DR ATIF SHAHZAD

IE-321

Fundamentals of
Dr. Atif Shahzad

LECTURE #02
14-Jan-16
Computer Systems 1
 RECAP
Page 1
Course Objectives
Rules & regulations
Grading scheme
Teaching Methodology
An overview of topics
Logic examples
A simple Logic thinking process
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 TODAY’S LECTURE
Digital System
What is a Numbering System?
Commonly Occurring Bases
Numbering System Examples
Base Conversion Procedure
Base Conversion
Number of Bits Required
Number of Elements represented
BCD, GRAY, ASCII & UNICODE
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Q&A
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 Fundamentals of
Computer Systems

LECTURE #02
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Numbering Systems
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 Robert Noyce, 1927 - 1990
• Nicknamed “Mayor of Silicon Valley”
• Cofounded Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957
• Cofounded Intel in 1968
• Co-invented the integrated circuit
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 Gordon Moore, 1929 -
• Cofounded Intel in 1968 with Robert Noyce.
• Moore’s Law: the number of transistors on
a computer chip doubles every year (observed
in 1965)
• Since 1975, transistor counts have doubled
every two years.
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 Digital Values

Discrete set of values

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 Digital System
Takes a set of discrete information inputs and discrete
internal information (system state) and generates a
set of discrete information outputs.

Discrete Discrete
Information Discrete
Inputs
Processing Outputs
System
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System State

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 Types of Digital Systems
No state
State present
present
Output =
Combination Output =
State = Function
al Function State updated at State updated Function (State)
discrete times at any time (State, or Function
Logic System (Input)
Input) (State,
Input)

=> =>
Synchronous Asynchronous
Sequential Sequential
System System
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Logic Automatisms by Dr. Atif Shahzad
10
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Digital Systems

Two Voltage Levels

Two States
• On/Off
• Black/White
• Hot/Cold
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• Stationary/Moving

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 Digital System Example:
A Digital Counter (e. g., odometer):

Count Up
Reset 0 0 1 3 5 64
Inputs: Count Up, Reset
Outputs: Visual Display
State: "Value" of stored digits
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 A Digital Computer Example
Memory

Control
CPU unit Datapath

Inputs:
Outputs: CRT,
Keyboard,
LCD, modem,
mouse, modem, Input/Output
speakers
microphone
Synchronous or
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Asynchronous?
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 Digital Systems and Computer
Logic Automatisms by Dr. Atif Shahzad
13
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Systems
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 Signal

An information variable
represented by physical quantity.

For digital systems, the variable

takes on discrete values.
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 Signal
Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent values in digital systems.

digits 0 and 1
represented abstractly by:
Binary values are

words (symbols) Binary values are

False (F) and True (T) represented by values or
ranges of values of physical
words (symbols) quantities
Low (L) and High (H)
words
Dr. Atif Shahzad

On and Off.
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 Signal Examples Over Time
Time

Continuous in
Analog value & time

Digital Discrete in
value &
Asynchronous
continuous in
time
Synchronous Discrete in
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 Signal Example – Physical Quantity:
Voltage
OUTPUT INPUT
5.0
HIGH HIGH
4.0
3.0 Threshold Region
2.0
1.0
LOW LOW
0.0
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Volts

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 Binary Values: Other Physical
Quantities
What do other
physical quantities
represent 0 and 1?
CPU: Voltage

Disk: Magnetic Field Direction

CD: Surface Pits/Light

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Dynamic RAM: Electrical Charge

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Logic Automatisms by Dr. Atif Shahzad
19
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Information Representation
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 Number Systems [binary, octal
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and hexadecimal]
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 Number Systems –
Representation
Radix
in positional number systems

A number is represented by a string of digits:

with radix r dn – 1dn - 2 … d1d0 . d- 1 d- 2 … d- m + 1 d- m
in which 0 ∈ Ai < r and . is the radix point.
0
The string 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1 … 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑0 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 10𝑖𝑖
of digits
Dr. Atif Shahzad

represents the power𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1

series:
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 Number Systems – Examples
123 = 1 × 102 + 2 × 101 +3 × 100
0

� 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 10𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1
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 Number Systems – Questions
78 =
947=
301=
1294
10101010=
123456=
98123=
0
Dr. Atif Shahzad

� 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 10𝑖𝑖
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 Number Systems – Examples
General Decimal Binary
Radix (Base) r 10 2
Digits 0 => r - 1 0 => 9 0 => 1
0 r0 1 1
1 r1 10 2
2 r2 100 4
3 r3 1000 8
Powers of 4 r4 10,000 16
Radix 5 r5 100,000 32
-1 r -1 0.1 0.5
-2 r -2 0.01 0.25
-3 r -3 0.001 0.125
-4 r -4 0.0001 0.0625
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-5 r -5 0.00001 0.03125

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 Binary Number
representation
0

� 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 2𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1
0

(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1 … 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑0 )2 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 2𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1
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 Binary Number
representation- EXAMPLE
0

� 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 2𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1
0

(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1 … 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑0 )2 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 2𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1

