Wedi Kunom PDF

Production of potassium carbonate from banana peel
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this thesis entitled potassium
carbonate production from banana peels: An evaluation of banana peels containing potash may
be the first experimental work in Ethiopia is modified by ourselves, might not been presented in
any other University or where ever in this country and that all sources of material used for the
thesis have been duly acknowledged.
Gebrehiwot Kunom eit-m/ur/162067/2006
Godif Alene eit-m/ur/162137/2006
Sinshaw Fikru eit-m/ur/162959/2006 28/09/2010 e.c
Name of Students Date
This is to certify that the above declaration made by the students is correct to the best of our
knowledge.
Approved by:
Mr. Tsegay Gebrekidan
Thesis Advisor Signature Date
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and for most we are greatly thanks God for making all this happened. Next to this we wish
to express our sincere thanks and gratitude to Mr. Tsegay G/kidan, our project advisor, for his
good advice, guidance, suggestion, support and constant encouragement throughout the
planning and execution of this project. It would be grateful to thanks Chemical engineering
Lab technicians Mr. Godefa and Mr. Yared for their helpful on the first time of experimental lab
for the combustion system.
Last but not least, our thanks also go to everyone for their direct and indirect assistance and
helpful discussion during this project as well as in the time of the whole experimental work.
II
ABSTRACT
Several studies which are done on banana and other fruit has been show that some plant species
and fruit peels like banana peel contain alkali metals such as potassium, calcium, sodium and
magnesium. These metals are present in form of various salts. When the plant matter or fruit peel
is subjected to heat, burnt in presence of air, the metals are oxidized to metal oxides. Carbon
dioxide produced during burning of banana peel, combines with potassium oxide to produce
potassium carbonate. Now a day‟s potassium carbonate gained world-wide domestic and
commercial use in the flat glass, chemical, pulp and paper sectors. It is also used for production
of local soap and traditionally used as a cleansing agent. The simplicity of potash chemistry and
the easily available local and improved potash production technology have lent the ash-derived
potash a promising future as a sustainable source of raw material for potash-based industries.
The work investigates ash of banana peel and leaching of potassium carbonate from ash as a
potential as a source for potassium carbonate. The banana peel was ash and analyzed for ions. It
was found that the ash contains a significant amount of alkali metals. Ash temperature influenced
the yield of potassium carbonate, the most predominant alkali in ash. Potassium carbonate was
leached from ash by distilled water as a solvent. The potassium carbonate factory capable of
processing 35299.6 kg of potassium carbonate per batch from banana peel as it was designed. It
essentially consist of storage tank, rotary dryer operating at a temperature of 105 0 C for drying
the feed, roll crusher which reduces the husks into smaller sizes and a furnace operated an
elevated temperature to ensure proper ash. The processor also consists of a reactor where
leaching process is took place. It is the major process involved in the production of caustic
potash from banana peel is takes place. Then a boiler is used to produce concentrated potassium
carbonate. The water vapor leaving the evaporator condenses in the condenser and is recycled to
the boiler.
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................... I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ II
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. VII
LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................VIII
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................... IX
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................1
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1
1.1 Background..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 General Objective ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Scope of the study......................................................................................................................... 3
1.5. Significance of the study ........................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO................................................................................................................................... 4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Brief history of the domestication of Banana........................................................................ 4
2.1.1 Different stages of maturation................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Banana production in Ethiopia .................................................................................................. 6
2.2.1Cavendish Banana Varieties..................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Toxin .......................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Allergens .................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.3 Other undesirable phytochemicals ....................................................................................... 10
2.4 Banana peel .............................................................................................................. 11
2.5 Potassium Carbonate ................................................................................................ 12
2.6 Application Areas of Potassium Carbonate ............................................................. 14
2.7 Physical and chemical properties of potassium carbonate .............................................. 16
2.7.1 Physical property .................................................................................................................... 16
IV
2.7.2 Chemical property .........................................................................................................17

2.8 Factors affecting potassium carbonate production ............................................................ 17
2.9. Potassium carbonate production method ............................................................................ 19
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 20
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................................ 20
3.1 Raw Material Collection, Transportation and Storage ..................................................... 20
3.2 Chemical and Equipment ......................................................................................................... 20
3.4 Extraction of potassium carbonate ........................................................................... 21
3.4 Analysis methods of the sample ............................................................................... 22
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................23
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................23
4.1. Experimental Results .............................................................................................. 23
4.2. Characterization of the Product ............................................................................... 24
4.3. Physical Property of Potassium Carbonate ............................................................. 25
CHAPTER FIVE......................................................................................................26
5. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE ..........................................................26
5.1 Material Balance ...................................................................................................... 26
5.2 Energy Balance ........................................................................................................ 31
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................33
6. DESIGN AND SIZING OF EQUIPMENT‟S .....................................................33
6.1. Design of Major Equipment .................................................................................... 33
6.2 Equipment Sizing ..................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER SEVEN..................................................................................................52
7. Economic analysis, site selection and environmental impact ..............................52
7.1. Economic Analysis ................................................................................................................... 52
7.1.1 Estimation of capital investment cost ........................................................................... 53
7.1.2. Estimation of Total capital investment (TCI) .............................................................. 54
7.2. Profitability Measuring ............................................................................................................ 55
7.2.1 Return on Investment (ROI) ......................................................................................... 56
V
7.2.2. Payback Period ............................................................................................................ 57

7.2.4. Profitability index (PI) ................................................................................................. 58
7.2.5. Discount cash flow rate of return (DCSRR or IRR) .................................................... 58
CHAPTER EIGHT ..................................................................................................60
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ..................................................60
8.1. Conclusion............................................................................................................... 60
8.2. Recommendation..................................................................................................... 60
APPENDIX ......................................................................................................... 61
REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 62
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2. 1: banana fruit nutritive value per 100g ............................................................................ 8
Table 2. 2: Banana fruit vitamin per 100g ...................................................................................... 8
Table 2. 3: Banana fruit mineral ..................................................................................................... 9
Table 2. 4: Physical property ........................................................................................................ 16
table 2. 5: Chemical properties of potassim carbonatr .................................................................. 17
Table 4. 1: Experimental results…………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
Table 4. 2: Sample analysis result ........................................................................................................... 25
Table 4. 3: The observed physical properties ............................................................................... 25
Table 6. 1: Inlet and outlet of feed air..………………………………………………………………………………………………….35
Table 6. 2: Constant used to calculate the tube bundle diameter ................................................................ 44
Table 7. 1: Purchased equipment cost.........................................................................................................52
Table 7. 2: Direct cost ............................................................................................................................... 53
Table 7. 3: Indirect cost ............................................................................................................................. 54
VII
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1: Shows different stage of maturation ................................................................................... 6
Figure 2. 2: Effect of temperature in evaporation ....................................................................................... 18
Figure 3. 1: Block flow diagram of potassium carbonate production [2]………………………………………………..21
VIII
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
WC – working capital
PEC- purchased equipment cost
FCI- fixed capital investment
DC- Direct cost
IC- insulation cost
ICIC- instrumentation and controls installed cost
PC- piping cost
EC- Electrical Cost
BPAC- Building Process and Auxiliary cost
SFC-Serves Facilities Cost
LC- Land Cost
IC-Indirect Cost
ESC- Engineering and Supervision Cost
CC- Contingency Cost
DPC- Direct Production Cost
POC- Plant Overhead Cost
MC- Manufacturing Cost
AC- Administrative Cost
DSC- Distribution and Selling Cost
RDC –Research and Development Cost
FC- Financing Cost
GI- Gross Annual Earning
DC- Deprecations Cost
GP- Gross Profit
NP- Net profit
Aj-Annual cash flow
ROI- Return on Investment
PBP-Payback Period
NPw- Net Present worth
IX
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Banana (Musaceae) is one of the world‟s most important fruit crops that are widely cultivated in
tropical countries for its valuable applications in food industry. Its enormous by-products are an
excellent source of highly valuable raw materials for other industries by recycling agricultural
waste. This prevents an ultimate loss of huge amount of untapped biomass and environmental
issues. Banana is one of the earliest crops cultivated in the history of human agriculture. The
origin of this particular plant family stretches from India to Papua New Guinea which includes
the Southeast Asian region [1].
Bananas and plantains have been said to be the 4th largest fruit crop of the world. The world
production is estimated to be 139 million tons, in which tropical Africa alone produces about 17
million tons of bananas annually. It has become a basic food crop for over 70 million people in
Africa. Over 50 species of Musa are in existence, in which the main groups of edible bananas or
plantains are derived from Musa acuminate and Musa balbisiana [1].
Potash has gained a world-wide domestic and commercial use in the flat glass, chemical, pulp
and paper sectors [1]. It is also used for production of local soap, and traditionally used as a
cleansing agent. The simplicity of potash chemistry and the easily available local and improved
potash production technology, have lent the ash-derived potash a promising future as a
sustainable source of raw material for potash-based industries [2].
Potassium carbonate is one of the most important inorganic compounds used in industry even
though it is as old as recorded history. Potash yield depends on the type of plant material, the
nature of soil where the plants grow and the efficiency of extraction technology used, recorded
56.73±0.16% for cocoa pod, 43.15±0.13% for palm bunch, 16.65±0.05% for groundnut shell and
12.40±0.08% for sorghum chaff. The potash content in the peels of some varieties of plantain
and banana as reported by ranged from 69.0 to 81.9% (of ash) and 4.7 to 9.6% (of dry
peel).Beech wood ash yields 20.69% potash [4].
1
The peel of banana represents about 40% of the total weight of fresh banana and has been
underutilized. Various studies have been conducted to investigate banana peel, including the
production of banana peel flour, the effects of ripeness stage on the dietary fiber components and
pectin of banana peels and the chemical composition of banana peel, as influenced by the
maturation stage and varieties of banana [4].
In the early 20 century, the principal sweet banana traded was the cultivar „GrosthMichel‟. A
Panama Disease outbreak (caused by the fungus Fusariumoxysporum f. sp . cubense (Foc) that
occurred in commercial plantations around the world in the early 1940s caused this
highly susceptible cultivar to be gradually replaced from 1960 by more disease-resistant cultivars
of the Cavendish sub-group. Today these cultivars represent approximately 40 -50% of the
bananas that are grown worldwide and almost all of bananas traded on the world market [4].
1.2 Problem Statement
Bananas are a tropical fruit from plants of the Musaceae family and are one of the
most consumed fruits in the world, representing an important fruit crop in tropical and
sub-tropical regions. The main banana residue is the fruit peel, which accounts for 30-40% of the
total fruit weight. Ethiopia is the country which produces banana annually270, 571.516 tones and
from this around 105,600 tones are the waste or banana peel. From this waste our country is not
benefited. If Potassium carbonate is produced it reduces currency used for importing potassium
carbonate. There are few industry uses for banana peels, and they are a major agricultural waste
in different regions of the world. After the banana pulp has been used, the peels are
normally disposed in appropriately. The aim of this project was to investigate the possibility of
using and transforming banana peel waste to valuable product, namely potassium
carbonate (K2CO3) White, water-soluble, deliquescent powder, insoluble in alcohol; used in
brewing, ceramics, explosives, fertilizers, and as a chemical intermediate.
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1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General Objective
The primary objective of this project was to extract potassium carbonate from waste banana peel.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
 To determine the physical characteristics of the potassium carbonate

