Mba (1st Semester)

Computer Fundamental
Mba
Unit – I
Q1- Draw a block diagram to illustrate the basic organisation of computer system and explain the fun
ction of various units. Describe the characteristics of Computer.

Ans. These five units correspond to the five basic operations, performed by all computer systems. The functi
ons of each of these units are described below.

INPUT UNIT

Data and instructions must enter the computer system, before any computation can be performed on the
supplied data. This task is performed by the input unit, which links the external environment with the comp
uter system. Data and instructions enter input units in forms, which depend upon the particular device used.
For example, data are entered from a keyboard in
Storage Unit

Secondary
Program Storage Information
& Date Input Output (Results)
Unit Unit

Primary
Storage

Control
Unit
Indicates flow
Of instruction
and Data
Indicates the Control
Arithmetic Control exercised
Logic Unit By the control un
Central Processing

Unit (CPU)
Fig. 1- Basic Organization of a computer system

a manner similar to typing and this differs from the way in which data are entered through a scanner, which i
s another type of input device. In short, the following functions are performed by an input unit:
1. It accepts (or reads) the instructions and data from the outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form.
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.
 OUTPUT UNIT

The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplies the information obtained f
rom data processing, to the outside world. Hence, it links the computer with the external environment. As co
mputer work with binary code, the results produced are also in the binary lin in. Hence, before supplying the
results to the outside world, they must be (inverted to human acceptable (readable) form.
In short, the following functions are performed by an output unit :
I. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily
understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

STORAGE UNIT

The data and instructions, which are entered into the computer system through input units, have to be s
tored inside the computer, before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results produced by the comput
er after processing, must also be kept somewhere inside the computer system, before being passed on to the
output units. Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the computer, must also be preserved for ongo
ing processing. The storage unit of a computer system is designed to cater to all these needs. It provides spa
ce for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate results and space for the final results.
The specific functions of the storage unit are to hold (store)
1. The data and instructions required for processing (received from input devices).
2. Intermediate results of processing.
3. Final results of processing, before these results are released to an output device.
The storage unit of all computers is comprised of the following two types of storage

1. Primary storage. The primary storage, also known as main memory, is used to hold pieces of
program instructions and data, intermediate results of processing and recently produced results of
processing of the job(s), which the computer system is currently working on. These pieces of information
are represented electronically in the main memory chip's circuitry, and while it remains in the main memory,
the central processing unit can access it directly at a very fast speed. However, the primary storage can hold
information only while the computer system is on. As soon as the computer system is switched off or reset,
the information held in the primary storage disappears. Moreover, the primary storage normally has limited
storage capacity, because it is very expensive. The primary storage of modern computer systems is made up
of semiconductor devices.

2. Secondary storage. The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is used to take care of
the limitations of the primary storage. That is, it is used to supplement the limited storage capacity and the
volatile characteristic of primary storage. This is because secondary storage is much cheaper than primary
storage and it can retain information even when the computer system is switched off or reset. The secondary
storage is normally used to hold the program instructions, data and information of those jobs, on which the
computer system is not working on currently, but needs to hold them for processing later. The most
commonly used secondary storage medium is the magnetic disk.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place, where the actual execution of the i
nstructions takes place, during the processing operation. The data and instructions, stored in the primary sto
rage before processing, are transferred as and when needed to the ALU, Where processing takes place. No p
rocessing is done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily tran
sferred back to the primary storage, until needed later. Hence, data may move from primary storage to ALU
and back again to storage, many times, before the processing is over.
 CONTROL UNIT

It does not perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as a central nervous syste
m, for the other components of the computer system. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system
. It obtains instruction from the program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions and issues signal
s, which cause other unit of the system to execute them.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit of a computer system are jointly known as the Central Pr
ocessing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of a computer system. In a human body, all major decisions are
taken by the brain and the other parts of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer
system, all major calculations and comparisons are made inside the CPU and the CPU is responsible for acti
vating and controlling the operations of other units of the computer system.

Characteristics Of Computers

The increasing popularity of computers has proved that it is a very powerful and useful tool. The powe
r and usefulness of this popular tool are mainly due to its following characteristics
1. Automatic : A machine is said to be automatic, if it works by itself without human intervention.
Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job, they carry on, until the job is finished,
normally without any human assistance. However, computers being machines cannot start themselves. They
cannot go out and find their own problems and solutions. They have to be instructed. That is, a computer
works from a program of coded instructions, which specify exactly how a particular job is 10 be done. Some
of the other characteristics of computers, such as speed and accuracy, are due to the fact that they are
automatic and work on a problem without any human intervention.