11012 = 1 × 23 +1 × 22 + 0 × 21 +1 × 20
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 Binary Number
representation- EXAMPLE
The digits of the binary number are called bits
MSB=Most Significant Bit
LSB=Least Significant Bit 0

(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1 … 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑0 )2 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 2𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1

11012 = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Group of 8 bits = 1 Byte

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 Representation of a Binary
Number-Example

MSB Binary Digit LSB

28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
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 Binary Number Names &
Prefixes
Number of Binary
Common Name
Digits (bits)
1 Bit
4 Nibble
8 Byte
16 Word
32 Double Word
64 Quad Word
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 Special Powers of 2

210 (1024) is Kilo, denoted "K"

20
2 (1,048,576) is Mega, denoted "M"

230 (1,073, 741,824) is Giga, denoted "G"

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 Positive Powers of 2
Useful for Base Conversion
Exponent Value Exponent Value
0 1 11 2,048
1 2 12 4,096
2 4 13 8,192
3 8 14 16,384
4 16 15 32,768
5 32 16 65,536
6 64 17 131,072
7 128 18 262,144
8 256 19 524,288
9 512 20 1,048,576
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10 1024 21 2,097,152
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 Positive Powers of 2
Useful for Base Conversion
Exponent Value Exponent Value
0 1 11 2,048
1 2 12 4,096
2 4 13 8,192
3 8 14 16,384
4 16 15 32,768
5 32 16 65,536
6 64 17 131,072
7 128 18 262,144
8 256 19 524,288
9 512 20 1,048,576
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10 1024 21 2,097,152
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 In general…
0

(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1 … 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑0 )10 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 10𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1

(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1 … 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑0 )2 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 2𝑖𝑖

𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1

(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1 … 𝑑𝑑2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑0 )𝑏𝑏 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 𝑏𝑏 𝑖𝑖

Dr. Atif Shahzad

𝑖𝑖=𝑛𝑛−1

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 Binary Number Systems –
Questions
10001 =
101010=
1100=
10000000=
100000101=
101010101010110=
1111110=
0
Dr. Atif Shahzad

� 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 . 2𝑖𝑖
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 Usage of Number systems
Radix Name Description
2 Binary Computers

8 Octal Occasionally in Computing

10 Decimal Everywhere

12 Duodecimal
Quantities like dozens
(dozenal)
16 Hexadecimal Used in Computing

20 Vigesimal Traditional in some cultures

60 Sexagesimal Cirular coordinate system

(Angle and time)
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 Commonly Occurring Bases
Name Base Digits
Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
The six letters (in addition to the 10 integers) in hexadecimal
represent: 10,11,12,13,14,15
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 Numbers in Different Bases
Good idea to memorize!
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
(Base 10) (Base 2) (Base 8) (Base 16)
00 00000 00 00
01 00001 01 01
02 00010 02 02
03 00011 03 03
04 00100 04 04
05 00101 05 05
06 00110 06 06
07 00111 07 07
08 01000 10 08
09 01001 11 09
10 01010 12 0A
11 01011 13 0B
12 01100 14 0C
13 01101 15 0D
Dr. Atif Shahzad

14 01110 16 0E
15 01111 17 0F
16 10000 20 10

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 Base Conversion
How to convert from one base system to other ?

Any Idea?
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 Converting Decimal to Binary
Successively divide the decimal number by 2
Record the remainders after each division
The remainders written in reverse order form the binary number

Example: Convert 12310 to N2

123/2 1
61/2 1
30/2 0
15/2 1
7/2 1
3/2 1
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1/2 1

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1111011
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 Decimal to Binary– Questions
78 =
947=
301=
1294
10101010=
123456=
98123=
100=
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 Conversion Details
(in general)
To Convert the Integral Part:
Repeatedly divide the number by the new radix and save the
remainders. The digits for the new radix are the remainders
in reverse order of their computation. If the new radix is >
10, then convert all remainders > 10 to digits A, B, …
To Convert the Fractional Part:
Repeatedly multiply the fraction by the new radix and save
the integer digits that result. The digits for the new radix are
the integer digits in order of their computation. If the new
radix is > 10, then convert all integers > 10 to digits A, B, …
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 Converting Binary to Decimal
To convert to decimal, use decimal arithmetic
to form Σ (digit × respective power of 2).
Example:Convert 11012 to N10:
= 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 +0 × 21 +1 × 20
= 13
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 Binary to Decimal – Questions
10001 =
101010=
1100=
10000000=
100000101=
101010101010110=
1111110=
100=
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 Conversion Between Bases

Method 2
To convert from one base to another:

1) Convert the Integer Part

2) Convert the Fraction Part
3) Join the two results with a radix point
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 Example: Convert 46.687510 To
Base 2
Convert 46 to Base 2

Convert 0.6875 to Base 2:

Join the results together with the

radix point:
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 Example: Convert 46.687510 To
Base 2
Convert 46 to Base 2
46/2 = 23 rem = 0
23/2 = 11 rem = 1
11/2 = 5 remainder = 1
5/2 = 2 remainder = 1
2/2 = 1 remainder = 0
1/2 = 0 remainder = 1
Reading off in the reverse direction: 1011102

