determining the position of
crankshaft or camshaft at engine management systems are used
inductive and Hall effect sensors.
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The inductive sensor
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The Hall effect sensor
Unlike inductive sensors, the output signal from a Hall effect sensor is
not effected by the rate of change of the magnetic field.
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The speed sensor
The wheel speed sensors are used for anti-lock brake system (ABS)
functioning, monitoring the rotational speed of the wheel and transmiting
this data to the ABS control module. The anti-lock brake system uses the
sensor information to determine when a wheel is locked up and releases
pressure to that wheel to maintain directional stability.
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Most speed sensors are of the permanent magnet type, and function
much the same as a camshaft or crankshaft sensor.
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The knock sensor is a piezoelectric sensor and is used to send signals to the
engine control unit ECM if this action is detected, thus preventing a detonation from
happening. The knock sensor is a microphone placed in the engine to listen to any
unusual noises that the engine makes. When this happens, the sensor picks up the
noise or the vibration being made. These low vibrations are picked up by the
resonating plates inside the knock sensor. This signal is then relayed to the
piezoelectric crystalline element of the sensor. Once the element receives the shock
wave or signal, it will generate a small amount of voltage which will go to the
electronic control unit of the vehicle. As a result, the electronic control unit of the
vehicle will delay the firing of the spark in the combustion chamber, preventing it
from detonating or creating a spark knock.
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The knock sensor essentially has two uses. The first is to detect any
spark knock for an optimum engine performance and the second is to
protect the engine from power loosing.
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Sonda Lambda
Sonda Lambda (numită şi sonda sau senzorul de Oxigen) are
o importanţă deosebită relativ la reducerea emisiilor poluante de
pe automobile.
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Aplicaţiile principale ale Sondei Lambda sunt motoarele pe
benzină. Sonda se utilizează şi pe motoarele Diesel dar mult
mai puțin. Motivul este acela ca motoarele pe benzină
funcţionează în jurul amestecului stoichiometric în timp ce
motoarele Diesel funcţionează cu amestecuri sărace.
Amestecul stoichiometric
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Relativ la tipul amestecului aer-combustibil din motor
putem avea urmatoarele situaţii:
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Principalele emisii poluante ale automobilelor sunt:
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Tipul amestecului aer-combustibil, bogat sau sărac,
influenţează în mod direct nivelul emisiilor poluante.
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Nivelul emisiilor poluante ale unui automobil în funcţie de
tipul amestecului aer-combustibil
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Schema de principiu a controlului amestecului
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Principiul de funcţionare a Sondei Lambda
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Sonda Lambda se conectează pe galeria de evacuare (1) prin
intermediul carcasei cu filet (2). În interiorul tubului de protecţie (3)
se găseşte corpul ceramic din dioxid de zirconiu (4). Acesta este
învelit cu doi electrozi (5), unul în contact cu gazele de evacuare iar
cel de-al doilea cu aerul atmosferic. De reţinut că electrodul care
este în contact cu gazele de evacuare este acoperit de un material
ceramic poros care permite pătrunderea gazelor şi în acelaşi timp
protejează suprafaţa electrodului de coroziune. Carcasa de
protecţie (6) conţine orificii (8) care au rolul de a permite aerului
atmosferic să intre în contact cu electrodul. Arcul (7) asigură
contactul între conectorul (9) şi electrod.
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În funcţie de cantitatea de oxigen din evacuare Sonda Lambda
generează o tensiune care semnalează calculatorului de injecţie
dacă amestecul este sărac sau bogat.
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Ionii Oxigenului din gazele de evacuare sunt conduşi prin
intermediul Dioxidului de Zirconiu către electrodul în contact cu
aerul atmosferic. Se creează astfel o diferenţă de potenţial între
electrod şi masă (galeria de evacuare) care este citită şi
interpretată de ECU. În cazul în care amestecul este bogat
(aprox. 0.9 V) ECU va aplica corecţii, ceea ce va conduce la o
sărăcire a amestecului (aprox. 0.2 V). Rezultă că tensiunea de
ieşire a Sondei Lambda va avea un salt de la 0.9 la 0.1 V sau
de la amestec bogat la amestec sărac.
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Conexiunea electrică a unei Sonde Lambda cu un singur fir
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Transmission sensors
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The transmission fluid temperature sensor
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Thermistors like the transmission fluid temperature sensor
change the resistance as temperature changes. We know that
at resistance changes, the voltage signal changes as well. By
increasing resistance, is decreasing the voltage signal sent to
the transmission control module. This means that the sensor’s
resistance decreases as the fluid’s temperature increases.
