Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
STANDARD NINE
TERM II
VOLUME 3
SCIENCE
SOCIAL SCIENCE
A Publication Under
Free Textbook Programme of
Government of Tamilnadu
Textbook Printing
Tamilnadu Textbook Corporation
College Road, Chennai - 600 006.
Price : Rs.
Textbook available at
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II
CONTENTS
SCIENCE (1 - 90)
BIOLOGY
CHEMISTRY
4. Chemical Equation 56
PHYSICS
5. Sound 68
PRACTICALS 84
III
CONTENTS
GEOGRAPHY
CIVICS
IV
SCIENCE
STANDARD NINE
TERM II
SCIENCE
1
Note to the teacher…
- Authors
sciencetextbook@gmail.com
2
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
1. Introduction
Food is a source of energy for our body. It nourishes and protects us from diseases.
Plants and animals provide us with food. It is important that we take care of these
resources to make sure that we get constant supply of food. Our population is growing
exponentially and we need to find means to improve and increase the source of food.
What can we do to make sure that we always have enough food? Here are three
ideas. Which one would you choose ?
We have limited land and water for our use. Keeping this in mind scientists
and agriculturists have been thinking of different ways by which we can grow
more food.
1990 2010
Note three differences that you observe between these two pictures.
1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
The population on this planet is constantly growing. The world population according
to the United States Census Bureau was 6 billion in 1999 and has grown alarmingly
to 7 billion in 2012. This would put pressure on the supply of food to mankind. The
area available for plant cultivation is shrinking but the amount of food required is
increasing. We must meet the food demand by increasing the food produce from
agriculture and animal farming.
4
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
Increase in Population
Scarcity of Food
SCIENCE
Crops grown for oilseeds: Groundnut, Sunflower, Mustard, Sesame
Crops grown for animal fodder: Oats, Sudan grass, Elephant grass, Alfalfa.
5
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
Introduction of new and improved varieties
Improved varieties or strains of crops are produced by selective breeding for
various useful characteristics such as disease resistance, response to fertilizers,
product quality and higher yield.
Common factors for crop improvement
6
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
1.2 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Manure is an organic substance and
is prepared by the decomposition of
Plants take in carbon, hydrogen and plant and animal waste.
oxygen through air or water, and many
other nutrients through the soil. Scientists Based on the kind of biological material
have identified sixteen elements that are used, manure can be classified as follows:
important for the growth and reproduction i)
Compost & Vermi Compost:
of plants. Vermicompost is manure prepared
Nitrogen is needed for plants by using earthworms to speed up the
to prepare proteins, nucleic acids, process of decomposition of plant and
chlorophyll and other important organic animal waste.
molecules. Deficiency of nitrogen can ii) Green Manure : Green manure is
cause chlorosis. Phophorus is needed prepared by using leguminous plants
for the process of converting light energy like sunhemp and soyabean. These
from the sun into chemical energy. are grown for a specific period of
Similarly different elements are needed time and then ploughed back into the
for important activities in the life cycle of soil. The green plants add nutrient
a plant. and organic matter like nitrogen and
MACRO NUTRIENTS phosphorous to the soil.
SCIENCE
plants in very small quantities are called Vermi Compost
Micro nutrients. They are manganese,
copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron and
chlorine.
Just as in humans, plants too are
affected by nutrition deficiencies. It can
affect growth and reproduction leading
to low yield or no yield.
1.3
USES OF MANURE AND
FERTILIZERS
During farming and harvesting of
crops a large amount of nutrients are
removed from soil. This deficiency is
compensated with the help of chemicals
in the form of fertilizers and manure. Sunhemp
7
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
Activity – 1.1 WE DO Activity – 1.2 WE DO
Take two potted plants of ‘Keerai’. Name Collect animal waste like cow
them as A and B. Add cow dung or urea and dung, plant waste, domestic
sprinkle water for potted plant A. Sprinkle water waste and sewage waste. Allow
alone for potted plant B. Keep them in sunlight them to decompose in a pit in
and observe their growth for 15-20 days. your garden for some days. What
Which one grows faster? Why? do you get?
Uses of Manure
ff M
anure enhances the water holding capacity of the soil.
ff It increases the number of friendly microbes.
ff It improves the soil texture.
FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are chemicals like nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium that are
commercially produced in factories and used as plant nutrients.
When there is a specific nutrient missing in a plant it is recommended to use a
fertilizer. Small or micro doses of fertilizers can result in dramatic improvements in the
health of a plant.
Type of Fertilizers Examples
Nitrogenous Fertilizers Urea, Ammonium Sulphate, Ammonium Nitrate.
Phosphatic Fertilizers Single Super Phosphate, Triple Super Phosphate
Potassic Fertilizers Potassium Nitrate, Pottassium Chloride
Nitrophosphate, Ammonium Phosphate,
Complex Fertilizers
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP)
8
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
Differences between Manure and Fertilizers
Manure Fertilizers
1. Manure is a natural substance 1. Fertilizer is a mineral or chemical
obtained by the decomposition compound containing nutrients like
of cattle dung, human waste and sulphur, phosphorous, nitrogen.
plant waste.
2. Manure contain organic substances. 2. Fertilizers are inorganic compounds.
3. Manure can be prepared in fields. 3. Fertilizers are manufactured in factories.
4. Manure contain all nutrients but in 4. They contain more quantities of one or
small quantities. more specific nutrients.
5. Manure add plenty of humus to soil 5. Fertilizers do not result in the addition
and improve the texture of the soil. of humus to the soil.
6. Manure are not easily absorbed 6. Fertilizers are soluble in water and it is
because they are less soluble in nature. easily absorbed.
7. Manure are less soluble; they are not 7. Fertilizers are easily washed away by
easily washed away from the soil and water and hence their effect is of shorter
hence their effect is long lasting. duration and require repeated application.
1.4
PROTECTION FROM PESTS storage and consumption. This causes
AND DISEASEs a great loss to the national economy.
SCIENCE
Organisms that attack or destroy 1.4.1 INSECT PESTS
crops, food or farm animals are called
Insects attack plants in all stages
pests. They damage cultivated crops and
of their growth. Based on the mode of
plant products in storage. Crop yield is
attack, insect pests can be classified into
lost due to pests during sowing, harvest,
three types:
MORE TO KNOW i) Chewing Insects: They cut and chew
Fertilizers which are derived from living the root, stem and leaves of the plants.
organisms are called Bio-fertilizers. e.g. grasshoppers and caterpillars.
The main source of bio-fertilizers are ii) Sucking Insects: They suck the cell
bacteria, cyanobacteria and fungi. sap from different parts of the plants.
Bio-fertilizers are renewable and non- e.g. leaf hoppers and aphids.
polluting sources of plant nutrients.
They also improve the soil condition. iii) Borer Insects: They make holes and
Rhizobium and Cyanobacteria such enter different parts and feed on
as Anabaena and Nostoc are some plant tissues. e.g. sugarcane borer.
common bio-fertilizers.
9
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
Sugarcane Top-borer
Pyrilla
(Sugarcane Leaf Hopper)
10
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
SCIENCE
called weedicides. e.g. 2 - 4 - D.
ff D o not touch the pesticide with bare
(2 - 4 - Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid)
hands; use rubber gloves while
iv) Rodenticides: Chemicals used handling it.
to kill rodents like rats, mice and
ff Do not blow, suck or apply mouth to
squirrel are called rodenticides,
any sprinkler, nozzle or other parts
e.g. Zinc Phosphate, Arsenic.
of the spraying equipment.
ff Do not spray pesticides against the
1.4.3 Methods of insect pest direction of wind in the open field.
control ff Use only the prescribed dose of the
The infestation of different types of pesticides for spraying.
insect pests can be controlled by the
following methods. Activity – 1.4 WE DO
ff R
oot-cutting insects are controlled Visit a crop field nearby and observe
by mixing insecticides in soil. and identify weeds, insect pests and
e.g. Chloropyriphos. diseases noticed in crops.
11
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
1.4.5 Storage of Grains These factors cause,
12
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
breeds and hybrids.
Some of the characteristics that
farmers look for when selecting parent
crops or farm animals for hybridization
are:
1. Resistance to diseases
2. Tolerance to climatic conditions
3. General appearance
4. Size and configuration
5. Productivity
MO17 B 73 6. Good health
7. Proper age of reproduction
SCIENCE
Hybridisation is a method of breeding, 2. To bring undesirable recessive genes
where the offspring is formed by the to light. This enable the breeder to
union of two genetically dissimilar separate them from the stock.
parents. It involves the application of the 3. Inbreeding promotes uniformity.
principles of genetics and physiology of 4.
Inbreeding associated with selection
reproduction. can produce improved stocks.
Hybridization has long been used for
commercial production of cattle, sheep
and poultry. Black Rock chicken is a
hybrid of Rhode Island Red and Barred
Plymouth Rock chicken. These are
examples of two normal breeds that are
put together to form an extraordinary
breed. Scientists however proceed with
much caution in their efforts to find better Inbreeding in cattle
13
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
Selection i) Natural Method: In this method
crossing of indigenous and exotic
It is a process of selecting productive
breeds takes place in order to
individuals for further breeding. Modern
significantly improve the yield.
approach of selection is based on
records of performance. ii) Artificial insemination: It is a method
used in hybridization in which stored
Out breeding
semen of a desired male animal is
It involves breeding of animals that introduced into the genital tract of a
are not closely related. selected female animal by the use of
a) O
ut crossing: It involves breeding from suitable instruments in order to obtain
the crossing of animals of the same a better breed of the animal.
breed (without a common ancestor). Advantages of artificial insemination
b) Cross breeding: In this method, 1. Ensures the progeny with desirable
superior males of one breed are mated qualities.
with superior females of another
breed. It involves the fusion of two 2. It is an economical method wherein
different breeds in order to combine semen from an animal is used to
the desirable qualities of both. impregnate many females.
3. It provides high yielding animals with
increased production of milk, eggs
and meat.
4. Frozen semen can be stored for a
long period and it can be transported
even to the remote areas.
