1.

0 HISTORY OF FOOTBALL
“Some people think football is a matter of life and death. I assure you, it's much more
serious than that.” [1]
It may come as a surprise to many, but football has a long and interesting history; sources
suggest that the sport was first introduced in England as early as 1170 when an account
describes youths going to the fields for a ‘game of ball’. Aspects of the game can even be
traced back to as early as the second and third century BC in China. Sources taken from
military manuals at the time describe an exercise called Tzu’s Chu, in which opponents used
a leather ball filled with feathers and hair. The aim was to get the ball into a small net fixed
on to bamboo canes while also defending themselves from attacks. Variations of the game
are also documented in Egyptian and Greek society, proving that the sport has a long
tradition throughout history.
Though football was considered a male sport, it was not exclusively played by men; women
have been involved in the game since the late nineteenth century. It became increasingly
popular during World War 1 when women had taken on the jobs traditionally done by men.
Those in industrial labor regularly met to play. A ladies team from Preston was one of the
first to compete in an international game against Paris. There was a brief ban after World
War I made by the Football Association who deemed women’s football to be inappropriate.
However, the formation of the English Women’s FA saw the ban eventually lifted in 1971.
Since then women’s football has continued to grow in Britain and abroad. Some of the
largest football clubs such as Arsenal, Everton and Chelsea all have female teams which
compete at home and internationally.

Football has become a much loved part of British culture, and has been instrumental
in causing change. Possibly the strangest match took place during World War I, a
period of history epitomized by bloodshed and death on massive scales. On
Christmas Eve of 1914, upon hearing German troops singing carols, both sides
walked on to no man’s land and played a game of football. While it is not known who
won that day, this was to be the only time in the trenches where artillery fire ceased.
The Christmas Day Truce of 1914, as it became known, highlights the impact football
has had in this country, and indeed the world, and helps explain why it is the nation’s
favorite pastime.

Football has also been mired by both tragedy and controversy, as seen by the
Hillsborough Disaster of 1989, in which 96 people were crushed to death. In another
incident, referred to as the Heysel Stadium Disaster (1985), a large group of
Liverpool fans breached a fence separating them from Juventus fans; the resultant
death of 32 people led to English football clubs being banned by UEFA from all
European competitions until the early 1990s and a number of Liverpool fans being
prosecuted for manslaughter.

The 2010 World Cup in South Africa was a defining moment for a nation that until
1994 was under a regime of apartheid. It was hoped that the biggest sports event in
the world would bring prosperity to the host country and show the rest of the world a
different side of Africa. Football has certainly come a long way from its humble
beginnings hundreds of years ago.
2.0 WHY FOOTBALL IS THE MOST FAMOUS SPORT

2.1 The Game Itself

Football is a really fast paced and beautiful game. Sure there are others like
Basketball or Hockey. But when you see a ball being handled like how Barcelona or
Arsenal (the T. Henry and Fabregas era) does it you begin to wonder if it’s really a
ball. They don’t just pass it. They caress it. It’s like the musical symphony of
Beethoven. Everything seems infinitesimally small when it plays. You have the entire
field in front of you and as the ball moves from one player to another, people feel a
kind of tension building that ends only when either a goal is scored or the attack is
cut short.

2.2 The Style Icons

Football whether American or European, has always been responsible for

producing such great Fashionistas who inspire Generation X or Y or Z to
continuously experiment in terms of how they look. Everybody wants to have the
hairstyle that Beckham has (which he continuously changes at ridiculous speeds) or
the abs of Cristiano Ronaldo. Even the ridiculous frontal tuft of Ronaldo the Brazilian
was copied to the limit. This desire of people to be "almost-mirror" images (a true
oxymoron) of their gods makes them highly participative of the Game.

2.3 The Pride

Sure many people would argue that people they personally know or friends of
friends they know may have turned to the Game just for the sake of peer pressure.
But apart from these people let me inform that
there is a large percentage of people who may not stand when the national anthem
is placed (no offence intended) and yet feel a patriotic feeling when the country they
support plays. Club wise, there is a larger percentage of people
who take pride in the fact that they are supporters of a particular club for whatever
reasons.

