Life: Evolution and Extinction

One of the defining features of life is the modification of organisms through adaptation
and genetic mutation. Evolution has shaped millions of years of variation, from the
original single-cell structures to the enormous diversity of life we see today. Today we
can observe the process at work today in many species, and we can manipulate the
process in the lab.

LUCA. The spectacular expansion of life forms makes it hard to believe that all life on
Earth is related. But in fact all life seems to have originated with just one type of cell
that emerged about 3.5 billion years ago: the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA).
It is generally thought that original cell was much simpler than anything in existence
today. LUCA was preceded by rudimentary molecular arrangements that hardly met the
criteria for a cell, and it has been assumed that ancient LUCA contained just enough
moving parts to function as a cell. The discovery in all microbes of a very primitive
internal structure called an organelle (for storage of a polyphosphate) has raised the
possibility that LUCA was more complex than scientists had thought.

Charles Darwin, one of the greatest minds in the history of science, was so fearful of
the antagonism his theory of evolution was certain to provoke that he delayed
publication for more than a decade. Only when another great naturalist, Alfred Wallace,
shared his very similar findings with Darwin, did Darwin finally publish Origin of Species
in 1859. And indeed, the theory met with bitter rejection. This was a period still
governed by the notion that the Earth and all life was the work of a divine Creator, and
that the creation had taken place over six days. Even today when the evidence for
evolution is undeniable, there is still resistance among some religious groups. In the
United States, which is probably the most conservative of the world’s developed
nations, between 40-50 percent of the adult population questions evolution.

In the mid-1800s when Darwin and other scientists were trying to understand the
reasons for the physical changes that could be seen in generations of creatures and the
obvious relationship between some species, the means for doing so were very limited.
Darwin and others experimented with mutations on birds and other animals, but they
knew nothing about DNA and almost nothing about the cell. Even the methods for
collecting and analyzing fossils were very limited.
Evolutionary biology has come a long way since Darwin. It has partnered with geology
(geobiology), chemistry (biochemistry, biogeochemistry) and genetics. Such cross-
disciplinary research has increased the understanding of the interdependence of the
organic and inorganic worlds. The history of evolution is really a co-evolution of
organisms, minerals, geology and atmosphere.

Principles of Evolution. Evolution involves several important processes, all of

them dynamic:

HEREDITY : genetic makeup of the parent(s) is passed on to the offspring. At the level
of single cells, heredity can also occur horizontally: genes can be passed between
different types of bacteria. Such crossing may account for the confusing history of the
earliest cell variations. Eukaryotes share genetic material with both bacteria and
archaea, for example.

VARIATION : small differences between individuals in a species always (even clones)

that, over generations can become more significant. A genetic change in response to
environmental conditions may occur initially in isolated individuals, but eventually
spread to an entire species. Darwin noted this variation among the beaks of different
finch species in the Galapagos Islands, where the availability of particular foods on the
different islands influenced the shape of finch beaks. Significant variation can develop
rapidly, and has been observed in many species, including insects, birds and even
humans.

NATURAL SELECTION : The evolution of wings, fur, eyes, teeth and brains present
many examples of natural selection, whereby specific genetic alterations improved the
survival rate of a species.

PHYLOGENY : species classification. Evolutionary biologists distinguish the

relationships between organisms by creating phylogenetic groupings based on both
physical characteristics and on genetic information. Comparisons of fossils and extant
creatures reveal the evolutionary history of organisms. For example, vestigial structures
in modern animals, such as feet in whales and tailbones in apes, prove that modern
whales are descended from an extinct wolf-like animal and that apes descended from
monkey ancestors. A second way to reconstruct evolutionary history is by genetic
analysis. This has some advantages, but there are two problems: first, the amount and
quality of DNA preserved in fossil bones is problematic; and second, genetic analysis of
ancient DNA can be ambiguous about the relationships between organisms, especially
at the level of single cell organisms.What Is Evolution?

Biological evolution is genetic change in a population from one generation to another.

The speed and direction of change is variable with different species lines and at
different times. Continuous evolution over many generations can result in the
development of new varieties and species. Likewise, failure to evolve in response to
environmental changes can, and often does, lead to extinction.

When scientists speak of evolution as a theory they do not mean that it is a mere
speculation. It is a theory in the same sense as the propositions that the earth is round
rather than flat or that our bodies are made of atoms are theories. Most people would
consider such fundamental theories to be sufficiently tested by empirical evidence to
conclude that they are indeed facts. As a result of the massive amount of evidence for
biological evolution accumulated over the last two centuries, we can safely conclude
that evolution has occurred and continues to occur. All life forms, including humans,
evolved from earlier species, and all still living species of organisms continue to evolve
today. They are not unchanging end-products.

those who have difficulty in accepting evolution because of what they perceive as
contradictions with their fundamental religious beliefs, it may be useful to distinguish
the ultimate origin of life from its later evolution. Many, if not most, biological scientists
accept that primordial life on earth began as a result of chance natural occurrences 3.5-
4 billion years ago. However, it is not necessary to believe in that view in order to
accept that living creatures evolved by natural means after the origin of the first life.
Charles Darwin modified his religious beliefs, as did many others, as a result of the
discovery of convincing proof of evolution. Darwin's religious faith was also severely
challenged by the death of his 10 year old daughter Annie in 1851. Apparently, he
came to believe that his God created the order of the universe including the rules of
nature that result in biological evolution. His famous book, On the Origin of Species,
was not a denial of his God's existence. However, he did reject a literal interpretation
of the Judeo-Christian Bible. His religious beliefs were probably very similar to tose
who advocate "theistic evolution" today
How Do We Know That Evolution Has Occurred?