2. Speed : A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a few seconds, the amount of work that a
human being can do in an entire year—if he worked day and night and did nothing else.

3. .Accuracy : In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The accuracy of a computer
is consistently high and the degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design. However,
for a particular computer, every calculation is performed with the same accuracy.
Errors can occur in a computer. However, these are mainly due to human rather than technological weakness
es. For example, errors may occur due to imprecise thinking by the programmer (a person who writes instruc
tions for a computer to solve a particular problem) or incorrect input data. Computer errors caused due to inc
orrect input data or unreliable programs are often referred to as garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO).

4. Diligence: Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration. It can continuously work for hours, without creating any error and without grumbling. Hence,
computers score over human beings in doing routine type of jobs, which require great accuracy. If ten
million calculations have to be performed, a computer will perform the ten millionth calculations with
exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first one.

5. Versatility: Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about the computer. One moment, it is
preparing the results of an examination, the next moment, it is busy preparing electricity bills and in
between, it may be helping an office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds. All that is required to
change its talent is to slip in a new program (a sequence of instructions for the computer) into it. Briefly, a
computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps.

6. Power of Remembering: As a human being acquires new knowledge, the brain subconsciously
selects what it feels to be important and worth retaining in its memory and relegates unimportant details to
the back of the mind or just forgets them. This is not the case with computers. A computer can store and
recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage (a type of detachable memory) capability.
Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired by the user and can be recalled, as and when
required. Even after several years, the information recalled would be as accurate as on the day when it was
fed to the computer. A computer forgets or looses certain information only when it is asked to do so. Hence,
it is entirely up to the user, to make a computer retain or forget a particular information.

7. No I. Q. : A computer is not a magical device. It possesses not intelligence of its own. Its I.Q. is
zero, at least untill today. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence, only the user can
determine what tasks a computer will perform. A computer cannot take its own decision in this regard.

8. No Feelings : Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and no instincts because
they are machines. Although men have succeeded in building a memory for the computer, but no computer
possesses the equivalent of a human heart and soul. Based on our feelings, taste, knowledge and experience,
we often make certain judgements in our day-to-day life. However, computers cannot make such
judgements on their own. Their judgement is based on the instructions given to them in the form of
programs that are written by us.

Q2 What is computer memory ?explain the types of memory.

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage s
pace in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memor
y is divided into large number of small parts called cells.
Memory is dived in two parts
1 primary memory 2 secondry memory
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has limited ca
pacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These mem
ories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is
divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories

 It is known as main memory.

 Usually volatile memory.

 Data is lost in case power is switched off.

 It is working memory of the computer.

 Faster than secondary memories.

 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

RAM-Random access memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. RAM is considered "random acc
ess" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell.RAM i
s divided in two parts SRAM or DRAM

SRAM -SRAM (static RAM) is random access memory (RAM) that retains data bits in its memory as long as power is being sup
plied. Unlike dynamic RAM (DRAM), which stores bits in cells consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, SRAM does not have to b
e periodically refreshed. Static RAM provides faster access to data and is more expensive than DRAM. SRAM is used for a compu
ter's cache memory

DRAM-Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of memory that is typically used for data or program code
that a computer processor needs to function. DRAM is a common type of random access memory (RAM) used in pers
onal computers (PCs), workstations and servers. Random access allows the PC processor to access any part of the
memory directly rather than having to proceed sequentially from a starting place. DRAM stores each bit of data or prog
ram code in a storage cell consisting of a capacitor and a transistor, and is typically organized in a rectangular configur
ation of storage cells. A DRAM storage cell is dynamic in that it needs to be refreshed or given a new electronic charg
e every few milliseconds to compensate for charge leaks from the capacitor.

