IJEM. VOL. 2, No. 2, 1998 .

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MALE AND FEMALE PRINCIPALS’ LEADERSHIP

QUALITIES IN SELECTED STATES OF NIGERIA

BY
DR. (Mrs.) YETUNDE IJAIYA

Abstract
The study examined the differences in the leadership qualities of male and
female principals in six selected States of Nigeria as perceived by their teachers. The
sample, selected by purposive sampling technique, consisted of 184 and 136 male and
female secondary school teachers respectively (N = 320). The instrument for data
collection was a questionnaire analysed using percentages, X2 statistic and qualitative
analysis. Out of the twelve leadership behaviours of male and female principals
investigated, significant difference was found in eight, based on the teachers' perception.
Findings showed, among others, that most of the teachers (80%) considered female
principals autocratic but firm at controlling teachers and at handling school funds.
Conversely, male principals were seen as very approachable (90%) but weak in
disciplining especially female teachers and in handling funds. Training in the theory and
practice of educational management was recommended for school principals.

Introduction
There is no doubt that gender discrimination exists in the world and has been so
since time immemorial, and women are traditionally at the receiving end. A number of
assumptions about what women should be or should not be have continued to trail and
prevent women development throughout the ages, though more pronounced in some
societies than others. Such assumptions include; that women should be seen, not
heard; that women's place is in the Kitchen etc. The consequences are that women
education and their position in the society remain stalled for a long time. While men
were being groomed for leadership roles, women were regarded as simply home-
makers.
The same scenario is witnessed in the school system. Even though most
teachers at primary and secondary schools are women, most headmasters and
principals are men. For example, out of the thirty-six secondary schools in llorin
metropolis, only fifteen are currently headed by female principals. This is even a great
improvement over the 1960s and 1970s when there were only two female principals in
llorin secondary schools. Women Vice-Chancellors or Provosts or Rectors are
conspicuous by their scarcity. With the kind of discrimination women have been
experiencing, the few of them that have been fortunate to be appointed as principals and
vice chancellors are always under intense pressure to perform as leaders, if only to
prove that they are as good as their male counterparts.
Leadership, according to Stogdill (as cited by Jiboyewa, 1990: 9) has been
conceived and defined in various ways as (a) a focus of change; (b) the act of inducing
compliance; (c) the exercise of influence; and (d) an instrument of goal achievement.
Ultimately, leadership is about behaviour. It is a situation in which an individual
influences the behaviours of others in the group to willingly contribute to the
achievement of group tasks. It is by nature a dynamic process (Cole, 1996).
As against the view which considers leadership as either authoritarian or
democratic, modern views conceptualise it from the contingency approach. This implies
that leadership does not exist in isolation but as a result of the interaction between
personal characteristics of the leader and those of the subordinates, the nature of the
task and the situation surrounding it (Schein, as cited by Jiboyewa, 1990). In other
words, leadership is a situational phenomenon, and it is on the basis stated above that the
leader's behaviour should be judged.
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IJEM. VOL. 2, No. 2, 1998 .

The ultimate objective of any leadership style, however, is goal accomplishment.

The principal as a leader is expected to ensure the attainment of educational goals and
objectives. He however, needs the co-operation of his subordinates to achieve them,
which, in some cases, does not come easily. Leader-subordinate relationship as well as
teachers' satisfaction are important for that co-operation. Bidwell (in Omoregie, 1995)
contended that teachers' satisfaction depends on how the behaviour of the administrator
conforms with teachers' expectations of how the administrator should behave.
Omoregie (1995) found significant relationship between teachers' morale and the
authoritarianism of the school heads, though other studies found no such relationship
(Manzor and Lynch, 1989).
On the issue of differences between male and female leadership behaviours,
research findings found no gender difference in motivation, attitude to work ability to
motivate team and general work performance (Cole, 1996). Eagly and Johnson (1990) as
cited by Cole (1996) reviewed about 370 studies comparing men and women
managers and drew the following conclusions; that women generally are more
democratic than men; men were more task-oriented than the females when it comes to
assessment but no difference between both sexes in ordinary work situations; and lastly,
that women, more than men, were more inter-personality oriented when it is time for
assessment.

