NAME: ANGELA MAE S.

FRANCISCO
COURSE/YR: BSCE V
DATE: JUNE 30, 2016
SUBJECT: STRUCTURAL DESIGN 2 (TIMBER)

Issues Regarding the Use of Wood as a Structural Element.

‘Timber’ as the term used to describe the structural products of wood is used as a structural material dating back
many centuries. ‘Wood’ is often used to describe furniture and other non-structural items while in some countries timber is
also referred to as ‘lumber’.
There are two categories of timber, it is either ‘softwood’ or ‘hardwood’. Softwood is obtained from coniferous
trees while hardwood comes from broad-leaved trees. In construction, softwood is commonly used due to its availability,
easy to work with, relatively low cost and could regenerate from forest areas with its fast rate of growth that gives a
continuous supply for construction. Hardwoods are known for its aesthetic characteristics and are typically used for
exposed structures and claddings because of its color or grain pattern that is required.
The historic use of timber and structural forms in buildings:
The following are the issues regarding the use of wood
as a structural element:
(1) Energy Issues- timber is a natural and renewable
building material that has excellent ecological
attributes. It has low embodied energy and could
act as a carbon sink. Timber require less energy for
its conversion from trees into wood compared with
other structural materials such as steel and
concrete.
(2) Strength Issues- it has a very high strength-to-
weight ratio. Timber is also a lightweight material
that can be handled with relative ease and can be
sawed and cut to almost any desired shape.
(3) Commercial Considerations- Softwood timber has a
low density which means it can offer lightweight
structural solutions compared to other structural
materials. The foundation loads are reduced and
since it is lighter, the prefabricated elements are
easier to transport and assemble.
(4) Prefabrication- The strength of timber depends on
the way the tree grows and comes from the natural
properties of the wood. In the modern construction
of buildings, most of the elements used are
prefabricated off site. As a result, the requirement
for site labor are less and the program time for
work on site are reduced compared with the
construction with no prefabrication of its elements.
Prefabrication in a factory enables the construction
to have the opportunity for quality control and the
avoidance of vagaries of the weather and site
conditions.
The strength of sawn timber is a function of
species, density, size and form of member, moisture

content and duration of applied loading, together with

strength-reducing characteristics such as slope of
grain, knots, fissures and wane. Strength grading
methods have been devised to classify timber using
either visual strength grading or machine strength
grading methods.
(5) Size of timber- Softwood timber sections tend to be
produced in a range of standard sizes and lengths called ‘customary sizes’. For products that require thicknesses
above 75mm, the use of multiple sections or engineered wood products (EWPs) are often used, as the appropriate
installation moisture content of timber sections above 75mm thickness is difficult to achieve.
(6) Moisture content of timber- Water in a tree immediately after felling lies within the walls and voids of the cells. When
the timber dries, water is then lost from within the cell voids and there is no dimensional change as the moisture
content reduces (m/c is the weight of water to oven dried timber) until the ‘fiber saturation point’ (approximately 25%
m/c) is reached when water begins to be lost from the cell walls. Dimensional change, otherwise known as shrinkage,
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 then commences. Likewise when timber attracts moisture it will swell until fiber saturation is reached. The moisture
content of timber can affect the strength and stiffness properties and generally, timber strength increases with
decreasing moisture content values.
(7) Creep of timber- creep is an important characteristic of timber which affects its serviceability performance. When load
is applied to timber, it deforms elastically at first but over a period of time, additional deformation occurs. Moisture is
directly proportional to the degree of creep deformation as well as with the loading applied for longer durations.
(8) Durability of timber- the degrees of natural durability of timber materials vary depending on the species. In timber, the
decay occurs when its moisture content exceeds 22% for a prolonged period of time. Timber is treated with
preservatives to prevent its decay or from any insect attack. These preservatives are often used as a second line
‘insurance’ against design or construction failures that could lead to moisture contents above 22%.
The following are the hazards that should be avoided to prevent wood buildings from deteriorating:
a) Exposure to sunlight
b) Exposure to moisture and heat cycles
c) Change in moisture content
d) Attack by insects and decay fungi
However, the principal effects that greatly affects the durability of timber are the following:
i. Surface erosion (photodegradation)
ii. Checking, splitting, and warping
iii. Shrinkage and swelling
iv. Disintegration and decay
(9) Resistance of timber to fire- wood is a combustible material that ignites when flame starts to spread rapidly across its
surface. However, carbon build-up on the surface limits the oxygen supply to the underlying wood and acts as an
insulator, so the wood below the charred level is relatively cool and retains its structural integrity. Timber’s ignitability
and surface spread of flame of its exposed surfaces can be reduced by surface coating or impregnating chemical
treatments. Alternatively, fire-resistant linings such as plasterboard, can be used to protect the timber.