 To designing and sizing of the necessary equipment‟s
 To determine material &energy balance of each unit operation
 To estimate the economic cost &profit of the plant
1.4 Scope of the study
The study will be extended in collection of banana peel from Mekelle city. Production of
potassium carbonate from banana peel, design of necessary equipment‟s, energy and material
balance, and equipment sizing are also scope of the study. Finally, the techno-economic
feasibility will be done for the production of potassium carbonate from banana peel.
1.5. Significance of the study
This study has Varity of significance, these are:-
 To make specialty glass, such as television screen, cathode ray tubes, and optical lenses
 To Minimize the environmental pollution because the discarded waste used as a raw
material
 Different brewing, ceramics, explosives, fertilizer industries become benefit able
 To Introduce the process technology of producing potassium carbonate from banana peel
 To minimize the cost of importing/import substitution
 potassium carbonate is used for glazes in the making of pottery
 It is used in the manufacture of pigments and printing inks.
 It is used as an additive in certain food products.
 Potassium carbonate softens hard water.
3
CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Brief history of the domestication of Banana
The banana is an edible fruit, botanically berry, produced by several kinds of large
herbaceous, flowering plants in the Genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking
may be called plantains. The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated
and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green,
yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the
plant. Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic (seedless) bananas come from two wild species–
Musa acuminate and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are
Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, and Musa paradisiacal for the hybrid Musa acuminate
M.balbisiana, depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific name Musa
sapientum is no longer used [4].
Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first
domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in at least 107 countries, primarily for their
fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber,banana wine, and banana beer and as ornamental
plants.
Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and "plantains". Especially in the
Americas and Europe, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those
of the Cavendish group, which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. By
contrast,Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains". In other regions,
such as Southeast Asia, many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten, so the simple
twofold distinction is not useful and is not made in local languages[4].The term "banana" is also
used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit. This can extend to other
members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana(Musa coccinea),pink banana(Musa
velutina) and the Fe'i bananas. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, like the snow
banana and the economically important false banana. Both genera are classified under the banana
family, Musaceae [4].
4
2.1.1 Different stages of maturation
As the banana develops, the peel acts as housing for chlorophyll that is manufactured as a result
of the direct sunlight required to grow the fruit. As the interior fruit reaches peak condition, the
green peel that had been absorbing all that sunlight begins to undergo a chemical change
that helps to mellow the fruit. As a result, the interior of the peel releases nutrients into the fruit
that enhance the sweetness. At the same time, the peel begins to lose chlorophyll content and
changes from green to yellow. During this transformation, the peel itself begins to
deteriorate, leaving behind only a thin covering that can be peeled away from the mature
fruit with ease. Since bananas ripen quickly, it does not take long to go from a bitter green
banana to a sweet yellow banana [4].
According to the desired use, banana and plantain are consumed or locally processed at various
stages of maturation which have been classified from stage 1, green skin, to stage 7, yellow skin
with black spots [5].According to literature, green banana is very rich in starch and its flour may
contain (61.3 to 76.5) g/100 g of starch (dry basis) and also has a fiber content of (6.3
to 15.5) g/100 (dry basis). Moreover, a great part of the starch found in the green banana
flour is the resistant starch type 2 from (52.7 to 54.2) g/100 g dry basis) [5].
Banana fruit at different maturity stages presents significant difference (p < 0.01) on
physic-chemical characteristics and fruit firmness. The soluble solids increase from early stages
until the end of maturity, while fruit firmness diminishes during ripening, due to
the action of polygalacturonase and pectin methyl esterase enzymes involved in pectin
degradation in the cell wall and middle lamella [5].
Mature green banana especially plantain is very rich in starch and is one of the
promising substitutes for the starch industry [5].Ripening determines the essential
appearance and taste qualities of dessert bananas when consumed fresh with bright
yellow-coloured skin, flavors, consistency of pulp and starch-sugar transition. Ethylene is
used as a catalyst for triggering a climacteric change[5]. The fruit is then delivered for
consumption. The ripening classification defines 7 stages by color index. At stages 1 to 3,
banana is not usually eaten like fruit because it is green, very hard, astringent and rich in
starch. At stage 7, banana is overripe and muddy [5].
5
Figure2.1: shows different stage of maturation
2.2 Banana production in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, the major banana producing regions are Southern, Oromia and the Amhara regions
[6]. During the 2010/2011 production season about 31,885.86 hectares of land has been covered
with banana and the estimated annual production was about 270571.516 tones [6].and the
potential yield of banana is greater than 70 t ha-1 year-1 at research level [6].It is the
most important cash crop in some parts of Southern Ethiopia, especially in Arbaminch
GamoGofa Zone. But, banana production is also familiar in Gedeo Zone of Southern Ethiopia
[6].
2.2.1Cavendish Banana Varieties
The most common banana variety found in grocery stores is the Cavendish variety. Within this
group, there are many different cultivars, such as the “Dwarf Cavendish” and the “Giant
Cavendish.” The “Giant Cavendish” is a hardy plant of unknown origin. The “Giant Cavendish”
has largely replaced the “Dwarf Cavendish,” a smaller plant that stands between 1.22 and
2.13 meter in height. The fruit of the “Dwarf Cavendish” are smaller and thin-skinned. These
fruits bruise easily, which is problematic during shipping [6].
6
Small Varieties
Small banana varieties, also called baby bananas, are recognized by their miniature size; the fruit
is only about 10.2 to 12.7 centimeters in length with thin, yellow skin. They have and
intensely sweet flavor when they are allowed to reach optimal ripeness. These small
varieties include “Lady Finger” bananas, sometimes called “Orito.” This hearty, drought resistant
plant is native to Malaysia. It is able to ward off most common banana pests and diseases,
such as Panama disease and black weevils. However, leaf spot disease does pose a problem for
“Lady Finger” plants [6].
Cooking Bananas
Most banana varieties, including the Cavendish, are classified as dessert bananas and are peeled
and eaten raw once they have reached optimal ripeness. However, some banana varieties are
cooked before they are consumed, such as plantains. Plantains are a staple crop in many
Latin American cultures. The fruit is fried or sautéed until it is crispy around the edges. Plantains
only have a hint of sweetness and a mild, starchy flavor. They are implemented in meals as a side
dish the same way that people use rice or potatoes [6]
Unusual Varieties
Some banana varieties are unusual, in not only their appearance but also their flavor. “Burro”
bananas are short and yellow like “Lady Fingers” but are thicker and chunkier in appearance.
Their flavor is both sweet and sour. “Burro” bananas are commonly grown in Mexico. Some
banana varieties are not yellow at all, but red. Red bananas turn a deep brownish red color when
they are ripe. They are thin-skinned and very sweet, with a texture that is almost creamy. Other
unusual bananas varieties do not taste like bananas atall. Apple bananas, also called “Manzano,"
are a firm fruit with a texture, smell and taste that is likened to apples. This variety originated in
South America and is commonly found in Asian supermarkets and grocery stores [6].
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2.3 Composition of Banana
The biochemical composition of banana fruits depends on the cultivar, abiotic factors
such as climate, cultivation method and nature of the soil [7].The below table show
representative levels of nutrients and minerals that can be found in the sweet banana. The
banana fruit contains relatively high levels of potassium. Vitamin A content is generally low in
the commercially grown „Cavendish‟ and „Lady Finger‟ varieties but some of the Fe‟i banana
cultivars grown in Micronesia contain high levels of vitamin A [8].
Table2. 1: banana fruit nutritive value per 100g
Principle Nutrient value Percentage

Energy 90kcal 4.5%
Carbohydrate 22.84g 18%
Protein 1.09g 2%
Total fat 0.33g 1%
Cholesterol 0g 0%
Dietary fiber 2.06g 7%
Table2. 2: Banana fruit vitamin per 100g

Niacin 0.665mg 4%
Pantothenic acid 0.334mg 7%
Pyridoxine 0.367mg 28%
Riboflavin 0.073mg 5%
Thiamin 0.031mg 2%
Vitamin A 64 mg 2%
Vitamin C 8.7mg 15%
Vitamin E 0.10mg 15%
8
Table2.3: Banana fruit mineral

Calcium 5mg 0.5%
Copper 0.078mg 8%
Iron 0.26mg 2%
Magnesium 27mg 7%
Manganese 0.270mg 13%
Phosphorus 22mg 3%
Selenium 1.0Aµg 2%
Zinc 0.15mg 1%
Sodium 1mg 0%
Potassium 358mg 8%
2.3.1 Toxin
There are no known significant toxic properties of the banana. Bananas contain high levels of
biogenic amines such as dopamine and serotonin. High level intake of banana has
previously been implicated in the occurrence of end myocardial fibrosis (EMF) [9].Another
study determined that serotonin is rapidly removed from circulating plasma and does thus
not contribute to elevated levels of biogenic amines in healthy individuals [10].
2.3.2 Allergens
Allergic reactions to banana fruit occur and can take two different forms. One type of
allergic reaction is related to an allergy to tree pollen such as birch and results in the
oral allergy syndrome; symptoms include itching and swelling of the mouth and throat
usually within one hour of ingestion. The allergic reactions are due to the allergen Musxp 1, a
profilin, which is an action-binding protein of the cytoskeleton. The profilins are moderately
stable proteins belonging to the pathogenesis related proteins, PRPs , that are thought to
9
be produced by the plant in response to infections or adverse environmental conditions