14
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
Some examples are:
Farm
Dairy animals: those that are used as Purpose
animals
source of milk e.g. Cow, Sheep
Cow Meat and Milk
Meat producing animals: animals that
Buffalo Meat and Milk
are used for their meat e.g. Cow, Pig
Duck Egg and Meat
Poultry animals: birds that are source of
egg and meat. e.g. Chicken, Turkey Chicken Egg and Meat
Activity – 1.5 WE DO Sheep Wool, Meat and Milk
Visit an animal husbandry
Silk worm Silk
clinic to know about the common
diseases of cattle. Bees Honey and Wax
MORE TO KNOW
Animal
Fat % Protein % Sugar % Minerals % Water %
Product
Milk 3.60 4.00 4.50 0.70 87.20
Egg 12.00 13.00 Trace 1.00 74.00
Meat 3.60 21.10 Trace 1.10 74.20
Fish 2.50 19.00 Trace 1.30 77.20
Cattle:
SCIENCE
Shahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir and Deoni
are examples of Indian cattle breed that
are used for their milk.
Holstein Freisian is an exotic breed
from Holland and Friesland in the
Netherlands. It is distinctive with large Holstein Freisian
black and white colour markings. These
or ploughing fields are called draught
cattle have been in use as dairy animals
animals. Kangayam, Umblacherry,
for more than 2,000 years. They are
Amritmahal and Hallikar are popular
known as a breed that gives very high
breeds of draught cattle . These animals
yield of milk. Murrah and Jersey are
can walk long distances carrying heavy
examples of cattle that are selected for
loads.
milk-yielding purposes.
Some breeds like Ongole, Khankrej
Strong animals that are used for
and Tharparkar are used for both milk
pulling heavy loads for transportation
and work.
15
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
Cattle feed or fodder: weeds using the entire green plant. The
crops are shredded into small pieces and
Cattle feed or dry fodder is made of
packed inside bags and sealed to allow
roughage and concentrates. Roughage fermentation. After two weeks the silage
is a coarse and fibrous substance is ready to be fed to cattle.
having low nutrient content. A variety of
raw material such as sorghum (jowar or Cattle can suffer from diseases and
Cholam), cumbu (pearl millet or bajra), parasitic infections. Vaccinations are
tamarind seed, rice bran, tapioca residue, given to protect them against bacterial
ragi (finger millet) husk, sunflower meal, and viral infections.
groundnut oilcake, gingelly oilcake, 1.7. Poultry farming
cotton seedcake and neem cake can
be used to make the concentrate. Poultry farming is defined as rearing
On an average, a milch cow (a breed and breeding of avian species for the
that is used for milk production) will purpose of egg and meat. Chicken
consume concentrate feed equivalent to occupy 90% of the total poultry.
2.5% - 3% of its bodyweight. About The term poultry includes chicken,
two-third of this dry feed should be in the ducks, geese, turkeys, pigeons and
form of crude fibres and the rest one third guinea fowls. The poultry industry with its
should be concentrates. They should
also feed on forage or grass varieties like MORE TO KNOW
Hybrid Napier, Sudan grass, Berseem Dr. V. Kurien is considered as the
and millets. These are also called as Father of White revolution. White
green fodder. revolution refers to a time when there
When there is a demand for more milk was tremendous increase in milk
production or stronger draught animals it production with the use of new
directly reflects on an improvement on improved breeds of cattle. Dr. V.Kurien
their feed. Silage is a feed that is highly is the founder chairman of National
nutritious. When green fodder is not Dairy Development Board (NDDB).
available cattle can be fed with silage. This board designed
Silage can be defined as fermented and implemented
high-moisture stored fodder which can the world’s largest
be fed to cows, sheep and goats. It is dairy development
made from ordinary green grass, maize, programme called
sorghum or other cereals and other OPERATION FLOOD.
16
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
MORE TO KNOW
Vegetarian eggs: Fertile eggs
rot more rapidly than infertile eggs.
Hence the production of infertile eggs
is desired. Hens are capable of laying
eggs without the presence of cock and
the eggs obtained are infertile. Such
eggs are called vegetarian eggs.
Advantages of Cross breeds
Free range farming
production in the form of eggs and meat 1.
Cross breeds lay more number of
is of particular importance in providing a eggs.
balanced diet for the human population. 2. The eggs produced are larger in size.
Proper management of poultry includes 3. They yield more meat.
methods of hatching, rearing, housing,
sanitation, prevention of diseases and a Nutritional value
sound marketing system. Eggs and meat are a good source
Silver revolution of protein. Eggs also contain calcium,
Phosphorus, sodium, vitamins B1, B12
The increase in egg production and D.
brought about the ‘Silver Revolution’ in
the area of animal husbandry. Housing of Birds
In free-range farming, the poultry is
There are more than hundreds of
allowed to roam around freely during the
breeds of fowls. The fowls are classified
day. It is confined in a cage only in the
on the basis of their utility to man. They
nights. This is a semi-intensive method.
are 1.meat type 2.egg type 3.Dual type.
Intensive farming involves growing
Examples for cross breeds of the birds in small cages that are just large
SCIENCE
Poultry are: HH-260, IBL-80, B-77, enough for them to feed and lay eggs.
IIS-82 Animal welfare activists discourage this
method as this does not provide space
MORE TO KNOW for the bird to move or spread its wings.
Birds that are meant for meat are
White leghorn is the most high egg also grown in large cages or houses that
yielding breed in the world. protect them from predators.
India ranks fifth in the world poultry Aseel, Chittagong and Karaknath are
production. examples of Indian varieties of poultry.
17
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
Broilers are young chicken that are Poultry industry in Tamilnadu
grown only for their meat. The Tamilnadu Government is giving
Poultry feed much importance to poultry industry.
Namakkal, Palladam and Chennai are
Poultry diets are composed of
well known for poultry industries. Each
a mixture of cereal grains, soya bean
child is given an egg on all working days
meal, fish meal, bone meal, wheat bran,
of schools in Tamilnadu.
groundnut cake, barley, oats, maize,
animal by-product meals etc. Trace Activity – 1.6 WE DO
minerals such as zinc, iron, copper
iodine, manganese and selenium must Visit a nearby poultry farm to observe
be included in the poultry feed. rearing, feeding and breeding of birds.
18
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
Nutritional value of fishery products
Fishes are rich in animal protein,
vitamins and minerals. The vitamin A
content of fish liver helps for good vision.
Common carp Vitamins such as B6, B12, D, Biotin,
Niacin and minerals such as phosphorus,
Types of fishing ponds potassium and iron promote normal
Fish culture requires different types of growth of human body. Fish meal for
ponds for the various stages of growth of cattle and poultry is prepared from the
fish. The types of ponds are as follows: non-edible parts of fishes.
1. Breeding ponds: Sexually mature 1.10. Apiculture
males and females are collected and The scientific method of rearing
left in these ponds for the breeding. honeybees for honey and wax is called
2. Hatchery ponds: The seeds collected ‘Apiculture’ or ‘Bee keeping’. Honey bees
from breeding ponds are placed here are social insects. They live in colonies.
in order to hatch the young fishes They exhibit team work and division of
called fish fries. labour. They feed on the pollen and
nectar of flowers. The honey bees collect
3. Nursery pond: 3 to 5 day old fish fries nectar from various flowers. The nectar is
are fed well and retained for about 20 swallowed by the bees. In the stomach,
days. the nectar is converted into honey and
4. Rearing ponds: These are deeper stored in the honeycombs. There are
ponds in which fish fries from the three types of bees in a colony.
nursery ponds are transferred and a. Queen: It is the only fertile female in the
maintained here for about three hive. The function of the queen bee is to lay
months. The fish fries grow to a size eggs.
of about 125 mm length and are now b. Drones: These are fertile male bees
and it’s function is to mate with queen
SCIENCE
called fish fingerlings.
bee and fertilize the eggs.
5. Stocking ponds: These are larger c. Workers: These are sterile females.
ponds and the fingerlings are fed with They take care of the queen and
artificial feed. Organic and inorganic young bees, collect nectar, build
fertilizers are used in increase growth. honey combs and protect the
Antibiotics are used to prevent beehive.
infectious diseases. When the fishes MORE TO KNOW
attain the required size, they are Facts about Indian fisheries
harvested. (both capture and culture)
1.Total fish production
1.9. Aquaculture – 3rd position in the world.
Aquaculture is a business that 2. Marine fish production
involves the production and marketing – 6th position in the world.
of aquatic organism, plants and animals, 3. Aquaculture production
under controlled conditions. Aquaculture – 2nd position in the world.
includes culture of prawn, lobsters, fish, 4. Fish industry contribution - Rs.13,000
pearl oysters, mussels and crabs. Crores annually as foreign exchange.
19
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
Honeybee varieties
a. Indigenous varieties
i. Apis indica (Common Indian honey
bee)
ii. Apis dorsata (Rock bee)
iii. Apis florea (Little bee)
b. Exotic varieties
i. Apis mellifera (Italian bee) Worker Queen Drone
ii. Apis adamsoni (South African bee) Bee wax
Economic importance of honey bees It is utilized in the manufacture of
Honey bees are used in the production cosmetics, lubricants, cold creams,
of honey and bee wax. shaving creams, polishes, candles,
ointments and in medical preparations.
Uses of honey
MORE TO KNOW
1.
Honey is an energy rich food.
For example 1 Kg of honey contains
3200 calories of energy.
2.
Honey contains sugars, minerals,
vitamins, enzymes and pollen.
Round dance Waggle dance
3. Honey is an antiseptic and contains HONEY BEE COMMUNICATION
formic acid as the preservative. (Dance forms)
4. Honey is a blood purifier, a cure against Round dance indicates that the
cough, cold, sore throat, ulcers of source of nectar is within 100 mts.,
tongue, stomach and intestine. Waggle dance signifies a long distance.
5.
Honey is helpful in building up the The dance movements specifies the
haemoglobin content of the blood. direction of nectar with respect to the
sun. In 1973 KARL VON FRISCH
6. Honey is used in the preparation of received Nobel prize for deciphering
bread, cakes and biscuits. this language.
EVALUATION
Section – A
I. Choose the correct answer :
1. This is an exotic variety of honey bee
a. Apis florea b. Apis adamsoni c. Apis indica d. Apis dorsata
2. Large ponds in which the fingerlings are fed with artificial feed
a. Breeding ponds b. Nursing ponds c. Hatchery ponds d. Stocking ponds
20
IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
4. These crops are grown for oilseeds
a. maize b. sunflower c. rice d. wheat
SCIENCE
1. What are crops? Give three examples.
21
BIOLOGY CHAPTER-1
Section C
V. Answer the following:
1. Anbu and Raj have been growing fish fries in their nursery pond for more than
two weeks. But they have to shift the fish fries to another pond. Can you say
why?