2.4 The Media

A recurrent query that often comes up from newbies is "How I was exposed to
football". My often uttered response of something related to the Media. Even before I
understood terms like "style of play", I would watch Players being dressed as
Greek gods and fighting mythical creatures. When you are 9 and you don’t
understand CGI, you kind of believe everything that is shown to you.
Moreover the media also focusses on the "rags to riches story" of several footballers
(think of any Brazilian star) as well as "rich spoilt brats gone badly ". Both can be
seen as inspirations to people for different reasons (what not to be and what to
definitely be).

2.5 The Media

I am a personal supporter of Manchester United and I consider the Image of
the "Busby Babes" as one of the most iconic images in my football collection.
I often see people ridiculing other clubs (won’t name any) because of their lack of
history. But the fact is that every club has some History attached to it which you will
get to know only if you dig deep enough. For example, many of us
don’t know that Real Madrid offered its top strikers and midfielders in an attempt to
allow Manchester United to rebuild their team after the Munich Air Disaster .How can
anyone not respect Real Madrid for that?

2.6 Peer Pressure

Suppose you are walking to your office, following that same routine which you
do every day. Suddenly you see a crowd gathered at a random corner of the street
which you may not visited over the last 20 years or so. There is a huge probability
that you will walk up to the scene and measure up the surrounding just to get that
little curiosity quenched.
Brains of many of us are built like that (at least mine is).When some noob (no pun
intended) sees people shouting their lungs put in front of a television or people
moving like a wave in the live telecast of the stadium
he/she is almost sure to check it out, even if he/she may later walk away
disinterested. The Excitement, The Screaming, The roaring...It all attracts people.

2.7 The Antics

I remember watching Karl Power get photographed with Manchester United (if
you haven’t seen it here is the video

Do you see that incredulous look on most of the players faces?? I couldn’t stop
laughing at both the helplessness of the players and the daring of that man. Hats off
Power!!
Do you see how immediately you are able to get attracted to the antics? This
somehow does work in favor of the TRP’s. So controversies regarding how Mancini
was pushed and shoved by either Tevez or Balotelli are sure to attract eyeballs.
 2.8 The Business
Since I am including different points of view, I think it’s safe to mention that
Football offers a very wide business perspective. Ask any Newcastle Fan. From
being one of the down-in-the-table teams New Castle has really changed how the
game is commercialized. With their shrewd decisions and an effective manager they
are one of the "phoenix" clubs. Many people become supportive of clubs and hence
of their subsequent play-offs.

3.0 MOST IMPORTANT CHAMPIONSHIPS

“The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength, not
a lack of knowledge, but rather a lack of will.” [2]

3.1 National Championships

“A lot of football success is in the mind. You must believe you are the best and
then make sure that you are.” [3]

The Egypt Cup is the main "knockout" football cup competition in Egypt. It was
created in 1921, and was not played only between 1968 and 1971 due to the Six-
Day War, in 1973–1974 due to October War and in 1979–1980, 1981–1982, 1986–
1987, 1993–1994 and 2011–2012.

