Fluid Mechanics II

B.S. Mechanical Engineering

4th Semester
 Boundary Layer Theory
EXTERNAL FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
1. Flow may be steady or unsteady
2. Flow depends on the nature of the body
a. Two dimensional objects
b. Axisymmetric bodies
c. Three dimensional bodies
3. Flow depends on the shape of the body
a. Streamlined Bodies
b. Blunt Bodies

2 D body Axisymmetric body 3D body

Blunt Streamlined Streamlined 2

 Related Equations of Flow
Continuity Eq

Momentum Eq

3
Lift and Drag

4
 Reynolds # and Geometry Effects
 Flow field is a function of shape of the body
 For a given shaped object flow field depends on:

1. Size Mach Number  lV

2. Orientation
Froude Number Re 
3. Speed
Reynolds Number

4. Fluid Properties

Extreme limits???? Generally, Re >> 1 or Re << 1

In most of situations For

 For Water or Air  Re < 1 Viscosity Dominated Flow
 0.01 m < l <10 m  Re > 100 Inertia Dominated Flow
 0.01 m/sec < U < 100 m/sec  Most familiar flows are dominated
Gives 10 < Re < 109 by Inertia
5
 Reynolds # and Geometry Effects, contd.
Flow over Flat Plate

Flow is viscous in a
Specific Region
and Inviscid
everywhere else

Boundary Layer 6
 Reynolds # and Geometry Effects, contd.
Flow over Circular Cylinder

Again Viscous
effects are
contained in a
Specific Region

The Specific
Region is called
Boundary Layer

7
 Boundary Layer Properties
Boundary Layer is a region in which
1. Viscous effects are present
2. Velocity Gradients are present and velocity at wall is zero (No slip)
3. Flow velocity increases normal to the surface and reaches U

Velocity gradient causes generation of shear stress at wall  u 

w    
Thickness of Boundary layer is represented by δ  y  w
There is no sharp edge of Boundary layer y=δ where u = 0.99 U 8
 Boundary Layer Properties, cont.
Displacement Thickness *
It is an index proportional to “missing volume flow rate” due to presence
of boundary layer


A = Actual flow rate = 0
udy

B= hypothetical flow rate if BL were not there =
  Udy
B – A = Missing Flow Rate = U  u  dy
0

U *
0
Missing Flow Rate may also be expressed as =
  u 
Comparing above eqs. We have:  
*
1   dy 9
0
 U 
 Boundary Layer Properties, cont.
Displacement Thickness *
2. It is the distance through which the external inviscid flow is displaced by
the presence of boundary layer

10
 Boundary Layer Properties, cont.
Momentum Thickness 
It is an index proportional to “missing momentum ” due to presence of
boundary layer

It is used for
determining the drag
on the object

Mass flow across a segment dy is as dm  udy

A = Actual Momentum flow across dy =  u 2
dy
B= hypothetical Momentum flow if BL were not there = u (U  u )dy
B – A = Total Missing Momentum Flow =   u U  u  dy
y

0
Total Missing Momentum Flow = U 
2

Comparing above eqs. We have:   y u  1  u  dy

0 U  U  11
 Karman’s Analysis of Flat Plate
As a 1st Step We consider the
Integral Analysis of Flat Plate

Consider a Control Volume

for the Flow over Flat Plate

1. From (0, 0) to (0, h): a one-dimensional inlet, V . n = -U

2. From (0, h) to (L, δ ): a streamline, no shear, V . n = 0
3. From (L, ) to (L, 0): a two-dimensional outlet, V . n = +u(y)
4. From (L, 0) to (0, 0): a streamline just above the plate surface, V . n = 0,
shear forces summing to the drag force Di acting from the plate onto
the retarded fluid
The only force acting is drag due to shear stress at the surface of plate
0
x- Momentum Eq. 12
 Karman’s Analysis of Flat Plate, contd.
Now, we need to find
for all sides
Side 1 V . n = -U
dA = b dy
u=U

CS     2
u (V .n ) dA U bh Side 3 V . n = u(y)
dA = b dy
Side 2 

It is a streamline and there CS

u  (V .n)dA  b  u 2 dy
0
must be no flow across Side 4 Solid wall so, V . n = 0
streamline, so Shear force = -D
V.n=0 Hence

