1
Impacts of Electric Vehicle Chargers on the
Power Grid
Laszlo Pinter, Student Member, IEEE and Csaba Farkas, Student Member, IEEE
 designed several decades ago, so it is reasonable to ask whether
Abstract-- While the number of internal combustion vehicles is
stagnating, and is even expected to decrease in a few decades, the
amount of electric vehicles is predicted to increase. Most of the
electric cars are designed for daily urban use, thus in the near
future, bigger cities might have some ten percentage of electric
cars running on their streets during the day. And these vehicles
need to be recharged in the evening or during night, so the electric
vehicles, including the high performance electric cars, will interact
with the power grid in this period. The impact of the charging
process is predicted to be apparent on the distribution system,
mostly on the low voltage grid, by influencing the network voltage
profiles and the loading of the grid elements.
As a practical issue we have chosen parts of the LV grid of
Budapest, a city with almost two million inhabitants. If 20% of the
cars is electric powered, then every fifth household has a car that
has to be charged. In this paper we present the results of
simulations conducted on the aforementioned grids with chargers
placed at different places, using the DIgSILENT Power Factory
software package. To get a better view of how electric cars'
charging would affect the LV grid, we have run several load flow
simulations on a large number of power grids. By statistically
analyzing the obtained results, an overall picture can be acquired
about the possible issues that electric car charging might have on
the electric network of a large city.
Index Terms — electric vehicles, energy storage, battery
chargers, power system simulation, power quality, power demand,
electric cars, DIgSILENT.
I. NOMENCLATURE
μ – Mean
s – Square root of unbiased sample variance (standard
deviation)
z – Parameter of uniform distribution
N – Number of measurements
P – Probability
cos φ – Power factor
p.u. – Per-unit
II. INTRODUCTION
T HE amount of the electric vehicles is increasing, both
worldwide and also in Hungary [1]. Not only the electricity
demand of car charging is increasing, but the electric power
consumption of households as well. In 1990, 9.2 TWh electric
energy was consumed by households in Hungary, while this
was 10.6 TWh in 2013 [2]. However, existing grids were
This work was partially supported by the Hungarian Government, financed
by National Research, Development and Innovation Fund through project
eAutoTech (grant no.: KMR_12-1-2012-0188).
978-1-4673-7172-8/15/$31.00 ©2015 IEEE
they will be able to support this increased loading or network
reinforcement or reconstruction is required to meet the charging
needs [3].
This paper deals with the possible effects of electric car
charging on the Hungarian low-voltage distribution system,
especially in Budapest. Our aim was to identify and measure
possible power quality changes caused by the charging of
electric cars.
We have built and run simulations for eight different
transformer zones in Budapest to get a better view of the
possible issues. These zones were chosen randomly, suburban
and downtown areas are both represented.
A. Initial data
Network topologies, including the length and the cross
section of the cables and the number of consumers were
provided by the local DSO. We used 58 different consumer
profiles for the households, based on previous measurements
done at the Department [4]. About 1000 consumers were placed
on the eight grid, the profiles were assigned randomly to the
consumers.
B. The used software
We used the DIgSILENT PowerFactory (www.digsilent.de)
simulation program for the simulations. A special, built-in time
sweep script was used for load flow calculations with time
resolution of 15 minutes [5]. A whole day (24 hours) is covered
with the load flows, this means 24*60/15 = 96 measure points
altogether.
III. THE INVESTIGATED GRIDS
In order to simplify our model and the calculations we
neglected some parameters of the network. The following
simplifications were used during the modeling.
A. Phase allocation
Most of the domestic consumers are single-phase loads, thus
they operate on 230 VRMS. As loads connect to different phases,
there will be voltage asymmetry in the network. With proper
grid planning, this asymmetry can be reduced to a negligible
value. This is why we used a simplification in our model: the
consumers are three-phase loads, which cause no asymmetry at
all. The only asymmetry comes from the electric car chargers,