Table 1: Honors

Team Champion Runner-up

Al Ahly 35

Zamalek SC 24

El Ittihad El Sakandary 6

Tersana 6

El Mokawloon SC 3

Ismaily 2

El Olympi 2

Enppi 2
 Team Champion Runner-up

Haras El Hodood 2

El Masry 1

El Teram 1

El Quanah 1

Total 83

Table 2: Championships by Season

No. Season Champion No. Season Champion No. Season Champion No. Season Champion

1921– Zamalek 1931– Zamalek 1941– 1951– Zamalek

1 11 21 Al Ahly 31
22 SC 32 SC 42 52 SC

1922– 1932– Zamalek 1952–

2 Tersana 12 El Olympi 1942– 32 Al Ahly
23 33 22 SC & Al 53
43
Ahly
1923– 1933– 1953–
3 Al Ahly 13 El Olympi 33 Tersana
24 34 1943– Zamalek 54
23
44 SC
1924– 1934– Zamalek 1954– Zamalek
4 Al Ahly 14 34
25 35 SC 1944– 55 SC
24 Al Ahly
45
Al Ittihad Al Ittihad 1955–
1925– 1935– 35 Al Ahly
5 El 15 El 1945– 56
26 36 25 Al Ahly
Sakandary Sakandary 46
1956– Zamalek
36
1926– 1936– 1946– 57 SC
6 Al Ahly 16 Al Ahly 26 Al Ahly
27 37 47
Zamalek
1957–
1927– 1937– Zamalek El Ittihad 37 SC & Al
7 Al Ahly 17 1947– 58
28 38 SC 27 El Ahly
48
Sakandary
1928– 1938– 1958– Zamalek
8 Tersana 18 Al Teram 38
29 39 1948– 59 SC
28 Al Ahly
49
1929– 1939– 1959– Zamalek
9 Al Ahly 19 Al Ahly 39
30 40 1949– 60 SC
29 Al Ahly
50
1930– 1940– Zamalek 1960–
10 Al Ahly 20 40 Al Ahly
31 41 SC 1950– 61
30 Al Ahly
51
 No. Season Champion

41 1961–62 Zamalek SC

42 1962–63 El Ittihad El Sakandary

43 1963–64 Al Quanah

44 1964–65 Tersana

45 1965–66 Al Ahly

46 1966–67 Tersana

47 1972–73 El Ittihad El Sakandary

48 1974–75 Zamalek SC

49 1975–76 El Ittihad El Sakandary

50 1976–77 Zamalek SC

No. Season Champion No. Season Champion No. Season Champion

51 1977–78 Al Ahly 61 1990–91 Al Ahly 71 2001–02 Zamalek SC

52 1978–79 Zamalek SC 62 1991–92 Al Ahly 72 2002–03 Al Ahly

53 1980–81 Al Ahly 63 1992–93 Al Ahly 73 2003–04 El Mokawloon SC

54 1981–82 Al Ahly 64 1994–95 El Mokawloon SC 74 2004–05 Enppi

55 1983–84 Al Ahly 65 1995–96 Al Ahly 75 2005–06 Al Ahly

56 1984–85 Al Ahly 66 1996–97 Ismaily 76 2006–07 Al Ahly

57 1985–86 Tersana 67 1997–98 El Masry 77 2007–08 Zamalek SC

58 1987–88 Zamalek SC 68 1998–99 Ismaily 78 2008–09 Haras El Hodood

59 1988–89 Al Ahly 69 1999–00 Zamalek SC 79 2009–10 Haras El Hodood

60 1989–90 El Mokawloon SC 70 2000–01 Al Ahly 80 2010–11 Enppi

No. Season Champion

- 2011–12 Cancelled

81 2013 Zamalek SC

82 2014 Zamalek SC

83 2015 Zamalek SC
 3.2 Continental Championships
“Don’t give up at half time. Concentrate at winning the second half.” [4]

The UEFA Champions League, known simply as the Champions League, is

an annual continental club football competition organized by the Union of European
Football Associations (UEFA) and contested by top-division European clubs. It is one
of the most prestigious tournaments in the world and the most prestigious club
competition in European football, played by the national league champion (and, for
some nations, one or more runners-up) of each UEFA national association. The final
of the 2012–13 tournament was the most watched UEFA Champions League final to
date, as well as the most watched annual sporting event worldwide in 2013, drawing
360 million television viewers.

Introduced in 1992, the competition replaced the European Champion Clubs' Cup,
or simply European Cup, which had run since 1955, adding a group stage to the
competition and allowing multiple entrants from certain countries. The pre-1992
competition was initially a straight knockout tournament open only to the champion
club of each country. During the 1990s, the format was expanded, incorporating a
round-robin group stage to include clubs that finished runner-up of some nations' top
level league. While most of Europe's national leagues can still only enter their
national league champion, Europe's strongest national leagues now provide up to
four teams for the competition, and will provide up to five teams from the 2015–16
season onwards. Clubs that finish next-in-line in each nation's top level league,
having not qualified for the UEFA Champions League competition, may be eligible
for the next level UEFA Europa League competition.

