POLS 254 AFTER MIDTERM

* Global Comparisons
* The Legislatures Around the World
- Initiation of the legislative process.
 rule (law) making / setting
 bills  sponsored by members of legislature (MP sor deputies) or sponsored
by the governments.
* Deliberative Process
1) debates discussion (committees / subcommittees)
2) ground flor (general flor)  Genel Kurul
3) Finalization  vote on the bill  the bill has to secure the required majority
vote in the legislature.
* Promulgation (resmen yürürlüğe koyma) and Entry into Force :
- veto  rejection by President ; re-vote in the legislature ; mostly qualified
majorities in legislature is required over come or override the veto.
- reconsideration (yeniden tetkit etmek)  Presidents may ask for the
reconsideration of a bill  the legislature has the final say. (bütün oylama
yasamada olur).
- Executive actors  elected Presidents
- Judicial actors  constitutional courts or supreme courts with their authority
or constitutional review.
* Unicameral Legislatures
- only a single chamber or house in the legislature.
- all the members of the legislature (MPs / deputies) are elected through the
some procedure  sit together, discuss and vote together  a single legislative
will or decision is reached at.
* TGNA  550 deputions /MPs  all elected in general elections.
- sit, discuss and vote on bills together in the general flor.
- a single will or decision emerging from the TGNA.
* Bicameralism Legislatures
- 2 houses or chambers in the legislature
- There is no overlopping membership. Members of the 2 chambers are
separately elected sit in 2 separate rooms, discuss, debate and vote on a bill
separately.
- The will or decision of both chambers have to be reconciled or married into a
single legislative will.

Bicameral House of Representatives.

USA Congress Federal L < Senate (100 members) > 430

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Unicameral Legislature
- Quicker legislative process (bills Conparative
do not need to more back and forth Advantages
btw the 2 chambers) Not ; 2 ye göre Upsides
daha hızlı.
- A single party or majority group is Comparative
more likely to dominate over the L Disadvantages or move back and forth btw 2 chambers)
process by holding the majority of Downsides.
L seats  A single party or group
with majority of L seats  can
control the L process
- weaker checks and balances
- concentration / centralization of L
power.
Bicameralism Legislatures
- Plurality of opinion / view point is
or more likely to be represented with 2
chambers.
- the search for utmost (en büyük)
consensus with the 2 chambers
checking and balancing each other.
- it is not possible for any party or
group to control the L process only by
controlling / chamber  likely to
prevent the domination over the L
process by a single party majority
group  lesser concentration of L
power in a single party or majority.
- more complicated L process (bills
 how the balance of power btw the
2 chambers is structures  more or
less prolonged L process weaker or
stronger check and balances.

* Legislatures Around the World

- Bicameral Legislature (2 houses or chambers)
-- Upper Chamber  1’) may be constituted in different ways may be
appointed or elected. Even mixtures of appointed and elected menbers directly
popular elections or indirect election.
-- Lower Chamber  1) directly popularly. 2) have at least equal authorities
when compered with upper chambers  Practically lower chambers hold larger
authorities than upper chambers.
Not : üst kamaraların yetkileri daha azdır, çünkü atanmışlardır.
2’) At least their authorities are equal to authorities of lower hambers.  In
practical terms, upper chambers hold more limited outhorities than lower
chambers.
Ex: Russian Fed.  Duma ; Lower Chamber  directly popularly elected.
Federation Council  members are chosen from
Legislatives and Executives of the parts of the Federal whole.
Ex: The UK  House of Commons (Lower)  directly popularly elections.
House of Lord (Upper)  appointed members  representing the Churc
and Hereditary members  appointments based on career, success.
Ex: US Congress  House of Representatives (Lower)  directly popularly
elected.
Senate (Upper)  directly.