ROM-ROM stands for Read Only Memory. It is type of internal memory. The data and instructions in ROM are st
ored by the manufacturer at the time of its manufacturing. This data and programs cannot be changed or deleted

after wards. The data or instructions stored in ROM can only be read but new data or instructions cannot be writte

n into it. This is the reason why it is called Read Only Memory.
Types of ROM
ROM is divided into following types:

1. PROM
2. EPROM
3. EEPROM

1- PROM
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is initially blank. The user or manufacture

r can write data/program on it by using special devices. However, once the program or data is written in PROM chi

p, it cannot be changed. If there is an error in writing instructions or data in PROM, the error cannot be erased. PR

OM chip becomes unusable.

2- EPROM

EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is also initially blank. The user

or manufacturer can write program or data on it by using special devices. Unlike PROM, the data written in EPROM

chip can be erased by using special devices and ultraviolet rays. So program or data written in EPROM chip can be

changed and new data can also be added. When EPROM is in use, its contents can only be read.

3- EEPROM

EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This kind of ROM can be written or c
hanged with the help of electrical devices. So data stored in this type of ROM chip can be easily modified.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. These ar
e used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories instead they ar
e accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, an
d then CPU can access it. For example : disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories

 It is known as backup memory.

 It is non-volatile memory.

 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

 It is used for storage of data in a computer.

 Computer may run without secondary memory.

 Slower than primary memories.

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tape is a recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of a fine magnetic material, used f
or recording analogue or digital data. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape is a tape drive. The c
apacity of tape media are generally on the same order as hard disk drives (The largest being about 5 Terabytes in
2011). Magnetic Tapes Generally transfer data a bit slower than hard drives, however magnetic tapes are cheape
r and are more durable

Hard Disk
The hard disk drive is the main, and usually largest data storage device in a computer. It is a non-volatile, random
access digital magnetic data storage device. A hard drive is made up of platters which stored the data, and read/
write heads to transfer data. A Hard Drive is generally the fastest of the secondary storage devices, and has the la
rgest data storage capacity, approximately the same as Magnetic Tapes. Hard drives however, are not very porta
ble and are primarily used internally in a computer system

Optical Disks
Optical disk is an electronic data storage medium from which data is read and written to by using a low-powered
laser beam. It is flat, circular, plastic or glass disk on which data is stored in the form of light and dark pits. There
are three basic types of optical disks: Read-only optical disks, Write once read many Optical disks and Rewritable
Optical disks. Two main types of optical disks are:

CD - is an abbreviation of compact disk, and is a form of data storage that can transfer data up to the speed of 7
800 KB/s. A standard 120 mm CD holds up to 700 MB of data, or about 70 minutes of audio. There are two types
of CD: CD-ROM and CD-RW, CD-ROM are stands for CD-Read Only Memory and they function the same way Re
ad Only Memory Does. CD-RW Stands for CD-Rewritable, these disks can be erased and rewritten at any time.
DVD: is an abbreviation of Digital Versatile Disc, and is an optical disc storage media format that can be used for
data storage. The DVD supports disks with capacities of 4.7 GB to 17 GB and access rates of 600 KBps to 1.3 MBp
s. A standard DVD disc store up to 4.7 GB of data. There are two types of DVD's: DVD-ROM and DVD-RW. DVD-R
OM are stands for DVD-Read Only Memory and they function the same way Read Only Memory Does. DVD-RW
Stands for DVD-Rewritable, these disks can be erased and rewritten at any time.
Flash Drive
A flash drive is a small external storage device, typically the size of a human thumb that consists of flash memory.
USB flash drives are removable and rewritable reads and writes to flash memory. They are a solid-state storage
medium that's both inexpensive and durable. Currently, USB 2.0 flash drives on the market are able to reach a da
ta transfer speed of 480 Mbit/s and USB 3.0 has transmission speeds of up to 5 Gbit/s. USB Flash drives vary in si
zes from 8 Megabytes to 512 Gigabytes. More commonly used sizes vary from 2 Gigabytes -16 Gigabytes.
Q3(a)What are Input Devices? Name some Input devices according to their category.?
An input device is any hardware device that sends data to a computer, allowing you to interact with and con
trol the computer. The picture shows a Logitech trackball mouse, an example of an input device.
The most commonly used input devices on a computer are the keyboard and mouse. However, there are doz
ens of other devices that can also be used to input data into the computer.
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the computer. The
layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also av
ailable for Windows and Internet.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box w
ith a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU whe
n the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. Mouse can
be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having
a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can b
e moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and p
laying computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictur
es on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip o
f a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects
the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a b
all which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is not mo
ved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button an
d a square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is av
ailable on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for further manipulation. Scanner c
aptures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. Th
ese images can be edited before they are printed