2. Babu and his friends want to start a poultry farm. Make a list of all the things they
have to do to take care of the animals.
3. Vimala found many of her potato plants eaten by rats. Suggest one method she
can use to get rid of the rats from the field. Mention two precautions she should
take.
4. A group of farmers is planning to increase yield from crops. Make a list of factors
that they should consider for crop improvement.
VI. Observe the given table with a set of 4 terms in Column A.
ick the odd term and enter in Column B. Identify the common features of the
P
remaining three items and note down in Column C.
MODEL A B C
Aseel, Chittagong and Leghorn Indian breeds of
1.
Karaknath, Leghorn. Poultry
Inbreeding,
Crossbreeding,Inter specific
2.
hybridization, Artificial
insemination.
Monoculture, Polyculture,
3. Integrated Fish
Culture,Intensive Fish Culture
Apis indica, Apis dorsata, Apis
4.
florea, Apis mellifera
Further reference
Books: 1. Economic Botany - Plants in our world 2000 - B
eryl simpson and Molly ogorzaly,
Mc Graw Hill Publications
2. Economic Botany of Crop plants 2000 - A.V.S.S. Sambamurthy and
N.S.Subrahmanyam, Asiatech Publisher.
3. Economic Zoology - Shukula, G.S. and Upadhyay V.B. (1997) Rastogi
Publication, Meerut.
Websites : http://www.biology-online.org
http://www.tnau.ac.in
22
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Introduction:
There are ten major organ systems in our body that work together to ensure that
we can perform all our functions.
Human body organ systems
Hair shaft
Epidermis
Lymph vessel
Nerve
Subcutaneous
tissue
Vein
Artery
Sweat gland
Structure of skin
24
Human BODY organ system
1. Epidermis 2. It prevents the entrance of infectious
agents.
Epidermis is the upper layer of the
skin. The outermost layer consists of 3. It reduces water loss.
flat, thin and scale - like dead cells. It is
4. Skin regulates the body temperature.
separated from the dermis by basement
membrane. 5. Skin can prepare Vitamin D with the
help of sunlight.
The epidermis contains melanocytes
and gives colour to the skin. The deepest 6. It allows us to feel touch, pain and
temperature.
layers of epidermis have nerve endings.
7. Skin acts as an excretory organ and
2. Dermis excretes sweat.
The dermis is the middle layer. It is
thick but elastic. The dermis consists MORE TO KNOW
of nerves, blood vessels, hair follicles, Skin colour of human is
sweat glands and sebaceous glands (oil determined by the melanocytes
glands). Sweat glands separate sweat of the basement membrane.
from the blood. The formation of melanocytes is
determined by heredity.
Sweat glands also help in
thermoregulation by cooling the surface Activity – 2.1 I DO
of the skin to maintain body temperature. Identify various derivatives of skin
It brings about excretion by removing like hair, feather, nail and scales in
excess water and dissolved salts from different animals.
the body. It also provides protection from
MORE TO KNOW
colonization by bacteria and entry of
pathogens through the skin surface.
SCIENCE
Sebaceous gland secretes sebum
which keeps the skin smooth and shiny.
The arrector pili is the smooth muscle
necessary to move the hair.
3. Hypodermis
It is the innermost layer. It is thick
and contains large amounts of adipose
tissue. The adipose tissue functions Wrinkles: If you pinch your skin and
as storage of fat and reserve energy. It let go, it springs back into shape.
provides the body with insulation. This happens because skin contains
proteins in the dermis that stretch like
Functions of Skin
elastic. As people get older, their skin
1. Skin protects the internal organs of become less elastic, so it begins to
our body. form wrinkles.
25
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
2.2 Muscular System
This system is made up of muscles
that helps the body to move. Muscle
tissue is made of bundles of cells and
fibres that work in a simple way: they can
tighten up or contract and they can relax.
Human body consists of about 700
different muscles.
Based on the structure, function and
position they can be divided into skeletal,
visceral and cardiac muscles.
Various animals and their
locomotory organs
Amoeba Pseudopodia
Paramecium Cilia
Euglena Flagella
26
Human BODY organ system
Distribution of muscles
There are five different sets of muscles Biceps muscles
in our body.
1. Muscles of the head.
2. Muscles of the neck.
3. Muscles of the trunk region.
4. Muscles of the upper limb. Triceps muscles
Breathing
Four important thoracic muscles
are associated with the process of
breathing. The process of inspiration is
due to scalene and external intercostal
muscles. The expiration is performed
due to internal intercostal muscles and
transverse thoracis. Major breathing LUIGI GALVANI
movement is due to the diaphragm, By accident, the Italian
a curved musculo fibrous sheath that professor of Anatomy, Luigi Galvani
SCIENCE
separates the thoracic cavity from the (1737-98) discovered that a dead frog’s
abdominal cavity. legs contracted if they were pegged to
Functions of muscles an iron frame with brass pins. Galvani
1. Muscles are responsible for locomotion. thought that frog’s muscles movement
made electricity, which caused the
2. It provides beautiful shape to our
contractions. Galvani was right to think
body.
that electricity made the muscle move,
3. The inner smooth muscles of the
but in fact it was the two metals acting
visceral organs make them work like
together that made the electricity.
a machine throughout our life.
We now know that in living animals,
Activity – 2.2 WE DO electrical signals from the nerve make
o to the Government Medical college
G the muscles contract.
hospital and observe the preserved MORE TO KNOW
specimens and models of different
types of human muscles and organs. 1 sq.cm of muscle can lift 3.5kg.
27
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Significant muscles, their location and movement
Lattismus
4 Wide back muscle Pulling and rowing movement
dorsi
28
Human BODY organ system
Skull
Eye orbit
Nasal bone
Maxilla
Thoracic Mandible
cavity
Human skull
Humerus
Thoracic cage
The thoracic cage or rib cage is made of
Pectoral girdle
ribs that are attached to a flat long bone in
front of the chest called the sternum. The
ribs are also connected behind to the
thoracic region of the vertebral column.
This thoracic cage encloses a space
Femur called the thoracic cavity. The thoracic
cage protects the heart and lungs that
are located inside the thoracic cavity.
Sternum
Rib
SCIENCE
Back bone
Human skeleton
Skull
Thoracic cavity of a human
Skull consists of 22 bones: 8 bones
form the cranium and the remaining There are 12 pairs of ribs. Each pair
articulates with a thoracic vertebrae. In
14 are facial bones. The bones of the
the front, the first ten pairs are attached
cranium are flat. They are connected by
with the sternum. The first seven pairs are
immovable joints. Cranium protects the
directly attached with the sternum. They
brain. The skull also supports the organs
are called the true ribs. The cartilages
of vision, hearing, smell and taste.
of the 8th, 9th and 10th are fused and
A large opening is found at the base attached to the sternum indirectly. They
of the skull. Through this opening the are called false ribs. The 11th and 12th
medulla oblongata of the brain descends pairs are not attached to the sternum.
down as the spinal cord. They are called floating ribs.
29
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
The vertebral column or Spine
Scapula
Cervical region
Humerus
Thoracic region
Ulna
Radius
Carpals
Phalanges Metacarpals
Lumbar region
30
Human BODY organ system
molecules can then be assimilated either
Pelvis
by blood or by lymph.
SCIENCE
gallbladder
pancreas
In human body, there are 206 bones
of those 80 are in the axial skeleton, 126 large
intestine
are in the appendicular skeleton. Among
small
the bones of the axial skeleton 28 bones intestine
are in the skull, 26 bones are in the
appendix
vertebral column, 25 bones are in the
thoracic cage and one remains as the
hyoid bone. anus
rectum
Organs of digestion
2.4 Digestive system
Mouth
Digestion is process of conversion of Mouth opens into the buccal cavity.
complex compounds like carbohydrates, The roof of the cavity is lined by the palate.
proteins and fats into simpler molecules The floor bears a muscular tongue. The
like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids teeth are found on the upper and lower
and glycerol respectively. These simpler jaws.
31
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Teeth Salivary gland secretes saliva. The saliva
has the following
Adults have 32 teeth, 16 in each jaw.
4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars and 6 1. Ptyalin(Amylase) - enzyme
molars in each jaw. The last set of molar 2. Bicarbonate - salt
teeth grows after the age of 20. Hence 3. Mucus
they are referred to as wisdom teeth. Each 4. Lysozyme - enzyme
tooth is made of a bone-like substance Pharynx
called dentine and covered with a layer
Pharynx is found below the nose
of enamel, the hardest substance in the
and mouth. It is about 11 cm in length.
body. Teeth help to cut and grind food to
This region has 7 openings. They are
aid in digestion.
2 internal nostrils, 2 eustachian tubes,
Tongue mouth, larynx and oesophagus.
It is a small muscular organ responsible Oesophagus
for the sense of taste. It is attached to the
floor of the mouth. The upper surface of It is a musculo-membranous canal
the tongue contains several papillae or about 22 cm length. It extends from
sensory buds.The tongue also helps to pharynx to the stomach. The inner lining
has a mucus coat and it is lined by
push the food and help in the process of
epithelium.
swallowing.
Stomach
Salivary gland
Stomach is an important organ of
digestion. It is a muscular sac found
on the left side of the abdomen. It can
be divided into 3 regions: the cardiac,
the fundus and the pylorus. The stomach
parotid secretes gastric juice. The gastric juice
gland contains the following:
1. Pepsin 2. Renin 3. Hydrochloric acid
Sublingual Hydrochloric acid is secreted by
gland
special type cells namely oxyntic cells.
Hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes
continue the digestion of food that began
Submaxillary gland in the mouth.
3 pairs of salivary glands open into the
mouth. They are parotid, sub-maxillary Small intestine
and sub-lingual. The stomach opens into the small
ffParotid glands - It is the largest gland intestine through the pylorus. The small
of the three pairs. It is found below the intestine is a 10 feet long tube coiled
ear.