In its present format, the UEFA Champions League begins in mid-July with three
knockout qualifying rounds and a play-off round. The 10 surviving teams enter the
group stage, joining 22 other teams qualified in advance. The 32 teams are drawn
into eight groups of four teams and play each other in a double round-robin system.
The eight group winners and eight runners-up proceed to the knockout phase that
culminates with the final match in May. The winner of the UEFA Champions League
qualifies for the UEFA Super Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup.

Real Madrid is the most successful club in the competition's history, having won the
tournament ten times, including its first five seasons. Spanish clubs have
accumulated the highest number of victories (15 wins), followed by England and Italy
(12 wins apiece). The competition has been won by 22 different clubs, 12 of which
have won it more than once. Since the tournament changed name and structure in
1992, no club has managed consecutive wins; Milan were the last holders to
successfully defend their title, in the 1989–90 season. The reigning champions are
Barcelona, who secured their fifth title in the competition after defeating Juventus 3–
1 in the 2015 Final.
 3.2.1 History
The first pan-European tournament was the Challenge Cup, a competition
between clubs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Mitropa Cup, a competition
modelled after the Challenge Cup, was created in 1927 by Zeid Edilbi and played
between Central European clubs. In 1930, the Coupe des Nations (French: Nations
Cup), the first attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe, was
played and organized by Swiss club Servette. Held in Geneva, it brought together
ten champions from across the continent. The tournament was won by Újpest of
Hungary. Latin European nations came together to form the Latin Cup in 1949. After
receiving reports from his journalists over the highly successful Campeonato
Sudamericano de Campeones of 1948, Gabriel Hanot, editor of L'Équipe, began
proposing the creation of a continent-wide tournament. After Stan Cullis declared
Wolverhampton Wanderers "Champions of the World" following a successful run of
friendlies in the 1950s, in particular a 3–2 friendly victory against Budapest Honvéd,
Hanot finally managed to convince UEFA to put into practice such a tournament. It
was conceived in Paris in 1955 as the European Champion Clubs' Cup.
3.2.1.1 1955-1966: Beginnings
The first edition of the European Cup took place during the 1955–56
season. Sixteen teams participated: Milan (Italy), AGF Aarhus (Denmark),
Anderlecht (Belgium), Djurgården (Sweden), Gwardia Warszawa (Poland), Hibernian
(Scotland), Partizan (Yugoslavia), PSV Eindhoven (Netherlands), Rapid Wien
(Austria), Real Madrid (Spain), Rot-Weiss Essen (West Germany), Saarbrücken
(Saar), Servette (Switzerland), Sporting CP (Portugal), Stade de Reims (France),
and Vörös Lobogó (Hungary). The first European Cup match took place on 4
September 1955, and ended in a 3–3 draw between Sporting CP and Partizan. The
first goal in European Cup history was scored by João Baptista Martins of Sporting
CP. The inaugural final took place at the Parc des Princes between Stade de Reims
and Real Madrid. The Spanish squad came back from behind to win 4–3 thanks to
goals from Alfredo Di Stéfano and Marquitos, as well as two goals from Héctor Rial.

Real Madrid successfully defended the trophy next season in their home stadium,
the Santiago Bernabéu, against Fiorentina. After a scoreless first half, Real Madrid
scored twice in six minutes to defeat the Italians. In 1958, Milan failed to capitalize
after going ahead on the score line twice, only for Real Madrid to equalize. The final
held in Heysel Stadium went to extra time when Francisco Gento scored the game-
winning goal to allow Real Madrid to retain the title for the third consecutive season.
In a rematch of the first final, Real Madrid faced Stade Reims at the Neckarstadion
for the 1958–59 season finale, easily winning 2–0. West German side Eintracht
Frankfurt became the first non-Latin team to reach the European Cup final. The
1959–60 season finale still holds the record for the most goals scored, but the record
is overshadowed by the 7–3 thrashing Eintracht Frankfurt received in Hampden
Park, courtesy of four goals by Ferenc Puskás and a hat-trick by Alfredo Di Stéfano.
This was Real Madrid's fifth consecutive title, a record that still stands today.

