theWeather Club Newsletter Issue 19 Autumn 2017

Autumn 2017:
+
Newsletter
Weather Report Weather news stories from around the
world during the last three months
Research News An update on recent scientific research

Weather Applications
Relax with Weather Watch
Weather and Health
Weather Photographer of the Year
theWeather Club World Weather
Winners and WeatherLive
A traveller’s guide to Wellington, NZ

Science Lesson Global Atmospheric Circulation

Weather and Paul Hardaker and Ellie Highwood

Climate view comment on weather and climate

My Weather Jo Elworthy - Head in the Clouds

Weather Facts And finally...

theWeather Club info@theWeatherClub.org.uk theWeather Club is part of the Royal Meteorological Society
104 Oxford Road www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
Reading RG1 7LL www.facebook.com/RMetSoc
Tel: 0118 956 8500 @RMetS
theWeather Club Newsletter Issue 19 Autumn 2017

+ Weather
Dr Catherine Muller
Welcome Author and Editor
of theWeather Club
Dear theWeather Club readers, Newsletter

Report From devastating hurricanes and monsoons

to ice berg calving events in the Antarctic,
it seems weather and climate events have
dominated the news in recent months - and
continue to do so into Autumn.
In this issue we take a look back at the UK
summer, explore weather and health,
investigate Global atmospheric circulation, containing links to each article. Why not
UK Weather and take a tour of Wellington, New Zealand. sign up to receive additional features in the
June future?!
2017 1981 - 2010 In order to keep up with changes in the
world of digital communications and to I would like to take this opportunity to thank
Actual Anomaly convey a wider breadth of content, we are Prof Ellie Highwood for her engaging articles
Average Max 18.4°C (+1.1°C) going to be trialing alternative ways to over the years, as this will be her last regular
deliver tWC newsletters. In order to obtain contribution to tWC.
Average Min 10.6°C (+1.8°C) extra information, including images and
Mean Temp 14.5°C (+1.5°C) videos for each article, head over to www. In the meantime, enjoy!
theWeatherClub.org.uk /newsletters
Sunshine 162.2 hrs (96 %) where you will find more features as well RMetSoc @RMetS
Rainfall 113.7 mm (155 %) as an online version of this newsletter, rmets_
Search: RMetS

Larsen C: Giant iceberg breaks off Antarctic peninsula

On 12th July, satellite data confirmed the ‘calving’ of a trillion- There is, however, enough ice in Antarctica to produce a sea
tonne, 5,800 km2 iceberg – one of the largest icebergs on level rise of 60 metres if it all melted. Although the calving - a
record, more than a quarter the size of Wales - from the Larsen natural event - does make the ice shelf vulnerable, it is not a
C ice shelf on the Antarctic peninsula. sign that the ice shelf is about to disintegrate; it may continue
to shed icebergs, or it might even regrow.
Larsen C ice shelf - a floating mass of ice hundreds of metres
thick which is attached to a huge, grounded ice sheet - is now A Briefing Paper about sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic can
12% smaller in area than before the split and is at its lowest be downloaded at www.rmets.org/sites/default/files/2%20
extent ever recorded, dramatically changing the Antarctic Sea%20Ice.pdf
landscape. It follows previous collapses of Larsen A ice shelf in
1995 and Larsen B in 2002.
The calving event is the result of a huge crack that grew over
a number of years, but in May and June this year it extended
significantly, reaching a rate of >10 metres per day.
The new iceberg (likely to be named A68) is now adrift in
the Weddell Sea, and is thought to be among the 10 largest
icebergs ever recorded.
“We see one large [iceberg] for now. It is likely that this
will break into smaller pieces as time goes by,” said Adrian
Luckman, Professor of Glaciology at Swansea University and
leader of the UK’s Midas project which is focused on the state
of the ice shelf.
“It is a really major event in terms of the size of the ice tablet
that we’ve got now drifting away,” said Anna Hogg, an expert
in satellite observations of glaciers from the University of
Leeds.
Although a huge new iceberg might look dramatic, experts
say it will not itself result in sea level rises. “It’s like your ice cube Larsen C calving event
in your gin and tonic – it is already floating and if it melts it (source: NASA / REX /
doesn’t change the volume of water in the glass by very much Shutterstock (8791697p))
at all,” said Hogg.