Statement of the problem

With the age long tradition of gender discrimination against women, those
appointed to management positions like principalship cannot be said to be at the same
starting point as their male counterparts. The latter are ahead of the women as they
appear to be under pressure to prove that they are not the weaker sex. In the process,
many female principals have had to work extra hard to achieve good results but they
sometimes step on toes of their teachers to the extent that even the female teachers
consider them harsh or too strict. On the other hand, female principals at times have to
battle with teachers especially male ones who look down on them and challenge their
authority because they are women. Even male students would attempt to challenge
their authority though they dare not try that with male principals. When a female
principal attempts to deal with these challenges, she is branded all sorts of names she is
not friendly, not approachable, wicked, unsympathetic and sometimes derogatory terms
like 'Witch' or Thatcher (after the former British prime minister who is globally known as a
great achiever through shrewd governance). Male managers hardly receive such
treatment yet they have many weaknesses and some have been found wanting in their
duties.
In addition, principals, male and female, are facing increasing challenges in
schools nowadays. With low motivation, low morale and poor job satisfaction among
teachers due to irregular payment of salaries, promotion, work overload etc. Principals
have to ensure effective teaching in the face of all these problems and which may bring
them on coalition course against teachers' interest. Other challenges in school
management include; curricular innovations, population explosion, under-funding,
inadequate facilities etc. The questions are how do male and female principals fare in
meeting these challenges? How do their teachers perceive them in the various aspects of
school management? Who is doing better than the other in leadership qualities?
Specifically, the study will address the following questions:

Is there a significant difference between male and female principals in the

selected states of Nigeria in their:

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A.
(i) Confidence as a leader?
(ii) Relationship with teachers?
(iii) Discipline and control of teachers?
(iv) Discipline and control of students?
(v) Efficiency in general school administration?
(vi) Management of school funds?
(vii) Decision-making styles?
(viii) Attitude to co-curricular activities?

B. What are the shortcomings of male and female principals as perceived by their
teachers?

Method
The research design adopted in this study was a descriptive survey involving the
use of a questionnaire administered to a sample of three hundred and twenty (320)
secondary school teachers who have served under both male and female principals in
Kwara, Oyo, Ogun, Kogi, Osun and Lagos States. These comprise one hundred and
eighty four (184) male and one hundred and thirty six (136) female teachers.
The sampling procedure employed was purposive random sampling since only
those who have served under both sexes were eligible to complete the questionnaire.
The instrument used was a researcher-made questionnaire for secondary school
teachers. It consisted of fourteen (14) questions. Twelve (12) of them required the
teachers to compare the behaviours and job performance of male and female principals on
the basis of who display more of the listed behaviours. The questions centered on:
approachability, disciplining of teachers and students, efficiency in the supervision of
academic work and administration, confidence, and decision-making styles. Others
included honesty in handling school funds and attention to co-curricular activities. The
second part of the questionnaire contained unstructured questions (items 13 and 14)
which required the teachers to express their opinion on what they observed to be the
general weaknesses of the male and female principals. The questions were made
simple and direct to assist the respondents to make objective judgement.
The questionnaire was validated by experts in Educational Management. A test re-
test technique was used to determine its reliability coefficient. The computation yielded
.85 using Pearson product moment correlation statistic and was considered significant.
A chi-square (X2) test was used for the analysis of the data with a significance
level of .05 in addition to the percentage calculations used to summarise the data. The
unstructured questions were analysed by using qualitative analysis.

Data analysis
The data obtained from section one of the questionnaire were analysed using simple
percentages and chi-square (X2) test. The latter was considered adequate since the data
were nominal. The result is presented in Table 1 below:

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Table 1: Comparison of male and female principals' leadership behaviours according to