Los Merengues reign ended in the 1960–61 season when bitter rivals Barcelona
dethroned them in the quarter-finals. Barcelona themselves, however, would be
defeated in the final by Portuguese outfit Benfica 3–2 at Wankdorf Stadium.
Reinforced by Eusébio, Benfica defeated Real Madrid 5–3 at the Olympic Stadium in
Amsterdam and kept the title for a second, consecutive season. Benfica wanted to
repeat Real Madrid's successful run of the 1950s after reaching the showpiece event
of the 1962–63 European Cup, but a brace from Brazilian-Italian José Altafini at the
Wembley Stadium gave the spoils to Milan, making the trophy leave the Iberian
Peninsula for the first time ever. Internazionale beat an ageing-Real Madrid 3–1 in
the Ernst-Happel-Stadion to win the 1963–64 season and replicate their local-rival's
success. The title stayed in the city of Milan for the third year in a row after Inter beat
Benfica 1–0 at their home ground, the San Siro.

3.2.2 Anthem
The UEFA Champions League anthem, officially titled simply as "Champions
League", was written by Tony Britten, and is an adaptation of George Frideric Handel's
Zadok the Priest (one of his Coronation Anthems). UEFA commissioned Britten in
1992 to arrange an anthem, and the piece was performed by London's Royal
Philharmonic Orchestra and sung by the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields. The
chorus contains the three official languages used by UEFA: English, German, and
French. The anthem's chorus is played before each UEFA Champions League game,
as well as at the beginning and end of television broadcasts of the matches. The
complete anthem is about three minutes long, and has two short verses and the
chorus. For the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final in Rome, tenor Andrea Bocelli
sang backing lyrics to the Champions League anthem, whilst similarly Juan Diego
Flórez provided the tenor for the 2010 UEFA Champions League Final. Girl band All
Angels performed at the 2011 UEFA Champions League Final. Jonas Kaufmann
provided the tenor for 2012 UEFA Champions League Final, whilst David Garrett
performed with his violin. The anthem has never been released commercially in its
original version.

3.2.3 Branding
In 1991, UEFA asked its commercial partner, Television Event and Media
Marketing (TEAM), to help "brand" the Champions League. This resulted in the
anthem, "house colors" of black and white or silver and a logo, and the "star ball." The
star ball was created by Design Bridge, a London-based firm selected by TEAM after
a competition. TEAM gives particular attention to detail in how the colors and star ball
are depicted at matches. According to TEAM, "Irrespective of whether you are a
spectator in Moscow or Milan, you will always see the same stadium dressing
materials, the same opening ceremony featuring the 'star ball' centre circle ceremony,
and hear the same UEFA Champions League Anthem." Based on research it
conducted, TEAM concluded that by 1999, "the star ball logo had achieved a
recognition rate of 94 percent among fans."

3.2.4 Tournament
“A winner never stops trying.” [5]
 The tournament proper begins with a group stage of 32 teams, divided into
eight groups. Seeding is used whilst making the draw for this stage, whilst teams
from the same country may not be drawn into groups together. Each team meets the
others in its group home and away in a round-robin format. The winning team and
the runners-up from each group then progress to the next round. The third-placed
team enters the UEFA Europa League.

For this stage, the winning team from one group plays against the runners-up from
another group, and teams from the same association may not be drawn against each
other. From the quarter-finals onwards, the draw is entirely random, without
association protection. The tournament uses the away goals rule: if the aggregate
score of the two games is tied, then the team who scored more goals at their
opponent's stadium advances.

The group stage is played from September to December, whilst the knock-out stage
starts in February. The knock-out ties are played in a two-legged format, with the
exception of the final. This is typically held in the final two weeks of May.