CS
u  (V .n)dA 0  x
F   D   U bh  
2
b  dy
u 2
0

D  U bh   b  u 2 dy
2 13
0
 Karman’s Analysis of Flat Plate, contd.
As relation b/w h and δ is not known, so we
must remove h from the result given above

Applying Continuity Equation

(1) Comparing (1) and (2)

Also drag may be calculated from
shear stress distribution Valid for both Laminar &
Turbulent Flows
14
(2)
 Karman’s Analysis of Flat Plate, contd.
For Laminar Flow, Karman used
following Velocity Profile

2U 1/ 2
w  Re
Momentum Thickness 5.5 x
comes out to be and

Wall Shear
Boundary layer is “thin” if
δ/x ≤ 0.1 Rex = 2500

Above relations are valid

for 2500 ≤ Rex ≤ 3 x 106
(Laminar Flow) 15
 Example 1 Integral Momentum Analysis
Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at
y = 0. The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = U y/δ for
0 ≤y≤ δ and u = U for y > δ. Determine the shear stress by using the
momentum integral equation
and

so
Hence

16
 Boundary Layer Equations
Internal Flows
Analytical solutions of NS Eqs. Exist for Laminar Flow in
Simple Geometries. No solution exists for Turbulent flow
External Flows
No Analytical solutions of NS Eqs. Exist.
Other methods used are:
1. Numerical Solution
2. Experimental
3. BL Theory
Boundary Layer Theory
 Approximations introduced to NS result in great simplifications
 Only two equations need to be solved in stead of three eqs. (2-D, Isothermal)
 Can predict separation
 Cannot model separated flows
17
 Boundary Layer Equations, contd.
Assumptions Under these Assumptions NS become

1. 2-D Flow
2. Steady state flow
3. No gravity effects
4. Incompressible flow

 To be solved for u, v and p

 B.C.’s are no-slip; inlet and exit
 Too difficult to be solved analytically

For High Reynolds Number Following

Approximations Apply:
18
 Boundary Layer Equations, contd.
1. y-Momentum eq. can be entirely ignored
2. Pressure varies only along boundary layer and not through it

3. The pressure-gradient along boundary layer is assumed to be known in

advance from Bernoulli’s equation applied to the outer inviscid flow

 2u  2u  2u
4. The diffusion term in x- Momentum eq. reduces to  ( 2 ) because 2 
y x y 2
5. Continuity equation is still valid u u u
2
dU
 v )  U
6. Momentum equation becomes: x y (u
y 2
dx
7. There are two equations only but non-linear
u v
Continuity x  y  0
u u dU 1 τ
Momentum Along Wall u v U 
x y dx ρ y
At y=0; u = v= 0
BCs At y=δ; u = U(x) 19
 The Flat Plate Boundary Layer; Laminar Flow
Inviscid flow over a flat plate yields a constant pressure over the surface (from
Bernoulli’s Eq) so: p / x  0

 Mathematical behavior of above equations is parabolic

 Balsius used following transformation

 Substituting above transformation in Boundary Layer equations, he got

BCs and
 He solved the above equation: 20
 The Flat Plate Boundary Layer; Laminar Flow
Solution is self-similar

Other Results

Shape Factor H is the ratio of

Displacement Thickness to
Momentum Thickness and is given by
21
 Example Flat Plate Boundary Layer
Air flows over a flat plate of length l = 2 ft such that the Reynolds
0.5

number based on the plate length is Re = 2x105. Plot the boundary

layer thickness δ for 0≤ x ≤ l
Ul Re 2 105 1.57 104 l = 2 ft
Re   2 10 5
U  Re = 2 x105
 l 2
 15.7 ft / sec ν = 1.57 x 10-4 ft2/s
B L Thickness δ (ft)

Flow as laminar as Re < 5 x 105 0.025

0.25

B L Thickness δ(ft)
0.02
x1.57 10 x 4
 5 5 0.015
U 15.7 0.01
0.005
  0.0158 x 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
x Distance (ft)