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Ex: France  National Assembly (Lower)  direct popularly elections.
Senate (Upper)  an electoral College is formed to choose Senate
members  indirect.
* All Federal States have bicameral L at the center.
* Federal L  Bicameral
- In all Fed. States 1 chamber of the L needs to be reserved exclusively for the
representation of parts of the Fed. whole.
- In other word, US Senate  exclusive representation of the 50 states that make
up US Fed. 50 X 2.
Ex: In Germany  Bundestag (Lower Chamber)  directly popularly elected.
Bundesrat (Upper)  16 states (lander) which make up the German Fed.
are exclusive represented.
Ex: In The Russian  Duma  Federation Council over 80 subjects / parts
which together make up the Russian Fed. are exclusively represented.
* Being represented exclusively in 1 chamber of the Federal L states / parts of
the federal whole can guard their own authorities.
- States / parts of the Federal whole are influential over the Federal L process.
- In other word, to reclaim the authorities of the states / parts of the Fed. whole
 the fed. constitution needs to be amended (düzeltilmiş)  for this
amendment (değişiklik), qualified majorities in both chambers of the L are
essential  exclusively constituting 1 chamber of fed. L, states can guard and
protect their own authorities.
* Federalism  Bicameralism  urges (ileri sürmek, ısrar etmek) leads to
dictates (safeguard to states of federation)
- Finally, Bicameral L may be preferred not only by fed. states but also by
unitary states as well as autonomy systems.

* The Legislatures Around the World.

1) Symmmetrical Bicameralism. (US Congress closet approximation to s.b.)
- Legislatures with 2 chambers / houses with both having identical / symmetrical
authorities. Meaning that ; none of the houses / chambers dominates over the
others.
- only when majorities in the 2 houses / chambers agree can a law be enacted
(kanun tarafından ön görülmüş).
- Upper and lower houses have almost equal influence over the L process.
2) Asymmetrical Bicameralism (House of Commons has the UK the final say).
- The 2 houses / chambers in the L have different authorities with 1 chamber
having the final say dominating over the other.
- Systems that claim to be democracies  lower chambers have a dominant
position in the L process.
- Efforts at reconciling the 2 chambers  in case of failure  the lower house
holds the right to a final vote and say.

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3) Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Relations (Germany)  btw. upper and lower
chambers may exist side-by-side. On certain issues  lower chambers hold the
final say. On the other issues  the 2 chambers are urged to agreed.
* Symmetrical Bicameralism
- The House of Representatives (Lower)  elected on basis of districts.
-- Every bill has to be discussed and voted on in both chambers.
-- Each chamber may make changes on a bill (Version of a bill).
- The Senate (Upper)  appointed  federal nature of the state 50 states X2
- Conciliatory phase intends to produce “Version common” (uzlaşma
komisyonu)  Burada Lower house ve Seneta da tartışılan ve uzerinde
uzlaşılamayan, yasa tasarıları tartışılır ve ortak bir tasarıyı kabul edip tekrar geri
her iki birimede gönderilir. Bu yeni tasarıyıda başkan veto edebilir. Ama
genellikle veto etmezler. Çünkü bütün bu süreç boyunca etkili birimlerle sürekli
müzakere ederler. Kendilerine de uygun bir kararın oluşmasını mümkün
olduğunca sağlamaya çalışırlar.
- Only when the seneta and the house agree on a common version can the L
process be successfully concluded.
* UK – The House of Commons Has the Final Say.
- Asymmetrical Bicameralism
- House of Commons (Lower)  directly popularly elected.
-- A bill that obtains majority support in the commons is forwarded to Lords.
When the Lords object to the bill, there is no immediate law making.
- House of Lords (Upper)  appointed.
-- Suspensive Veto ; delaying nature. The law making process is not over. It is
only delayed or postponed. The new legislative year is waited for the commons
hold a final vote in the following L year. A maximum of a year’s delayed the
commons may enact a law in spite of the Lords’ rejection with the Lords’
suspensive veto, opponents of a bill one now measured the time in which they
can stimulate greater public discussion and scruting (incelemek) of the bill.
Ex : Acts of 1911 – the authority of the Lords to reject legislation was remowed.
1949 – the power to delay was subject to an Upper limit.
Suspensive veto until the next legislative years.
Ex: In the Germany case : Bicameral Federal L
- Bundestag (Lower) and - Bundestrat (Upper)
-- mixture of symmetrical and asymmetrical relations btw. 2 chambers.
-- Basic Law  authorities that are to be jointly used by the federal states and
“Lönder (16 states)” are concerned. The chambers shall both consent to a bill.
When states administer federal law  Bundestag = Bundestrat. On every other
matter  bundestag has the final say ASYM.
- In many countries where asymmetrical relations dominate with the lower
chamber holding the final say, the issue of constitutional amendments
necessitates symmetrical relations.