The evidence for evolution has primarily come from four sources:

1. the fossil record of change in earlier species

2. the chemical and anatomical similarities of related life forms

3. the geographic distribution of related species

4. the recorded genetic changes in living organisms over many generations

What Is Evolution?

Biological evolution is genetic change in a population from one generation to another.

The speed and direction of change is variable with different species lines and at
different times. Continuous evolution over many generations can result in the
development of new varieties and species. Likewise, failure to evolve in response to
environmental changes can, and often does, lead to extinction.

Scientists speak of evolution as a theory they do not mean that it is a mere

speculation. It is a theory in the same sense as the propositions that the earth is round
rather than flat or that our bodies are made of atoms are theories. Most people would
consider such fundamental theories to be sufficiently tested by empirical evidence to
conclude that they are indeed facts. As a result of the massive amount of evidence for
biological evolution accumulated over the last two centuries, we can safely conclude
that evolution has occurred and continues to occur. All life forms, including humans,
evolved from earlier species, and all still living species of organisms continue to evolve
today. They are not unchanging end-products.

Now understand that there are a number of different natural processes that can cause
evolution to occur. These are presented in a later tutorial of this series (Modern
Theories of Evolution).
Do We Know That Evolution Has Occurred?

The evidence for evolution has primarily come from four sources:

1. the fossil record of change in earlier species

2. the chemical and anatomical similarities of related life forms

3. the geographic distribution of related species

4. the recorded genetic changes in living organisms over many generations

The Fossil Record

Remains of animals and plants found in sedimentary click this icon to hear the
preceding term pronounced rock deposits give us an indisputable record of past
changes through vast periods time. This evidence attests to the fact that there has
been a tremendous variety of living things. Some extinct species had traits that were
transitional between major groups of organisms. Their existence confirms that species
are not fixed but can evolve into other species over time evidence also shows that
what have appeared to be gaps in the fossil record are due to incomplete data
collection. The more that we learn about the evolution of specific species lines, the
more that these so-called gaps or "missing links in the chain of evolution" are filled with
transitional fossil specimens. One of the first of these gaps to be filled was between
small bipedal dinosaurs and birds. Just two years after Darwin published On the
Although it was Darwin, above all others, who first marshaled convincing evidence for
biological evolution, earlier scholars had recognized that organisms on Earth had
changed systematically over long periods of time. For example, in 1799 an engineer
named William Smith reported that, in undisrupted layers of rock, fossils occurred in a
definite sequential order, with more modern-appearing ones closer to the top. Because
bottom layers of rock logically were laid down earlier and thus are older than top layers,
the sequence of fossils also could be given a chronology from oldest to youngest. His
findings were confirmed and extended in the 1830s by the paleontologist William
Lonsdale, who recognized that fossil remains of organisms from lower strata were more
primitive than the ones above. Today, many thousands of ancient rock deposits have
been identified that show corresponding successions of fossil organisms.
Common Structures

Inferences about common descent derived from paleontology are reinforced by

comparative anatomy. For example, the skeletons of humans, mice, and bats are
strikingly similar, despite the different ways of life of these animals and the diversity of
environments in which they flourish. The correspondence of these animals, bone by
bone, can be observed in every part of the body, including the limbs; yet a person
writes, a mouse runs, and a bat flies with structures built of bones that are different in
detail but similar in general structure and relation to each other.

Scientists call such structures homologies and have concluded that they are best
explained by common descent. Comparative anatomists investigate such homologies,
not only in bone structure but also in other parts of the body, working out relationships
from degrees of similarity. Their conclusions provide important inferences about the
details of evolutionary history, inferences that can be tested by comparisons with the
sequence of ancestral forms in the

PALEONTOLIGICAL RECORD

The mammalian ear and jaw are instances in which paleontology and
comparative anatomy combine to show common ancestry through transitional stages.
The lower jaws of mammals contain only one bone, whereas those of reptiles have
several. The other bones in the reptile jaw are homologous with bones now found in
the mammalian ear. Paleontologists have discovered intermediate forms of mammal-like
reptiles (Therapsida) with a double jaw joint--one composed of the bones that persist in
mammalian jaws, the other consisting of bones that eventually became the hammer
and anvil of the mammalian ear.

Distribution of Species

Biogeography also has contributed evidence for descent from common ancestors.
The diversity of life is stupendous. Approximately 250,000 species of living plants,
100,000 species of fungi, and one million species of animals have been described and
named, each occupying its own peculiar ecological setting or niche; and the census is
far from complete. Some species, such as human beings and our companion the dog,
can live under a wide range of environments. Others are amazingly specialized. One
species of a fungus (Laboulbenia) grows exclusively on the rear portion of the covering
wings of a single species of beetle (Aphaenops cronei) found only in some caves of
southern France. The larvae of the fly Drosophila carcinophila can develop only in
specialized grooves beneath the flaps of the third pair of oral appendages of a land crab
that is found only on certain Caribbean islands.