the teachers' views

S/N LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR N MALE FEMALE X2

PRINCIPALS PRINCIPALS
1. Who is more approachable? 320 288 (90.0%) 32 (10.0%) 0.31
2. Who is more firm in disciplining 320 64 (20.0%) 256 (80.0%) 0.21
teachers?
3. Who is more concerned with discipline 320 192 (60.0%) 128 (40.0%) 5.81*
of students?
4. Who is more efficient in the supervision 320 176 (55.0%) 144 (45.0%) 6.03*
of academic work?
5. Who is more organized in school 320 192 (60.0%) 128 (40.0%) 23.47*
administration especially in keeping of
school records?
6. Who shows more confidence in terms 320 232 (72.5%) 88 (27.5%) 1.51
of leadership in school?
7. Who is more democratic in decision- 230 232 (72.5%) 88 (27.5%) 10.70*
making?
8. Who is more autocratic in decision- 230 64 (20.0%) 256 (80.0%) 3.37
making?
9. W h o d e m o n s t r a t e s m o r e carefree 320 208 (65.0%) 112 (35.0%) 7.18*
attitude to school administration?
10. Who is more careful with school funds 230 104 (30.0%) 216 (70.0%) 18.39*
11. W h o t a k e s c o - c u r r i c u l a r activities 320 208 (65.0%) 112 (35.0%) 7.18*
more seriously (e.g. school clubs; sports
etc)
12. Who is better at controlling staff? 320 152 (47.5%) 168 (52.5%) 43.31*

2 2
X Significant at .05 X cv = 3.84

Discussion of the results

Out of the twelve hypotheses tested, significant differences were found to exist
between male and female teachers' opinions in eight of them about male and female
principals' leadership behaviours as shown in Table 1. On the other hand, the teachers
were unanimous in their comparison of male and female principals on four points: One,
that male principals were more approachable than female principals as the majority
(90.0%) picked male principals and only (10.0%) considered female principals
approachable. Two, most of the respondents (80.0%) however considered female
principals more capable of disciplining the teachers than the male principals. The X2 obv
0.31 and 0.21 respectively were found not to be significant for both points. Three, most
teachers (72.5%) picked male principals as showing more confidence than female
principals and no significant difference was again recorded with a X2 obv = 1.51.
Teachers were also overwhelmingly (80.0%) unanimous in their view that female
principals were more autocratic than male principals. The X2 = 3.37 again was found not to
be significant.
The respondents were however divided in their opinion on other tested principals'
leadership behaviour. Thus, significant differences were found in their views on whether

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male principals were better than their female counterparts in handling students'
discipline, (60.0% for male principals and 40.0% for female principals); supervision of
academic work (55.0% for male principals and 45% for females); efficiency in the school
administration including record keeping (60% and 40% for male and female principals
respectively). On who is more democratic in decision-making, 72.5% of the respondents
chose male principals while only 27.5% picked female principals. Teachers were also
divided in their opinion, (65% for male principals and 35% for the females) on who
demonstrates more laissez-faire attitude to school administration. On financial
prudence, teachers were again divided in favour of female principals, 70% to male
principals' 30%. Male principals were also found to be favoured for attention to co-
curricular activities like sports, clubs and societies etc., as 65% of the sampled teachers
picked them while only 35% selected female principals. Lastly, the teachers again
considered female principals better at controlling staff than their male counterparts, with
52.5% in support of the former and 47.5% for the latter.
In summary, the result in the table above indicated that the female principals'
three highest scores were on items 2, 8 and 10 that is - 'who is better at disciplining
teachers?' (80%), 'who is more careful with school funds?' (70%) respectively. Their least
marks come from items 1, 6 and 7 that is 'who is more approachable?' (10%); 'who
shows more confidence in terms of leadership in school?' (27.5%) and 'who is more
democratic in decision-making?' (27.5%). This analysis shows that teachers do not
consider female principals as relationship-oriented rather they are more task-oriented. On
the other hand, teachers see female principals as too autocratic and weak in
confidence. What is not clear however is whether the teachers are confusing firmness
with high handedness. However, firmness and honesty are recognized as important
qualities in management.
The male principals scored high where the female principals were found weaker
and vice versa. Thus, male principals were considered more approachable, more
democratic and more confident though less prudent with school funds, weak in
disciplining teachers and care-free in their attitude to school administration. In other
words, they are more committed to relationship with staff and less task-oriented than
their female counterparts.

QUESTION B: What are the shortcomings of male and female principals as perceived
by their teachers?