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* 3 Different Models in Structuring Relations btw. L and E Institutions :
1) Parliamentarism
2) Presidentialism
3) Semi-presidentialism
* PARLIAMENTARISM  chief /main E figure  Prime Minister and
Cabinent = council of ministers  heart of E decision-making
 Heads of state : Presidential offices or royal families may exist to represent.
 Vote of confidence in the L  appoints the PM and cabinent.
- L  directly / popularly elected
- E  is derivered from ranks of L.

* PRESIDENTIALISM  president  directly popularly elected  3

critically elections = a) Presidential elections, b) E, Separate elections for L, c) a
single critical election to fill both L and E offices.
- General Elections  legislative elections fill  L seats and E seats (vote of
confidency)
- 2 critical and separate elections to constitute both L and E  L election,
Presidential election.
 strengthens the dependency btw the L and the E.  the L stays in power only
as long as it can appoint the government.
 E stays in Office for so long as there is continiving confidence of the L in the
E (L E or EL).
* In Presidentialism  weakening of dependency btw. the L and E. (L = directly
popularly elected / E = directly popularly elected.

* Synchronic (eş zamanlı) Elections For L and E

- President and L have their constitutionally – specified tenure neither of the 2
can remove or dismiss (bertaraf etmek) the other.
- Presidentialism  may have to depart from the Office before the end of their
constitutional tenure.
1) death ; loss of life.
2) resignation. (istifa)
3) deterrioration of health (and resulting incapacitation).
4) impeachment (azil) may result in departure of the president.
 impeacment  requires criminal conduct on the part of the president 
allegation / indictment (iddia name)
 the constitution has a provision on what qualifies as a crime : breason,
bribery, followed by more vague.
- references : grave crime, high crime, misdemeanor. (cürüm).
 Judiciary’s role there is also Legislative role  initiate (başlatmak) and
conclude the impeachment (itham, suçlama) process.
(Not: amaç meşrutiyeti sağlamak, bu davayı yasama başlatıyor ve yine yasama
sonlandırıyor. ( L  J  L ).

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 Role for the Judiary  1) legal debate involving the potential for criminal
conduct. 2) Judiary’s involvement tries to ensure that the process is not
politically motivated.
 Legislative role  to impeach (itiraz etmek) a directly popularly elected
president the consent of directly popularly (Legitimacy fort he process) elected
L is sought.
Ex : USA

Ex : Russia

* Regional Politic System

1) Parliamentarism  Dominant European form of modelling L and E relations.
2) Presidentialism  Latin America.

Parliamentarism Presidentialism
Chief E  PM and Cabinet  President
Constitution  appointment from the  directly popularly elected president
Ranks of L through confidence vote.
Extent of dependency btw L and E   weakened.
strengthened.
Tenure for L and E  changing.  fixed tenure for president and L.
Geographical patterns  European.  Latin America
Prospects for political stability  …..
Statistical information  interruptions
in competitive polities is more
frequently encountered in presidential
system.
Not : Asia, Africa and Former Communist countries use both regimes.

 never undermine / underestimate the geographical bias involved.

- Parliamentary sys  overwhelming (baskın) drawn from the European cases.

* Parliamentary Sys.  high levels of political stability as well as instability –

not immune to political instability.
- Presidentialism  not immune to political instabilities.
* 2 Risks Associated with Parliamentarism.
1) Weak government  continuous or frequent turno ver of governments.
E or governmental instability L Continuously denying confidence in

