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Vector Analysis
2.1 Introduction
In electromagnetics, vectors are used extensively as the main tool of analysis. They were introduced briefly
in Section 1.5, along with some vector operations in the Cartesian coordinate system. This chapter expands
the scope of vector algebra to a level needed throughout the rest of the book. It also introduces the
cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems, as all three coordinate systems are used in electromagnetics.
As the notation, both for the vectors and the coordinate systems, differs from one text to another, a thorough
understanding of the notation employed herein is essential for setting up the problems and obtaining
solutions. In addition to this chapter, more vector operations (gradient, divergence, and curl) are introduced
in Chapter 5.
A A
aA or
A A
By use of the unit vectors ax, ay, az along the x, y, and z axes, respectively, of a Cartesian coordinate system,
an arbitrary vector can be written in component form:
A A xa x Ay a y Az az
EXAMPLE 1. A vector drawn from point M (2, 2, 0) to point N (4, 5, 6) is shown by A 2ax 3ay 6az. Its
magnitude is ⎪A⎪ 22 32 62 7. Its direction is given by the unit vector
A 2 3 6
a a a a
A x y z
A 7 7 7
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CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis 32
CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis
EXAMPLE 2. The electric field intensity due to a point charge Q placed at the origin is
Q
E aR
4π R 2
where aR is the radial unit vector. Express E in the Cartesian coordinate system and find its value at the points
K(3, 4, 12), L(2, 6, 9), M(1, 4, 8), and N(4, 5, 6).
Q(x a x ya y z a z )
E (x, y, z) 3
4π [ x 2 y 2 z 2 ] 2
Q(3a x 4a y 12a z )
E (3, 4 12)
4π 133
Q(2a x 6a y 9a z )
E (2, 6, 9)
4π 113
Q(a x 4a y 8a z )
E (1, 4, 8)
4π 93
Q(2a x 3a y 6a z )
E (4, 5, 6)
4π 73
These points are located on concentric spheres with radii 13, 11, 9, and 7, respectively.
A (B C) (A B) C
k(A B) kA kB (k1 k 2)A k1A k 2A
A B B A
A·B Ax Bx A yB y Az Bz
EXAMPLE 3. The dot product obeys the distributive and scalar multiplication laws
A·B (A x a x Ay ay Az az ) · (Bx ax By ay Bz az )
Ax Bx (ax · ax ) Ay By(ay · ay ) Az Bz (az · az )
Ax By (ax · ay ) … Az By(az · ay )
However, ax · ax ay · ay az · az 1 because the cos θ in the dot product is unity when the angle is zero. And
when θ 90°, cos θ is zero; hence, all other dot products of the unit vectors are zero. Thus,
A·B A xB x Ay By Az Bz
an
A B
Fig. 2-1
ax ay az
A B 2 4 3 3a x 3a y 6a z
1 1 0
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CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis 34
CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis
z z z
z z r
y y y
r
x φ φ
y
x x x
(a) Cartesian (b) Cylindrical (c) Spherical
Fig. 2-2
A point is also defined by the intersection of three orthogonal surfaces, as shown in Fig. 2-3. In Cartesian coor-
dinates the surfaces are the infinite planes x const., y const., and z const. In cylindrical coordinates, z
const. is the same infinite plane as in the Cartesian case; φ const., is a half plane with its edge along the z axis;
r const. is a right circular cylinder. These three surfaces are orthogonal and their intersection locates point P.
In spherical coordinates, φ const. is the same half plane as in cylindrical; r const. is a sphere with its center
at the origin; θ const. is a right circular cone whose axis is the z axis and whose vertex is at the ori- gin. Note
that θ is limited to the range 0 θ π.
z z z
const. θ const.
z const.
z const.
P P
P
y y
y
const.
const.
x φ const.
x r const.
φ const.
(a) Cartesian (b) Cylindrical (c) Spherical
Fig. 2-3
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CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis 35
CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis
Fig. 2-4 shows the three unit vectors at point P. In the Cartesian system the unit vectors have fixed directions,
independent of the location of P. This is not true for the other two systems (except in the case of az ). Each unit
vector is normal to its coordinate surface and is in the direction in which the coordinate increases. Notice that
all these systems are right-handed:
ax ay az ar aφ az ar aθ aφ
The component forms of a vector in the three systems are
A Ax ax Ay ay Az az (Cartesian)
A Ar ar Aφ aφ A z az (cylindrical)
A Ar ar Aθ aθ Aφ aφ (spherical)
It should be noted that the components Ax, Ar, Aφ, etc., are not generally constants but more often are functions
of the coordinates in that particular system.