[11].
A second type of allergic reaction to banana fruit is associated with alatex allergy. This type of
allergy causes urticarial (severely itchy skin) and gastrointestinal symptoms. Anaphylaxis and
recurrent loss of consciousness have been reported in severe cases [14]. Anaphylaxis can
also occur in people who are not allergic to latex [16]. People with latex allergy often
also show an allergy to other fruits such as avocado, mango and kiwi fruit, and common
epitopes in latex, banana and avocado extract have been identified [17].
Two of the major allergens of banana involved in the fruit-latex syndrome are the 32-33 and 34-
37 kD class I chitinases known as Ba 1 and Ba 2, respectively. These are thermo labile protein
sand cross react with hevein [19]. Hevein-like, chitin-binding domains are highly conserved in
many plant defense proteins. These proteins also belong to the PRP family PR3 and may
have anti-plant pathogen activity is isolated a thaumatin like protein (TLP) from banana,
Ban-TLP, which has a similar tertiary structure to the thaumatin like PR5 proteins. Some PR5
proteins have anti-fungal properties but the banana TLP is devoid of anti-fungal
activity [20]. X-ray crystallography has indicated that conserved residues of exposed epitopic
determinants are likely to be responsible for the allergenic properties of this protein. It shares
some structurally conserved binding epitopes with similar proteins from other fruits and pollen
such as that of the mountain cedar [20].
2.3.3 Other undesirable phytochemicals
Several lectins have been isolated from banana fruit, including BanLec, which belongs to
the mannose-specific jacalin-related lectins [21]. This lectin is an important murine T-cell
mitogen and can induce human T-cell proliferation [22]. It is thought that the lectins in
banana form a carbohydrate-protein complex in the pulp, since relatively low amounts of free
lectin are present in the pulp prior to the addition of glucose or methyl-mannoside [22].like
lectins also have insecticidal properties and may play a possible role in plant defense [21].
10
2.3.4 Beneficial photochemical
Banana fruits contain high levels of potassium, which has been shown to be important as a blood
pressure regulating chemical. The banana is thus a food potentially beneficial to people
with medical conditions associated with high blood pressure and hypertension [23]. The sweet
banana contains a variety of beneficial chemicals; high levels of the biogenic amines such as
dopamine and serotonin, and other antioxidants like vitamin C, vitamin E, beta carotene
and flavonoids such as catechins, in dole alkaloids and vitamin K. Banana pulp contains
high levels dopamine and vitamin C [24].
The peel contains even higher levels of dopamine; it is thought that the production of high levels
of antioxidants may minimize the damage from the oxidative stress resulting from intense
sunlight. Dopamine has been determined to protect against intestinal mucosal injury
through modulation of eicosanoid (signaling molecules) synthesis [25].
2.4 Banana peel
Banana peels are agricultural waste that discarded all over the as useless material. They
cause waste management problems although they have some compost and cosmetics potentiality
[17]. Banana peels also contain high potassium and phosphorus, which prove to be
helpful in the compost.
The substance could be used for medicine as well as personal care and known for anti-fungal and
antibiotic properties, loaded with lot of vitamins, minerals and fibber that benefit for skin
care and for healing the wound [18].
Besides that, banana peels have absorbent potentiality [17].It is very useful for purification and
refining processes. Banana peel has absorption capabilities for some elements and ions in liquid
or solution. Banana peel has absorption capacities to remove chromium from wastewater
[19],copper, and also some dyes [20]. Unfortunately, the benefits of banana peels are not popular
as many people still do not realize about. Banana peels are readily available, low cost, and
environment friendly bio-material. This agricultural wastes are also inexhaustible, cheap and
non-hazardous, and are specifically selective for heavy metals and can be easily disposed
11
by incineration [21].The main banana residue is the fruit peel, which accounts for 30 to 40% of
the total fruit weight.
There are few industrial uses for banana peels and a major agricultural waste in different region
of the planet. Attempts at the practical utilization of banana peels have included the production
of protein, ethanol, methane, pectin‟s, extracts and enzymes. Banana peels have also been used
as food for livestock and as a bio sorbent for heavy metals, dyes and the removal of
phenolic compounds [22]. Banana peel has been selected to perform the present study due
to its high content in carbohydrates, which is due to their organic nature that are easily
metabolized by microorganisms, as it has the physical integrity to serve as a supporting material.
In addition, its content in ascorbic acid exerts an inhibitory effect against bacteria. Moreover, the
banana processing industry generates a huge amount of solid wastes, which are dumped
in landfills, rivers, oceans and unregulated dumping grounds. Therefore, their reutilization
would help to diminish the pollution problems caused by their disposal [23].
Accumulating evidence has revealed that both banana pulp and peel contain various antioxidants,
for instance vitamins (A. B, C and E), β-carotene and phenolic compounds such as catechins,
epicatechin, lignin „sand tannins and anthocyanins. Several reports indicated that banana peels
possess higher phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties as well as mineral content
than banana pulps [24].
2.5 Potassium Carbonate
Potash is the common name for various mined and manufactured salts that contain potassium in
water-soluble form. In some rare cases, potash can be formed with traces of organic
materials such as plant remains, and this was the major historical source for it before the
industrial era. The name derives from “potash," which refers to plant ashes soaked in water in a
pot. Today, potash is produced worldwide at amounts exceeding 30 million tons per year,
mostly for use in fertilizers. Various types of fertilizer-potash thus comprise the single largest
global industrial use of the element potassium [9].
Potassium derives its name from potash, and was first derived by electrolysis of caustic potash,
in 1808.Potash (especially potassium carbonate) has been used from the dawn of history
12
in bleaching textiles, making glass, and, from about A.D. 500, in making soap. Potash was
principally obtained by leaching the ashes of land and sea plants. Potash was one of the most
important industrial chemicals and it was refined from the vashes of broadleaved trees and
produced primarily in the forested areas of Europe, Russia, and North America.
The first U.S. patent was issued in 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for an improvement "in the making
Potash and Pearl ash by a new Apparatus and Process [9]. Potassium carbonate serves a wide
range of end use markets. The potassium carbonate market is quite diverse since it is utilized in
numerous applications. The functionality characteristics of this chemical allow it to be used
in major area such as specialty glass, ceramics, potassium silicate, pharmaceuticals, food,
detergents and cleaners, photographic chemicals, agricultural, gas purification, rubber
additives, polymer catalysts, potassium bicarbonate, cement, and textiles[9].
Potash Mining Methods
Conventional, solution, and cut-and-fill stope mining are methods used in extracting ore
for potash[9].
Conventional Mining
Conventional mining includes a number of steps. First, the miners travel to the extraction site.
They are lowered into the ground and, then, transported to the mining face. They, then, undercut,
drill, charge, and blast the ore. A continuous mining machine mines the mine seam. These
machines can mine up to 882 tonnes per hour, making paths of up to 7.9 meters wide and 2.4
meter high. These machines also have the potential to be automated. Conveyor belts, next, carry
the ore to underground bins where it is stored until it is hoisted up by skips at speeds
of 550-1,100 meters per minute[9].
Solution Mining
When conventional underground mines become flooded and unworkable, potash can be extracted
using solution mining. Water is injected as a brine or salt and water solution. It is then circulated
throughout the mine workings to dissolve potash and salt from the original pillars and walls. The
brine is pumped to an evaporation pond. Submersible pumps are used, each pumping about 9,000
liters per minute.as the liquid cools, the potash and salt crystals settle to the bottom of the
13
pond. The cool brine is then heated and re-injected into the mine to start dissolving
potash again. The remaining potash in the ponds is removed with floating dredges and
pumped to the mil[9].
Cut-and-Fill Stope mining
Cut-and-fill Stope mining is an underground process that uses continuous mining

machines to excavate the ore in a step-like manor. It uses the fresh tailings to create a
new floor for further mining. This method involves transporting personnel and ore the
same way as conventional mining[9].
Commercial Production method
Potassium carbonate is manufactured in a fluidized bed reactor. This results in a product that is
anhydrous, making it unnecessary to perform any further processing to eliminate hydrated water
(calcining). The process starts with potassium chloride and through an electrolytic conversion of
the KCl salt, potassium hydroxide (caustic potash, KOH), chlorine (Cl2) and hydrogen (H2) are
produced. The hydrogen is a fuel source while the chlorine has numerous important and
varied applications.
Liquid caustic potash and carbon dioxide are the only raw materials required for
producing potassium carbonate. The dry potassium carbonate can easily be dissolved in
water to form a liquid solution. Typically, a 47% solution is recommended as this
capitalizes on the highest concentration with the lowest freezing point (3°F). This
minimizes handling problems during colder weather [9].
2.6 Application Areas of Potassium Carbonate
Food Industry
When potassium carbonate is mixed with water, there is an exothermic reaction that causes it to
heat up. This process causes a rise in temperature but is not a suitable for heating something up
because the reaction only lasts for a short time. Potassium carbonate dehydrate is a suitable
electrolyte replacement when used in generators and other devices that run on the
14
electrolyte solution processes. It is a much safer alternative to potassium hydroxide, which

is used more frequently in batteries and other applications. Potassium carbonate can be
used in food production. A common Asian cuisine that uses potassium carbonate is grass
jelly. A neutral tasting mint-like herb is generally used to prepare it. It is commonly grouped
with a variety of fruits and sweets as a desert dish or eaten plain as a medicine.
Potassium carbonate is still commonly used as a baking ingredient in thick breads such as
gingerbread. Potassium carbonate can be used as a buffering agent to produce mead or wines.
The buffering raises the pH (increasing alkalinity) so the wine or mead is not too acidic
once production is completing. The proper amount can be measured based on how the mead or
wine must be produced and the quality of the PH that is necessary.
Laboratory
Potassium carbonate is a suitable replacement for calcium chloride and magnesium sulfate when
used as a drying agent in the lab. It is not a good replacement if the material that needs to
be dried is acidic. The organic drying phase can be done with the potassium carbonate to
carefully remove small traces of acidic impurities for better preservation of dried specimens. In
the nuclear fusion field, potassium carbonate can be formed into an electrolyte that aids
in cold fusion experiments. The electrolyte is used in the calorimeter along with heavy
water to measure heat. It can also be used in hydrogen production, which can be used in
different ways with an electrolysis setup.
Potassium carbonate is used to maintain the anhydrous (without water) conditions possible when
used in a way that will not react with other reactants or any products that are formed
from the processing of said reactants. Potassium carbonate can also be used to dry ketones,
alcohols, and amines before they are distilled.
Fire Extinguisher/Retardant
Potassium carbonate can be used in extinguishers to out high heat flame fires (such as
oil fires and other types of class B fires). The chemical acts as a fire suppressant/fire proof
coating and is very useful for extinguishing and preventing the spread of fire. It can be used in
both liquefied (aqueous) and dry states in fire extinguishing. It is two times more effective than
baking soda on oil and gas based fires.
15
General Usage
Potassium carbonate can be used to produce soaps, glasses, and china porcelain. An appropriate
amount of the Potassium carbonate is necessary to get the desired consistency in each. Potassium
carbonate can be added in measured amounts to hard water in order to soften it. Pearl ash
prevents heavy concentrations of calcium, magnesium, and other ions in hard water. Hard water
can cause corrosion in galvanic metals, prevent the desired usage of soaps, buildup scale
minerals, and cause bad skin reactions. Potassium carbonate can also be used as an
ingredient in welding fluxes and for coating flux on welding rods. The flux coatings
prevent oxidation that may occur at a welding site. They reduce the incidence of oxidation,
which could weaken the weld.
2.7 Physical and chemical properties of potassium carbonate
2.7.1 Physical property
Table2. 4: Physical property
Physical Property Standard values
Bulk density 1,202-1,346.3Kg/m3(granular, varies by grade);