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
22
x Distance (ft)
 Transition to Turbulent Boundary Layers
 Transition to turbulent boundary layer
occurs if plate is long enough
 Transition is governed by Reynolds No.
 Transition depends upon
1. Roughness of surface
2. Curvature of surface
3. Disturbances in the free-stream flow
 Range of Reynolds No: 2 x 105 to 3 x 106
 Mostly Rexcr = 5 x 105

23
 Turbulent Boundary Layers
 There is no “exact” solution for turbulent boundary layer flow
 Approximate turbulent boundary layer results can be obtained by use
of the momentum integral

24

Displacement Thickness
Shape Factor
Above Results are for Turbulent flow
Over Smooth Flat Plate. For Fully
Rough Plate, Empirical relations are

For Transition Region

Following Relations Hold
Turbulent Boundary Layers, contd.

25
 Example 4 Flat Plate Boundary Layer
An airplane flies at a speed of 400 mph at an altitude of 10,000 ft. If the
boundary layers on the wing surfaces behave as those on a flat late,
estimate the extent of laminar boundary layer flow along the wing. Assume a
transitional Reynolds number of 5 x 105.If the airplane maintains its 400-mph
speed but descends to sea level elevation, will the portion of the wing
covered by a laminar boundary layer increase or decrease compared with its
value at 10,000 ft?
At 10,000 ft ρ = 0.00174 slug / ft3 Recr  Ul  5 105  0.00174  587 l
μ = 3.5 x 10 lb. s/ft
-7 2  3.5  10 7

U = 400 mph = 587 ft /s l  0.171 ft

Ul 0.00234  587  l

ρ = 0.00234 slug / ft3 Recr   5 105 
At Sea level  3.76 107
μ = 3.76x 10-7 lb. s/ft2 l  0.137 ft
U = 400 mph = 587 ft /s
26
 Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient
 Boundary Layer Theory is valid before separation only as the thickness of
region of viscous increases after separation
 Separation is caused by excessive momentum loss due to adverse
pressure gradient i.e. dp/dx > 0
 Separation is never seen in favorable pressure gradient i.e. dp/dx < 0

Flow Separation

27
 Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient, contd

u u dU 1 τ
u v U 
x y dx ρ y
At wall u=v=0 so

Second derivative is +ve at the wall and must be negative in free stream28 so it
must pass through zero value in between. (Point of Inflection)
Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient, contd

29
 Thwaites Method for BL Separation

Steps
1. Find θ from
He defined

 U
2

 w
 S ( ) 2. Find λ = θ2U’/ν
 U 3. Compare it with -0.09 to find
separation point
Thwaites correlated dimensionless
shear stress with λ as 4. Find   U S ( )
w

For Flat Plate
λ =0
λ =-0.09 for separation U’
30
=0
θ0 = 0
 Example 5 Laminar Integral Theory
In 1957, Gortler calculated separation for Laminar flow to be xsep/L = 0.159
for the following adverse gradient profile
U0
U
(1  x / L)

Compare with Thwaites’s method assuming θ0 = 0

5
0.45
6 x
 x 5 x
2 
U 06
 1
 L
  0 0  L  dx
U 1 

0.45 L  x
6
  x 
4
  dU2

 
2
1   1    1 Now 
4U 0  L   L    dx
0.45   x 
4
dU U0 1
Where     1  1   
dx (1  x / L) 2  L  4   L  
For separation
x
   0.158 ≤ 1%
 L sep
31
 Experimental External Flows
 Boundary Layer Theory Fails after Separation
 There is no satisfactory theory for forces on an arbitrary body
Forces and Moment acting on Immersed Bodies
1. Drag and Rolling Moment
2. Lift and Yaw Moment
3. Side Force and Pitching Moment
Simplifications Introduced
1. Body Symmetry about Lift-Drag
Axis; Side force, Yaw and Roll
Vanish
2. Body having 2 Planes of
Symmetry; Lift, Side force and all
moments vanish