Availability of wood in the Philippines

Structural timber or wood are divided into two general classes of
commercial varieties, softwood and hardwood. These classes of wood
are not entirely logical. Softwood is applied to wood from any one of the
numerous cone-bearing trees (i.e. pines, spruces, hemlock, fir, tamarack,
cedar, cypress, redwood, etc.). Almost all of the cone-bearing trees are
“evergreens”. The term hardwood is applied to wood from the “broad-
leaved” trees (i.e. hickory, poplar, maple, walnut, chestnut, beech,
catalpa, eucalyptus, mahogany, etc.)
Softwoods are often used in general structural purposes than
hardwoods. The principal uses of hardwoods are more on interior
finishing, furniture and cabinet works.
In sawing boards from a log of wood, the following terms are
used:
 “Plain-sawed” (hardwood), “flat-grain” or “slash-grain” (softwood)
- boards that are sawed tangent to the annual rings and lumber 50-ft. woods.
 “Quarter sawed” (hardwood), “edge-grain” or “vertical-grain” (softwood) - boards sawed parallel to the radius of
the log or to the “rays” in the wood.
Woods available in the Philippines
1) PHILIPPINE ROSEWOOD
Scientific Name: Petersianthus Quadrialatus
Weight: About 650 kg/m3
Color: Very Dark With Lighter Flames Naturally Occurring
Description: Philippine Rosewood is a very beautiful dark and flame wood. It has for many years been used for
local boat making due to its strength and durability. We have introduced this species for interiors and flooring.

2) TEAK
Weight: About 600kgs.
Color: Brown
Scientific Name: Tectona Grandis
Description: Teak is one of the world's best timbers. Its usage is multiple, but mainly furniture, decking, and
various kitchen accessories. Especially well-suited for outdoor use.

3) PHILIPPINE MAHOGANY
Scientific Name: Shorea Negrosensis
Weight: About 500kgs/m3
Description: Also known as Lauan, the Philippine Mahogany is considered the very best in Asia. - The types
growing in LUZON are generally harder and darker, while MINDANAO origin is a lighter and milder type.

4) YAKAL
Scientific Name: Shorea Laevis
Weight: About 700 kg/m3
Color: Yellow to Golden Red
Description: Yakal is a hard and golden Mahogany type which is used for frequently used products and surfaces.
Ideal for outdoor use also.

5) ALMON - Red Mahogany

Color: Uniform Light Red
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 Weight: 450-500kgs/m3
Scientific Name: Shorea Almon
Description: Almon grows in the southern island of Mindanao. It is uniform in colour and weight, and is mild and
easy to work.

6) BAGRAS - Southern Mahogany

Weight: 400-600kgs At 15%
Color: Reddish / Brown
Scientific Name: Eucalyptus Deglupta
Description: Also known as Mindanao Gum or Rainbow Eucalyptus. Both natural and planation growth. - Furniture
and cabinet making.

7) BAGTICAN - WHITE LAUAN

Color: Pale To Light Red
Scientific Name: Shorea and Parashorea
Weight: Aboutt 400-600kgs/m3
Description: Light red or white Lauan and Bagtikan species are widespread in the Philippines, but vary in weight
from north to south. - Often used for joinery.

8) IGEM
Weight: 450-600kgs
Scientific Name: Podocarpus Imbricatus
Color: Light Yellow to White
Description: Igem is mainly used as a Ramin replacement for moldings and frames.

9) MAHOGANY - (Plantation)
Scientific Name: Swietenica macrophylla
Color: Redbrownish with Orange Tone
Weight: Abt 500kgs/m3 at 12% M.C.
Description: Swietenia Mahogany has been planted in the Philippines since the 70ies. Originating in Brazil, where
it is now an endangered species, this plantation species can now be acquired on sustainable basis. It may contain
some small firm knots, but is available in good quality for furniture purposes.