which we will discuss later.
B. Grid parameters
Although cable length and cross section was given by the
DSO, other electrical parameters (such as resistance, reactance
of cables) are unknown. Due to this lack of information we used
the built-in cable, transformer, etc. types of the DIgSILENT
Power Factory software, which types have all these necessary
information.
For transformers only the nominal power is known. Besides
that, all of the eight transformers have the vector group Dyn5,
which is common in the Hungarian low-voltage distribution
system. Built-in models were chosen for modeling these
MV/LV transformers as well.
C. Power factor of consumers
As exact consumer data is not known, the power factor was
chosen to be constant 0.95 in the whole network. As some
consumers switch on or off, the overall power factor changes in
time, but this was neglected during the simulation. According
to measurements done at the Department, the power factor of
chargers is also constant during charging and is very close to
cos 𝜑 = 1 [11].
D. Travel behavior
The distance covered by the electric cars can be treated as a
random variable. It is assumed that batteries are recharged only
when battery state of charge decreases below 30%. A further
simplification is that the charging lasts 6 hours with a starting
point from 3 p.m. to 11 p.m. In our work we analyze a system
where the electric cars are charged at home. Most of the time,
people arrive home in the afternoon or in the evening, while
they’re on the road or at work during the daytime. The arrival
interval was divided into equal parts, which resulted in 9 similar
characteristics with the shift in time being the only difference.
To simplify the calculations we assumed that car arrival times
follow random distribution, thus the charging follows normal
distribution, however further work need more complex analysis
[7].
IV. IMPLEMENTING THE GRID
A. Parameters
We’ve chosen one transformer area to show the steps of the
modeling process: it’s a transformer with 630 kVA nominal
power. We used the built-in DOTEL 630/10 SGB transformer
type for this purpose.
The length and the cross section of the cables was known,
also their location (air or ground) were defined. We used built-
in Al cables with paper insulations.
The same method was used for the rest of the transformer
zones.
B. The model in the software
An external grid with 150 MVA short-circuit power
represents the MV grid, which is not detailed here. The LV grid
is supported through the aforementioned transformer. We have
chosen to model the supply area of transformer no. 1812
(marked with a red circle on Fig. 1.). Fig. 1. also depicts the
2
larger consumers and the type of the cables: different colors
indicate different cross-sections [8].
Fig. 1. Network topology
The implemented model in DIgSILENT is shown in Fig. 2.
The low-voltage networks are operated with grounded star
point and are also grounded in every few hundred meters, so the
proper grounding system also has to be modeled. This is also
necessary, because car chargers are single-phase loads.
We also have to mention, that Fig. 2. does not depict the
investigated grid in a proper scale: in reality, the length of the
cables vary from few meters to a few hundred meters. The
consumers are placed evenly on the cables as partial line loads.
After running the time sweep simulations, we have chosen
three different parameters to plot: the loading of the
transformers [%], the voltages of cable endpoints [p.u.] and the
voltage difference between the neutral and ground points of the
terminals [V].
C. Modeling the electric cars connected to the network
In the next step, we have added electric cars to the household
consumption. In our model, every household has two
connecting points, which are two low-voltage loads with a
given consumer profile. The maximum load of the household
profiles is 2.8 kVA. Cars have been added to these connection
points.
We have defined the base case, when there are no electric
cars in the grid (0%). On the contrary, 100% means that every
household has one electric car. We assume that there exists
maximum one charger at every household. For ratios between
0% and 100% we distributed the cars evenly on the grid (e.g.
for 50%, every second household has an electric car). The
percentages are relative values, the ratios are correlated to the
number of the households instead of the number of internal
combustion motors.
D. Simulation results
20
15
Loading [%]
10
5
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time - Hours of the Day [h]
Fig. 3. Daily loading of a transformer.
 3

After the simulations we can obtain the loading of the
transformer with zero electric cars in the network. Fig. 3. shows
the daily loading of the investigated transformer.
Some typical characteristics can be observed on the
transformer loading, like the peaks in the morning and evening
hours and the valley in the loading at night.
E. Effect of the number of the electric cars on transformer
loading
As the number of the electric cars increases, the transformer
loading also increases at night as shown in Fig. 4.
may change from day to day. As we have seen, the daily peaks
are most of the time less than 100% of the maximum loading,
thus safe operation can be maintained [9].
B. Grid with 20% electric car ratio
If every fifth household has an electric car, then the
characteristic of the daily loading of the transformers changes
as shown in Fig. 5. If the cars are charged only at home, then
the daily peaks disappear and for most of the cases the daily
loading will be smoother.
70
60

Transformer loading [%]