32
 Drag
 Drag is a net force in direction of flow due to Pressure and Shear Forces
 Pressure and Shear stress distributions are needed to calculate it
 It can be computed by various approaches
1. Analytical Methods
2. Computational Fluid Dynamics
3. Experimental Investigations
Classification of Drag
Skin Friction Drag
 It is a function of wall shear stress and orientation of the surface
 It is generally a small portion of overall drag for blunt bodies
 It is significant for Streamlined Bodies or for low Reynolds
Number flow
Pressure (Form) Drag
 It is a function magnitude of pressure and orientation of the surface
 It is significant for Blunt Bodies at high Reynolds Numbers
 Absent for streamlined bodies at lower angle of attack 33
Total Drag = Pressure (Form) Drag + Skin Friction Drag
 Drag Coefficient Data
Drag Coefficient = f(Shape; Re; Ma; Fr; ε/l)
Shape Dependence Streamlined cylinder at Re = 106

Effect of Streamlining

(a) (b) (c)

A circular cylinder Thickness = 1 / 8 of (c) and

X-section = 1/300 of (c)
(d)
Reynolds Number Dependence

CD = 0.5 CD = 0.2
34
 Drag Coefficient Data, contd.
Surface Roughness Dependence
Roughness effect is seen only for Turbulent Flows
1. It may alter the wall shear stress
2. It may cause early transition
So
1. It increases drag for streamlined bodies
2. It decreases drag for blunt bodies

35
Drag Coefficient Data, contd.

36
Drag Coefficient Data, contd.

37
 Introduction
GAS DYNAMICS
 It is the branch of fluid mechanics concerned with causes and effects
arising from the motion of compressible fluids particularly gases.
Fluid Mechanics

Statics Fluid Dynamics

Aerodynamics Hydrodynamics Gas Dynamics

In this subject we are concerned with following fundamental physical laws

1. Law of conservation of mass
2. Newton’s second law of motion
3. First law of thermodynamics
4. Second law of thermodynamics
Above laws are applicable to all fluids and all flow processes
Above laws are applied to a fluid utilizing the continuum concept 38
 Continuum
 All materials, solid or fluid, are composed of molecules discretely
spread and in continuous motion.
 However, in dealing with fluid-flow relations on a mathematical basis, it
is necessary to replace the actual molecular structure by a hypothetical
continuous medium, called the continuum
 Continuum postulate assumes that every differential element of body of
fluid contains a large number of molecules such that the average

Perfect Gas
 A gas in which intermolecular forces are negligible
 Such a gas follows
pv=RT (Rair = 287 J/kg.K= 1716 ft.lb/Slug.R)
 Mostly molecules are on the average 10 molecular diameters apart so
intermolecular forces are negligible
39
 Internal Energy
It comprises of the
1. Translational kinetic energy of the gas molecules
2. Rotational kinetic energy of the gas molecules
3. Vibrational kinetic energy of the gas molecule due to atoms
4. Electronic energy due to electrons
of all the molecules in a given volume.
Enthalpy
By definition Enthalpy is
For a calorically perfect
For a perfect gas, both u
gas, cp and cv are constant
and h are function of t only
du = cv dt u = cv t
dh = cp dt h = cp t

Also cp - cv = R 40
 First Law of Thermodynamics
“Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be
changed from one form to another form.”
1. Total Energy is conserved
2. This Law is based on experience and no phenomenon contradicts it
3. Heat and work are mutually inter-convertible and fixed amount per
unit mass is needed for every degree rise of temperature
For a cyclic process of closed system of mass m
Line integral vanishes for the closed
curve so the integral defines a property
E is the stored The equation is valid
energy for both Reversible
and Irreversible
On per unit processes
mass basis
For Irreversible 41
processes
 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
 Heat is a relatively crude form of energy so it can not be converted
into work completely
 Only a portion of heat can be converted into work
 Every natural system will change spontaneously and reach
equilibrium and no further change will be possible
For a closed system that undergoes
a cyclic change, it may be shown

Hence For Reversible Adiabatic Process

For a closed system For Irreversible

If heat is added reversibly then Adiabatic Process
or
For a Diabetic Process
42
 Thermodynamic Properties of a Perfect Gas
Entropy Change
Also
For a reversible process
of Thermally perfect gas So tds  dh  vdp