10) ACACIA (road side)

Color: Dark Brown, With Very Distingt Sap Wood (yellow)
Weight: About. 4-500kgs/m3
Scientific Name: Acacia Auriculaeformi, Racosperma Aurculiforme
Description: The Acasia grows wild everywhere in the Philippines, and is often used for local handicrafts, and
especially suited for turning into bowls and plates.

11) ACACIA MANGIUM

Weight: 545kgs At 12%
Color: Pale Brown with Very Light Sapwood
Scientific Name: Acacia Mangium Willd. Leguminosae (mimosoideae)
Description: The sapwood of mangium is narrow and pale yellow to light brown, while the heartwood is olive
brown to gray brown, with darker streaks. It is hard, with a medium texture, strong and durable (not in contact with
the ground). The grain shows an interlocked figure radially, but looks straight on the flat sawn surface

12) NARRA
Scientific Name: Pterocarpus Indicus
Weight: About 600 Kgs/m3
Color: Deep Orange Golden to Darker Red Tones
Description: Narra is considered the most valuable wood in the Philippines, and is therefore very restricted.
Special permits are required for export of finished products. - Most often used for furniture, flooring, and panels.

13) PILI
Scientific Name: Canarium Luzonicum
Weight: Aboutt 500kgs/m3
Color: Whitish, Light Brown
Description: Fruit tree with a nut fruit, also sometimes called olive. Found mainly in the Philippines. Common in
primary forests and low and medium altitudes. Common names: Antang, kedondong, piling-liitan, belis, malapili

14) COCONUT WOOD

Scientific Name: Cocos Nucifera
Color: Brown
Weight: About 600kgs/m3
Description: Coconut is very widespread all over the Philippines, and it used extensively in the local construction
industry. - It is a very hard wood which is excellent for turning into small bowls, jewelry accessories, but also used
for cutting boards, flooring and much more

15) GMELINA (White Teak)

Weight: Aboutt. 400 kg At 12% M.c.
Color: Pale, Light Color
Scientific Name: Gmelina Aborea
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 Description: One of the most used plantation species in the Philippines. Widely used for finger jointed and edge
glued materials for shelves, furniture parts, and moldings

16) OAK
Scientific Name: Quercus Rob.
Weight: About 600kgs/m3
Color: Pale/light
Description: Our Oak primarily comes from Northern Europe and is lighter in colour, and more dense than its
North American equivalent. Lead time for production in Oak will most often be about 6 months, until produciton is
stable, after which 3 months production time is normal.

17) BEECH WOOD

Color: Pale White.
Scientific Name: Fagus Grandifolia
Description: Mostly closed, straight grain; fine, uniform texture. Our Beech comes from Northern and Central
Europe.

18) CHERRY
Color: Golden Light Brown
Scientific Name: Prunus, Serotina
Description: North American Cherry is one of America’s favorite cabinet and furniture woods, prized for its rich
reddish color and fine graining.

19) MAPLE
Color: Creamy White to Light Reddish Brown
Scientific Name: Acer Saccharum
Description: American white Maple is widely used for furniture, and is often used for very pale products with a soft
sanded surface.

20) SANTOL
Scientific Name: Sandoricum Koetjape
Weight: About 500 kg/m3
Color: Light Brown
Description: heartwood is pale reddish-brown when dry, imparting the color to water. It is fairly hard, moderately
heavy, and close-grained and polishes well. It is plentiful, easy to saw and work, and accordingly popular. If
carefully seasoned, it can be employed for house-posts, interior construction, light-framing, barrels, cabinetwork,
boats, carts, sandals, butcher's blocks, household utensils and carvings. When burned, the wood emits an
aromatic scent.

21) MOUNTAIN PINE

Scientific Name: Pinus
Color: Light Reddish
Weight: About 350-400kgs/m3
Description: Pine is grown above 1000 meters in the Philippines. - It is relatively fast grown, but we are able to
offer most of our products free of knots.