z z z
a az
z
a ar
P ay P
P a
ax ar a y
y
y
x x x
Fig. 2-4
z
z z
dr r sin θ dφ
dz P
dy dz
P r dφ r dθ
dx
y P
dr y y
x x x
dv dx dy dz dv r dr dφ dz dv r2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
Fig. 2-5
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CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis 36
CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis
From Fig. 2-5 may also be read the areas of the surface elements that bound the differential volume. For
instance, in spherical coordinates, the differential surface element perpendicular to ar is
SOLVED PROBLEMS
2.1. Show that the vector directed from M(x1, y1, z1) to N(x 2, y2, z 2) in Fig. 2-6 is given by
z
N (x2 , y2 , z2)
M (x1 , y1 , z1)
B
A y
x
Fig. 2-6
The coordinates of M and N are used to write the two position vectors A and B in Fig. 2-6.
2.2. Find the vector A directed from (2, 4, 1) to (0, 2, 0) in Cartesian coordinates and find the unit
vector along A.
2.3. Find the distance between (5, 3π /2, 0) and (5, π /2, 10) in cylindrical coordinates.
First, obtain the Cartesian position vectors A and B (see Fig. 2-7).
z
(5, π /2, 10)
B
A
y
(5, 3π /2, 0)
φ π /2
Fig. 2-7
Then B A 10ay 10az and the required distance between the points is
⎪B A⎪ 10 2
The cylindrical coordinates of the points cannot be used to obtain a vector between the points in the same manner
as was employed in Problem 2.1 in Cartesian coordinates.
2.4. Show that A 4ax 2ay az and B ax 4ay 4az are mutually perpendicular.
Since the dot product contains cos θ, a dot product of zero from any two nonzero vectors implies that θ 90°.
2.5. Given A 2ax 4ay and B 6ay 4az, find the smaller angle between them using (a) the cross
product, (b) the dot product.
ax ay az
(a) A B 2 4 0 16a x 8a y 12a z
0 6 4
A·B 24
cosθ 0.745 or θ 41.9
A B (4.47) (7.21)
2.6. Given F (y 1)ax 2xay, find the vector at (2, 2, 1) and its projection on B, where B 5ax ay 2az.
As indicated in Fig. 2-8, the projection of one vector on a second vector is obtained by expressing the unit vector in
the direction of the second vector and taking the dot product.
A·B
Proj. A on B A · a B
B
A
θ
aB
B
Proj. A on B
Fig. 2-8
2.7. Given A ax a y, B ax 2az and C 2ay az, find (A B) C and compare it with
A (B C).
ax ay az
A B 1 1 0 2a x 2a y az
1 0 2
ax ay az
Then (A B) C 2 2 1 2a y 4a z
0 2 1
A similar calculation gives A (B C) 2ax 2ay 3az. Thus, the cross product does not obey the vector
triple associative law.
2.8. Using the vectors A, B, and C of Problem 2.7, find A · B C and compare it with A B · C.
From Problem 2.7, B C 4ax ay 2az. Then
Parentheses are not needed in the scalar triple product, since it has meaning only when the cross product is taken
first. In general, it can be shown that
Ax Ay Az
A·B C Bx By Bz
Cx Cy Cz
As long as the vectors appear in the same cyclic order, the result is the same. The scalar triple products not in this
cyclic order have a change in sign.
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CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis 39
CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis
2.9. Express the unit vector which points from z h on the z axis toward (r, φ, 0) in cylindrical coordinates.
See Fig. 2-9.
(r, φ , 0)
x
Fig. 2-9
R r ar haz
R r ar haz
R a
R r2 h2
The angle φ does not appear explicitly in these expressions. Nevertheless, both R and aR vary with φ through ar.
2.10. Express the unit vector which is directed toward the origin from an arbitrary point on the plane z 5,
as shown in Fig. 2-10.
(0, 0, 0)
y
x R
(x, y, 5)
Fig. 2-10
Since the problem is in Cartesian coordinates, the two-point formula of Problem 2.1 applies.
2.11. Use the spherical coordinate system to find the area of the strip α θ β on the spherical shell of
radius a (Fig. 2-11). What results when α 0 and β π ?
dS r 2 sin θ dθ dφ
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CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis 40
CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis
z
β
α
Fig. 2-11
2π β
Then A a 2 sinθ dθ dφ
0 α
2π a 2 (cos α cos β )
2.12. Obtain the expression for the volume of a sphere of radius a from the differential volume.
From Fig. 2-5(c), dv r2 sin θ dr dθ dφ. Then
2π π a
4
v r 2 sinθ dr dθ dφ π a3
0 0 0 3
2.13. Use the cylindrical coordinate system to find the area of the curved surface of a right circular cylinder
where r 2 m, h 5 m, and 30° φ 120° (see Fig. 2-12).