2
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
theWeather Club Newsletter
UK summer
June - August 2017
Overall, this summer was relatively wet
– indeed it was the 9th wettest summer
since 1910. However (and perhaps
surprisingly) it was also warmer than
average.
June began largely unsettled with
significant rainfall across most parts of
the UK. High pressure began to build
after the 10th for England and Wales and
exceptionally warm air was drawn up
from the south with at least one area in
the UK exceeding 30°C from 17th to 21st
June – the first time this has happened in
June since 1995. (34.5°C was recorded at
Heathrow Airport on 21st which was the
highest June temperature since 1976).
The last few days of the month brought
fresher conditions as low pressure
systems brought rain to many areas,
ending the month as it had begun. In
fact, despite the hot, dry weather mid-
month, June was among the wettest on
record with 50% more rainfall on average
for the whole of the UK, and Scotland
experiencing its equal-wettest June with
156 cm of rainfall. Some areas of southern
and eastern Scotland received twice the
normal rainfall for June, whilst some
areas - including Edinburgh Botanic
Gardens and RAF Leuchars – had their
wettest June on record.
UK Weather
July
2017 1981 - 2010
Actual Anomaly
Average Max 19.3°C (-0.1°C)
Average Min 11.0°C (+0.1°C)
Mean Temp 15.1°C (0.0°C)
Sunshine 171.5 hrs (99 %)
Rainfall 106.9 mm (137 %)
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
Issue 19 Autumn 2017
July was generally an unsettled
month with occasional periods of Weather Report
fine and dry weather. It began with
cloud, rain and cool temperatures
brought by westerlies, and weak high
pressure at times for the south-east.
It was particularly warm and sunny
on the 17th and 18th with minimum
temperatures above 15°C in many
places. This ended with a thundery
breakdown on the 18th and 19th as
a trough moved north-eastwards
from the south coast. Some of the
storms were severe, with hail and
torrential rain leading to flash flooding
in Coverack, south-east Cornwall.
Residents reported hailstones the size
of 50 pence pieces smashing windows
and flooding around 50 properties.
Buildings, schools and hospitals were
also flooded in north Wales, including
Rhyl and Abergele. Some lightning
damage was reported in parts of
Essex, Sussex and Kent. From the 21st
onwards it was wet and often cool with August began and ended much as
heavy and persistent rain at times, July did, cool with cloud and rain, and
particularly in the south. Scotland only brief intervals of fine weather.
and Northern Ireland had the best of There was a fleeting period of warmer
the sunshine and experienced mostly weather from the 17th-23rd but
showery rainfall at times. Rainfall overall it was a disappointing month,
across the UK was above average, with with temperatures 0.4°C below the
parts of central southern and south- long-term average and rainfall above
east England receiving twice the normal for the UK overall.
amount of rainfall for July.
Dancing cyclones: The ‘Fujiwhara effect’
July 2017
The Fujiwhara effect is a rare one orbiting around it. Sometimes,
phenomenon that sees nearby the smaller Tropical Cyclone will be
cyclones ‘dancing’ round each consumed by the larger one and
other. In July it was seen not once, the two systems essentially merge,
but twice*: Hurricanes Hilary and with the smaller storm dissipating
Irwin rotated round each other in and the larger storm remaining and
the Eastern Pacific Ocean off the moving away on its own.
coast of Mexico generating high
surf for Southern California; whilst This is what happened in these
thousands of miles away in the situations: Hurricane Irwin was
western Pacific east of Japan just consumed by the stronger and larger
days earlier, Typhoon Noru and Hurricane Hilary which then moved
northwest before dissipating; whilst
Tropical Storm Kulap spun round
each other*. Kulap was consumed by Noru, which
strengthened but remained over
If the Tropical Cyclones are similar open water.
in size, they can move around one
another for a few days, before *Although this was not a full Fujiwhara
taking their own paths. However, if interaction, since Typhoon Noru’s path
the Tropical Cyclones are of different was not affected by the other storm.
sizes, then the larger of the two will
tend to dominate, with the smaller
3
theWeather Club Newsletter Issue 19 Autumn 2017

Devastating Monsoon in South Asia

+ June - August 2017

Weather More than a third of Bangladesh and

Nepal, and large areas of India have
been hit with the worst flooding in
Bihar are still inundated, with heavy
damage to farmland and inhabitants
living in makeshift shelters.

Report
years, which are expected to worsen
until the monsoon season ends in
September. So  far an estimated 30
quadrillion litres of water have been
deposited on Bangladesh alone.
The devastating floods have killed
more than 1,200 people and affected
40 million people, with approximately
1.8 million children unable to go
UK Weather to school due to building damage.
Several villages in the Indian state of
August
2017 1981 - 2010
One of the reasons the monsoon
rains are worse this year is that the
weather systems have not moved on
as they normally do, allowing water
to drain away. However, building on
floodplains and coastal areas, as well
as stormwater drains and waterways
clogged by plastic rubbish, have made
some parts increasingly vulnerable to
such storms.