16.78 Kg/m3(extra fine)
Melting point 8910C
Solubility in water 112 grams in 100ml water at 200C

Appearance White, granular, free-flowing, hygroscopic
Boiling point decomposes
PH 11-12
Taste Alkaline taste
Very soluble in H2O, insoluble in ethanol
112g/100ml (20oC), 156g/100ml (100oC),
Solubility 3.11g/100ml(25oC)
16
2.7.2 Chemical property
The property of a substance change in to new product is called chemical property. The
production of a new substance may be signaled by a change in color or odor, appearance of
bubbles (gas), release of energy (light, sound, or heat), or formation of a precipitate
Table 2.5: Chemical properties of potassium carbonate
Chemical property Changes occur

Reaction with acid Neutralizes acids exothermally to form salts plus water
Reaction with water Water easily from air and it dissolves in water
Reaction with metal Reacts with certain metals (such as aluminum and zinc) to form oxides or
hydroxides of the metal and generate gaseous hydrogen
Flammability May generate flammable and/or toxic gases with ammonia salts, nitrides,
halogenated organics, various metals, peroxides. And hydro peroxides
Combustion non-combustible, substance itself does not burn but may decompose upon
heating
Reaction with catalyst May serve as a catalyst. React when heated above about 840c with aqueous
solution of reducing sugars other than sucrose, to evolve toxic level of carbon
monoxide
Reaction with organic May initiate polymerization reactions in polymerizable organic compounds,
compounds especially epoxides
2.8 Factors affecting potassium carbonate production
The factors that affect production of potassium carbonates are:
1. Temperature: - temperature has great role in production of k2co3 for example in the drier
when the temperature is below 105oc the moisture contents are not completely removed. As a
result, they remove gases to the environment during the burning process in the furnace. In the
17
furnace if the temperature is above 700oc the property of potassium carbonate leads to denature.
During the evaporation the effect temperature is as follows:
effect of temperature in evaporation

140
120
temperature in oc
100
80
60 Series2
40 Series1
20
0
1 2 3 4 5
time in hour
Figure2. 2: Effect of temperature in evaporation
2. pH: - it affects alkaline property of the product.
3. Nature of banana fruit: from the different types of banana species the most suitable banana
type in production of potassium carbonate is Cavendish banana varieties
4. Type of soil: - mostly the type of soil affects to banana fruit to its size, and if the size is so
small the amount of potassium carbonate per peel is so little and more for large peel. Small
Varieties of banana are small in size but disease and drought resistance.
5. Water:-the amount of water used during mixing process affects for production of potassium
carbonate. Using high amount of water affects filtration process to consume more time. In
addition to that using lower amount of water than the ash content is not advisable during
production process but it must be proportioned well with ash content.
6. Moisture content: - the moisture content of the banana peel affects the production of
potassium carbonate due to it needs high amount of temperature to evaporate. If the peel has
moisture content essential particles will be removed in the form of gas in furnace.
18
7. Size of particle: - the size of the banana peel affects during furnace unless it must be crushed
in to small size to manage the required temperature at required time.
2.9. Potassium carbonate production method
Potassium carbonate can be produced using the following methods:-
 Ash method
 Lv Bulan method
 Electrolysis method
 Ion exchange method
1. Ash method: - is the method that is suitable for a variety of plants (such as banana peel,
cotton seed, tea seed shell, sunflower shell) firing the ash extract. Ash contains potassium
carbonate, potassium sulfate, potassium chloride or other soluble salts, by precipitation, filtration
methods can be separated. This method is easy due to product quality, economically feasible,
simple used and less power.
2. Lv Bulan method: - is the potassium sulfate and coal, lime, reduction roasting, was black and
gray (including potassium, calcium sulfide burning material), after leaching, filtration,
evaporation, carbonation, get potassium bicarbonate, and then by filtering, calcining the
products. This method is long due process and other reasons have been replaced by other
methods.
3. Electrolysis method: - is obtained by electrolysis of potassium chloride solution of potassium

hydroxide, carbon dioxide in the carbonation tower. After evaporation of multi- effect
evaporation, filtered potassium bicarbonate, and then calcined product were. This method is easy
to get because of raw materials, utilization of high potassium, no waste produced and widely
used, but more power.
4. Ion-exchange method:-using cation exchange resin is exchanged with potassium chloride.

Potassium bicarbonate, ammonium bicarbonate and then eluted into a dilute solution, the multi-
effect evaporation, carbonation, crystallization, separation, calcination the products. This method
is the product of good quality, short process for small-scale production.
19
CHAPTER THREE
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Raw Material Collection, Transportation and Storage
Banana peels was collected from Mekelle University and Mekelle city. The sample was collected
using plastic bags and transported to the laboratory of chemical engineering department.
3.2 Chemical and Equipment
Equipments used
 Plastic bags: used to collect banana peel.

 Knife: to cut the peel in to small segments.
 Digital Oven: used to dry the collected banana peel.
 Crushers: used to size reduction of the dried banana peel.
 Shaker: used to well mix the banana peel ash with distilled water.
 Weighing Balances: used to weigh the samples.
 Filter papers: used to separate dissolved K2CO3 from the sludge.
 Sources of heat: butane that is used to evaporate.
 Flame or furnace: used to convert dry banana peel in to ash.
 Flask: used as container during mixing and filtration.
 Cylinder measurement: used to measure distilled water.
 pH meter: used to measure the PH of the product.
Chemicals used
 Hydrochloric acid
 Distilled water
 Phenophitaline indicator
 Ethanol
20
3.3 Methodology
The ash method is the most common method that is used in the production of potassium
carbonate from plantain which is banana peel. This method is easy to use, less power
consumption, economically feasible and good product quality. Therefore, the ash method is more
preferable for our project.
3.4 Extraction of potassium carbonate

The collected banana peel wastes were sun dried and later oven-dried at a temperature of 1050C
for two days to ensure adequate removal of moisture from the sample. Then banana peel
was dried very well. The charred banana peel was further burnt in a temperature controlled
furnace set at a temperature above 500 0C for proper ash which lasted for about 1 hr. The ash
sample was homogenized by crushing between fingers and then sieved with analytical
sieve to obtain uniform particles size. About 20g of the ash was placed in a 3 liter
round bottom flask and 80 mile liter of distilled water was added. The flask was placed
on an electric heating mantle and boiled continuously to about 100 0C for 4hr then solid
residues (alkali) obtained was dried and weighed. The extracted alkali was purified by
subjecting it to series of recrystallization procedure until the melting point of the resulting
white solid was sharp.
Heat
FEED Dryer Crusher Furnace
Water Evaporation Filtration Mixer
Distilled water
Condensation Storage
Heat K2CO3
Figure3. 1: Block flow diagram of potassium carbonate production [2]
21
3.4 Analysis methods of the sample
Moisture Content (MC) and Dry Matter Content (DM)
The moisture content, ash content and dry moisture content was determined using the method
suggested by Miroslav and Vladimir using the following formula [15].
Moisture content= * 100
Dry moisture content (matter) = * 100
Density of sample=
Ash Content (AC)
A known weight (w3) of each oven-dried sample was placed in a porcelain crucible and ash in
muffle furnace set at 500 oC for 1 hour; it was cooled in a desiccator, and the final weight (w4)
was determined using the following formula.
Ash Content (AC) = * 100
22
CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Experimental Results
By using the ash method the potassium carbonate is extracted from banana peel in the laboratory.
Then, the results gained from the experiments are as follows:
Table 4. 1: Experimental results obtained

Trial Sample Distilled water Result in gm.
no: in gram in ml
1 20 80 No result
2 100 400 3.5gm
3 150 600 5gm
4 200 800 10gm
5 250 1000 15gm
Total 720 2880 33.5gm
When the ashes were put in water, some materials dissolved, making the solution
strongly alkaline. This was however, a quick interpretation to mean that there is the
presence of potassium carbonate in the ashes because it fulfills the physical and chemical
properties, also observation that was confirmed when the ashes were treated with dilute
hydrochloric acid, and where upon a strong bubble of carbon dioxide took place.
23
4.2. Characterization of the Product
To check whether the product is K2CO3 or not the following two methods were used:
Method one
First weigh approximately 2 g of the sample and put the substance in the beaker and Pour
approximately 10 ml of the distilled water into the beaker. Mix the solution with the
spoon until the salt dissolves completely. Then Pour half of the solution into the second
beaker. After that by using a plastic pipette, add about 2 ml of the hydrochloric acid
solution into the first beaker. If Bubbles of the gas (carbon dioxide) intensely evolve
during the reaction, then the sample is a carbonate salt (K2CO3) and proceed to the next
step. The reaction was as follow:
K2CO3 + 2HCl → 2KCl + CO2 + H2O
Method two
By examining alkaline property of potash and measuring its pH
Potassium belong to group I in the periodic table of elements and one major property of
group I elements is the formation of soluble salts and bases. Hence, the hydroxides and
carbonates of K and Na are soluble in water. Applying the explanation of the alkaline
character of potash (a crude form of potassium carbonate) when dissolved in water is
summarized by below:
Self-ionization of water produces equal number of OH- and H+ ions. When potash is
introduced, it also ionizes into K+ and CO32¯ ions. The CO32¯ ion abstract H+ ion from
water, resulting in a decrease in H+ ion but an increase in OH¯ ion, which leads to
increase in pH (alkaline condition). The standard sited pH of potassium carbonate is from
11-12.
24
Table4. 2: Sample analysis result
Trial no Sample in Moisture Dry Ash pH Density of

gram content moisture content K2CO3 in
in% content in% gm./ml3
in%
1 20 85 14.2 14.8 10.63 No
2 100 84.8 15.2 15.6 10.9 1.99
3 150 86.4 13.6 15.8 11.2 1.2
4 200 86.5 13.5 16.2 11.3 1.23
5 250 86.84 13.16 16.6 11.1 1.25
Total 720 - - - -
4.3. Physical Property of Potassium Carbonate
After finishing the experiment we were getting the following physical property of potassium
carbonate. Depending on those properties we concluding that the result is potassium carbonate.
Table4. 3: The observed physical properties
property Observed result
Color White, hygroscopic solid ,deliquescent,
Odor Odor less
Taste Alkaline taste
Boiling point Decomposes
Melting point 891oc
Solubility Very soluble in water and insoluble in ethanol
3.11g/100ml (25oc)
25
CHAPTER FIVE
5. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
5.1 Material Balance
The knowledge of material balance is a useful tool in determining the quantity of raw
material required and the products produced. Material balance is also used to study the
operation of plant, identification of sources of materials loss [31].
The general conservation equation for any process system is written as:
Input + Generation = Output + Consumption + Accumulation………………… (1)
For a process with no generation or consumption of material within the system, equation (1) can
be written as:
Input – output = accumulation…………………………………………………… (2)
In a steady state process, the accumulation term is zero, except in nuclear process. Mass
is neither generated nor consumed but if a chemical reaction occurs; particular chemical
specie may be formed or consumed in the process. If there are no chemical reactions, the
steady state balance reduces to
Input - Output = 0 …………………………………………………………………. (3)
Assumptions:
 50 tpd peel processed
 21hr working per day
 330 working days
26
1. Material balance on drier
100% water is removed
50,000 kg
XW = 80%, Xs = 20% Oven Drier
M1 M2
XD = 100%, Xw = 0%
The amount of water removed from drier is