Policies Regarding the Use of Lumber in Construction

DENR regulations are evolving over time. Also, sometimes temporary and transition measures are introduced. An
important example is that immediately after the typhoon and loss of life disaster in Aurora and Quezon in Luzon at the
beginning of 2005, the President cancelled all timber licenses in these provinces and suspended timber license operations
in all other provinces in the Philippines. Currently, whenever anyone wants to transport timber from naturally growing trees
that are cut in the natural forest (including timber license areas), it is necessary to seek clearance from the Secretary. A
number of requests have been received in Manila to transport timber on the grounds that the timber was cut prior to the
suspension. It is necessary but difficult to check that the claimed time of cutting is valid.
Should researchers in the ACIAR Tree Farm Project wish to transport timber, and the volume is over 10 m3, then
provided the source is plantation forestry this should present no problems. In the case of timber from natural forest
(probably not relevant to the ACIAR project), the situation is less clear. It is to be noted that a CENRO in Southern Leyte
was relieved from duty, for approving the transport of 8 m3 of timber from natural forest, although this approval was
granted in November 2004, prior to the typhoon disaster in Aurora and Quezon and within his level of authority.
DENR policy is to remove impediments to timber production, harvest and transport, and it is envisaged that in the future
further simplifications to the approval processes will take place. At the same time, stringent controls will need to be
retained over the felling of trees from natural forests, as implemented through harvest and transport regulations on
premium hardwoods and benguet pine.
One future scenario is that the tree planter can automatically harvest his tree plantation, provided it is registered,
and then transport logs without even going to the DENR office. The tree planter would hire the services of a registered
forester (perhaps one from the College of Forestry of Leyte State University), or even a forester in government (provided
they are not connected with the forest management services in the region), who would be able to certify the timber as to
the source, volume and all the information contained in the certificate form.
The DENR is required to manage the complex task of encouraging timber plantation development and protecting
the remaining natural forests. A comprehensive but clear set of regulations applies to tree registration and timber harvest
and transport in the Philippines, the legal basis of which is summarized in Table 1. From the ‘smallholders’ viewpoint,
some costs can occur where unfunded DENR inspection is undertaken, and a small registration fee is charged, and time
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and travel cost may be required upon visiting the CENRO office. The tree registration process is flexible in terms of timing
– possible at plantation establishment through to harvest time – and provides harvest security. A large number of farmers
have registered their plantations, some with areas as small as less than one hectare.
Legal basis for tree registration, harvest and transport regulation are the following:
A) MNR Administrative Order #4, s.’ 87
B) DENR Administrative Order #86, s.’88
C) DAO #26, s.’90
D) DENR Administrative Order #79, s.’90
E) DMC #97-09 & DMC #97-23
F) DENR Memorandum Order #99-20
G) DAO #2004-04
H) Memo dated 5 November 2004

Technologies and Advancements on the Use of Alternatives for Wood

Cutting-edge technology maximizes the resource efficiency in modern wood product mills, reducing waste and
providing stronger, more durable products for the consumer. With the use of modern saw mills, it can produce more than
twice the amount of usable lumber and other products per log are manufactured more than they could a century ago.
In the last 50 years, technological advances have increased the industrial output per unit of wood input 40%.
Modern mill technology greatly affects the efficiency of the entire production process, as computers operate to maximize
resources. Recycling technology innovations also reduce mill waste.
Modern technology assures more consistent quality of the product. Better products for construction professionals
will be manufactured easily and will meet the grade or quality they desire. As technology continues to advance, wood
manufacturing process will only become more efficient, providing a better use of earth’s resources and a dependable
product for the consumer.
The trend of wood preservation also advances as technology grows. Creating solutions that will preserve the
service of wood longer and preventing it from damages.

References:
1. Moore, H., Moore, M. 1975, Textbook of the Materials of Engineering 8th Edition, Mc-Graw Hill Book Company,
Inc.
2. Structural Timber Association, Timber as a Structural Material – An Introduction
3. http://www.idewood.com/index.php?pid=8
4. Calub. F., DENR Rules and Regulations Governing Timber and Timber Products Planted on Private Land, 2005
5. APA-The Engineered Wood Association, Wood: Sustainable Building Solutions, September 2005

Prepared by:

ANGELA MAE S. FRANCISCO

BSCE V

Submitted to:

ENGR. MARK ANTHONY G. MANUGUID

INSTRUCTOR