Actual Anomaly
Average Max 18.5°C (-0.5°C)
Average Min 10.6°C (-0.2°C)
Mean Temp 14.5°C (-0.4°C)
Sunshine 159.9 hrs (98 %)
Rainfall 104.4 mm (117 %)

Flooding in Gujarat, Assam (Credit: PTI)

Hurricane Harvey causes catastrophic flooding in Texas

August 2017
Hurricane Harvey bought “catastrophic” flooding to the
US state of Texas at the end of August, in what could be the
costliest storm in US history with damage estimated to be in
the billions of dollars.  Harvey deposited the heaviest total
rainfall from any tropical cyclone in the continental US in
records dating back to 1950, topping the 48 inch storm
total in Medina, Texas, from Tropical Storm Amelia in 1978. 

The very slow-moving weather system made landfall

on  Friday 25th August as a category 4 hurricane, and
deposited a record 1318 mm (51.88 inches) of rain on Ceder
Bayou (just outside Houston) in just 4 days, turning roads
into rivers as successive rainbands swept north. (To put it
into perspective, that is more than Manchester receives in
an entire year!) The unprecedented, waist-high flooding
left 17,000 people needing to be rescued, caused schools,
airports and oil refineries to close, overwhelmed a major
dam, and left hundreds of thousands of homes without
electricity across southeast Texas. Sadly at least 60 people
are reported to have lost their lives in the state which also
suffered huge destruction following Hurricane Katrina in
2005.

4
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
theWeather Club Newsletter Issue 19 Autumn 2017

High risk of ‘unprecedented’ winter Research News

rainfall
The last few years have seen several rainfall events cause The research has demonstrated that, even with the current
widespread flooding in the UK, such as the extensive flooding climate, it is likely that there will be one or more monthly
in winter 2013/14 when the heaviest rainfall in 100 years fell regional rainfall record events, in the coming decade.
in southern England and the Midlands, and flooding in the
“Although this year has been particularly dry, generally
north-west as a result of Storm Desmond in December 2015.
our winters are getting wetter and the rainfall heavier, so
Novel research by Met Office scientists has now concluded we are seeing more flooding and records broken,” said
that there is a 1 in 3 chance of a new monthly rainfall record Prof Piers Forster from the University of Leeds who was
in at least one region in England and Wales each winter not personally involved with the study.
(October-March). Since extreme events are rare, an innovative
“We expect the odds to shorten on future rainfall extremes
technique has been used by researchers to quantify the risk
but the first stage to predict this is knowing the current
of extreme rainfall. By using a climate model that takes the
odds - and this is what this new paper gives us.”
current climate period from 1981-2015 as its base, and then
running it hundreds of times on the Met Office supercomputer. This new technique could also be applied to assess other
risks such as droughts, heatwaves, and cold spells and
Professor Adam Scaife, who is leading on the research at
could help policy makers, contingency planners and
the Met Office said “The new Met Office supercomputer
insurers plan for future events.
was used to simulate thousands of possible winters, some
of them much more extreme than we’ve yet witnessed. This
gave many more extreme events than have happened in the
real world, helping us work out how severe things could get.”
Analysing the simulated events showed there is a 7% risk of
record monthly rainfall in south east England in any given
winter, and 34% chance when other regions of England and
Wales are also considered.
Dr Vikki Thompson, lead author of the report, said “Our
computer simulations provided one hundred times more
data than is available from observed records. Our analysis Storm Cumbria by Paul
showed that these events could happen at any time and it’s Kingston - Weather
likely we will see record monthly rainfall in one of our UK Photographer of the Year
regions in the next few years”. 2016 Public Favourite)

Extreme storms triple in Sahel due to Global Warming

Over the past 35 years extreme storms in the Sahel have Professor Taylor, author of the research paper, said
tripled and it is due to global warming, according to “Global warming is expected to produce more intense
research conducted by NERC scientists at the Centre for storms, but we were shocked to see the speed of the
Ecology and Hydrology. In such storms, clouds can grow changes taking place in this region of Africa”
to heights of 16 km and can produce substantial volumes
of rainfall. Indeed, in 2009 one downpour deposited
263 mm of rainfall in several hours and forced 150,000
residents of Burkina Faso to leave their homes.
The research, published in Nature (www.nature.com/
nature/journal/v544/n7651/full/nature22069.html),
analysed 35 years of satellite data across Africa to gain
an insight into how some of the world’s most violent
storms are responding to rising global temperatures. The
research showed that the strengthening of storms in the
Sahel will increase flood risk, leading to more frequent
and severe flooding, which in turn would lead to an
increase in the risk of disease.