Convert 0.6875 to Base 2:

0.6875 * 2 = 1.3750 int = 1
0.3750 * 2 = 0.7500 int = 0
0.7500 * 2 = 1.5000 int = 1
0.5000 * 2 = 1.0000 int = 1
0.0000
Reading off in the forward direction: 0.10112
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Join the results together with the radix point:

Combining Integral and Fractional Parts:
101110. 10112

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 exercise: Convert
Convert 46 to Base 2
Convert 321 to Base 2
Convert 89 to Base 2
Convert 74 to Base 2
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 10
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 10
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 10
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 10

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 A Brain Teaser…
It is known that octopuses with 7 legs always
lie, while those with 6 legs and those with 8
legs always tell the truth. One night, four
octopuses met:
Black — 'We have 28 legs.'
Green — 'We have 27 legs.'
Yellow — 'We have 26 legs.' 

Red — 'We have 25 legs.'
Who spoke the truth?
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 Additional Issue - Fractional
Part
Note that in this conversion, the fractional part
became 0 as a result of the repeated multiplications.
In general, it may take many bits to get this to happen
or it may never happen.
Example: Convert 0.6510 to N2
0.65 = 0.1010011001001 …
The fractional part begins repeating every 4 steps yielding
repeating 1001 forever!
Solution: Specify number of bits to right of radix
point and round or truncate to this number.
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 Checking the Conversion
To convert back, sum the digits times their
respective powers of r.
From the prior conversion of 46.687510
1011102 = 1·32 + 0·16 +1·8 +1·4 + 1·2 +0·1
= 32 + 8 + 4 + 2
= 46
0.10112 = 1/2 + 1/8 + 1/16
= 0.5000 + 0.1250 + 0.0625
= 0.6875
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 Octal to Binary
Octal to Binary:
Restate the octal as three binary digits starting at
the radix point and going both ways.
Example: 1438
110 =001
410 =100
310 =011
so 1438 = 001 100 0112
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 Hexadecimal to Binary
Hexadecimal to Binary:
Restate the octal as four binary digits starting at
the radix point and going both ways.
Example: 14316
110 =0001
410 =0100
310 =0011
so 14316 = 0001 0100 0011 2
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 Binary to Octal
Binary to Octal :
Group the binary digits into three bit groups
starting at the radix point and going both ways,
padding with zeros as needed in the fractional
part.
Convert each group of three bits to an octal digit.

001100011 2 = 001 100 011 2

Implies 1438
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 Binary to hexadecimal
Binary to hexadecimal:
Group the binary digits into four bit groups starting
at the radix point and going both ways, padding with
zeros as needed in the fractional part.
Convert each group of four bits to an hexadecimal
digit.
0001010000112 = 0001 0100 00112
Implies 14316
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 exercise: Convert
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟖 to Base 2
Convert 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟖𝟖 to Base 2
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟖 to Base 2
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟖 to Base 2
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 to Base 2
Convert 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 to Base 2
Convert 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 to Base 2
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Convert 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 to Base 2

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 exercise: Convert
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 8
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 8
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟖 to Base 8
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 6
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 16
Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 16
Convert 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐 to Base 16
Dr. Atif Shahzad

Convert 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 to Base 16

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 Octal to Hexadecimal via
Binary
Convert octal to binary.
Use groups of four bits and convert as above
to hexadecimal digits.
Example: Octal to Binary to Hexadecimal
6 3 5 8
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 Octal to Hexadecimal via
Binary--Question
(6 3 5 . 1 7 7) 8
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 A Final Conversion Note
You can use arithmetic in other bases if
you are careful:
Example: Convert 1011102 to Base 10
using binary arithmetic:
Step 1 101110 / 1010 = 100 r 0110
Step 2 100 / 1010 = 0 r 0100
Converted Digits are 01002 | 01102
or 4 6 10
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 Binary Numbers and Binary
Coding
Flexibility of representation
Within constraints below, can assign any binary
combination (called a code word) to any data as long as
data is uniquely encoded.
Information Types
Numeric
Must represent range of data needed
Very desirable to represent data such that simple, straightforward
computation for common arithmetic operations permitted
Tight relation to binary numbers
Non-numeric
Greater flexibility since arithmetic operations not applied.
Not tied to binary numbers
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 Brain Teaser…
5 4 3 2 1
2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +2
=?
6
2 +1
26 − 1
6
2
6
3
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 There are 3 boxes, exactly one of which has a
chocolate.You can keep the chocolate if you pick
the correct box!
On each box there is a statement, exactly one of
which is true.
• Box 1: The chocolate is in this box.
• Box 2: The chocolate is not in this box.
• Box 3: The chocolate is not in box 1.
Which box has the chocolate ?
Dr. Atif Shahzad

.
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 Dr. Atif Shahzad

14-Jan-16
65
 NEVER hesitate to
contact should you
have any question
Dr. Atif Shahzad
Dr. Atif Shahzad

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