MORE TO KNOW
ff Submaxillary gland - It is found below
The hardest part of the human body
the jaw and irregular in shape. is the tooth.
ffSublingual gland - It is the smallest If our mouth dries due to dehydration
gland. It is found at the base of the we would find it difficult to speak.
tongue.
32
Human BODY organ system
like a hose and the inside surface is liver
stomach
full of many ridges and fold The small
intestine can be divided into three parts:-
duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
Duodenum
Duodenum is C-shaped and around
22cms in length.
Liver
pancreas
Liver is the largest glandular organ in
human. It weighs about 1500 gms. It
duodenum
contains two unequal lobes. The right
lobe is larger. Liver secretes bile juice Liver and pancreas
which is greenish yellow in colour. The
bile is temporarily stored in gall bladder. As an exocrine gland it secretes the
The gall bladder is attached to the bile following enzymes
duct. The duct opens into the duodenum.
1. Trypsin 2. Chymotrypsin
Bile juice helps the digestion of fat. It
3. Carboxy peptidase 4. Amylase
does not have any enzyme. It has bile
5. Lipase
salts and bile pigments.
Jejunum
Jejunum constitutes two fifths of
Bile juice the small intestine. It starts from the
Sodium glycolate duodenum and ends with ileum. The
secretion of small intestine is intestinal
Bile salts juice. The intestinal juice contains the
Sodium tauro enzymes:
glycolate
1.Sucrase 2. Maltase 3. Lactase,
SCIENCE
Bilirubin 4. Lipase
33
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Large intestine 2.5 URINARY SYSTEM
Transverse colon
The urinary system consists of the
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and
Ascending urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to
colon
Descending remove waste and produce urine
colon
Kidneys
Caecum Kidneys are a pair of dark red,
Sigmoid bean shaped organ placed behind the
colon abdomen on each side of the vertebral
column. The average adult kidney
Large Intestine measures about 12 cm in length, 6 cm
in width and 3 cm in thickness. The outer
It extends from the ileum to the anus.
surface of the kidney is convex and the
It is about 1.5 metres in length. It is
inner surface is concave and it faces the
divided into caecum, colon and rectum.
vertebral column. The right kidney is just
Caecum lower than that of the left kidney because
the right side of the body is occupied by
Caecum is a large blind pouch and
the liver. Each kidney is covered by a
measures about 5 cm in length. The
fibrous membrane called capsule.
appendix is located near the junction of
the small intestine and the large intestine.
It is considered to be a vestigeal organ Adrenal Capsula fibrosa
glands
with no specific function. Medulla renalis
CLAUDE BERNARD
Bladder
Urethra
Urinary system
34
Human BODY organ system
hollow space inside the bladder. Urine
is expelled through the urethra to the Cortex
outside.
Nephron
Kidneys are made up of millions of
nephrons, which are the structural and
functional unit of kidneys. Each kidney
consists of about one million nephrons.
Pelvis
Kidneys, lungs, liver and skin together
function as excretory organs .
Medulla
Lungs: Lungs excrete CO2 and water
from the blood.
Skin : Skin excretes sweat. The sweat
consists of dissolved urea, uric Longitudinal section of Kidney
acid and lactic acid.
Liver : Liver excretes bile pigments,
2.6 Circulatory System
formed during the breakdown of This system is made up of the heart,
haemoglobin. blood and blood vessels. It is concerned
Functions of kidney with circulating blood to deliver oxygen
and nutrients to every part of the body.
1. It excretes nitrogenous waste
(urea) formed as a result of protein The heart is a hollow, muscular
metabolism. organ. It is somewhat conical in shape.
The heart is covered with double walled
2. It helps to maintain the fluid and
membrane called pericardium. The space
electrolyte balance of our body .
between the pericardial membrane is
3. It helps to regulate acid-base balance called pericardial space, which is filled
SCIENCE
of blood. with pericardial fluid. The pericardial fluid
4. It helps to maintain osmotic pressure protects the heart from shock. The heart
in blood and tissue. is placed inside the thoracic chamber in
between the two lungs.
5. It helps to retain important plasma
constituents like glucose, amino acids.
MORE TO KNOW
Kidney functions are the basis of blood
pressure.
1. There are approximately 1 million
nephrons in each kidney. At least
450,000 of them must remain functional
to ensure survival.
2. Every minute kidneys receive one
fifth blood of the cardiac output that
is approximately 1.250 litres every
minute.
35
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Internal structure of human heart
Aorta
Pulmonary Artery
LV
RV
Tricuspid valve
The heart is a four-chambered muscular organ that pumps blood. The two upper
chambers are called atria (Singular-atrium ) and the two lower thicker chambers are
called ventricles. The left and right sides of the heart are separated by a muscular
wall of tissue known as the auriculo-ventricular septum of the heart. The right side of
the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic veins and pumps it to the
lungs for oxygenation. The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs and pumps it through the systemic arteries to the tissues of the body.
Each heartbeat results in the simultaneous pumping of both sides of the heart,
making the heart a very efficient pump.
MORE TO KNOW
Among reptiles only the crocodiles have a four chambered heart.
36
Human BODY organ system
Valves in heart
1. Tricuspid Valve: Located in between
right atrium and right ventricle.
SCIENCE
right side of the heart.
considered as a vital tube of the blood
vascular system.
Difference between artery and vein
Sl.No. Arteries Veins
It carries blood from the heart to It carries blood from the organs to the
1.
the organs. heart.
It carries oxygenated blood It carries deoxygenated blood except
2.
except pulmonary artery. pulmonary veins.
3. The wall is thick and elastic. The wall is thin and less elastic.
37
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Blood:
The average human body contains
about 4 to 5 litres of blood. Blood is a
liquid connective tissue and it transports
many substances through the body
and helps to maintain homeostasis of
nutrients, waste and gases. Blood is
made up of red blood cells, white blood
cells, platelets and liquid plasma.
Plasma Red blood corpuscles (RBC)
2. Leucocytes
It is a non-cellular fluid of about 55%
percent of the blood volume. It is a faint They are colourless, irregular and
yellow colour fluid, which is alkaline in nucleated cells. The WBCs are fewer
nature. Plasma contains water, proteins, in number compared to RBCs and they
enzymes, hormones, dissolved elements are larger in size. One cubic mm of
and waste. Plasma functions as a blood contains 8000 WBCs. There are
transport medium for all these 5 types of WBC which are monocytes,
substances. lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils
and basophils. The life span of WBC is 4
Blood corpuscles weeks. They play an important role in the
Nearly 45% volume of blood contains body’s immune system.
corpuscles. The blood corpuscles are of WBCs attack the invading germs and
three types. protect our body.
1. Erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles
(RBC)
2. Leucocytes or white blood corpuscles
(WBC) 1 2 3 4 5
38
Human BODY organ system
Functions of blood
1. Blood distributes the digested food.
2. Blood carries the metabolic waste
to the excretory organs.
3. Blood carries hormones, which are
the secretions of endocrine glands.
4. Blood distributes the heat evenly
throughout the body.
5. Blood keeps all the tissues moist. Blood smear showing
Thrombocytes ( Blood platelets)
Nasal Cavity
Nasopharyngeal tonsil
Nasopharynx
Tongue
Oropharynx
SCIENCE
Epiglottis
Hyoid bone
Laryngopharynx
Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
The respiratory organs include nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and
lungs.
The nasal cavity follows the external nose. The nose is a visible prominent
structure. The nasal passage opens outside through external nostrils. It opens inside
through the internal nostrils at pharynx.
The trachea (or wind pipe) is a membranous tube supported by ‘C’ shaped
cartilage rings. The inner wall is lined by mucous membrane. It consists of ciliated
columnar epithelium.
39
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Respiratory area as the pleural cavity. The cavity is filled
The total surface of the alveoli will be with pleural fluid.
around 80-100 metre square and equals The primary bronchi on entering into
the size of the tennis court. each lung is divided further into secondary
Lungs bronchi. The secondary bronchi in
turn gives rise to tertiary bronchi. They
Trachea divide still further and finally gives rise
to bronchioles. The bronchioles divide
several times to become smaller terminal
Bronchus
bronchioles. The terminal bronchioles
end in small air filled chambers called
alveoli. This is the place, where exchange
Alveoli of gases takes place. Exchange of gases
is only by simple diffusion. Human lungs
Structure of Lungs have about 300 million alveoli.
40
Human BODY organ system
SCIENCE
temperature
carina stimulate a powerful
by panting.
cough.
41
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Male reproductive system
Vas deferens
Bladder
Seminal Vesicle
Prostate gland
Cowper’s gland
Urethra
Epididymis
Testis
Scrotum
The sertoli cells of the testis provide nucleus containing haploid set (n)
nourishment to the developing sperms. of chromosomes and a terminal
The sperms are delivered through acrosome (Golgi apparatus) containing
the vas deferens which unites with the hyaluronidase and proteolytic enzymes.
urethra which form a common passage The neck contains a proximal and a
for both sperms and urine. Along the path distal centriole. The distal centriole is
of vas deferens lies seminal vesicles continuous with axial filament.
and prostrate glands which add their The midpiece contains the spirally
secretions so that sperms are released in coiled mitochondria. The tail represents
a fluid called semen. This fluid provides the remnants of cytoplasm and propels
nutrition and helps in the transport of the sperm in the liquid medium.
sperms.
Structure of a mature sperm Female reproductive system
The sperm consists of four parts The female reproductive system
namely head, neck, midpiece and consists of ovaries and accessory organs
tail. The head contains a condensed such as fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix
and vagina. The ovary produces an egg
Head for every 28 days (menstrual cycle) as
well as female sex hormones oestrogen
Midpiece
and progesterone.
Each ovary consists of follicle cells
which produce the ovum by a process
Tail known as oogenesis. The uterus is a
hollow, thick walled muscular organ
formed of three layers and the fertilized
ovum is embedded and nourished in
Sperm the uterus. Vagina is a muscular tube
42
Human BODY organ system
which connects the cervix and the external genitalia. It serves to receive sperms
and as a birth canal. The oestrogen is responsible for oogenesis and for the
appearance of female secondary sexual characters such as development of
breasts, growth of hair and feminine voice.