80
Transformer loading [%]

50
60 40

40 30
20
20
10
0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time - Hours of the Day [h] Time - Hours of the Day [h]
0% ratio 20% ratio 40% ratio 1812th zone in 2nd district Loading [%]
Fig. 5. Daily loading of the eight transformers with 20% electric cars in the
60% ratio 80% ratio 100% ratio
grid, the different curves show the different transformer loadings
Fig. 4. Daily loading of transformer depending on the number of electric cars,
the different curves show the different car ratios To compare this with the previous results, the loading of
transformer no. 1812 is highlighted on Fig. 5. The other curves
We can also see that with the increase in the number of the show the daily loading of the other seven transformers. Light
electric cars, the typical loading characteristics of the brown shows the transformer no. 714, which is the most loaded
transformer changes. There is no overloading for this one.
transformer even at 100% electric car ratio. Actually, this
transformer is not really loaded, we can see that without electric C. Voltage difference between ground and neutral wires
cars its average daily loading is below 12% (see Table 1. that As we have modeled electric cars as single-phase loads, we
contains average daily transformer loading for randomly will observe asymmetry in our grid as well. This time we deal
selected MV/LV transformers in Budapest under similar with asymmetry through investigating, the voltage difference
modeling circumstances as presented in the previous sections). between ground and neutral wires as depicted on Fig. 6.

V. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS 2

Voltage difference [V]

A. Grid without electric cars 1,5

Load flow simulations were conducted on all eight grids.
After averaging the calculation results, an average daily load 1
can be obtained as shown on Table 1.
0,5
Nominal power of Average daily
Transformer no. 0
transformer load 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
925 630 kVA 13.92 % Time - Hours of the Day [h]
714 630 kVA 24.73 % Best case - Optimistic[V]
662 400 kVA 17.78 % Worst case - Pessimistic[V]
1502 630 kVA 12.73 % Average - Mean[V]
1812 630 kVA 11.77 % Fig. 6. The voltage difference between ground and neutral wires as the cause
of the asymmetry
136 630 kVA 6.41 %
1738 630 kVA 6.62 % The “Best case” shows that there are always nodes in the
1512 100 kVA 16.05 % grid, where there is no asymmetry at all. In fact, this curve
Table 1. Average daily loading of transformers with 0% electric cars
belongs to a fictive terminal by always choosing the lowest
value for every time interval from all the busbars (so it can be,
The average daily loading ranges from 6% to 25%, but this
 4

that at 8:00 we measure the lowest value at busbar no. 10, but voltages at the endpoints of the lines.
at 8:15 at busbar no. 17: the "Best case" curve contains only
E. Voltage variance
these minimum values). The “Worst case” curve also belongs
to a hypothetical terminal, which is obtained by choosing We have statistically analyzed the results. The majority of
always the highest value. The “Average” curve shows the mean the 57 measured endpoint voltages are in different transformer
of the voltage difference between ground and neutral wires for zones, thus we can calculate with uniform distribution.
all the 57 terminals in the investigated grid. Besides calculating the average, which is actually the mean
The relatively small voltage difference indicates that there is value, we can calculate the standard deviation. These variables
not large asymmetry in the system. Proper modeling of change during a day, so we have to calculate these parameters
household loads are required though to get an overall picture for every 15 minutes by using (1) and (2).
about asymmetry conditions in the grid. 𝑁
1
𝜇 = ∗ ∑ 𝑥𝑖 (1)
D. Voltage drop along the lines 𝑁
𝑖=1
Besides the loading of the grid elements, the voltage drop
along the lines is also important. According to the standards, the 𝑁
maximum voltage drop must be lower than 7.5% along the line 1
𝑠=√ ∗ ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 (2)
[10]. Fig. 7. shows the lowest occurring voltage on each line, 𝑁−1
𝑖=1
which is measured at the endpoints of the cables. We assumed
that there are only inductive loads in the grid. The calculation results show that the smallest and the highest
standard deviation value is 0.0023 p.u. and 0.0089 p.u.,
1,005 respectively (as we have mentioned before, standard deviations
1 have been calculated for every 15 min time interval).
If we suppose that the voltages follow uniform distribution,
Voltages of the terminal

0,995
we can determine a 99% confidence interval for the endpoint
0,99
voltages by using (3).
0,985
𝑠 𝑠
0,98 𝜇−𝑧∗ <𝑃 <𝜇+𝑧∗ (3)
√𝑁 √𝑁
0,975
This calculation yields 𝑧 = 2.58. As we have 96 time
0,97
intervals, we have 96 mean values and 96 standard deviations,
0,965
one for every time interval, thus we can plot the endpoint
0,96 voltages with 99% confidence interval as a function of time as
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
depicted in Fig. 8.
Time - Hours of the Day [h]
Worst case - Pessimistic [p.u.]
Best case - Optimistic [p.u.]
Average - Mean [p.u.]
Fig. 7. Terminal voltages at the end of the lines