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is used for vario
us applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be processed every day
. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contai
ns particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Chara
cter Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by character, converts th
em into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark lines). Bar coded d
ata is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be em
bedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric val
ue which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is us
ed where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer
sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions

Q3(b)- What are Output Devices? Name some output devices according to their category.?
Ans. An output device is an electromechanical device, which accepts data from a computer and translates th
em into a form, which is suitable for use by the outside world (the users). Output devices generate com
puter output, which can be broadly classified into the following two types:

1. Soft-copy output : A soft-copy output is an output, which is not produced on a paper or some
material, which can be touched and carried for being shown to others. They are temporary in nature, and
vanish after use. For example, output displayed on a terminal screen, or spoken out by a voice response
system are soft-copy output.
2. Hard-copy output : A hard-copy output is an output, which is produced on a paper or some
material, which can be touched and carried for being shown to others. They are permanent in nature, and can
be kept in paper files, or can be looked later, when the person is not using the computer. For example, output
produced by printers or plotters on paper are hard-copy output.
 Several output devices are available today. They can be broadly classified into the following categorie
s

(i) Monitors
Monitors are the most popular output devices used today for producing soft-copy output. They display t
he generated output on a television like screen. A monitor is usually associated with a keyboard, and togethe
r they form a video display terminal (VDT). A VDT (often referred to as just terminal) is the most popular in
put/output (I/O) device used with today's computers. That is, it serves as both an input and an output device.
The keyboard is used for input to the computer, and the monitor is used to display the output from the comp
uter. The name "terminal" comes from the fact that a terminal is at the terminal, or end, point of a communic
ation path.
The two basic types of monitors used today are cathode-ray-tube (CRT) and flat-panel. The CRT moni
tors look much like a television, and are used with non-portable computer systems. On the other hand, the fl
at-panel monitors are thinner and lighter, and are commonly used with portable computer systems, like note
book computers.

(ii) Printers
Printers are the most commonly used output devices today for producing hard-copy output. The variou
s types of printers in use today are described below.

(a) Dot-Matrix Printers : Dot-matrix printers are character printers, which print one character at a time.
They form characters and all kinds of images as a pattern of dots. A dot-matrix printer has a print head,
which can move horizontally (left to right and right to left) across the paper. The print head contains an array
of pins, which can be activated independent of each other to extend and strike against an inked ribbon to
form a pattern of dots on the paper. To print a character, the printer activates the appropriate set of pins as the
print head moves horizontally. For faster printing, many dot matrix printers are designed to print both while
the print head moves from left to right, and while it moves from right to left, on return.
Since dot matrix printers produce printed output as patterns of dots, they can print any shape of charact
er, which a programmer can describe. This allows the printer to print many special characters, different size
s of print, and the ability to print graphics, such as charts and graphs.

(b) Inkjet Printers: Inkjet printers are character printers, which form characters and all kinds of
images by spraying small drops of ink on to the paper. The print head of an inkjet printer contains up to 64
tiny nozzles, which can be selectively heated up in a few microseconds by an integrated circuit register.
When the register heats up, the ink near it vaporizes and is ejected through the nozzle, and makes a dot on
the paper placed in front of the print head. To print a character, the printer selectively heats the appropriate
set of nozzles as the print head moves horizontally.
Inkjet printers produce higher quality output than dot-matrix printers, because they form characters by
very tiny ink dots. A high-resolution inkjet printer has as many as 64 nozzles within height of 7mm, providi
ng print resolution of around 360 dots per inch.
Since inkjet printers produce printed output as patterns of tiny dots, they can print any shape of charact
ers, which a programmer can describe. This allows the printer to print many special characters, different siz
es of print, and the’ ability to print graphics, such as charts and graphs.