5m
x π /6
2π/3 y
Fig. 2-12
5π m 2
2.14. Transform
x2
A ya xa a
x y z
x2 y2
x r cos φ y r sin φ r x2 y2
ax · ar cos φ ax · aφ sin φ ax · az 0
ay · ar sin φ ay · aφ cos φ ay · az 0
az · ar 0 az · aφ 0 az · az 1
2.15. A vector of magnitude 10 points from (5, 5π /4, 0) in cylindrical coordinates toward the origin (Fig. 2-13).
Express the vector in Cartesian coordinates.
5 5π/4
y
Fig. 2-13
In cylindrical coordinates, the vector may be expressed as 10ar, where φ π /4. Hence,
π 10 π 10
Ax 10 cos Ay 10 sin Az 0
4 2 4 2
so that
10 10
A a ay
2 x 2
SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
2.16. Given A 4ay 10az and B 2ax 3ay, find the projection of A on B.
2.17. Given A (10/ 2 )(ax az) and B 3(ay az), express the projection of B on A as a vector in the direction of A.
2.18. Find the angle between A 10ay 2az and B 4ay 0.5az using both the dot product and the cross product.
2.19. Find the angle between A 5.8ay 1.55az and B 6.93ay 4.0az using both the dot product and the cross
product.
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CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis 42
CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis
2.20. Given the plane 4x 3y 2z 12, find the unit vector normal to the surface in the direction away from the origin.
2.21. Find the relationship which the Cartesian components of A and B must satisfy if the vector fields are to be
everywhere parallel.
2.22. Express the unit vector directed toward the origin from an arbitrary point on the line described by x 0, y 3.
2.23. Express the unit vector directed toward the point (x1, y1, z1) from an arbitrary point in the plane y 5.
2.24. Express the unit vector directed toward the point (0, 0, h) from an arbitrary point in the plane z 2.
2.25. Given A 5ax and B 4ax Byay, find By such that the angle between A and B is 45°. If B also has a term Bzaz,
what relationship must exist between By and Bz?
2.26. Show that the absolute value of A · B C is the volume of the parallelepiped with edges A, B, and C.
2.27. Given A 2ax az, B 3ax ay, and C 2ax 6ay 4az, show that C is ⊥ to both A and B.
2.28. Given A ax ay, B 2az, and C ax 3ay, find A · B C. Examine other variations of this scalar triple
product.
2.30. Find the unit vector directed from (2, 5, 2) toward (14, 5, 3).
2.31. Find the vector directed from (10, 3π /4, π /6) to (5, π /4, π), where the endpoints are given in spherical
coordinates.
2.32. Find the distance between (2, π /6, 0) and (1, π, 2), where the points are given in cylindrical coordinates.
2.33. Find the distance between (1, π /4, 0) and (1, 3π /4, π), where the points are given in spherical coordinates.
2.34. Use spherical coordinates and integrate to find the area of the region 0 φ α on the spherical shell of radius a.
What is the result when α 2π ?
2.35. Use cylindrical coordinates to find the area of the curved surface of a right circular cylinder of radius a and height h.
2.36. Use cylindrical coordinates and integrate to obtain the volume of the right circular cylinder of Problem 2.35.
2.37. Use spherical coordinates to write the differential surface areas dS1 and dS2 and then integrate to obtain the areas of
the surfaces marked 1 and 2 in Fig. 2-14.
z
1
dS2
dS1
1
2
1 60º
1
y
x
Fig. 2-14
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CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis 43
CHAPTER 2 Vector Analysis
2.38. Use spherical coordinates to find the volume of a hemispherical shell of inner radius 2 .00 m and outer radius 2 .02m.
2.39. Using spherical coordinates to express the differential volume, integrate to obtain the volume defined by 1 r 2 m,
0 θ π /2, and 0 φ π /2.
2.16. 12 / 13
2.18. 161.5°
2.19. 135°
Bx By Bz
3a y z a z
2.22. a
9 z2
2.26. Hint: First show that the base has area ⎪B C⎪.
2.28. 4, 4
2.29. 8az
12 5
2.30. a ax az
13 13
2.32. 3.53
2.33. 2 .0
2.34. 2α a2, A 4π a2
2.35. 2πah
2.36. πa2h
2.37. π /4, π /6
2.38. 0.162π m3
π m3
2.39. 7—
6