The second part of the questionnaire required the teachers to express their
opinion on the shortcomings of the male and female principals more freely. Their
opinion was given qualitative analysis. The result of the analysis showed that majority of
the respondents considered female principals more autocratic. The following words
were prevalent in their response on female principals' weaknesses: "bossy", "officious",
"too autocratic", '"too harsh", "rigid", "aggressive", "over-react", "too strict" etc. A few
examples of their statements give insight to the reasons for their alleged authoritarianism of
the female principals: "In most cases, the female principals are usually too autocratic
hence they cannot carry their staff along in decision making", "Too harsh on their female
counterparts in terms of absenting themselves from school whether with or without
written notes", "she is too weak and also complains too much; some even bring their
matrimonial problems to school thereby displaying aggression on innocent teachers",
"The female principals are too officious; "They want to know everything that is going on in
the school"; "she does not listen to reasons; instead it is always obey first before
complaining". The findings here seem to suggest that when female principals insist on
rules and maintaining order, teachers, male and female, feel threatened. This probably

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explains why they consider them too autocratic. But these are not deficiencies but
normal management qualities.
As for the male principals, their shortcomings as opined by the teachers include;
lack of prudence with school funds, weakness towards female teachers etc. A few of the
statements also revealed the feeling of most of the respondents; "The male principals
love enjoyment and so overspend school funds", "Male principals are reckless in
spending school money", "some have care-free attitude to their staff in terms of
discipline"; "Some male principals are weak where female teachers are in majority"; "In
most cases, the male principals lack firmness in decision-making"; "He wants to satisfy
everybody ending up satisfying nobody"; These statements support the findings above that
male principals are more relationship-oriented and less task-oriented compared with their
female counterparts.
The findings of this study appear to contradict earlier findings as reviewed by
Eagly and Johnson (cited by Cole, 1996) that female managers are generally more
democratic, participative and relationship-oriented than male managers who are
considered more autocratic and directive in style as well as more task-oriented. While no
specific leadership style can be given prescriptive status as behaviour is not static, but
situational, the finding that female principals are more autocratic may be explained from
contingency perspective. It could be that female principals are being influenced by socio-
cultural factors which consider women generally as the weaker sex. In that case, their
firmness may be their own way of asserting their authority. The possibility of overdoing it
though cannot be ruled out. Male principals do not need to prove anything since tradition
and society already accord them the authority hence their care-free attitude to school
administration.

Conclusion and suggestions

From the result of this study, it can be concluded that teachers considered
female principals too strict and unapproachable. This has implications for leader-
subordinate relationship. Although no particular leadership style is said to be bad, as
each has its own day, group effectiveness is said to be enhanced where members feel
relaxed with each other, conflict is avoided, decision reached by consensus and
leadership is shared when appropriate. The school, however, is a goal-oriented
organisation. In fact, pupil learning, the ultimate goal of the school is to a large extent
dependent on teachers' co-operation and dedication to duty. Principals need the
teachers' co-operation to succeed in their administration (Mcgregor, 1960). But
teachers' job satisfaction and level of morale are needed for that co-operation. Hence, the
female principal has to soft-pedal a bit. Respect and friendliness are among
administrative qualities that can help to induce job satisfaction (Chase, 1953). On the
other hand, in these days of poor salary and low motivation among teachers generally,
principals have had to work extra hard to keep the teachers in the classroom as many
engage in private business to augment their salaries. Teachers may therefore confuse
female principals' firmness with authoritarianism. It is therefore recommended that
teachers need to re-examine their own attitude to work with a view to correcting their
own weaknesses. They will need to modify their own expectations of female principals.
The findings of this study also suggested that some male principals are not so good
in disciplining teachers especially females and with school funds. Inter-personal
relationship can make or mar an organisation and its excessive use or non-usage can be
inimical to personnel control and goal achievement. Both male and female principals
therefore need to subject themselves to constant self-analysis and self-evaluation in
order to succeed as educational managers. It is also recommended that school

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principals need to undertake training in management before appointment and during their tenure
for effective leadership.

References
Cole, C. A. (1996). Management, Theory and Practice London: DP Publications. 5th Edition
Ch.7.
Chase, F. S. (1953). Professional Leadership and Teacher Morale" Administrators'
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Jiboyewa, D. (1990). "Educational Leadership and Socio-economic Progress in Nigeria
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igerian Education Ibadan: Vantage publishers. Ch. 2.
Manzur, P. J. & Lynch, M. D. (1989). "Differential Impact of Administrative,
Organisation, and Personality factors on Teachers Burnout". Teaching and Teacher Education, 5
(4) Oxford: Pergamon Press.
McGregor, T. (1960). The human side of enterprise. McGraw-Hill.
Omoregie, E. O. (1995). The Authoritarianism of the school head, Teachers' Age, and
Experience as Variables in Teachers' Morale, Research in Education (RIE) 1, (1)

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