3.2.5 Default distribution

Table 3: Distribution Table in the League

Teams advancing from previous

Teams entering in this round
round

First qualifying round  8 champions from 

(8 teams) associations 47–54
 30 champions from
Second qualifying round  4 winners from the first
associations 16–46 (except
(34 teams) qualifying round
Liechtenstein)

Champions  3 champions from  17 winners from the

(20 teams) associations 13–15 second qualifying round
Third
qualifying  9 runners-up from
Non-
round associations 7–15 
champions
 1 third-placed team from
(10 teams)
association 6
 10 winners from the third
Champions qualifying round for
(10 teams) champions
Play-off
round 
 2 third-placed teams from 5 winners from the third
Non-
associations 4–5 qualifying round for non-
champions
 3 fourth-placed teams from champions
(10 teams)
associations 1–3[UCL]
  UEFA Europa League
champion

 12 champions from
associations 1–12
 5 winners from the play-
 6 runners-up from
off round for champions
associations 1–6
Group stage  5 winners from the play-
 3 third-placed teams from
(32 teams) off round for non-
associations 1–3
champions
 UEFA Champions League
champion

 8 group winners from the

group stage
Knockout phase
 8 group runners-up from
(16 teams)
the group stage

3.2.6 Trophy and Medals

Each year, the winning team is presented with the European Champion Clubs' Cup,
the current version of which has been awarded since 1967. Any team that wins the
Champions League three years in a row or five times overall wins the right to retain a
full-sized replica of the trophy (UEFA retains the original at all times). Six clubs have
earned this honor: Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich, Milan, Liverpool, and
Barcelona.

The current trophy is 74 cm (29 in) tall and made of silver, weighing 11 kg (24 lb.). It
was designed by Jörg Stadelmann, a jeweler from Bern, Switzerland, after the
original was given to Real Madrid in 1966 in recognition of their six titles to date, and
cost 10,000 Swiss francs.

As of the 2012–13 season, 40 gold medals are presented to the Champions League
winners, and 40 silver medals to the runners-up.

Figure 1: UEFA Champions League Trophy

 3.2.7 Prize Money
As of 2015–16, UEFA awards €2 million to the play-offs winners and
€3 million to the eliminated clubs in the play-off round. For reaching the group stage,
UEFA awards a base fee of €12 million. A win in the groups is awarded with
€1.5 million and a draw is worth €500,000. In addition, UEFA pays teams reaching
the first knockout round €5.5 million, each quarter-finalist €6 million, €7 million for
each semi-finalist, €10.5 million for the runners-up and €15 million for the winners.

 First Qualifying Round: €200,000

 Second Qualifying Round: €300,000
 Third Qualifying Round: €400,000
 Play-offs Eliminated: €3,000,000
 Play-offs Winners: €2,000,000
 Base fee for group stage: €12,000,000
 Group match victory: €1,500,000
 Group match draw: €500,000
 Round of 16: €5,500,000
 Quarter-finals: €6,000,000
 Semi-finals: €7,000,000
 Losing finalist: €10,500,000
 Winning the Final: €15,000,000

A large part of the distributed revenue from the UEFA Champions League is linked to
the "market pool", the distribution of which is determined by the value of the
television market in each country. For the 2014–15 season, Juventus, who were the
runners-up, earned nearly €89.1 million in total, of which €30.9 million was prize
money, compared with the €61.0 million earned by Barcelona, who won the
tournament and were awarded €36.4 million in prize money.

3.3 International Championships

“You have to perform at a consistently higher level than others. That’s the mark of
a true professional” [6]

The world's first international football match was a challenge match played in
Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England, which ended in a 0–0 draw. The
first international tournament, the inaugural edition of the British Home
Championship, took place in 1884. As football grew in popularity in other parts of the
world at the turn of the 20th century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no
medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics (however, the IOC has
retroactively upgraded their status to official events), and at the 1906 Intercalated
Games.

After FIFA was founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football

tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906.
These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA
describes the competition as having been a failure.
At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official competition.
Planned by The Football Association (FA), England's football governing body, the
event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather
than a competition. Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur
football team) won the gold medals. They repeated the feat in 1912 in Stockholm.

With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams, Sir
Thomas Lipton organized the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909.
The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national
teams) from different nations, each one of which represented an entire nation. The
competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup and featured the most
prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA
of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to
send a professional team. Lipton invited West Auckland, an amateur side from
County Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament
and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.

In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognize the Olympic tournament as a "world football

championship for amateurs", and took responsibility for managing the event. This
paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition, at the 1920
Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and 13 European teams, and won by
Belgium. Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928.
Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of
FIFA's professional era.