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- CECs and Baltic Republics government.
- 3rd and 4th French Republic (L diminance over E)
* weak party discipline  fragile or no majorities fort he governing party or
coalitions.
2) The blurring (bulanık) of the divide btw the L and E  the line separating L
authorities from E authorities becoms less apparent  A party or coalition holds
the substantial majority of L seats + strict party discipline.
- E dominance over L  the party or coalition with the majority of L seats acts
as a single block in the L to extend support to the government.
-- “Fusion of Powers” (güçler birliği)  L – E powers are jointly used by the
same political actors.
 E steps into the L territory and shapes L autcomes.
* The UK  traditionally regarded as a fusion of powers system  the leading
party in the elections obtained comfortable majorities.
* The UK  - parties observe strict discipline
- labor or conservative governments could control the processor in
the L.
* Alternative to the risks in Continental EU  coalition governments ;
-- cannot cause E dominance over L due to multiple partners.
-- cannot lead to L dominance over E as assembling governments is too difficult
to continuously break them.
-- Like Parliamentarism, Presidentialism does not provide a magical Formula for
attaining political stability.

* 2 Risk Associated with Presidentialism.

1) Monopolization / centralization of power in Presidency.
 the president’s party or allies hold the majority in the L. + party / allies act in
strict party discipline.
* Presidentialism  “separation of power”  does not always hold
-- L : separately and directly popularly elected.
-- E : separately and directly popularly elected  both have separate tenure 2
separate elections.
* Institutional Infrastructure required for separation of powers.
- Presidentialism / E dominance over the L is possible in presidentialism 
Works against separation of powers.
2) Deadlock (kilitlenme) in L – E relation :
-- L continuously blocks presidential initiatives (sebep olan).
-- President is not willing to quickly implement (uygulamak) L decisions 
competing or split majorites in L and E.
 2 rival parties control presidency or L majority.
-- President with no established political party support.
-- Weakened E / presidents with no L support.

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* Presidentialism
- US  indisciplined or weakly disciplined political parties  way out of
deadlock or monopolization.
-- Members of Congress are free to act in line with their own preferences in
congressional votes. Congressmen and Congresswomen are requested (istenen)
by their parties to vote in the way that will keep their constituencies / voters.
 Content : No party decision,
-- interests and demands of voters  key to how members of congress act.
* Not all members of the party act in the same manner.!
- President = Party “A” - President = Party “A”
- L Majority = Party “A” - L Majority = Party “B”
(no risk of monopolization) (no risk of deadlock in L, E relations)
-- in two case  BARGAINING in either case to solve problem.

* Strict Party Discipline  not a desirable component of president (kilitlenme

ve monopol olma durumu var)
* 3rd and Final Variant of L – E Relations ;
- Semi – Presidentialism  Dual executive = President (directly popularly
elected) and Prime Minister (appointment confidence vote in the L) wit share ;
-- share E authorities
-- equally legitimate claimants (talep sahibi) to E authority.
-- both are mandated by the popular
-- both have a popular mandate.
* Stricter definition of Semi-presidentialism :
1) the presence (varlık) of 2 main E actors with a directly popularly elected
President coexisting (bir arada var olmak) with a PM appointed by L confidence
2) none of the 2 E actors permanently, continuously dominates over the other.
* Shifting patterns of dominance with the President becoming more influential
than the PM. at times and PM. acquiring (elde etme) dominance at other times.

* President has greater libert in the E. * President is more confined in use of

- President  Party “A” E authorities
- PM  Party “A” - President  Party “A”
- L major  Party “A” - PM  Party “B”
(Presidents are more influention) - L major  Party “B”
- PM surfacing as the influential part
of the E.
- Presidents room is confined
(sınılanmış)

* When Presidents and PM. fail to agree  they apper before the L referee
(hakem).
- President and PM came from 2 rival parties COHABITATION.

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- Period of cohabitation enlarge the influence of the PM.
- At other times, when the same party holds all offices, Presidents are more
influential.
- Periods of co-habitation  major test for a Semi-Presidential sys  when the
2 E actors fail to agree ;
-- Referee 1) L (whoever the L majority sides with dominates).
-- Referee 2) referendum
- L vote + referendum  to break the deadlock in relations btw the 2 E actors.
- Consensual (in agreement)  use of authorties.
Ex : France / President  call for elections / call for referendums  declare
emergency powers  all these authorities are to be used consensually  PM,
President and Presidents of 2 L chambers  are invited by the constitutional to
agree.
 Presidents preside over / Chair Council of ministers.