Fundus of uterus fallopian tube
Ampulla
Infundibulum
Ovary
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
SCIENCE
transparent membrane above the It involves three phases namely
vitelline membrane. 1. The follicular phase(5th day –14th day)
3. Corona radiata – The outermost 2. The luteal phase or Premenstrual
thick membrane formed by the follicle phase (15th day – 28th day)
cells.The fluid-filled cyst inside which
an ovum develops is called a Graffian 3. The menstrual phase (1st day – 5th
follicle. day)
Menstrual cycle MORE TO KNOW
The rhythmic series of changes in the Sperm Bank
female sex organs that occur for about
Sperms can be collected in the form
28 days throughout the reproductive life
of semen and can be stored in sperm
of women from puberty to menopause
bank and kept viable for several years
MORE TO KNOW in frozen state in liquid nitrogen at a
Anton van Leeuwenhock very low temperature. These sperms
(1632 - 1723) was the first to are useful in invitro fertilization and
observe and draw sperm cells. artificial insemination techniques.
43
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Menstrual cycle
1. Follicular phase: This phase is
initiated by the secretion of Follicle
Stimulating Hormone (FSH) of
pituitary. During this phase primary
ovarian follicles begin to grow and
the mature graffian follicles burst and
release the ovum into the fallopian
tube (ovulation).
2. Luteal phase: This stage is influenced
by Lutenising Hormone (LH) of
pituitary gland. After the release of
the ovum, the ruptured part of graffian
follicle is transformed into a transitory Fertilization
endocrine gland called corpus luteum. 2.8.1 Development of Embryo
It secretes the pregnancy hormone
called progesterone. This hormone The fertilized ovum is called the
causes the thickness of endometrium zygote. As soon as it is formed, it
and prepares the uterus to receive becomes activated and mitotic divisions
the fertilized ovum. If the ovum is not sets in. This is the first phase of embryo’s
fertilized, the ovum and uterine wall development called the cleavage. As a
gets ruptured and discharged during result a ball of cells called the blastula
menstrual phase. is formed. The outer surface forms the
trophoblast and the embryo gets attached
3. Menstrual phase: The decline in
to the wall of the uterus. This process is
progesterone and oestrogen initiates
known as implantation.
the shedding of unfertilized egg and
endometrium with severe bleeding The implanted embryo develops
in a process called mensus or the extra embryonic membranes such
menstruation. At the termination of as amnion, allantois, chorion and yolk
menstruation, the corpus luteum is sac. Amnion provides a fluid medium
converted into a scar tissue called to the developing embryo. It prevents
corpus albicans. dessication of the embryo and functions
as a shock absorber. The chorion and
Mechanism of fertilization allantois fuse to form the placenta. It
At the time of ovulation, the ovum is fully helps in the exchange of gases between
matured and it enters the infundibulum the mother and the foetus and also the
of the uterine tube and passes into the elimination of nitrogenous waste from the
ampulla. Fertilization of the ovum occurs foetus. The embryo and the placenta are
in the ampulla of the uterine tube. Only connected by the umbilical cord which is
one spermatozoan pierces the egg derived from the allantois.
membrane Zona pellucida and enters Stages in the development of the
the ovum. Polygamy (entry of more human foetus.
sperms) is prevented by the fertilization
Gestation period : From the fertilization
membrane around the ovum.
of the ovum to the birth of the baby it
44
Human BODY organ system
3. Cleavage
2. Fertilization
4. Blastocyst
1. Ovulation
5. Implantation
Ovary
Blastulation to implantation
takes about nine months. The period
during which the foetus remains inside
the uterus is called the gestation period.
The development of foetus can be
studied as phases of three month period:
The first, second and third trimesters.
SCIENCE
First trimester
During this period, the proliferation
of cells takes place and gradually a
single cell is transformed into a foetus.
Organogenesis takes place resulting in
the formation of organs.
Second trimester
The foetus grows rapidly. The
respiratory and circulatory systems
become well developed and functional.
The bones and muscles are well formed.
Third trimester
The length and weight of the Development of Human embryo
foetus increases very rapidly and the
development is completed.
45
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
Child birth Advantages of mother’s milk
A few days before birth, the foetus ff It is easily available, clean,
turns head downwards in the uterus just uncontaminated and sterile.
above the cervix. ff It is available at a correct temperature
At the onset of childbirth, the uterus for the baby’s needs.
begins to contract rhythmically under ff It contains antibodies which shield
the influence of oxytocin hormone. the baby from external viral and
These contractions become stronger bacterial infections.
and more frequent. This marks the onset
ff In rural areas breast milk is used as
of labour pain. With continued powerful
eye drops for viral conjunctivitis and
contractions, the amnion ruptures and
minor eye infections as a first aid.
the amniotic fluid flows out through the
vagina. ff T
he calorific value of breast milk is
70 per 100 ml of milk and this fully
Finally, the muscular contractions of the meet the requirements of the infant.
uterus and the abdomen expel the child
through the dilated cervix and vagina. ff L
actoferin a protein in breast milk,
The umbilical cord that still connects the provides considerable protection
child to the placenta is tied and cut. A few against intestinal and respiratory
minutes later, the placenta breaks away infections.
from the uterus and is expelled as ‘after MORE TO KNOW
birth’.
The test tube babies are
Lactation formed by the technique of invitro
The first milk which comes out from fertilization in which fertilization and
the mother’s mammary gland just after early development takes place in an
childbirth is known as colostrum. It is rich artificial medium outside. Dr. Robert
in proteins and nutrients. It also contains Edwards and Dr.Patrick Steptoe of
antibodies that provide immunity for the UK were successful in producing
newborn infant. The secretion of milk the first test tube baby.
is stimulated by the pituitary hormone
prolactin.
EVALUATION
Section – A
I. Answer the following questions:
1. Study the relationship of the given pair and write the missing word or sentences
a) Heart : Pericardium ; Lung : ______________
b) Mouth : Saliva ; Liver: ______________
c) Skin : Prevents the entrance of infectious agents; WBC :___________
46
Human BODY organ system
4. Circle the odd one out:
a) Oesophagus, Stomach, Bronchi, Ileum, Colon
b) Capsule, Platelet, Nephron, Ureter, Urethra
c) Patella, Incisors, Canines, Pre-molar, Molar
d) Cervical, Cardiac, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral
e) Larynx, Urethra, Trachea, Bronchi, Alveoli
5. The process of menstrual cycle stops during pregnancy and resumes after
child birth. Name the hormone involved and mention its function.
6. During the time of delivery, the mother experiences severe labour pain.
Name the hormone responsible for it and mention its significance.
Section – B
II. Answer the following questions:
1. Which organs are protected by a) the skull b) the rib cage
2. Name two parts of the body where you may find smooth muscles.
3. How does cardiac muscle differ from skeletal muscle?
4. Differntiate between cardiac and pulmonary circulation
5. Observe the given diagram of skin.
a) What are X, Y and Z ?
b) Write the importance of X.
c) Name the secretions of Y and Z.
d) Write the importance of the secretions.
A B
SCIENCE
Femur Upper arm bone
Tibia Shoulder blade
47
BIOLOGY CHAPTER - 2
8. Which one is not correctly matched?
Organs Enzymes
1. Salivary glands Ptyalin
2. Stomach Pepsin
3. Pancreas Sucrase
4. Jejunum Maltase
10. The testis are located in the scrotum outside the abdominal cavity. Give reason.
11. In higher organisms the male and female can be distinguished by certain
external features called secondary sexual characters. List some male and
female characters in human.
12. Both the Sperm and Ovum contains haploid set (n) of chromosomes. Give
reason.s
13. The developing foetus can communicate with the mother through the placenta.
Mention the role of placenta.
14. The gestation period in human is about nine months which is divided into
three divisions called trimesters. List the changes which occur during the first
trimester.
15. Mother’s milk is the wholesome food for the child. Justify your answer.
16. In insects during metamorphosis, the outer skin is cast off periodically. Name
the process and mention its significance.
Section – C
1. Diagram of human chest is given. Copy the diagram and mark the parts.
a) 1 to 7 ribs are called ______________. Why?
b) 8 to 10 ribs are named ______________. Give reason.
c) Write the significance of 11 and 12 ribs.
d) Name to organs in the thoracic chamber.
Further reference
Books: Manual of Zoology Vol.II - Chordata - M.Ekambaranatha Ayyar and
T.N.Ananthakrishnan, S.Viswanathan Printers and Publishers.
Websites : http://www.enchantedlearning.com
http://www.khanacademy.org
48
BIOLOGY CHAPTER -3
3. BIO-GEO CHEMICAL CYCLE
The cyclic flow of elements or
compounds between non-living
environment (soil, rock, air, water) and
living organisms is known as bio-geo
chemical cycle. These chemicals are
used by living organisms and released
back into the environment when they
die and decompose. Thus there is an
inter-dependence between the living
and non-living to help them complete a Interaction between insects and plants
lifecycle. Green plants are the producers
a series of heterotrophic organisms or
and the animals that eat them are the
consumers. This forms the food chain.
consumers. The bacteria and fungi are
Living organisms take in oxygen during
the decomposers that break down the
respiration and give out carbon-dioxide.
dead remains and release the chemicals
The plants absorb this CO2 during
for the plants to use again.
photosynthesis and liberate oxygen in to
The abiotic or non-living components the atmosphere. Thus plants and animals
of the environment are air, water, soil, are interdependent.
light and temperature. The biotic or living
components of environment include WATER CYCLE
all living organisms including human
Water is an important component
beings. Ecosystem (Environmental
of the environment and is essential for
system) includes these two essential
living beings. Oceans are the biggest
components. The organisms and the
store houses of water from which water
physical environment of the habitat form
evaporates to form clouds. Water also
an ecological complex termed ecosystem.
evaporates from other water bodies
The branch of biology which deals with
like rivers, lakes and ponds to form
the inter relationships of organisms and
clouds. On condensation, water vapour
their environment is called Ecology.
in the clouds comes down as rain. The
The energy trapped by green rainwater passes through rivers and
plants or autotrophs is relayed through eventually reaches the oceans.