(c) Laser Printers: Laser printers are page printers, which print one page at a time. The main
components of a laser printer are a laser beam source, a multi-sided mirror, a photoconductive drum and
toner (tiny particles of oppositely charged ink). To print a page of output, the laser beam is focused on the
electro statically charged drum by the spinning multisided mirror. The mirror focuses the laser beam on the
surface of the drum in a manner to create the patterns of characters/ images to be printed on the page. As the
drum is photoconductive, a difference in electric charge is created on those parts of the drum surface, which
are exposed to the laser beam. As a result, the toner, which is composed of oppositely charged ink particles,
sticks to the drum in the places, where the laser beam has charged the drum's surface. The toner is then
permanently fused on the paper with heat and pressure to generate the printed output. The drum is then
rotated and cleaned with a rubber blade to remove the toner sticking to its surface to prepare the drum for the
next page printing.
Laser printers produce very high quality output, because they form characters by very tiny ink particles
. The most common laser printers have resolution of 600 dpi (dots per inch), whereas some high-end laser pr
inters have resolution of 1200 dpi. Because of their high resolution, these printers give excellent graphics art
quality.
Since laser printers produce printed output as patterns generated by the laser beam, they can print any s
hape of characters, which a programmer can describe. This allows the printer to print many special character
s, different sizes of print, and the ability to print graphics, such as charts and graphs.

(iii) Plotters
We know that dot matrix, inkjet and laser printers are capable of producing graphics output However,
many engineering design applications, like architectural plan of a building, design of mechanical component
s of an aircraft or a car, etc., often require high-quality, perfectly-proportioned graphic output on large sheets
. The various types of printers discussed above are not suitable for meeting this output requirement of such a
pplications. A special type of output device, called plotters, is used for this purpose. Plotters are ideal output
device for architects, engineers, city planners, and others who need to routinely generate high-precision, har
d-copy, graphic output of widely varying sizes. The two commonly used types of plotters are drum plotter a
nd flatbed plotter. They are briefly described below.

Drum Plotter: In a drum plotter the paper, on which the design has to be made is placed over a
(a)
drum, which can rotate in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions to produce vertical motion.

Flatbed Plotter: A flatbed plotter plots a design or graph on a. sheet of paper, which that is spread
(b)
'and fixed over a rectangular flatbed table. In this type of plotter, normally the paper does not move, and the
pen holding mechanism is designed to provide all types of motions necessary t2 (haw complex designs and
graphs.

(iv) Screen Image Projector

Screen image projector is an output device, which is used to project information from a computer on to
a large screen (such as a cloth screen or a wall), so that it can be simultaneously viewed by a large group of
people. This output device is very useful for making presentations to a group of people with the direct use
of a computer. Special marker pens had to be used for marking certain portions of the contents on the transp
arency sheets during the presentation. A screen image projector greatly simplifies this job. It can be directly
plugged to a computer system; and the presenter can make a presentation to a group of people by projectin
g the presentation material one after another on a large screen with the help of computer's keyboard or mous
e.
Screen image projectors have become common presentation equipment today. They are commonly use
d with portable notebook computers to quickly setup a modern presentation facility at any place with-great
ease. Like monitors, screen image projectors provide a temporary, soft-copy output.

(v) Voice Response Systems

We know that, voice recognition system allows a user to talk to a computer, similarly, a voice respons
e system enables a computer to talk to a user. A voice response system has an audio-response device, which
produces audio output. Obviously, the output is temporary, soft-copy output. Voice response systems are of
two types—voice reproduction system and speech synthesizer. They are briefly described below.

Voice Reproduction System: A voice reproduction system produces audio output by selecting an appr
opriate audio output from a set of pre-recorded audio responses. The set of pre-recorded audio responses ma
y include words, phrases or sentences spoken by human beings; music or alarms generated by musical instru
ments; or any other type of sound. The actual analog recordings of the pre-recorded sounds are first converte
d into digital data and then permanently stored on the computer's disk, or in its memory chip. When audio ou
tput is to be produced, the computer selects the appropriate sound from the set of pre-recorded sounds; the se
lected sound is converted back into analog form, which is then routed to a speaker to produce the audio outp
ut.

Speech Synthesizer: A speech synthesizer converts text information into spoken sentences. To produce spe
ech, these devices combine basic sound units, called phonemes. From a given text information, sequence of
words are combined into phonemes, amplified, and output through the speaker attached to the system. Speec
h synthesizers are still in their infancy, because currently, they can produce only limited unique sounds with
only limited vocal inflections and phrasing

SHORT
Q1Classify computers according to their types.