Removed mH2O = m1 * Xw
= 50,000 kg * 1
= 50,000 kg
Since there is no reaction; Input =output
M1 = MH2O + M 2
Mfp XS = Md XD
50,000 kg * 0.2 = MD = 10,000 kg
2. Grinder
Loss = 500Kg
Grinder
M2 = 10,000Kg M3=9,500Kg
Let assume the grinder has ability or efficiency of grinding is 95%.
Since there is no reaction, Input =output; but the efficiency of grinder is 95 %
Input efficiency = output
M3 = 10,000kg/hr * 0.95 = 9,500 kg/hr
Therefore the grinded banana peel removed from grinder is = 9,500 kg
27
3. Furnace MOUT = 7,916.32Kg
Furnace
M3 = 9,500 Kg M4 = 1,583.68Kg
4. Leaching (mixer) M5=distilled H2O=5,570.892Kg of H2O=5,570.892L
Mixer
M4=1,583.68Kg M6
At steady sate, input= output

M4 + M5 = M6
1,583.68 kg + 5,570.892Kg = M6=7,154.576 Kg
5. Filtration
In Filtration unit we get 750 gm of leachate (distilled water + ashes) = 150 gm of mud
.therefore amount of mud removed from filtration unit is
M7 = = 1,430.92kg of mud is removed
Filtration
M6=7,154.576kg M8=5,723.66kg
M7=1,430.92kg
28

m6 = m7 + m8
7,154.576 Kg = 1,430.92 kg + m8
M8= M6 – M7 = 5,723.66 L
= 5,723.66 kg
6. Evaporation
Assume that the efficiency of the evaporator is 90 %
Xw=90% of water is removed
M9
M8=5,723.66Kg Evaporator M10

m8 = m9 + m10 but;
m9 = 0.90 * m8 = 0.90 * 5,723.66 kg
= 5,151.294 kg
m10 = m8 – m9 = 5,723.66 kg – 5,151.294 kg
= 572.365 kg
7. Condenser
Assume that the efficiency of the evaporator is 95 %.
M input to the condenser = M in from the evaporator
= 5,151.294kg
Condenser M12=380.9Kg
M11=5,151.294Kg
M13=7236.6Kg 5% of condensate water
29
95% of condensate water is removed
Steady sate, input= output

M11 = M12 + M13
M condensed water = M13 = Water removed = 0.95 * 5,151.294 kg
= 4,893.73 kg
M uncondensed water = 0.05 * 5,151.294kg
= 257.5647kg
8. Crystallizer
Xw out
M14=257.5647Kg Crystallizer M15, Xw=98%
Assume that the efficiency of the crystallizer is 98 %

M15 = 0.98 * 257.5647kg
= 252.5647 kg
Xw out = M15 – M14
= 5.1513 kg
30
5.2 Energy Balance
1. Energy balance for drier
The dryer is dried the sample by 1050c from 200c
Tin=200C Drier Tout=105oC
The energy required is Q = M Cp ∆T Where M =mass of wet fruit peel

Cp = specific heat of wet fruit peel
∆T = Tf- Ti
The specific heat capacity of banana peel is 2.03 kJ/(kg*K)from WFLO commodity storage
manual
The specific heat capacity of water is = 4185.5 J/ (kg K) = 4.1855 kJ/(kg K)
Mass of fruit peel from material balance = 95000 kg/hr
Cp = Cpb*Xb + Cpw *Xw
=2.03 kJ/(kg*K) * 0.2 + 4.1855 kJ/(kg K) *0.8
= 3.75kJ/(kg K)
Q = MCP ∆T +Mhfg
=19000 kg/hr *3.75 * (105-20) +19000Kg/hr*2266KJ/Kg

=6,056,250 kj/hr +43054000 KJ/hr=49,110,250 KJ/hr
31
2. Energy balance on furnace
200C Furnace 5000C
Q = MCpp ∆T
= 18050 kg/hr * 2.03 kJ/(kg*K) * (500-25 ) 0 c

=17,587,920 kJ/hr
3. Energy balance on evaporator
Evaporator
0
25 c 700c
Q= MCp ∆T +Mhfg
= 7570.868 kg /hr * 0.84 * (70-20) +7570.868*333
=317,976.456kj/hr+2521099.04KJ/hr=2,839,075.5KJ/hr
4. Energy balance on condenser
CONDENSER
700c 200c
Assume the efficiency of our condenser is 98%
Q= m Cp ∆T +mhfg
= 846.4 kg/hr * 4.1855 * (70- 20) +846.4Kg/hr*2.033KJ/Kg
= 177,130KJ/hr +1720KJ/Kg
= 178,850 KJ/hr
32
CHAPTER SIX
6. DESIGN AND SIZING OF EQUIPMENT’S
6.1. Design of Major Equipment
Dryer Design
Definition of Dryer
The term drying refers generally to the removal of moisture from a substance. Drying is often
necessary in various industrial operations particularly in chemical process industries to remove
moisture from a wet solid, a solution or a gas to make it dry and choice of drying medium is
depends on the chemical nature of the materials.
Classification of Dryers
Drying equipment classified based on mode of operation (such as batch or continuous dryer),
Type of heating system (conduction, convection, radiation) and according to the physical State of
the feed (such as wet solid, liquid, and slurry).
Selection criteria of drying equipment
In view of the enormous choice of dryer types one could possibly the first consideration in
selecting a dryer is
 Its operability.
 The equipment must produce the desired product in the desired form at the
desired rate.
 The quality required in a finished product.
 Its necessary physical characteristics are determined by its end use.
 The final choice is then made on the basis of capital and operating costs.
Based on the above selection criteria oven dryer will be select.
33
Rotary Dryer
The rotary drier is basically a cylinder, inclined slightly to the horizontal, which may be rotated,
or the shell may be stationary, and an agitator inside may revolve slowly. In either case, the wet
material is fed in at the upper end, and the rotation, or agitation, advances the material
progressively to the lower end, where it is discharged. Typical dimensions for a unit like this are
9 ft diameter and 45 ft length. In direct-heat revolving rotary driers, hot air or a mixture of flue
gases and air travels through the cylinder. The feed rate, the speed of rotation or agitation, the
volume of heated air or gases, and their temperature are so regulated that the solid is dried just
before discharge.
Data:-
 Amount of water in feed= 4.99Kg/hr.
 Dry solid in feed= 57.477Kg/hr.
 Water content in product= 0.499Kg/hr.
 Hence water dry in dryer= 4.491Kg/hr.
 Inlet air temperature(tg1)=130oc
 Outlet air temperature= 70oc
 Inlet feed temperature= 25oc
 Discharge temperature(tw)= 65oc
 From sychorometric chart at 80 assuming wet bulb temperature 65 70% humidity air.
 The temperature of the air living from the dryer should be selected on the basis of an
electronic balance between dryer cost and fuel cost. It has been that rotary driers are most
economical operated when the total number of transfer units (NTU) range from 1.5 to 2
assuming NTU= 1.5
NTU= ln [(tg1- tw)]/ [(tg2- tw)]
1.5= ln [130- 65]/ [tg2- 65]
1.5 = ln [65/tg2- 65]
e1.5= 65/tg2- 65
4.077 = 65/tg2- 65
4.077 tg2- 4.077 (65) = 65
tg2= 80.941 0c
34
Heat balance
Cp of seed kernel= 1.95 KJ\Kg oc
Cp of water= 4.18 KJ\Kg oc
Temperature detail
Table 6. 1: Inlet and outlet of feed air
Stream Feed Air
Inlet 250c 1300c
Outlet 650c 700c

 Heat required to rise the feed to @45 Cp of air= 1
Q= (m*Cp* T) in + (m*Cp* T) out
= 57.477 Kg/hr*1.95 KJ/Kg * (45- 25) + 0.499 Kg/hr* 1 KJ/Kg * (45- 25)
= 2653.022 KJ
 The water evaporate is 4.99 Kg/hr of evaporation λ at 250c heat required to evaporate
4.99Kg of water.
Q= m λ
= 4.99Kg* 2441KJ/Kg=12180.50 KJ
 Heat required to super heat the product to 800c
= 57.477Kg/hr*1.95* (80- 45) + 4.49Kg/hr*1.95 (80- 45)
= 4988.34 KJ
 Total heat required to raise the product to discharge the temperature
= (2653.922+12180.59+4988.34) KJ
= 19822.852 KJ
LMTD across the dryer tm
Tm= [(130- 25) - (70- 65)]/ln [130-25/70-65]
= 32.850c
 The minimum velocity of air is set based on the particle size. Air flow rate of 1m3/sec or
100ib/hr.ft3
Amount of air required.
35
M = Qt/Cp t
= 19822.852KJ/ (1)*(130- 70)
= 330.38 Kg/hr
 The maximum amount of water present in this amount water is 40% that is 132.154Kg/hr
Assume an extra amount of 10% of this quantity to account the heat losses.
= 1.1*330.38Kg/hr
= 363.418Kg/hr
 If the velocity of air is /hr.ft equal to 150.00Kg/hr m3
Area of drier = (363.418Kg/hr/150Kg/hr m3)
= 2.47m2
Diameter of dryer
D= √ 4*A/3.14
= √ 4*2.47/3.14
= 1.77m
 Length of transfer unit (Ltu) has been related to mass velocity and diameter by the
following relation.
Ltu= 0.0064*Cp*G0.84 *1.77m
= 0.0064*1*330.33*1.77
= 2m
Length of dryer= Ltu*NTU
= 2*1.5
= 3m
 The following dimensions are chosen for dryer.
L= 3m; D= 1.77m
L/D= 3/1.77
= 1.64
L/D should be ranges between 1.5 and 10 hence the design is safe.
Shell thickness of dryer (ts)
Ts= Pi*Di/2fj- Pi
Where: - Pi= design pressure or internal pressure at 130 with allowance= 0.22309N/mm2
f= design stress of material construction type that is carbon steel= 135N/mm2
36
J= welded joint efficiency which is double welded bufll or equivalent= 0.85