50
BIO-GEO CHEMICAL CYCLE
Sun
Cloud Formation
Rain Clouds
Evaporation
ion
tat
Soil
ge
s
eam
ean
Ve
Precipitation
tion
From
m
Str
From Oc
Fro
pira
m
Fro
s
Tran
Sur Lake Storage
face
Run
off
Infiltration
Soil
Bedrock
Percolation
Ocean
Deep Percolation
Grou
ndw
ater Water cycle
SCIENCE
reservoir or through food. They release
water back into the environment by lakes acts as reservoirs of water which
evaporation and excretion. finally collects in the oceans.
51
BIOLOGY CHAPTER -3
Nitrogen in Atmosphere
fu ing
el
of urn
Excretion
B
Food Death and
Biological Fixation
Denitrification
on
Death and Decay cati
onifi
m
Ammonia Am
Nitrification
Nitrogen pool
in soil
52
BIO-GEO CHEMICAL CYCLE
Nitrification
During this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrites and nitrates by soil
bacteria such as Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas which are then absorbed by plants
through their roots.
Denitrification
Free living soil bacteria such as Pseudomonas reduce nitrate ions of soil into
gaseous nitrogen which returns to the atmosphere.
CARBON CYCLE
Photosynthesis
ca
n
Animals
y
sp
te
convert plant Ea
ira
on
Co
tio
material into
ati
mb
ss
tio
Fo
n
Prehistoric Plants
form deposits of
coal petroleum and
natural gas
Carbon Cycle
SCIENCE
All living organisms are made up of compounds that contain carbon. The three main
sources of carbon are i) CO2 of the air and CO2 dissolved in oceans, ii) Carbonate
rock in the earth’s crust and iii) Fossil fuels like coal and petroleum. The element
carbon moves from atmospheric reservoir to producers to consumers and then to
decomposers.
The atmospheric carbon dioxide enters into the living world i.e. green plants,
through the process of photosynthesis to form carbohydrates (food). Plants are eaten
by herbivores and the carbon passes through small and large carnivores.
Carbon is added back into the atmosphere through respiratory activities at each
trophic level. Carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmosphere through decomposition
of dead organic materials, burning of fossil fuels and volcanic activities.
MORE TO KNOW
Without the carbon cycle, carbon would not be recycled, resulting in the inability
for living things to survive.
53
BIOLOGY CHAPTER -3
OXYGEN CYCLE
Atmospheric Oxygen
O2
Organic Molecules
C6 H12 O6
Photosynthesis
Respiration
CO2
H 2O
Oxygen Cycle
All living organisms require oxygen for respiration. Oxygen forms about 20% of the
air in the atmosphere. It enters the living world through respiration. It oxidizes food
materials and produces energy. The carbon dioxide that is released in the process is
utilized by the plants to produce food materials through photosynthesis and oxygen is
released back into the atmosphere.
EVALUATION
Section A
Ammonification Pseudomonas
Nitrification Rhizobium
54
BIO-GEO CHEMICAL CYCLE
Section B
I. Answer the following questions:
1. What is significant about leguminous plants?
2. Why is Carbon an important element?
3. How is Oxygen recycled?
4. What are decomposers? What role do they play in bio-geo chemical cycle?
5. Why is Nitrogen fixation an important aspect of recycling Nitrogen?
6. Construct at least two food chains with the help of the organisms given :
(lion, tiger, grass, deer, fox, rabbit).
7. “ Carbon is added back into the atmosphere though respiratory activities at each
trophic level”. Explain in your own words what you understand by the term
‘trophic’ level.
8. Why do plants depend on organisms like nostoc and rhizobium?
9. P
lants and animals are inter dependent. Do you agree with this statement?
Comment.
10. Describe briefly how the Nitrogen cycle works.
Section C
1. N
itrogen is present in fertilizers. The addition of nitrogen can lead to nutrient
imbalance in fruits. Explain how this happens.
2. “ As human populations continue to increase, the consequences of human
activities continue to threaten our resources and have already significantly
altered the global bio-geo chemical cycle”. Create a poster to show the
SCIENCE
consequences.
Suggested Activities:
1. D
ivide the class into small groups. Ask each to develop a collage using
magazines and newspapers that illustrates the carbon cycle. They should label
the sinks, sources and release agents. Each group should present its collage
to the class.
2. B
uild a model using an aquarium to depict the movement of water through the
water cycle.
3. W
ater is constantly moving. Where does it go? If Water was a person and
wants to tell its story what would it say? “Water – Story of my life”.
4. D
iscuss: A thousand years from now will the Earth have more or less water than
it has now?
Further reference
Books: Plant Ecology 2008 - Shukla R.S and Chandel P, S.Chand Publishers.
Websites : http://www.wisegeek.com http://www.ucar.edu
55
CHEMICAL EQUATION
4. CHEMICAL EQUATION
Plants produce their food (carbohydrate) by a chemical reaction called
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis requires (i) carbon dioxide, (ii) water, (iii) sunlight and
(iv) chlorophyll. This can be represented by an equation
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water Carbohydrate + Oxygen
Chlorophyll
SCIENCE
difference in the number of protons and
electrons which gives a net charge to the MORE TO KNOW
atom. When an atom has a net charge, it
is called an ion. Did you notice that the cation is
smaller than the parent atom? This
Ions are atoms or group of atoms is because the nucleus pulls the
which carry a net positive or negative electrons towards it as the number
charge. of protons is more than the number
4.1.1 CATIONS of electrons.
57
CHEMISTRY CHAPTER-4
Typically, when non-metals are Monoatomic ions
involved in a chemical reaction, they gain
A monoatomic ion is formed from
electrons to form anions.
a single atom.
Formation of fluoride ion from fluorine
For example, Sodium ion (Na+) is
atom.
a monoatomic cation and
For example, fluorine is a non-metal.
Fluoride ion (F-) is a monoatomic
The atomic number of fluorine is 9.
anion.
A fluorine atom gains one electron and
forms a fluoride ion.
Activity – 4.2 I DO
Fluorine gains one electron I write the formulae of the following
monoatomic anions.
58
CHEMICAL EQUATION
SCIENCE
Hypochlorite ion ClO-
Sulphate ion SO42-
Nitrate ion NO3 -
Sulphite ion SO3 2-
Nitrite ion NO2 -
59
CHEMISTRY CHAPTER-4
Multivalent cations or polyvalent cations
Activity – 4.3 I DO
I write the names of the following cations.
(i) Fe2+ (ii) Fe3+ (iii) Hg+ (iv) Hg2+
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
60
CHEMICAL EQUATION
4.3.1 WRITING A CHEMICAL Activity – 4.4 WE DO
FORMULA BY CRISSCROSSING
We write the chemical formula of
VALENCIES
the following compounds.
The chemical formula of a compound
1. Sodium hydroxide
is electrically neutral. The charge on the
cations and the charge on the anions 2. Sodium carbonate
must be equal (remember, the valency 3. Calcium hydroxide
can be related to the charge).
4. Ammonium sulphate
The following methods are followed to
write a chemical formula. 5. Phosphorous trichloride
Illustrations
1. Sodium chloride 2. Potassium bromide 3. Hydrogen chloride
Na Cl K Br H Cl
SCIENCE
1+ 1- 1+ 1- 1+ 1-
NaCl KBr HCl
4. Zinc oxide 5. Barium oxide 6. Aluminium oxide
Zn O Ba O Al O
2+ 2- 2+ 2- 3+ 2-
ZnO BaO Al2O3
7. Sodium phosphate 8. Ammonium carbonate 9. Calcium hydroxide
Na (PO4) NH4 CO3 Ca OH
1+ 3- 1+ 2- 2+ 1-
Na3 PO4 (NH4)2 CO3 Ca(OH)2
61
CHEMISTRY CHAPTER-4
4.4 INTRODUCTION TO WRITING (ii) Reaction conditions:
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS Favourable conditions of temperature
and pressure to carry out the reaction,
The symbolic expression of a chemical
and presence of catalyst or light (h ), can
reaction, using symbols of reactants and
be indicated above or below the arrow.
products, is called a chemical equation.
Example:
Reactant A+ Reactant B Product(s)
750-900◦C
ffReactants are the starting NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
Pt
substances.
ffProducts are the substances that are (iii) Heat changes:
formed in a reaction. Some reactions involve heat changes.
ffThe arrow sign means “react to form”. Example:
ffThe plus sign means “and”
N2 + H2 NH3 + heat
Heat is released. This is an exothermic
reaction.
MORE TO KNOW
Common Greek Prefixes
Prefix Number
Remember the following points while
writing a chemical equation: Mono - 1
62
CHEMICAL EQUATION
SCIENCE
Na2CO3 + HCl 2NaCl + H2O +CO2
Balance hydrogen, chlorine and oxygen atoms:
Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Example 3: Balance the reaction of Aluminium hydroxide with sulphuric acid
Skeleton equation:
Al(OH)3 + H2SO4→ Al2 (SO4) 3 + H2O
Balance aluminium atom:
2 Al(OH)3 + H2SO4→ Al2 (SO4) 3 + H2O
Balance sulphate group:
2 Al(OH)3 +3 H2SO4→ Al2 (SO4) 3 + H2O
Balance hydrogen and oxygen atoms:
2 Al(OH)3 +3 H2SO4→ Al2 (SO4) 3 + 6H2O
63
CHEMISTRY CHAPTER-4
Illustration : 1
Reaction between sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form sulphur trioxide:
+
Sulphur dioxide Oxygen Sulphur trioxide
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
Illustration : 2
Reaction between hydrogen and chlorine to form Hydrogen chloride:
H H H Cl
Cl Cl H Cl
H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Illustration : 3
Reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water:
H H O
H H
O O
H H
O
H H
2H2 + O2 2H2 O
Activity – 4.5 I DO
Activity – 4.6 WE DO
A B C We balance the chemical equations.
1. N2 + O2 NO
2. CaCO3 + HCl CaCl2 + H2O
+ CO2
3. Na + H2O NaOH + H2
4. KClO3 KCl + O2
From the diagram I write the 5. N2 + H2 NH3
equation for the reaction between A 6. NH3 + O2 N2 + H2O
and B to give the product C.
64
CHEMICAL EQUATION
Know the occurrence of natural chemical reaction
Some chemical reactions take place naturally during lightning. Nitrogen in the
atmosphere combine with oxygen to form nitrogendioxide.
N2 + 2O2 2NO2
Oxygen present in the atmosphere is converted to ozone.