Ans. Classification According to the Type

According to the type computers can be classified into the following: categories

(i) Digital Computers. A Digital computer as its name suggests, works with the digits. In other words
a digital computer is a counting device. All the expressions are coded into binary digits (0 and 1) inside the
computers and it manipulates them at very fast speed. A digital computer. = perform only one operation,
namely addition. The other operation of subtraction, multiplication. Division is performed with the help of
addition.
The digital computer circuits are designed and fabricated by the manufactures and are quite complicate
d ones. A digital computer manipulates data according to the instructions (programs) given to it in certain c
omputer language the instructions and data are fed to the computer the form of discrete electrical signals.

(ii) Analog Computers. An Analog computer, unlike digital z..-3mputer, works by the measuring
voltages, and currents rather than by the process counting. An analog computer works on supply of
continuous electrical signals and displays output continuously.
Slide rule is an example, of analog device in which numbers are
expressed as distances. Another example of analog device is speedometer of
as automobile which continuously displays output in the f orm of speed of
the vehicle as it receives continuous signals. On the other hand, milometer
playing distance covered by the vehicle) is a digital device. Thus, an
analog computer works by establishing analogy (similarity) between two
quantities one of which is essentially continuous electrical signals or
electrical pulses. This machine has a very limited memory and can perform only certain types of calculations
, which makes it specialized machine's suitable for engineering and scientific calculations.
An analog computer is basically a device for solving ordinary differential equations. The accuracy of
these machines is quite low although these are faster in speed as compared to digital computers.
Thus, we conclude, that an analog computer is a special purpose computer capable of solving any ph
ysical problem which can be represented as an ordinary differential equation. This computer is faster than a
digital computer but can give an accuracy of not more than 99%.

Hybrid Computers. A Hybrid Computer is a computer which combines best features of an analog an
d a digital computer. A more precise definition of a hybrid computer requires that analog units must be an i
ntegral part of the C.P.U. of digital computer and have direct input/output facilities. The basic aim of a hybr
id computer system is to provide the user with the best of the two computing philosophies. Hybrid compute
rs help the users to exploit the machine's ability to process both continuous and disctete data. These machin
es are generally used for scientific applications and in industrial process control. The results can be obtained
either as analog signals or discrete signals e.g. either as continuous output in the form of graphs or as discre
te digits, by a device called MODEM. A modem is a device which can transform analog signals to the digit
al signals and vice-versa. However, cost of these computers is prohibitive
Q-2 discuss the following-
Machine language, Assembly language, high level language
Machine language
Programming language that can be directly understood and obeyed by a machine (computer) without con
version (translation). Different for each type of CPU, it is the native binary language (comprised of only t
wo characters: 0 and 1) of the computer and is difficult to be read and understood by humans. Sometimes re
ferred to as machine code or object code, machine language is a collection of binary digits or bits that the co
mputer reads and interprets. Machine language is the only language a computer is capable of understanding.
Assembly language
assembly or ASL, assembly language is a low-level programming language used to interface with computer
hardware. Assembly language uses structured commands as substitutions for numbers allowing humans to m
ore easily read the code versus looking at binary. Although easier to read than binary, assembly language is
a difficult language and is usually substituted for a higher language such as C
High level language
A programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal that enables a programmer to write programs tha
t are more or less independent of a particular type of computer. Such languages are considered high-level be
cause they are closer to human languages and further from machine languages. In contrast, assembly langua
ges are considered low-level because they are very close to machine languages.
The main advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is that they are easier to read, write, a
nd maintain. Ultimately, programs written in a high-level language must be translated into machine language
by a compiler or interpreter

Q-3 Explain the term bit, nibble ,byte ,word.

.
NIBBLE
A group of four bits, or half a byte, is sometimes called a nibble or nybble. This unit is most often used in t
he context of hexadecimal number representations, since a nibble has the same amount of information as on
e hexadecimal digit.

Bit
A 'bit' (short for Binary Digit) is the smallest unit of data that can be stored by a computer. Each 'bit' is repre
sented as a binary number, either 1 (true) or 0 (false). (Roll over the image below ) The value of a bit is usua
lly stored as either above or below a designated level of electrical charge in a single capacitor within a mem
ory device.

Byte
A 'byte' contains 8 bits, so for example, it could be stored as 11101001.
A single keyboard character that you type, such as the letter A or the letter T takes up one byte of storage.