Figure 2: Map of FIFA World Cup final hosts, 1930–2022. Green: once; dark green: twice; light
green: planned
4.0 RASICM IN FOOTBALL
“To succeed…You need to find something to hold on to, something to motivate you,
something to inspire you.” [7]

Currently the highest level of Football in England – the FA Premier League – is an

extremely cosmopolitan league with players from all over the world plying their trade
as footballers in England. The law has had a huge effect in this area following the
decision in the Bosman case effectively opening the gates to players from all over
Europe.

As a consequence of this globalization of football one problem which has persisted in

English football has at times become more apparent.

The problem of racism has been a problem suffered for years in football and involves
racist abuse from opposing players, fans and in some cases even teammates.

The National Governing Body of football in England, the Football Association (FA)
runs a campaign called “Lets Kick Racism out of Football” which is designed
specifically to rid the sport of racist abuse targeting both players and fans alike.

Similarly, the World Governing Body of football – FIFA – runs campaigns to remove
racism from the sport through their Fair Play campaign.

The governing bodies of football such as the FA, FIFA and UEFA (the European
Governing Body of Football) have the power to investigate any allegations of racist
abuse made by players and fans and are able to hand down penalties.

Often these governing bodies will therefore be the first port of call for players who
have suffered racist abuse enabling the sport to deal with the matter internally. It is
the official position stated by FIFA that when a player suffers racist abuse, the matter
should be dealt with by the sport rather than the courts.

In a high profile case involving a black South African player playing for a Premier
League club in European competition, the complaint was made to UEFA and the
player was handed a five match ban from competitive football.

It was clear that UEFA found significant grounds of racist abuse, but the issue with
this case is whether a five match ban is an appropriate sanction for this kind of
abuse. The key questions are whether it was enough to discourage the same player
to commit a similar act or to discourage other players from committing similar acts.
Many felt that this punishment was not enough for either of these factors.

In order for the player to be convicted of using the racist language it must be proven
that he did in fact make these racist remarks during the match.
This looks like a difficult task as it is one players word against another’s as the other
players on the pitch as well as the referee may not have heard the comments being
uttered and considering the high profile nature of the match it is likely to assume that
the other players would have been too focused on the task in hand to hear the
comments.

However, given the nature of the high profile which football currently occupies it is
likely that the incident was in fact captured by one of the many cameras used to
televise the match. If this is the case then it could be used as evidence.

If the court were to find in favor of the claimant then the defendant would be subject
to a fine and the possibility of a prison sentence.

What may be more apparent is the effect that a decision like this will have on the
sport of football as it would create a clear precedent for all cases of this nature taking
them directly out of the internal sphere of the sport and placing them directly within
the adjudication of the courts.

5.0 RELATION BETWEEN FOOTBALL AND ULTRAS

“The principle is competing against yourself. It’s about self-improvement, about being
better than you were the day before.” [8]

Ultras are a type of football fan renowned for ultra-fanatical support, occasionally to
the point of violence and hateful chants and slogans. They are predominantly
followers of football teams, typically in South America and Europe.

The behavioral tendency of ultras groups includes the use of flares (primarily in tifo
choreography), vocal support in large groups and the displaying of banners at
football stadiums, all of which are designed to create an atmosphere which
encourages their own team and intimidates opposing players and supporters. The
use of elaborate displays in stadiums often is common, as well.

The actions of ultras groups are occasionally extreme and may be influenced by
political ideologies or views on racism. In some instances, this goes to the point
where the passionate and loyal support of one's team becomes secondary to the
theoretical ideology of the ultras phenomenon. In recent decades, the culture has
become a focal point for the movement against the commercialization of sports and
football in particular.

In 2013, the Associated Press stated that the Egyptian Ultras network was one of the
most organized movements in Egypt after the Muslim Brotherhood.
 5.1 History of Ultras
The origin of the ultras movement is disputed, with many supporters groups
from various countries making claims solely on the basis of their dates of foundation.
The level of dispute and confusion is aided by a contemporary tendency (mainly in
Europe) to categorize all groups of overtly fanatical supporters as ultras. Supporters
groups of a nature comparable to the ultras have been present in Brazil since 1939,
when the first torcida organizada was formed. Inspired by the torcidas and the
colorful scenes of the 1950 World Cup, supporters of Hajduk Split formed Torcida
Split on 28 October 1950. The group is often cited as the oldest torcida style group in
Europe.