3O2 2O3
This acidic oxide like nitrogendioxide mixes with tiny droplets of water vapour to
produce acid rain which is harmful to plants.
SCIENCE
hydrochloric acid. Write a balanced chemical equation for
Observe. Write a the reaction.
balanced chemical
equation for the
reaction.
EVALUATION
Section A
Choose the correct answer
1. Atomic number of sodium is 11. Then number of electrons in sodium ion is
___________ (9,10,12)
2. Number of electrons lost by Fe2+ ion is ________ (2,3,0)
3. Identify the polyatomic ion from the following ______ (Cl- , O2- , Na+ , NH4+)
4. Select the monoatomic anions from the following _____ (CN- , PO43- , I- , NO2-)
65
CHEMISTRY CHAPTER-4
5. An ion is produced as a result of gain or loss of electrons by an atom.
In Au3+ ion, 3 electrons are ___________ (gained, lost)
6. Reactants are the substances that are present before the chemical reaction
takes place.
2Fe + 3Cl2 2FeCl3. Name the reactants
7. Construct the formula of the following compounds using crisscrossing valency.
(a) Calcium hydroxide (b) Ammonium carbonate
(c) Zinc oxide (d) Aluminium oxide
8. Valency of sodium is 1. Valency of chlorine is 1.
Write the formula of sodium chloride.
9. The number of atoms of the reactants and products of various elements on both
side are equal in a balanced chemical equation. Balance the following equation.
HNO3 H 2O + NO2 +O2
Section B
1. Na Na+ + e-
Cl + e- Cl-
a) Is sodium a metal or non-metal?
b) Write the name of Cl- ion.
2. A compound is formed by the combination of cations and anions. What are the
cations and anions present in the following compounds?
a) K2CO3 b) BaCl2
3. Match the following:
Cl- - polyatomic anion
Cr2+ - monoatomic anion
NH4+ - monoatomic cation
PO43- - polyatomic cation
4. Name the cations and anions present in the following compounds.
a) MgSO4 b) KNO3
5. Pickout the odd one
a) NO3- , NO2- , MnO4- , Cl-
b) BaCl2 , NaNO3 , MgSO4 , Cu2O
66
CHEMICAL EQUATION
6. The given sentences are wrong. Correct the mistakes and write the correct
sentences. While balancing a chemical equation,
a) Change the formulae wherever necessary.
b) If the product formed is a precipitate, use upward arrow mark ( ).
7. Pick up the polyatomic anions from the following and write the formula.
a) Chloride ion, b) Fluoride ion
c) Phosphate ion d) Sulphate ion
8. Atomic number of fluorine is 9. Explain the formation of fluoride ion.
9. Valency of Zn is 2. Valency of Oxygen is 2 Construct the formula for zinc oxide
by using the above hints.
10.Formula of Aluminium oxide is Al2O3. Find the valency of Aluminium and
Oxygen.
Section – C
Balance the following equations:
1. MnO2 + HCl MnCl2 + Cl2 + H 2O
2. NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 NH3 + CaCl2 + H 2O
3. BaCl2 + Al2 (SO4) 3 BaSO4 + AlCl3
4. NaAlO2 + H2O+ CO2 Al(OH) 3 + Na2CO3
5. NH3 + O2 NO + H2O
6. Zn + HNO3 Zn(NO3) 2 + N2O + H 2O
7. H2S + O2 H2O + SO2
SCIENCE
8. PbO + C Pb + CO2
9. BaCl2 + H2 SO4 Ba SO4 + HCl
10. CH4+O2 CO2 + H2O
Further reference
Books: 1. General Chemistry - Jean B. Umland & Jon.M.Bellama
West publishing company
Websites : http://www.visionlearning.com
http://www.chymist.com
67
SOUND
SOUND
SCIENCE
Meena and her parents went for a wedding reception; she saw the members
of the orchestra adjusting their instruments by plucking, tapping, striking etc. before
the music programme began. Meena asked her father, “Why are they doing such
things?”. Her father explained that the musicians were ‘tuning’ their instruments;
that is, to get sounds that are synchronized and melodious by making adjustments.
The sounds they produce are related to the vibrations that are created by the
musical instruments. Let us help Meena understand more about sound, what it
means to ‘tune’ instruments and what vibrations are we talking about.
69
PHYSICS CHAPTER-5
5.1 IMPORTANCE OF SOUND
Sound has great importance in our daily life.
• S
ound makes it possible for us to communicate with one another through
speech. It enables us to share our thoughts and ideas with others.
• Musical sound gives us pleasure.
• Radio and television sound gives us information and entertainment.
• Horn sounds of vehicles alert us and keeps us safe on the road.
Whistle Horn
Veena
5.2 PRODUCTION AND
Violin
PROPAGATION OF SOUND
WAVES
From the above activities, we
understand that by plucking, striking,
rubbing and blowing we can produce
Guitar
sounds. Scratching and shaking different
objects are other ways of producing
Activity – 5.2 I DO sounds.
(i) Ring the bell / set the alarm clock fAll these activities set the objects
f
and hear the sound. vibrating. Vibrations are repeated
small to and fro motion of objects.
(ii) Strike a drum with its stick, observe
the vibrating skin and listen to the f These vibrations disturb the air
f
sound. particles close to the vibrating object,
which in turn pass it on to other
particles.
f Each to and fro movement causes
f
a disturbance of the air particles
so that the continuously vibrating body
causes a series of disturbances. The
series of disturbances move through
Bell Drums Alarm Clock the atmosphere from the source
70
SOUND
in different directions. The series of disturbances travelling through the atmosphere
are called sound waves.
f When these sound waves enter the ear of the listener, it sets the tympanic membrane
f
in the ear vibrating; causing the sensation of sound in our ears.
Therefore remember sound waves are created by vibrating bodies and
sound is a sensation ‘heard’ by the listener.
Activity – 5.4 I DO
Make a list of all the sounds you can think of and fit them into their families.
Sl.
Being Rubbed Being blown Being Plucked Being Struck
No.
2.
3.
4.
SCIENCE
sound decreased and no sound was heard when the air was removed completely.
By allowing the air back into the container the sound was once again heard.
to electric connection
rubber cork
bell jar
electric bell
to vacuum pump
71
PHYSICS CHAPTER-5
72
SOUND
The types of waves are presented in this diagram for easy of understanding.
WAVES
Move your end of the spring a very short distance towards your friend and then
away from him. This movement must be quick and repeated. You will observe
that the disturbances travel through the spring in the form of compressions and
rarefactions as shown in the figure below. Compression is an area where the coils
of the spring are close together and rarefaction is an area where the coils of the
spring are farther apart. Note that the individual coils of the spring move to and fro
in the direction of the wave travel.
C R
C – Compression R - Rarefaction
SCIENCE
“If the particles of a medium vibrate in a direction, parallel to or along the direction
of propagation of wave, it is called a longitudinal wave”
middle ear
outer ear inner ear
Tympanic membrane
(Ear drum)
Sound waves travel in the form of longitudinal waves through gases.
Longitudinal waves propagate in a medium in the form of compressions and
rarefactions as shown fig 5.2.
73
PHYSICS CHAPTER-5
Compression is the area with maximum pressure, rarefaction is the area with
minimum pressure.
compression
rarefaction
Tuning fork
Fig. 5.2. Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves
Activity – 5.8 I DO
Stretch a long rope with
one end fixed and hold the
other end firmly. Move your
hand up and down rapidly.
You can see up and down
movements travel along the
rope and forming a wave as
shown in the figure. “Note
that every point on the rope
travels up and down while
the wave is moving forward”.
Direction of
time
propagation
trough
Examples of transverse waves are water
waves and vibration of stretched strings. Fig 5.3. Transverse waves
74
SOUND
Difference between Transverse and Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
Particles of the medium vibrate in a Particles of the medium vibrate in a
direction which is perpendicular to the direction which is parallel to the direction
direction of propagation. of propagation.
Crests and troughs are formed Compressions and rarefactions are
formed.
Can travel through solids and surfaces Can travel through solids, liquids and
of liquid. gases.
eg. Water waves eg. Sound waves.
Definitions of some terms used in
Velocity = frequency x wavelength
relation to waves:
Amplitude (a): The maximum
wavelength (λ)
displacement of a particle from the mean
position is called amplitude. Its unit is
Dispalcement
metre.
O T 2T
amplitude
Time period (T) : Time taken by a particle time
of the medium to complete one vibration
is called Time period. Its unit is second.
Frequency (n) : The number of vibrations
completed by a particle in one second is
wavelength (λ)
called frequency . Its unit is hertz.
1 MORE TO KNOW
n=
T Sound travels
almost five times
SCIENCE
Wave Length (λ) : Distance moved by a
wave during the time a particle completes faster through
one vibration. Its unit is metre. water and twenty
times faster
Relation between Velocity of a through iron
wave, wavelength and Frequency than it travels
Distance travelled by a wave in One in air. Speed of
time period, T = λ (wave length) light (3x108m/s)
is even faster
distance λ
velocity, V = = than the speed of sound (340 m/s).
time T Due to this lightning flash is seen first
1 and thunder sound (created by the
but frequency n = lightning) is heard much later.
T
v = nλ
MORE TO KNOW
When we say we tune instruments we mean that we adjust the instruments
to have the same frequency or an exact multiple of it.
75
PHYSICS CHAPTER-5
Activity – 5.9 I DO
Make two identical pipes out
of any waste paper. Arrange them
pointing towards a wall or a large wall or cardboard
cardboard sheet as shown in the
diagram. At the end of the left side
pipe place an alarm clock. Put
your ear to the end of the right
side pipe. Place a screen between
the clock and your ear. Adjust the i r
angle of the right side pipe (‘r’) till normal
the ticking sound heard through
the pipe reaches its maximum
volume. Measure angle ‘r’. which
will be approximately equal to screen
angle ‘i’. From this activity we ear
realise that, like light, sound too clock
can be reflected and obeys the
laws of reflection.
76
SOUND
Given that sound waves travel at about with sound absorbing materials like
340 m/s at a temperature of 15°C, sound compressed fibre board, rough plaster
waves must travel about 34m if it is to or draperies. The seat materials are
be heard as an echo. Therefore, to hear also selected on the basis of their sound
a distinct echo, the surface reflecting the absorbing properties, so that very little
sound should be at least 17 meters away. sound is reflected.