Integrating both equations

Considering calorically s2  s1  cv ln
t2 v
 R ln 2 s2  s1  c p ln
t2 p
 R ln 2
perfect gas t1 v1 t1 p1

Isentropic Relations
t2 p
t v 0  c p ln  R ln 2
0  cv ln 2  R ln 2 t1 p1
t1 v1

1
v2  t2 

 1 p2  t 2   1
    
v1  t1  p1  t1 
cv 1
1
Where  cp 
 2  t2   1 R  1 Where 
  R  1
1  t1  

p2   2   t 2   1
      43
Combining all the relations p1  1   t1 
 Compressibility
Amount by which a substance can be compressed is given by a property
compressibility
Compressibility is
fractional change in
volume per unit change in
pressure

Rise in temp is controlled by

Isothermal Compressibility
some heat transfer mechanism

Isentropic Compressibility
Liquid dρ is small
Compressibility in
the form of density Gas dρ
 Is small for low speed flow
Another index 44
 Is large for high speed flow
 Governing Equations for Compressible Flows
Following are the Laws Following are the Governing Equations
1. Law of conservation of mass 1. Continuity Equation
2. Newton’s second law of motion 2. Momentum Equation
3. First law of thermodynamics 3. Energy Equation
4. Second law of thermodynamics 4. Entropy Equation
Continuity Equation

Integral Differential
Form Form

Momentum Equation
Integral
Form
Differential
Form 45
 Governing Equations for Compressible Flows, contd
Energy Equation

Integral
Form

Differential
Form

For steady adiabatic inviscid flow without body forces along a streamline,
the energy equations becomes

46
Stagnation Properties

47
 1D Continuity & Momentum Equations
Continuity Eq
Steady State

1D inlet/outlet

Momentum Eq

Steady Flow

Frictionless Flow
48
 Speed of Sound
Stationary observer
Unsteady Case

Observer moving with pressure wave

Steady Case

Flow is 1 Dimensional 49
 Speed of Sound

Momentum eq.
  pdA  V( V.dA)
A A

For the control volume shown

 pA  ( p  dp) A  m
 [(c  dV )]  m
 (c)
Simplifying
dV dV
dp  m    Ac    cdV
A A

From continuity Eq.   Ac      d   A c  dV  Solving for dV

c
dp Put in d
dV  c 50
d momentum eq 
 Speed of Sound
1. Changes within wave are slight Flow is reversible
2. No heat addition
Hence, the process inside wave is isentropic, so
 p 
c  
  s

p1   1  p  co nst  
For calorically perfect gas  
p2   2 
 p   p  p
So         1 
  s    

Hence c   p
p
But  RT
 

 c   RT 51
 Mach Number
It is the ratio of local fluid speed V to its acoustic speed

52
Special Forms of Energy Equations

53
Special Forms of Energy Equations

54
 Steady, 1-D Isentropic Flow With Area Change,
Governing Eqs.
Governing equation for Steady 1-D Flow
With Area Change;
Assumptions:
1. No body forces, gdz = 0
2. No friction, Ff = 0
3. No heat Transfer, adiabatic flow, Q = 0
4. No drag force, D = 0
5. No work done, W = 0

Continuity Equation Momentum Equation Energy Equation

m   AV  constant dp  VdV  0 V2
h  constant  H
2
Entropy Equation s  constant
55
 Steady, 1-D Isentropic Flow Process With Area Change
For An Isentropic Process
1. all the thermodynamic states lie on a
vertical line on h-s plot
2. Upper limit of enthalpy is point a, showing
zero KE and h=H
3. Lower limit of enthalpy is point b, showing
h=0 but maximum isentropic speed Vmax 
4. All the stagnation properties H, P, T, o and
so are constant.
5. All this is due to only one driving potential
i.e area change

Comparison Of Adiabatic, Frictionless And Adiabatic, Frictional Flow

1. Differential equations are valid for both processes
2. Difference lies in the integration of these equations
3. For given set of initial conditions both processes have different final
conditions 56
Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic Processes, contd.
Graphic representation

Expansion Compression

57
 Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic Processes
Comparison contd.
4. Integrate energy eq. for isentropic flow
h2' V2'

 dh    VdV
h1 V1

5. Integrate energy equation for adiabatic flow with friction

h2 V2

 dh    VdV
h1 V1

6. Intuition tells that for frictional flow the maximum velocity thee fluid can
attain will be less than that for isentropic flow  V2  V2
7. Consequently one can say that the maximum enthalpy for frictional flow
will always be greater than that for the isentropic flow  h2  h2

Note: point 6 and 7 is valid for positive or negative area changes, i.e.
Expansion or Compression 58
Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic Processes, contd.