One country closely associated with the ultras movement is Italy. The first Italian
ultras groups were formed in 1951, including the Fedelissimi Granata of Torino. The
1960s saw the continuing spread and development of the culture with the formation
of the Fossa dei Leoni and Boys San groups, the former often regarded in Italy as
the first full-fledged ultras group. The term Ultras was used as a name for the first
time in 1969 when supporters of Sampdoria formed the Ultras Tito Cucchiaroni and
fans of Torino formed the Ultras Granata. The style of support that would become
synonymous with Italian football developed most during the 1970s as more groups
formed and the active support of the ultras became more apparent, in contrast with
the "traditional" culture. Choreographic displays, signature banners and symbols,
giant flags, drums and fireworks became the norm as groups aimed to take their
support to higher levels. The decade also saw the violence and unrest of Italian
society at the time overlap with the ultras movement, adding a dimension that has
plagued it ever since.

The ultras movement spread across Europe during the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s,
starting with the countries geographically closest to Italy. The effects on the
footballing cultures of the countries involved were more profound in some and less in
others, as a certain level of organization amongst fans and/or a tradition of colorful
support would have long been present in many countries. Germany, Belgium and the
Netherlands, three countries whose footballing cultures were more influenced by
British football in the past, experienced significant change. English football is a rare
example of a footballing culture in Europe which hasn't been heavily influenced by
the ultras movement.

The clubs in Egypt became a major political force during the uprising against
Mubarak in 2011, but were known for long-standing animosity with the police. When
38 members of the Ultras Devils were arrested in Shebeen al-Kom for "belonging to
an illegal group" plus additional violent offences, it was seen as a crackdown on the
organizations by authorities. Ultras in Turkey have also played a role in the 2013
protests in Turkey, with fans of arch-rivals Galatasaray, Fenerbahçe and Besiktas
shielding protesters and allying against police violence. Police responded with raids
in the Besiktas neighborhood, the main breeding ground of ultras of the Beşiktaş
club, the Carsi Group.
 5.2 Hooliganism
Ultras groups are usually centered on a core group of founders or leaders
(who tend to hold executive control), with smaller subgroups organized by location,
friendship or political stance. Ultras tend to use various styles and sizes of banners
and flags bearing the name and symbols of their group. Some ultras groups sell their
own merchandise to raise funds for performing displays. An ultras group can number
from a handful of fans to hundreds or thousands, with larger groups often claiming
entire sections of a stadium for themselves. Ultras groups often have a
representative who liaises with the club owners on a regular basis, mostly regarding
tickets, seat allocations and storage facilities. Some clubs provide groups with
cheaper tickets, storage rooms for flags and banners and early access to the
stadium before matches in order to prepare displays. These types of favored
relationships are often criticized when ultras groups abuse their power.

Figure 3: Polish Football Hooligans in Violent Clash Figure 4: Ultras of Boca Juniors

While ultras groups can become violent, the majority of matches attended by ultras
conclude with no violent incidents. Unlike hooligan firms, whose main aim is to fight
hooligans of other clubs, the main focus of ultras is generally to support their own
team. Some hooligans try to be inconspicuous when they travel; usually not wearing
team colors, in order to avoid detection by the police. Within the ultra or hooligan
culture however, those dressing to "blend in" would be referred to as casuals, which
is viewed by some as a branch of hooliganism, yet still maintaining its own
independence and culture. Ultras tend to be more conspicuous when they travel,
proudly displaying their scarves and club colors while arriving en masse, which
allows the police to keep a close eye on their movements.

However, there appears to be a degree of crossover in some countries between

ultras and hooligans. In Italy, when English club Middlesbrough played a match
against AS Roma in March 2006, three Middlesbrough fans were stabbed in an
attack that was blamed on Roma-supporting ultras.