If there are no loads on the grid, there will be no voltage drop

(actually, there will be a small drop due to the resistance of the
line, but it can be neglected). We have followed a similar
approach as in Section V.C.: the “Best case” was calculated by
always choosing the lowest voltage drop from all the voltage
drops measured in the grid for a given time instant and this was
repeated for every time interval of the 96 intervals, so this is
the characteristic of a hypothetical endpoint. Fig. 7. depicts not
the voltage drop, but the remaining voltage at the end of a line.
Similarly, the “Worst case” curve does not belong to any
particular node of the grid, but it is always the lowest value Fig. 8. Voltage at the endpoint of the terminals with 99% confidence interval
measured at the same time in the grid. For example, the lowest
voltage of the terminals is at 11:00 p.m. and it is 0.965 p.u. Due to the larger standard deviations, the interval is much
The nominal phase voltage of the Hungarian low-voltage wider at night, when the charging occurs in the grid. In
distribution network is 230 VRMS. The lowest voltage is 230 * comparison with Fig. 7., the possibility that the lowest voltage
0.965 = 221.95 V. According to the standards, 7.5% of the will occur is relative small, we can say that the voltage of the
nominal voltage is 17.25 V. This means that the voltage of endpoints is between 0.997 p.u. and 0.985 p.u. with 99%
every node should be above 230 – 17.25 = 212.75 V, which is probability.
met in our simulation.
Finally, the “Average” curve shows the mean value of the
 5

VI. CONCLUSION AND PLANNED FURTHER WORK

Nowadays, only 1% of all the cars is electric in Hungary. A
realistic prognosis says, that this ratio will increase to 20%
electric car ratio in a few decades [11]. One can ask, how many
electric cars can the existing grid supply? To answer these
questions, simulations have to be conducted.
We have seen in the simulations we have done, that if there
is an electric car in every fifth household in Budapest, that will
not cause overloading of grid elements or too large voltage drop
along the lines. More simulations are required, though to get a
better view of the problem: by running similar simulations on a
large number of LV grids, we can draw statistical conclusions
about possible overloading and voltage problems.

VII. REFERENCES

[1] PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), “A look into the future of e-cars”.

Available: http://www.pwc.com/en_HU/hu/kiadvanyok/assets/pdf/e-car-
survey.indd.pdf
[2] Hungarian Central Statistical Office, “Electric power supply”. Available:
https://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xstadat/xstadat_eves/i_zrk004.html
[3] M. S. Whittingham, “History, Evolution, and Future Status of Energy
Storage”, Proceedings of the IEEE Volume: 100, Issue: Special
Centennial Issue, 2012 , Page(s): 1518 – 1534.
[4] Measurements of E.ON Hungary Ltd.
[5] Universal load flow script for DIgSILENT PowerFactory. Available:
http://www.digsilent.de/
[6] G. Gy. Balazs, A. Dan, Cs. Farkas, "Charging characteristics of electric
cars - Part I: slow chargers" (in Hungarian), Elektrotechnika, to be
published.
[7] A. Dubey, S. Santoso, M. P. Cloud, M. Waclawiak, “Determining Time-
of-Use Schedules for Electric Vehicle Loads: A Practical Perspective”,
Power and Energy Technology Systems Journal, IEEE Volume: PP, Issue:
99, 2015.
[8] Measurements of PD-TEAM Ltd
[9] Commission Regulation (EU) No 548/2014 of 21 May 2014 on
implementing Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council with regard to small, medium and large power transformers.
[10] Hungarian Standards Institution, “Voltage characteristics of electricity
supplied by public electricity networks”, MSZ EN 50160, 2011.
[11] International Energy Agency (IAE), “Global EV Outlook”. Available:
https://www.iea.org/publications/globalevoutlook_2013.pdf

VIII. BIOGRAPHIES

Laszlo Pinter was born in Budapest, Hungary, on

January 18, 1994. He graduated at the Táncsics
Mihály High School, Dabas. Since 2012, he has been
studying Electric Engineering with a specialization in
power engineering at the Faculty of Electrical
Engineering and Informatics, at the Budapest
University of Technology and Economics (BUTE).
He is a member of the Student Association of Energy
in Hungary and also the member of the IEEE IAS and
PES.

Csaba Farkas (S'2013) was born in Berettyóújfalu,

Hungary, on September 5, 1987. He recieved the MSc
degree from the Budapest University of Technology
and Economics, Budapest in 2012, and is currently
PhD candidate at the Department of Electric Power
Engineering. His research interests include computer
simulation of electric vehicle impacts on the grid and
power quality investigations. Mr. Farkas is a member
of the Hungarian Electrotechnical Association and
Student Member of IEEE.
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6