Mathematical Representation of Specific Enthalpy Change

V2  V1 
2 2
Isentropic Flow, expansion he  h1  h2 
2

V2   V1 
2 2
Adiabatic Flow with friction, expansion he  h1  h2 
2

V1   V2
2 2
Isentropic Flow, compression he  h2  h1 
2

V1   V2 
2 2
Adiabatic Flow with friction, compression he  h2  h1 
2

59
Comparison, Isentropic & Non-isentropic Processes, contd.

Difference in specific enthalpy change for isentropic and adiabatic

flow with friction = heat energy expanded to overcome friction

For Expansion h1  h2  h1  h2 

1
E 
f 2
 he   Q f

For Compression h2  h1  h2  h1 

1
E 
f 2
 he   Q f

60
 Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties

Continuity Eq. Momentum Eq. Speed of Sound

m   AV  constant dp  VdV  0  p 
a  
2

  s
Differentiate logarithmically Can be written as
For isentropic flow
d dA dV dp dV
  0 V 2
0 a 2 d   dp
 A V  V

Combine the three equations and use the definition of Mach Number to get

2  p  dp
  M  1  1  M  
dA 2 dV dA
2 
A V A  V  p
These equations suggest the manner in which area should change to
accomplish the required expansion or compression of a compressible61fluid
 Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties, contd.
(a) Nozzle flow/action

The area change which shows

the effect of increase in
velocity with decrease in
pressure

(b) Diffuser flow/action

The area change which shows

Relationship between dA & dM for Steady the effect of decrease in
1-D Isentropic flow velocity with increase in
M pressure
dA
< 1.0 > 1.0
Table

  M  1
dA < 0 dM > 0 dM < 0 dA 2 dV
dA > 0 dM < 0 dM > 0 A V 62
 Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties, Choking
WHAT WOULD HAPPEN M
dA
ONCE THE < 1.0 > 1.0
SONIC CONDITIONS ARE REACHED & AREAdA
CHANGE
<0 CONTINUES
dM >0 dM < 0

For subsonic/supersonic flow

Once M=1 at a particular section of converging
section then
What would be M2, whereas dA < 0

There can be two possibilities/assumptions

1. M2 < M1
2. M2 > M1

Table suggests, that for dA < 0 dM > 0

For: M2 < M1
Contradiction with basic assumption, M2 < 63
M1
 Effect of Area Change, Choking, contd. -2

Table suggests, that for dA < 0 dM < 0

For: M2 > M1

Contradiction with basic assumption, M2 > M1

M
dA
< 1.0 > 1.0
dA < 0 dM > 0 dM < 0

The Table Is In Fact A Representation Of The Conservation Laws

Under Isentropic Conditions
THESE CONSERVATIONS ARE NEVER VOILATED BY NATURE
64
 Effect of Area Change, Choking, contd. -3M
dA
< 1.0 AND;> 1.0
WHAT ABOUT HAVING THE FOLLOWING CONFIGURATION
dA > 0
ONCE THE SONIC CONDITIONS ARE REACHED dM < 0 dM > 0

Now consider the possibilities

M 2 < M1 OR M 2 > M1

Table suggests, that for

dA > 0, dM < 0 : dA > 0, dM > 0

Table suggests, that for

Both the possibilities the conservation laws are not violated

Once M=1 is achieved at the throat, then how the downstream M will change
in the diverging section. We need to answer this query
65
 Effect of Area Change, Choking, contd. -3
Ans: The downstream flow can be either subsonic or supersonic
Which one of this is possible
The subsonic or supersonic flow in the downstream section depends
 on the downstream physical boundary conditions
 at the exit section of the flow passage