Di= 1.77m
Ts = 0.22309N/mm2*1.77m/ (2*135N/mm2) - 0.22309N/mm2
= 0.0017222m
= 1.7222mm
But from the standard the minimum thickness is given as 8mm and by considering corrosion
allowance 20%; including the corrosion allowance the thickness can be taken as 10mm
Therefor the outer diameter (Do) will be taken as:-
Do= Di+2ts
= 1.77m+ 2*0.010m
= 1.79m
To find the diameter of the feed pipe
Feed rate =57.477kg/hr
Volumetric flow rate =mass (m)/ density )
=57.477kg/hr/300kg/m3
=0.1916m3/hr
Assume velocity of feed to be 10m/s
Cross sectional area of the feed pipe=0.1916/10
=0.02m2
Diameter of feed pipe (D) =√ 4*A/3.14
=√ 4*0.02/3.14
=0.16m
 To find the diameter of the air inlet and outlet pipe.
Inlet
Temperature of air=130
Humidity of inlet air=0.002kg of water/kg of air
Volumetric flow rate of air =m =7.14m3/s
Assuming velocity of air entering to be 20m/s
Cross sectional area of inlet air pipe=7.14m3/s/20m/s=0.357m
Diameter of inlet pipe=√ 4*A/3.14
=√ 4*0.357/3.14
37
=0.674m
Outlet
Temperature of air=70
Humidity of outlet air=0.065kg of water/kg of air
Volumetric flow rate air =Q=9.11m3/s
Assuming velocity of outlet air to be 20m/s
Cross sectional area of outlet air pipe=9.11m3/s/20m/s=0.4555m2
Diameters of outlet pipe =√ 4*A/3.14
= √4*0.4555/3.14
=0.761m
Evaporators design
Evaporator is made up of three functional sections. The heat exchanger, the evaporating sections
where the liquid boils and evaporators, and the separator in which the vapors leaves the liquid
and pass off to the condenser or to other equipment. In many evaporators, all three sections are
contained in a single vertical cylinder. The basic factor that affect the rate of evaporation are the
rate at which heat can be transferred to the liquid, quantity of heat required to evaporate each kg
of water, maximum allowable temperature of the liquid, pressure at which the evaporation takes
place.
M1
Mf Evaporator
M2
Where,
MF = mass of feed that want to separate
M2= mass of preferred potassium carbonate

M1 = mass of preferred water
Step 1,
There is no unique design problem. The possible solutions for this design have been constrained
by specifying the tube dimensions and the dispersion of the fluid streams.
38
Specifying steam as the heating medium and putting in the shell simplifies the calculations. If
avoids the need to make tedious, and uncertain, calculations to estimate the shell-side coefficient.
 Feed rate (MF) = 134kg/hr * 1hr/3600sec = 0.0372kg/sec
 Amount of removed (M1) = 123.816kg/hr123.816kg/hr * 1hr/3600= 0.0344kg/sec
 Bottom outlet k2co3 (M4) = 10.184kg/hr * 1hr/3600sec = 0.00283kg/sec
 Amount of heat supplied from the vapor
Q=m*λ
 Amount of heat transferred to the cold feed
Qcold = MF * CPF * (T2 –T1)
= 134kg/hr * 2.45 * (69-40)
= 9520.5 KJ/hr = 2.6446Kw
 Assuming 10% loss heat supplied by steam (Q)
= 1.1 * heat of the cold fluid.
= 1.1 * 9520.7 kg/hr
= 10472.77Kw = 2.909Kw
 From this Q = Ms * λ
 Ms = Q / λ
Where,
λ = heat vaporization = 2880.2 KJ/Kg @120
Ms = 9520.7 KJ/hr / 2880.2KJ/kg = 3.3055Kg/hr
Step 2: Logarithmic mean temperature difference
 Number tubes and shell pass
 One shell pass and one tube pass
Now let‟s find the LMTD
LMTD = (T1 – t1) - (T2 – t2)/ln [T1 – t1/T2 –t2]

= (120 – 95) – (120 – 70)/ln [120 – 95/120 - 70]
= 36.06740c
Step 3: Overall heat transfer coefficient
 Assuming overall coefficient from Coulson book page 639 figure 12.1
 Heavy k2co3and steam [450–60 w/m2]
 Take the overall heat transfer coefficient in the range i.e. U = 255w/m2
39
Now let‟s find the total heat transfer area

A = Q/U* LMTD
= 2644.6w/205w/m2 * 36.0674
= 0.357677m2
Tube detail
 From the standard of heat exchanger Collusion and Richardson volume 6. Tube
diameters in the range 0.625in (16mm) to 2in (150mm) are used. The smaller diameters
0.625 to 1in (16 to 25mm) are preferred for most duties, as they will give more compact,
and therefore cheaper exchanger, and the optimum tube length to shell diameter will
usually fall within the range of 2.44 to 7.23m.
Let the diameter ID = 18mm and OD = 20mm with the length of 3.75m
Therefore outer diameter DO = 20mm
Inner diameter ID = 18mm
Area of one tube = (3.75) (20*10-3) * 3.14
= 0.02355m
Number of tubes = 0.357677m2/0.02355m
= 15m
 From Coulson volume 6 table 12.4
As the shell-side fluid is relatively clean use 1.25 triangular pitches
Triangular pitches (Pt) = 1.25 * po
= 1.25 * 20
= 25mm = 0.0025m
K1 = 0.319 and n1 = 2.142
Bundle diameter = do * Nt1/n1/K1
= 20m * 151/2.142/0.319
= 221.943mm = 0.221943m
Shell side heat transfer coefficient
The convective heat transfer coefficient on the steam side is very large and can be
neglected tube side heat transfer coefficient.
Physical properties of k2co3 @69
Specific heat, Cp = 1.65KJ/Kg 0c
40
Viscosity, = 4*10-3Ns/m2
Thermal conductivity, K= 0.16w/m2
Density = 654kg/m3
Physical properties of water @169 0c
Cp = 1.996KJ/Kg 0c
= 3.05*10-4 Ns/m2
K = 0.16 w/m20c
Viscosity =890kg/m3
Pruadt number (Pr) = (Cp*) / K = 0.05
Total tube cross sectional Area = Nt * *Di2/4
= 15 * 3.14 * 0.018m
= 0.8478m2
Mass velocity (Gt) = mass flow rate/total flow free
= 3,3055Kg/hr/0.8478m2
= 3.899Kg/m2sec
To find Reynolds number = Re = Gt * Di/
= 3.899 Kg/m2sec * 0.018/3.05*10-4
= 230
Nuselt number; Nn = jh * Re * Pr0.33 (viscosity/viscosity*m) 0.14
= hi di/kg where jh = 0.023 for non-viscous liquid
Nuselt = (viscosity/viscosity*m) 0.14
= 0.023 * 230 * 0.50.33
Hidi/kg = 4.208388
hi = 4.208388 * 0.16/0.018
= 37.407w/m20c
Calculate overall heat transfer coefficient (1/Uo)
1/Uo = 1/ho + do ln [do/di]/2Kw +do/hi*1/hi
= 20* ln (20/18)/2*0.16 + 20/18*1/37.407w/m20c
1/Uo = 6.61473225
Uo = 1/6.61473225 = 0.151177699
41
 The overall heat transfer coefficient

Uo = 229.2w/m2K
Well above the initial guessing of 225w/m2K, so design has adequate area for the duty required.
Thus the area required for this purpose is 0.357677m2.
Condenser design
Types of Condensers
Types of Condensers based on the cooling medium used, condensers used in refrigeration
systems can be classified in to three categories such as: - Water-cooled condenser (Double-tube
condenser, Shell-and-tube condensers), Air-cooled condensers, Evaporative condensers.
Selection criteria of condenser
The choice of water-cooled condenser depends on the following factors:
 Quality and availability of water
 Space requirements
 Water treatment costs
Noise
Advantages of water cooled-condensers are:
 Easy to operate
 Requires less surface area
 Low energy requirement for the compressor
Data:-
 Mass of distilled water =162.408kg/h
 λ1@450C =2335.9kj/kg
 Inlet temperature of the process stream, T1=690C
 Outlet temperature of the process stream, T2=45 0C
 Inlet temperature of the water, t1=250C
 Outlet temperature of the water, t2=35 0C
 Mass flow rate of the process stream, m=162.408kg/hr

Heat load
Heat in hot stream= heat in cold stream
42
Qhot=Qcold
Q=mλ1
=162.408kg/h*2335.9kj/kg
Q =379368.8472kj/hr or 105.38kw
Mass flow rate of cooling water
Where,
Cp water=4.2kj/kg.k
M=Q/Cp 𝑡
M=105.38kw/4.2kj/kg.k*10
=2.509kg/sec
Long mean temperature difference (LMTD) in counter current flow.
LMTD = (T1 – t2) - (T2 – t1)/ln [T1 – t2/T2 –t1]
LMTD= (69-35) -(45-25) /ln (69-35/45-25)
=26 0C
The Material construction of condenser is stainless steel.
The value of overall heat transfer coefficient UD=680w/m2k (from Coulson and Richardson
page 654 or figure 12.1).
True mean temperature difference
Use one shell pass and two tube passes
Dimensionless temperature ratio
R=T1-T2/t2-t1=69-45/35-25=2.4
S=t2-t1/T1-T2=0.23
The value of Ft is 1 (from figure Coulson and Richardson page 674 volume 6).
Tm=Ft*LMTD
= 1*26
=260C
Heat transfer area
A=Q/ UD *tm
=105.029kw/0.680kw*260c
=5.94m2
Diameter of condenser (D)
43
D2=4*A/ 3.14
=4*5.94 m2/3.14
D =2.75m
 Choose outer diameter (OD) =20mm, inner diameter (ID) =16mm, 4.88m long tubes
(3/4in*16ft), copper nickel. Allowing the tube sheet thickness take L=4.83
Area of one tube = 3.14*OD*L
=3.14*0.020m*4.83m
=0.303 m2
Number of tubes (Nt) =area/surface area of single tube
=5.94 m2/0.303 m2
=19.6 =20m2
 As the shell side fluid is relatively clean use 1.25 triangular pinch (Pt).
Pt=1.25*OD =1.25*0.020m=0.025m
Bundle diameter (Db) =OD*(Nt/K1)1/n1
Table 6. 2: Constant used to calculate the tube bundle diameter
Pitch type Constants Number of tube