* Election Systems Around the World :

- aim to convert translate votes into seats (L,E)
- 3 main types of election systems :
I) Majoritarian systems (SMDP)
II) PR (Proportional Represantation)
III) Mixed / combined system.

I) Majoritarian System 
a) winner takes all the leading party or candidate wins  single and clear-cut
winner.
b) reward the leading party or candidate
c) magnify the share of the winner award seats that exceeds beyond the
requirement of proportionality.
d) Also intends to choose a government tries to enhance (geliştirmek)
governability fabricates a governing majority even when there is none.
II) PR 
a) Multiple winner systems
b) every party is entitled (hak kazanmak) to seats in proportion to its share of the
total vote  many winners ; each winning a proportion to their share of the total
vote.
c) No concern with governability for a governing majority.
-- Representativeness / Inclusiveness / Proportionality  main aims.
III) Mixed / combined system 
- Combines majority and PR.
- some of the seats are filled by PR and the remaining by majority.

* SMDP (Single Member Districts Plurality)  for each electoral district  1

representative.

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* MP (Plurality / Simple Majority)
- the front – runner wins
- whoever obtains the highest vote wins
- simply performing better than everyone else
* Absolute Majority * Qualified Majority
- more than half / above 50 % - exceeds absolute majority (2/3, 3/5)
* SMDP
- UK  659 electoral districts (seçim bölgesi) (Bu seçim çevresinde 659 tane eş
zamanlı yarış var ve her bir bölgeden 1 kişi seçilecek)

* waste of vote in converting votes into seats (SMDP)

* TRS / Double – Ballot (iki turlu seçim)
- 2nd mostly used majoritarian %50 den fazla oy alması lazım
- SMD  absolute majority winner.
District size Majority sought Who competes ?
SMDP Single member Simple Candidates
TRS Single member Absolute Candidates
PBV Multi member Simple Candidates
* PBV (Party Block Vote)  voters has to choose btw party lists.
* TRS (Duble Ballot)
* Majoritarian, “nispi temsil”den (PR) farkı aday seçtirmesidir. Çoğunluk
yaratmak istiyor.
* SNTV  voters have only 1 vote to cost  multi member  simple 
canditates.
* AV  single member  absolute  candidates.
* Preferentialism (Avusturya)  PR,
- mainly through MMD (multi member district)
- lists of candidates per district presented by parties
* Party Lists  competing rather than candidates.
- PR  rare variant / STV  preferential  party lists ……. exclusively used.

* Election System ;
- PR  Party list PR  not always sys that produce high levels of
proportionality btw. seats and votes.  3 factors that strengther or weaken the
proportionality of outcomes in a PR sys.
1) Threshold
2) district size
3) Formula used in converting votes into seats.

I) the higher the threshold, the LOWER the proportionality (barajı ne kadar
yüksek koyarsak, baraj altında kalan sayı artar)
- The share of the exclude (those below the threshold) is redistributed in favor of
those above the threshold level.

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1) intends to limit L fragmentation  intends to control number of parties
sharing L seats.
2) Aims to exclude radical, extreme and anti-system parties from L
representation.

* national threshold * constituoncy or district threshold

- the share of the total vote obtained by - every district needs to be focused on
the party has to be higher than the set seperately parties above the threshold
% in the particular district are entitled to
representation.

II) the larger the district THE HIGHER the proportionality district size number
of seats in a district.
- District 1 / 2 seats and District 2 / 7 seats = max. number of parties to 2 be
represented 3rd or subsequent parties will be entitled to representation.
* The lesser the number of seats in a disrict  the lesser the number of parties to
be represented there  the weaker the proportionality (due to wider exclusion).
III) Formula used in translating votes into seats converting (dönüştürme)
* Highest average method * Largest remainder method
D’hont  4 seat Sainte bague  allow - intends to overcome the exclusion from
district vote obtained smaller parties to be representation.
by a party district, represented - this sys minimizes the waste of vote to
1e, 2ye, 3e, 4e boost proportionality.
bölünür
* Favors  the
larger, stronger
parties

* Political Parties Around World

1) Representative Function  1990 on growing literature on the eresion of the
representative function of political parties.
2) Recruitment Function  fills seats and post allocates officies, seats and
posts.
“ Industrial Democracies “  data reveals in voter turnout (katılım).
- declining confidence in pol. parties.
- claim that pol. parties  have weakening ideological commintments ; more
pragmatic less ideologically distinctive “CATCH ALL” – lack ideological
coherence (tutarlılık) and intend to appeal to as many voters as possible.
- declining membership in parties
- political parties are no longer the major or only institutions with representative
functions  also dealt with by voluntary associations interest group, civil society, civil
associations, social movements (environment, human rights peace women’s rights)
* In Genesis (oluş) * Evolved Into
- thin org. ------------------------ - thick org.