IMPORTANT INFERENCES

For supersonic flow starting from For subsonic flow starting from
rest supersonic flow

One needs a C-D geometry

Throat will give the max mass flow

rate corresponding to throat velocity. This CD geometry is named as
De Laval Nozzle 66
Vt '  a*  m  mmax
'
 m*  at A*
 Condition for Maximum Isentropic Mass Flow Rate
 ??
What is condition for max m
mmax  AV  const

Logarithmically Differentiating
1 dA 1 dV 1 d 
  0
A dx V dx  dx

dVt Vt d t
 At throat
dx t dx
Momentum eq. for isentropic flow dVt 1 dpt
dp  VdV  0 
dx tVt dx
 dp 
Vt  
2
 a a
2 *2

 d  t 67
 Critical Flow Area
If a perfect gas is expanded isentropically then it will attain critical
speed while flowing through an area A* called critical throat area

Writing continuity equation for an infinite reservoir and critical area

m   AV   * A*a*  constant

A  *a*  *  Rt *
 
A*
V V

Writing *, t* in terms of local and stagnation property ratios

1
  1  1 
2

  2  
 
A  1    1  
  for isentropic flow
A  2  p  2    p  1   
*

   1    
  P    P   
68
 Critical Flow Area, contd. - 2
Graphical Representation of this equation

Critical area ratio as a

function of pressure ratio
for  = 1.4

 1 2 1 Critical area ratio as a

A 1  2     1 2   function of M reported in gas
   1  M 
A*
M    1   2  tables for isentropic flow
69
Effect of Downstream Physical Boundary Conditions

70
71
Effect of Back Pressure on C-D Nozzle

72
 Properties and Property Ratios

Property Ratios for

isentropic flow with
area change

Limiting Values of the

Property Ratios for the
Steady One-D Isentropic
Flow of a Perfect Gas

73
 Properties and Property Ratios
For CHOKED flow where M=1
The property ratios for isentropic flow leads to t*, p* and *

Critical Temperature Critical Pressure Critical Density


 2 
1
*  2   1
 2   1

t = T p * =  P  =
*
 o
   1     1     1

Critical / Max Mass flow rate

 1
A *P A *P  2  2   1
m = *
 = 
 RT 
1

   1
2
ao

1 1
 2  RT   2 2
 
2
1

Critical Velocity V =a   Rt   ao
* * * 2

  
  1     1
74

Effect of Area Change On Flow Properties

dA < 0 dA > 0
Property M<1 M>1 M<1 M>1
M + - - +
p - + + -
t - + + -
 - + + -
V + - - +
a - + + -

75
 Example 1

For A/A* = 2.193; Me= 2.3; p0/p=12.5; 0/ =6.067; T0/T = 2.058
p0,e = 5 atm; T0,e = 520oR

T0/T = 2.058 => T = 520/2.058 = 252.7oR

p0/p=12.5 => p = 5/12.5=0.4 atm

 = p/RT= 0.4x 2116/(1716x252.7) = 0.00195 slug/ft3

a = (RT)0.5=(1.4x1716x252.7)0.5=779.2 ft/sec

76
 Example 2

p0/pe = 1/0.3143 = 3.182

Me = 1.4 and Ae/A* = 1.115

77
 Example 3

m* = *A*u* * / 0 = 0.638
T* / T0 = 0.833
0 = p0/RT0= 5x 2116/(1716x520) = 0.01186 slug/ft3

* = 0.638 x 0.01186 = 0.007519 slug/ft3

T* = 0.833 x 520 = 433.2 oR

78
 Example 4
Repeat example 3 with following formula

P0 = 5 atm = 5 x 2116 = 10580 lb/ft2

A* = 4/144 = 0.02778 ft2

79
 Example 5

p0/p e= 1/0.947 = 1.056

Ae/At = 1.616; Ae/A* = 2.166

As Ae/At < Ae/A* => At > A*

So flow is subsonic at the throat

Mt = 0.5; pt = 0.843 atm

80