1 2 4 6 8
Triangular K1 0.319 0.249 0.175 0.0743 0.0365
(Pt=1.25OD) N1 2.142 2.207 2.285 2.499 2.675
Square`(Pt=1.25OD) K1 2.142 0.156 0.158 0.0402 0.0331
N1 2.207 2.291 2.263 2.617 2.643
But for one pass n1=2.142, K1=0.249
=0.020*(20/0.249)1/2.142
=0.138m=0.2m
Use a split ring floating head type from figure 12.10 bundle diametrical clearance
@0.2m=50mm(0.050m)
Shell diameter (Ds) =0.2m+0.050m
=0.250m
Then find the nearest standard pipe sizes.
Tube side coefficient
44
 Mean water temperature =25+35/2=30 0c

 Tube cross sectional area= 3.14/4*162=0.201m2
 Tube per pass =20/2=10
 Total flow area =10*2.01*10-4=0.00201m2
 Water mass velocity =2.509kg/sec/0.00201m2=1248.26kg/sm2
 Density of water=995kg/m3
Water linear velocity= Water mass velocity/ Density of water
=1248.26kg/sm2/995kg/m3
=1.2545m/s
Inside coefficient (hi) =4200(1.35+0.02t) Ut0.8/di0.2
Where,
t =water temperature
Ut=water velocity m/s
di =tube inside diameter, mm
hi=4200(1.35+0.02*30) (1.2545)0.8/ (16)0.2
=3736.878 w/m2 0c
 The coefficient can also be calculated using the equation below.
hi di/kf=jhRePr0.3 (viscosity/viscosity*w) 0.14
Where,
Kf =thermal conductivity=0.59w/m 0c
Viscosity of water=0.8mNs/m2
jh = 4*10-3 for none viscous liquid (from Coulson and Richardson volume 6)
Re= density*volume*𝑑𝑖 /viscosity
=995*1.2545*16*10-3/0.8*10-3=24,964.55
Pr=Cp*viscosity/k𝑓=4.2*103*0.8*10-3/0.59=5.69
Neglect= viscosity/viscosity*w
L/di=4*103/16=302
hi =4*10-3/16*10-3*24,964.55*(5.69)0.33*0.59
hi =3842.57w/m2
Check will be reasonable well with value calculate.
Shell side coefficient
45
Chose baffle spacing=0.250m/5=250/5=50mm=0.050m

Tube pich (Pt) =1.25*20mm
=25mm
Cross flow area (As) = (25-20)*250*50*10-6/25
=0.0025m2
Mass velocity (Gs)=162.408kg/hr/3600*1/0.0025
=18kg/sm2
Equivalent diameter (de)=1.10/OD (Pt2-0.917OD2)
=1.10/20(252-0.917*202)
=14.4mm
Mean shell side temperature= (69+45)0c/2 0c
=570c
Data:-
Hexane density=654kg/m3
Viscosity=0.34mNs/m2
Heat capacity=2.84kj/kg0c
Thermal conductivity=0.19w/m0c
Re=Gsde/viscosity
=18*14.4*10-3/0.34*10-3
=36,762
Pr=Cp 𝑓
=2.84*103*0.34*10-3/0.19
=5.1
Choose 25% baffle cut from figure 12.29 in Coulson volume 6, jh=3.3*10-3
 Without the viscosity correction term
hs =0.19/14.4*10-3*3.3*10-3*36,762*5.1
=2740w/m20c
 Estimate wall temperature=570c -30 0c=270c
 Across hexane film =U*∆T /hs
=680*25/2740
=6.2 0C
46
 Mean wall temperature=(57-6.2 =51.8

Overall coefficient (Uo)
Copper nickel alloy thermal conductivity K=50w/m
Taking the fouling coefficient from table 12.2.hexane (light organic) 5000w/m-2, brackish water
(sea water) take as the highest value 3000w/ m2.
1/Uo=1/ho+1/hod+ {do ln (do/di)/2kn} +do/di*1/hid+do/di*1/hi
1/Uo=1/2740+1/5000+{20*10-3ln[20/16]/2*50}+20/16*1/3600+20/16*1/3842.57
Uo=718w/m20C
 To find the thickness of the condenser first of all find the operating pressure at 69 the
operating pressure will be 13.45kpa or 13.450N/m2
 So adding 20%safety factor
Internal pressure=1.2*13450N/m2
=16140 N/m2
For stainless steel at 69, f=165N/mm2 or 165*106Nm2 and joint factor (j)=0.85
tcondenser = pi*Di/2fj-pi
=16140N/m2*16*10-3/2*165*106N/m2*0.85-16*10-3N/m2
=2mm
From standard the minimum wall thickness is 5mm and adding 2mm as corrosion allowance the
wall thickness of condenser will be 7mm.
47
6.2 Equipment Sizing
1. Sizing of Chopper
Take the factor of 12%
V=
= +
= 0.28 + 0.59
= 0.87m3/hr
The residence time of chopper is 2hr.
Therefore the volume is0.87m3/hr×2hr= 1.74m3
Taking 75% fully capacity
Therefore, the volume chopper is
V= = 2.32m3
2. Equipment sizing on mixer
V=
48
= + +
= 0.36 + 0.28 + 0.03

=0.66m3/hr
The residence time of the mixer is 4hr
V= *4hr
= 2.6m3
The mixer is filled 70% of its capacity
Therefore Vmixer = = 3.7m3
3. Sizing of Evaporator
V=
= +
= 0.36 + 0.28
=0.64m3
The residence time of the evaporator is 2.5hr
V= × 2.5 hr = 1.6m3
The evaporator is filled 85% of its capacity
Therefore Vevaporator = = 1.88m3, Therefore, the volume of condenser the
same to evaporator.
49
4. Sizing of storage tank
V=
= +
V= 0.55m3
The residence time of storage is 6hr
Therefore volume of the final storage tank is V = × 6hr
= 3.3m3
The storage is filled 70% of its capacity
V= = 4.7m3
5. Sizing of furnace
V=
50
= +
V= 0.55m3/hr
The residence time of furnace is 3.5hr.
Therefore volume of the furnace is V = × 3hr = 2m3
The furnace is filled 8o% of its capacity
V= = 2.5m3
6. Sizing of drier
V= +
= + = 0.3m3/hr
The residence time of drier is 5hr

Therefore volume of drier v= 0.3m3/hr*5hr
=1.5m3
The drier is filled 55% of its capacity
V=1.5m3/0.55
=3m3
51
CHAPTER SEVEN
7. Economic analysis, site selection and environmental impact
7.1. Economic Analysis
 Construction period 2 year

 Source of finance 25% equity; 75 % loan, Bank interest 12%.
Table 7. 1: Purchased equipment cost
Actual
Equipment name Quantity capacity US dollar ET birr
(m3)
Chopper 2 2.32 3000 82,575
Chopped banana
1 4.7 9,700 266,992.5
storage tank
Drier 1 3 25,600 704,640
Furnace 1 2.5 27,400 754,185
Mixer 1 0.54 6,800 187,170
Filtration tank 1 2 147 4,046.175
Evaporator 1 1.88 10,000 275,250
Pump 1 14 385.35
Final storage 1 3.3 9,700 266,992.5

tank
Packing machine 1 1.87 10,000 275,250
Condenser 1 1.88 35 963.375
52
Crystallizer 1 1.87 10,000 275,250

Cost of equipment: Source www.alibaba.com
Therefore, purchased equipment cost, PEC=3,093,699.9Birr
7.1.1 Estimation of capital investment cost
Fixed capital investment (FCI) estimation

Purchased equipment cost = (15-40%) of fixed capital investment
PEC = 25% FCI then, FCI = PEC/25% =3,093,699.9/0.25 = 12,374,799.6 ETB
7.1.1.1 Direct Cost (DC)
Table7. 2: Direct cost
Components % of FCI Cost(ETB)

Purchased equipment cost 25 3,093,699.9
Purchased equipment 9 1,113,731.964
installation
Instrumentation and control 4 494,991.984
Piping 8 989,983.968
Electrical installation 6 742,487.976
Building including service 8 989,983.968
Service facilities 10 1,237,479.96
Land 2 247,495.992
Totals 72 8,909,855.712
53
7.1.1.2 Indirect Cost (IC)
Table7. 3: Indirect cost
Component % of FCI Cost(ETB)

Engineering and supervision 9 1,113,731.964
Construction expenses 8 989,983.968
Contractor fee 3 371,243.988
Contingency 8 989,983.968
Total indirect costs 3,464,942.92
Total FCI = total direct cost + total indirect cost

=8,909,855.712+3,464,942.92
= 12,374,799.6ETB
7.1.2. Estimation of Total capital investment (TCI)
Total capital investment (TCI) = fixed capital investment (FCI) + working capital (WC)
TCI = FCI + WC and WC = 15%TCI
TCI = FCI + 0.15 TCI
TCI = 12,374,799.6+ 0.15TCI
TCI – 0.15 TCI = 12,374,799.6ETB
TCI = 14,558,587.76 ETB
7.1.3. Estimation of total product cost
Total product cost, let say „y‟

Total production cost =manufacturing cost + general expenses
Manufacturing cost = direct production cost + fixed charges + plant overhead cost
Direct production cost (DPC): is the summation of all the following costs
 Raw material cost = 10%y
 Operating labor = 15%y
 Direct supervisory and clerical labor = 10% of operating labor
 Utility = 15%y
54
 Maintenance and repairs = 6%FCI =0.06*12,374799.6 ETC=742,487.976ETC