SCIENCE
excessive reverberation is highly
undesirable, as it will not be possible to
enjoy the music or hear speach clearly.
To reduce reverberation, the roof and
walls of auditorium are generally covered
77
PHYSICS CHAPTER-5
Audible range of sound for Humans and certain animals
20 - 20,000 Hertz
1000 - 1,50,000 Hertz
Human
Bat
16 - 12,000 Hertz
70 -1,50,000 Hertz
Elephant Dolphins
Seal
Cow
78
SOUND
ship
water
transmitter detector
sea bed
Fig 5.4. Ultrasound sent by transmitter and human foetus inside the uterus before
received by the detector the baby is born. Doctors can make out
the condition of the baby by looking at
Example: Let us assume that the time the ultrasonographic image. A picture of
interval between the transmitted pulse a medical professional carrying out an
and the reflected pulse is 3 seconds ultrasonic scan and an image of the baby
and that the speed of sound in water is in the uterus is shown below.
1440 m/s the distance to the object would
be:
(1440 m/s X 3 seconds)
= 2160 m
2
This method of finding the distance
SCIENCE
is called Echo Ranging. It is used to
determine the depth of the sea and to
locate under water objects, submarine,
icebergs, sunken ship etc.
79
PHYSICS CHAPTER-5
frequency is lower). Have you ever Bats send out and receive ultrasonic
wondered why this happens? waves reflected by the prey and
Doppler was the first to explain this obstacles. Bats therefore can not only
phenomenon and hence it has been detect the location, but can accurately
named after him as the Doppler Effect. predict the movement of the prey by the
If an observer is situated at a fixed Doppler shift in frequency.
distance from a sound source, the In airports Doppler shift is used to
frequency of sound heard by him/her distinguish the echoes received from
is the same as that produced by the moving aircraft from the echoes received
source. But if there is relative motion from stationary objects and to accurately
between the source of sound and the find the height, speed and distance of
observer, the frequency of the sound approaching aircrafts.
appears to be changed to the observer. Traffic control vehicles direct
When the source is approaching the microwaves on speeding vehicles. From
observer the frequency seems higher the Doppler shift in frequency, the speed
than that produced and when the source of a vehicle is accurately calculated.
is moving away from the observer
Insect ultra sound waves echo from insect
the frequency seems lower than the
frequency produced.
Uses of Doppler effect in sound
We studied earlier that by measuring the
time delay between a transmitted pulse
and the reflected pulse we can estimate
the distance of the object reflecting the
sound. By measuring the change in the
frequency of the transmitted pulse and the
reflected pulse it is possible to estimate
the velocity of the object reflecting the
pulse. This is called doppler processing.
Doppler processing is used in SONARS
to find the velocity of the object reflecting bat
the transmitted pulse.
80
SOUND
EVALUATION
Section – A
I. Choose the correct answer
1. Fill up the blanks, selecting words from those given.
a. When we listen to music, the medium through which sound is propagated is
__________. (Solid, liquid, gas)
b. The principle on which stethoscope works is _____
(reflection, multiple reflection)
2. From the following instruments pick the odd one out on the basis of how sound
is produced.
SCIENCE
b)
81
PHYSICS CHAPTER-5
Section – B
1. Match the following:
a) ripples on surface of water - longitudinal wave
b) light waves - mechanical transverse
c) sound waves - electro magnetic/transverse
2. T
he echo of our voice is not heard in our living room, but it is heard distinctly in
a big hall. Why?
3. a) In which of the given positions A, B or C, is an alarm clock to be placed, so
that the maximum sound can be heard by the observer.
b) Give reasons for your answer.
200
350
500
350
4. In an auditorium or a cinema hall, the roof and walls are covered with draperies
or compressed fibre board. Why?
Section – C
1. The following figure represents a sound wave.
a) Draw and mark the name of the variables x, y and z.
b) Write the equation for velocity of a wave using the above variables.
c) Write any two differences between transverse and longitudinal waves.
y
Dispalcement
x
O
time
z 2z
82
SOUND
2. Given a cymbal to create a loud sound and a stop watch can you design an
experiment to find the speed of sound in air?
3. How do bats locate their prey? Explain in detail. Draw diagrams if necessary.
SCIENCE
Further reference
Books: 1. Know about Science - sound - Dreamland
2. V.K.Science, Physics, Class IX - Satya Prakash, V.K. (India)
Enterprises, New Delhi - 2
Websites : http://www.alcyone.com/max/physics/index.html
http://www.dmoz.org/science/physics
83
PracticalS
LIST OF PRACTICALS
S. Name of the Aim of the Apparatus/ Materials
Time
No. Experiment Experiment required
To dust the
pollen grains on
Flowers, dissection
the slide and
(simple) microscope, 40
1 Pollen Grain observe under the
glass slide and minute
dissection (simple)
needle
microscope. Draw
and label the parts.
To measure the
strength (purity 40
2 Purity of Milk Milk, lactometer
of milk) by using minute
lactometer.
To prepare
solutions
Preparation
of different
of saturated, 100 ml beakers,
concentrations 40
3 unsaturated and distilled water,
like unsaturated, Minute
super saturated sodium chloride
saturated and
solutions
supersaturated
solutions
To determine the
Study the relative strengths Test tube
40
4 characteristics (electropositive Lead , Zinc and
Minute
of metals characters) of given Copper, Pb (NO3)2
SCIENCE
metals ZnSO4, CuSO4
85
PracticalS
1. To observe the Pollen grains
Aim:
o dust the pollen grains on the slide and observe under the dissection (simple)
T
microscope and draw and label the parts.
Materials Required:
Flowers, dissection (simple) microscope, glass slide and needle.
Procedure:
a. Collect the pollen grains from a given flower.
b. With the help of a needle, place the pollen grains on the slide.
c. Observe the slide under microscope.
Observation:
a. It is a single celled structure.
b. It has two layers. The outer exine which is spiny and the inner intine is thin
and smooth.
c. It contains a single nucleus and cytoplasm.
Draw the structure of pollen grain as observed through microscope. Label Exine,
Intine, Cytoplasm and Nucleus
2. TO FIND OUT THE Purity of Milk
Aim:
To find out the strength (purity) of milk by using a lactometer.
Requirement:
Milk, lactometer.
Principle:
00ml of pure milk is taken in a beaker. The meter bulb is dipped into the beaker.
1
The bulb just sinks and then begin to float. The reading on the meter _______
indicates the purity of milk.
Observation:
If the bulb sinks deeper, it indicates that the milk contains more water and if the
reading is at mark, it shows that the milk is very rich and pure.
Sl.No Milk Water Lactometer reading
1 100 ml Nil
2 100 ml 10ml
3 100 ml 20ml
4 100 ml 30ml
Result: Thus the lactometer is used to find out the strength (purity) of the milk.
86
PracticalS
3. TO PREPARE UNSATURATED, SATURATED AND SUPER
SATURATED SOLUTIONS
Aim:
To prepare solutions of different concentrations like unsaturated, saturated and
supersaturated solutions.
Required Materials:
100 ml beakers, distilled water, sodium chloride
Principle:
ff A
solution which can dissolve more of the solute at a given temperature is
known as an unsaturated solution.
ff A
solution which can not dissolve any more of the solute is known as a
saturated solution.
ff A
solution which contains much greater quantity of the solute that can be
normally present in the saturated solution is known as a supersaturated
solution.
Procedure:
Take about 25 ml of distilled water in a 100 ml beaker. Add about 2g of sodium
chloride to it and stir well. The salt dissolves completely. Now note the nature of
solution obtained.
Repeat the addition of salt to the above solution, till some of the added salt remains
at the bottom of the beaker. Now note the nature of solution.
Add more and more quantity of the salt to the above solution. Heat the solution for
few minutes to dissolve the salt. Now stop heating and allow it to settle. Observe the
SCIENCE
separation of crystals of the salt. Note the nature of solution.
Tabulation:
Sl. Nature of
Name of salt Weight of Salt
Volume of water Concentration of
No. added added
Solution
Report:
The solutions obtained are classified as _________, ________ and _________
solutions.
87
PracticalS
4. TO STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS
Aim:
To determine the relative strengths (electropositive characters) of given metals.
Principle:
Relative strengths of metals can be determined by the precipitation of one metal by another.
Chemicals required:
ff Small pieces of copper, lead and zinc
ff Solutions of leadnitrate, coppersulphate and zincsulphate.
Procedure:
Trial 1: Take about 5ml each of leadnitrate and zincsulphate in two separate test
tubes. Add pieces of copper to both the tubes and observe the changes
and record. (No chemical change occurs in both the tubes).
Tabulation:
Trial 3 :
Take about 5ml of coppersulphate and leadnitrate solutions in two
separate test tubes. Add pieces of zinc to both the tubes and observe the
changes (Zinc reacts with both copper sulphate and lead nitrate).
Tabulation:
Report:
The order of relative strengths of the metals are____ >____ >____.
88
PracticalS
5. Finding the relation between length and time period
of simple pendulum
Aim:
o find the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum and to prove that l/T2 is a
T
constant.
Apparatus required:
Simple pendulum apparatus, stop watch.
l
Formula:
l/T2 is a constant
Where, l is the length of the simple pendulum (m)
T is the Period of oscillation of the simple pendulum (s)
Procedure:
ff Suspend the simple pendulum for a length of 70 cm. one oscillation
ff Make the pendulum to oscillate with small amplitude.
ff W
hen the pendulum crosses the mean position towards the right, start a stop
watch and count zero.
ff When it crosses the mean position towards the right next time, count one.
ff Like this count up to twenty and stop the stopwatch.
ff Find the time taken for 20 oscillations and record in the tabulation.
ff Repeat the experiment by changing the length to 80cm, 90cm, 100cm and 110cm.
ff Tabulate the readings and find T, T2 & l/T2.
he last column of the tabulation is found to be constant, hence proving l/T2 is
ff T
a constant.
Observation:
SCIENCE
Length of the Time taken for
Period T T2 l/T2
S. No. simple pendulum 20 oscillations
s s2 m s-2
m s
1 0.7
2 0.8
3 0.9
4 1.0
5 1.1
Result:
From the table, it is found that l/T2 is a constant.
89
90