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Finally, a return to thin org. (aralarında dönüşüm olur)

* Duverger ; cadre (mass) party  cadre : thinly organized the male and
propertied could vote  era before universal suffrage (oy kullanma).
- Few voters  few party advocates / members  campaining for two party and
mobilizing voters.
- weakly (small) structured (institutions)  parties
* Universal suffrage, industrial revolution growth in the ranks of working class
 need for thickly organized highly-structure political parties with many
members.
* Technological development  TV age, interest made the return to thingly
organized parties possible.

POLITICAL PARTIES
* Evolution of Parties in “Industrialized Democracies”
- thinly organized structures evoluing into  thickly organized structures and
then returning to thingly organized institutions.
“ Conservative Parties”  chose the preserve the existing system without
major reforms, in the initial periods, they preffered a large role fort he church ;
defined as “right-wing” parties.
- Currently  Right of Center / Advocate a role for the state in the preservation
of moral, family, religious, cultural values.
“ Liberal Parties”  in reaction to the conservative trend, claimed to be
centrist and mainstream (ana görüş) parties, placed an emphasis on the centrality
of the “individual” critical of church’s role in the politics and society;
individuals shall make their own choices rather than public authorities choosing
for individuals called for a retreat at the state from political, social and economic
realm  state for many liberals had to act only in a regulative capacity and then
stand on the sideliness.

- Socialist
- Social Democratic
- Labor Parties
* Left today’s party system  referred to as left-of-center parties
- formulated their discourse in opposition to the liberal parties ; called for
greater role fort he state in ensuring socio-economic equality, fairness and
justice ; the state shall attend to the problems experienced by the needy (muhtaç)
; initialy, these parties aimed to build up class – based support.
* Industrialization (increase)  ranks of working class (increase)  enlarged
the potential constituency for leftist parties.
- Later  the growth in the ranks of the middle class.
 moderated the discourse of the left-wing parties.
 a move to the center to appeal to as many voters as possible.

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* Change in Class Composition in Industrial Societies
- moderated the political discourse of all parties as no party could rely
exclusively on the support by a single class.
* Communist Parties
- Splits (bölünmeler), mergers (birleşmeler) with larger left parties closer to the
center.
* 3 Recently Formed Party Families ;
- Regional Parties  (1960s on) (sağ-sol net değil, nereye yerleştireceğimiz
tartışılır)
(pek çoğu ekomomik hayat, eşitlik, adaletten yana, fakat kimlikleri korumayı da
ömemsiyor. muhazafakarlıktan yana kimliklerin korunmasını istiyor)
- Greens  (1970 on) temelinde yeni sosyal haraketler denen olaylardan
bahsederler. 60 lı, 70 li yıllarda, endüstrileşmiş Avrupa’da kitleler çevre için
protestolarda bulunuyorlar, daha sonra bu eylemlerini partileşerek siyasi arenada
sürdürüyorlar. Söylemleri, hak, sosyal eşitlik ve adalet vurgulamaları sol partiler
olarak görülmelerine neden oldu.
- Far-Right  (1980s on) (Fransa ulusal cephe)  (temel vurgusu göçü
sorunlaştıran bir vurgudur. Göçün artması nedeniyle bir çok sorunu
ilişkilendiren ve bunları siyasete taşımış partilerdir.)

READING LIST
1) Sartori  Presidentialism, Parliamentarism, Semi-Presidentialism.
2) Election Sys.  “A Global Snapshot”
NOT : Okuma bölümlerinden 25 Puan gelecek.

MUSTAFA AŞIK

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