 Operating supplies=15%maintenance and repair=0.15*742,487.976=113,373.1964
 Laboratory charges = 15% of operating labor
 Patent and royalties = 3%y
DPC= 0.1y+0.15y+ (0.1*0.15) y+0.15y+742,487.976 ETB+113,373.1964ETB + (0.15*0.15)
y+0.03y
DPC = 0.4675y+855,861.1724 ETB
 Fixed charges: 10%FCI = 0.1*12,374,799.6 = 1,237,479.96ETB
 Plant overhead cost =10%y
Manufacturing cost (MC) = direct product cost + fixed charges + plant overhead cost
MC =0.4675y+855,861.1724ETB + 1,237,479.96ETB + 0.1y
General expense cost:
Administrative cost = 3%y
Distribution and selling = 6%y
Research and development = 5%y
General expenses = 0.03y+0.06y+0.05y = 0.14y
Total product cost (y) = manufacturing cost + general expenses
y =0.5675y +2,093,341.132ETB + 0.14y
y =0.7075y+2,093,341.132ETB
y – 0.7075y = 2,093,341.132 ETB
0.2925y = 2,093,341.132ETB
y = 7,156,721.82 ETB
Total product cost(y) = 7,156,721.82 ETB
7.2. Profitability Measuring
Total annual sale = selling price * product capacity * working days

Our selling price is 30.5birr/kg., we have 300 working days per year and our production capacity
is 72,000kg/yr.
Total annual sale = selling price * product capacity
= 30.5birr/kg*524,610.138kg/year
= 16,000,609.21 birr/year
55
Gross profit (GP) =total annual sale (total income)–total product cost (total expense without
depreciation)
GP =16,000,609.21 birr/year - 7,156,721.82 birr/year
GP = 8,843,887.389 birr/year
Depreciation:
Fixed capital investment = birr
Salvage value = 8% FCI=0.08*12,374,799.6 birr
= 989,983.968 birr
Service life = 10 years
Annual depreciation (DP) = (FCI-Salvage value)/life time
= (12,374,799.6 birr -989,983.968 birr)/10 = 1,138,481.563 birr
GP including (DP) =8,843,887.389 birr/year -1,138,481.563 birr/year
= 7,705,405.826 birr/year
Net profit (NP) =GP (1 –Ф), with DP
Where Ф is income tax rate in Ethiopia context = 35%
NP =7,705,405.826 birr (1 –0.35) =5,008,513.787 birr
Annual cash flow (ACF) =NP +DP =5,008,513.787 birr +1,138,481.563 birr
ACF = 6,146,995.35 birr
7.2.1 Return on Investment (ROI)
The return on investment calculation is as follows:

The service life of the plant is 10 years.
Minimum acceptable rate (mar) for new capacity with established corporate with low levels of
risk =12%
ROI= net profit/total capital investment*100% = (total annual sale-total product cost)(1-Ø)/total
capital investment
ROI= (16,000,609.21 birr -7,156,721.82) (1-0.35)/ 14,558,587.76
ROI=0.3948
So final ROI is 39.48%.The project is feasible since ROI >Mar, that is 39.48% >12%.
Break-even point (BEP) =FCI/(TSP-TPC)*100
=12,374,799.6/ (16,000,609.21 -7,156,721.82)*100
56
=139.9
This Break-even point (BEP) is large, unless it operates at high capacity, the plant will get loss.
Therefore the plant is somewhat at risk whenever it operates at low capacity.
7.2.2. Payback Period
 Now taking a minimum acceptable rate(mar) for new capacity with established corporate
with low levels of risk =12%
 Taking the % of fixed capital investment to capital investment
% = FCI/TCI
=12,374,799.6/14,558,587.76
=85%
PBref =0.85/ (mar+0.85/n), where PB ref =pay back of reference
=0.85/ (0.12+0.85/10)
=4.14 years
Payback period (PBP)=FCI/(NP+depreciation)=12,374,799.6/(5,008,513.787 -
1,138,481.563)=3.1978
=3 year and 2 month
Since PBP<PBref, therefore the project is feasible or acceptable.
7.2.3. Net present worth (NPW)
Annual cash flow (R) = NP+DP

=5,008,513.787birr +1,138,481.563birr
=6,146,995.35birr
Therefore net present worth (NPW)
Life time, n=10 years, i=12(bank debt), DP=depression, R=annual cash flow
Now convert to present value
P =R ((1+i)n-1)/i(1+i)n+ recj(1+i)-n, but recj= 0, where p is present worth annuity.
P= 6,146,995.35 ((1+0.12)10-1)/ (0.12(1+0.12)10)
P= 34,800,370.46 birr
Therefore, NPW = P-TCI
NPW =34,800,370.46 birr - 14,558,587.76
NPW=20,241,782.7birr
57
Since the value of NPW is positive, the project is acceptable and feasible.
7.2.4. Profitability index (PI)
Profitability index (PI) =NPW/TCI=20,241,782.7birr /14,558,587.76birr

PI =1.391
Since the value of profitability index is greater than 1 the project is acceptable or feasible.
7.2.5. Discount cash flow rate of return (DCSRR or IRR)
NP =5,008,513.787 birr & DP =1,138,481.563 birr, Annual cash flow(R) = 6,146,995.35birr
NPW= +Recovery (1+i)-n-TCI
Recovery (rec) = 0
The return obtained from an investment in which all investment and cash flow are discounted.
NPW = ∑ 𝑖 (NP + DP+ rec j) -TCI, NPW = 0
∑ 𝑖 (NP + DP +rec j)=P= +recovery (1+i)-n
+rec (1+i)-n-TCI
n =10, TCI=14,558,587.76birr, rec = 0, R = 6,146,995.35birr
TCI=R (1+i) n-1/i (1+i) n
(1+i) 10-1/i (1+i) 10=2.3684
From trial and error the value of “i” is 55.4%
Therefore the discount cash flow rate of return (DSRR) is 38.4%; DSRR is greater than
minimum acceptable rate (mar) which is 12% so, the project is acceptable and feasible.
58
7.3 Site Selection
There are several aspects to be considered regarding the sitting and operation of the
potassium carbonate plant. First, a suitable site must be chosen and second the plant
layout must be planned after the site characteristics are assessed. Finally, an
environmental impact analysis needs to be performed to ascertain the expected effect of
the plant and the chemicals on the surrounding areas.
There are a number of considerations concerning the choice of site locations for a new
Potassium carbonate plant within Ethiopia. Some of these are general considerations
while others relate directly to the process and its requirements. Those considerations
relevant to this Study include:
 A suitable local labor force
 Consumer of banana
 Road construction and population density
 Amount area required for the plant construction
 Environmental aspects on the residents
 Utility costs
Depending on the above factors around Arbaminch Town is the most preferable.
59
CHAPTER EIGHT
8. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
8.1. Conclusion
The factory has the ability to produce 5299.06 kg of potassium carbonate per one batch
& it is established around Arbaminch Town. The factory works 21 working hour and has
net profit of 2,169,886.73 Birr/year. Besides, the use of banana peel waste for caustic
potash production helps to solve disposal problems of banana peel. Instead of
indiscriminate dumping; it would be exploited for potassium carbonate production thus,
converting waste to useful product. In addition, potassium carbonate production from
banana peel is safe and improved method to build indigenous capabilities with attendant
reduction of unemployment hence, has the ability to generate income for the Ethiopian
economy.
8.2. Recommendation
Since potassium carbonates have many applications for the country; we can recommend
that the investors can invest on potassium carbonate production to become profitable.
This production from banana peel is safe and improved method to build indigenous
capabilities with attendant reduction of unemployment hence, has the ability to generate
income for the Ethiopian economy.
In addition to this, it is also recommends the following for areas of inquiry moving forward:
 Strategically plan banana cultivation expansion
 Structural Analysis can be used to choose investment priorities
 Determine financial requirements (inventory levels) for an individuals
 Strategically plan potassium carbonate production expansion in the countries
 Use results to help define customer business
 Its production in other side can solve disposal problems of banana peels
 Change the attitude of individual in concerning of collect banana peel in specified area.
60
APPENDIX
Experimental setup
Furnace mixing
Peel ash Filtration
Checking method evaporation
61
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64

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Production of potassium carbonate from banana peel

Godif Alene eit-m/ur/162137/2006

Sinshaw Fikru eit-m/ur/162959/2006 28/09/2010 e.c

Name of Students Date

Mr. Tsegay Gebrekidan

Thesis Advisor Signature Date

2.7.2 Chemical property .........................................................................................................17

7.2.2. Payback Period ............................................................................................................ 57

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3.1 General Objective

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

 To determine the physical characteristics of the potassium carbonate

1.4 Scope of the study

1.5. Significance of the study

This study has Varity of significance, these are:-

2.1 Brief history of the domestication of Banana

2.1.1 Different stages of maturation

Figure2.1: shows different stage of maturation

2.2 Banana production in Ethiopia

2.2.1Cavendish Banana Varieties

2.3 Composition of Banana

Table2. 1: banana fruit nutritive value per 100g

Principle Nutrient value Percentage

Principle Nutrient value Percentage

Table2.3: Banana fruit mineral

Principle Nutrient value Percentage

be produced by the plant in response to infections or adverse environmental conditions

2.3.3 Other undesirable phytochemicals

2.3.4 Beneficial photochemical

2.4 Banana peel

2.5 Potassium Carbonate

Potash Mining Methods

Cut-and-Fill Stope mining

Cut-and-fill Stope mining is an underground process that uses continuous mining

Commercial Production method

2.6 Application Areas of Potassium Carbonate

electrolyte solution processes. It is a much safer alternative to potassium hydroxide, which

2.7 Physical and chemical properties of potassium carbonate

2.7.1 Physical property

Table2. 4: Physical property

Physical Property Standard values

Bulk density 1,202-1,346.3Kg/m3(granular, varies by grade);

Solubility in water 112 grams in 100ml water at 200C

2.7.2 Chemical property

Table 2.5: Chemical properties of potassium carbonate

Chemical property Changes occur

2.8 Factors affecting potassium carbonate production

The factors that affect production of potassium carbonates are:

effect of temperature in evaporation

Figure2. 2: Effect of temperature in evaporation

2. pH: - it affects alkaline property of the product.

2.9. Potassium carbonate production method

Potassium carbonate can be produced using the following methods:-

3. Electrolysis method: - is obtained by electrolysis of potassium chloride solution of potassium

4. Ion-exchange method:-using cation exchange resin is exchanged with potassium chloride.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Raw Material Collection, Transportation and Storage

3.2 Chemical and Equipment

 Plastic bags: used to collect banana peel.

3.4 Extraction of potassium carbonate

FEED Dryer Crusher Furnace

Water Evaporation Filtration Mixer

=2.03 kJ/(kgK) 0.2 + 4.1855 kJ/(kg K) *0.8

=19000 kg/hr 3.75 (105-20) +19000Kg/hr*2266KJ/Kg