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The transmission control module uses this input along with
other sensors input to control transmission operations. When fluid
temperature is cold, the transmission control module will delay
torque converter clutch operation until the fluid reaches a certain
temperature. If fluid temperature reaches a threshold set by the
manufacturer, the transmission control module will set a fault
code to inform the driver. A faulty transmission fluid temperature
sensor will affect the torque converter and the transmissions line
pressure.
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With the clutch depressed, the sensor is closed by a
mechanical contact placed on the clutch pedal. A signal of a
current type passed through a circuit between the ignition
key to the starter motor. When the clutch is not depressed
the sensor is open, and the circuit cannot be completed.
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The gear position sensor
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An automatic transmission uses neutral gear detection as
a safety function to disable the starter operation if the gear
selection is not in either neutral mode.
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For measuring the gear position are used Hall effect
sensors like the crankshaft and camshaft position sensor.
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Input and output speed sensors
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The input and output speed sensors information on how
fast the input and output shafts are rotating. As the teeth of
the input clutch hub pass by the sensor coil, an AC voltage
is generated and sent to the Transmission Control Module.
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Safety sensors
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Airbag crash sensors
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Crash sensors collect the data necessary to make decisions about air
bag deployment in a frontal or in a side-impact crash. Some vehicles are
equipped with a sensing system designed to detect the onset of a
rollover crash.
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Frontal crash sensors are located in the front of the vehicle near the
engine, in the passenger compartment, or sometimes in the electronic
control unit (ECU).
Side-impact crash sensors are located in the ECU, the door, the
doorsill, or between the front and rear doors.
Rollover crash sensors are located in the ECU or at the vehicle's
center of gravity.
Severe or panic braking alone cannot cause an air bag to deploy
because the air bags deploy only in crashes.
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The impact sensor is required to measure the intensity of the
collision to determine whether the impact is over a certain threshold to
justify release of an airbag.
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The inertia sensors work on the principle of detecting a decrease
in acceleration of a moving vehicle and generate an electrical impulse.
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During a collision with another moving vehicle, the sensing element
is forced forward into the contacts as a result of change in the state of
motion. Following movement of this metal ball into the contacts, this
metal mass makes contact with electrical terminals at either side of the
metal ball which alerts the central unit to a collision (i.e., the electrical
contact completes the circuit).
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The roller-type sensor involves a weight connected to a coil
spring component. During impact with an oncoming vehicle, the
metal weight is forced forward which alters the tension on the coil
spring to manipulate the electrical circuit that closes off the sensor
contact.
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Rollover crash sensors
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To detect a rollover, it is essential to combine the sensor signal
of a gyroscope with that of a low-g accelerometer. By means of
both sensor inputs, the system’s algorithm determines the angle
between the z-axis of the car and the vertical as well as the angular
rate of the vehicle in each moment. Thus, the rollover sensing
algorithm determines the exact point in time when specific airbags
or belt tensioners are being fired.
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Ultrasonic detection sensors
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Parking assist system
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Automatic parking system
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Blind spot detection system
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The ultrasonic sensor is a device
that can measure the distance to an
object by using sound waves. It
measures distance by sending out a
sound wave at a specific frequency and
listening for that sound wave to bounce
back. By recording the elapsed time
between the sound wave being
generated and the sound wave
bouncing back, it is possible to
calculate the distance between the
sonar sensor and the object.
c t
d
2
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The accuracy of the distance measurement is directly proportional
to the accuracy of the speed of sound. The speed of sound in air
varies as a function of temperature T [oC].
c 331.5 0.61 T
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Sensors placed on the vehicle
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Tire pressure sensor
The tire pressure sensor measures the tire pressure and the
transmited signal it as a radio signal to the display for the driver.
Power is typically supplied with a battery contained in the sensor
package.
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The wireless transmitter in a tire pressure sensor system is similar
to that used in an auto key fob to lock the car. That transmitter sends
data from the rotating tire to the display reader. The antenna is
located in the valve.
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Tire pressure sensor
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Steering Angle Sensor
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The steering angle sensor (SAS) measures the steering wheel
position angle and rate of turn. A scan tool can be used to obtain this
data in degrees. The steering angle sensor is located in a cluster in the
steering column. The electronic spark control (ESC) module must
receive two signals to confirm the steering wheel position. These
signals are often out of phase with each other.
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The optical steering angle sensor works with an encoder module.
A rotating encoder wheel is placed in the light spot. It has a special
coding with holes and no holes, so that each photodiode measures
“light” or “no light”, which are read as digital “high” and “low” signals.
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The End
Sfâr it
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