5
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
theWeather Club Newsletter
+
Weather
Applications
Biometeorology: Weather and Health
Biometeorology is the study of the impact  weather has on the
natural world, including animals, plants and humans. This includes
the impact on symptoms of existing diseases, contribution to
new conditions and temporary physiological changes. There are a
number of illnesses and symptoms that are caused or exacerbated
by certain types of weather. Here we discuss some of the more
obvious conditions, as well as some, perhaps, more surprising
ailments.
Cold and flu
Many people claim to be struck down with the common cold
during colder seasons or when the weather rapidly changes.
Although it’s not entirely clear why, scientists believe it’s because
rapid temperature swings weaken your immune system and cold
viruses transmit better in cold air. When atmospheric pressure
changes, many people also feel it acutely in their sinuses.
Asthma and allergies
Changing seasons (the growing season in particular), air
pollution and certain weather conditions (i.e. heat, extreme cold,
fog) can exacerbate asthma and other allergies. A geographic
understanding of these impacts can help people manage their
symptoms (see side box).
Blood pressure
As atmospheric pressure decreases, blood pressure drops. This
means that when low pressure systems (depression) are driving the
weather, blood pressure, on the whole, is lower. Furthermore, low
temperatures also cause blood vessels to narrow, meaning blood
pressure is generally lower in the summer and higher in the winter.
Such changes to blood pressure can have an impact on many other
illnesses, as a knock-on effect.
Joint pain
Sudden changes in atmospheric pressure, such as the drop
in pressure that occurs prior to a storm, can trigger joint pain.
Research has also indicated that cold weather can cause painful
changes in joint fluid thickness. Regular exposure to sunlight,
specifically ultraviolet B (UV-B), is also thought to reduce the risk of
developing rheumatoid arthritis. (See tWC article theweatherclub.
org.uk/node/322)
Headaches
Atmospheric pressure is known to trigger headaches and
migraines, though the precise reason is unclear. It may be that it
effects the pressure in the brain or the way the brain blocks pain, or
it may even be linked to evolution as a way of keeping humans in
tune with the environment. The time of the year can also impact on
headaches, as longer exposure to bright light and, for those with
allergies, pollen exposure, can trigger migraines and headaches.
Blood-sugar changes and diabetes
During weather fronts, which are associated with low atmospheric
pressure, blood viscosity, or thickness, increases. This may mean
6
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
Issue 19 Autumn 2017
that diabetics may have more trouble controlling their blood sugar
during the passage of a cold front.
Heart attacks
According to research, each 1 degree Celsius drop in temperature
is associated with around 200 additional heart attacks across the
US. Higher blood pressure and an increased risk of blood clots are
thought to contribute to the risk.
Lung diseases
Hot, humid weather and air pollution (which can worsen during
hot weather) can make breathing difficult, particularly for people
with pre-existing lung conditions such as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease.
Heat stress
Extreme heat can cause heat stress. This is when the body’s means
of controlling its internal temperature starts to fail and can be fatal.
(See tWC article theweatherclub.org.uk/node/73).
Although certain aspects of the weather have been pin-pointed
to cause or exacerbate symptoms and illnesses, it can often be
a combination of factors that have an impact; For example, is a
change in temperature affecting a person’s well-being, or is it the
change in pressure, air quality or humidity, or a combination of
them all? Furthermore, there are still other illnesses which may
have a link to the weather, yet this link is still be recognised. Climate
change will continue to have an impact on human health - both
physically and emotionally – via changes to the weather and other
environmental and sociological pathways. Health professionals
in hospitals, surgeries and emergency services need to be aware
of impending weather events that may have an impact on health
in order to predict and plan for likely outcomes. With increasing
research into the field of biometeorology, such short-and long-
term impacts can be better anticipated.
British hay fever maps
Hay fever maps have been produced to help sufferers identify
‘hotspots’ that should be avoided. The map locates plants that can
trigger hay fever or asthma attacks across Britain. It is hoped the
map will help sufferers make decisions about where to live, work
or visit at certain times, by also identifying the peak times when
pollen is released. The researchers from University of Exeter, the
Met Office and NERC’s Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, examined
12 key plant species that are associated with hay fever and asthma
and mapped the data across Britain. A high percentage of grasses
that set off hay fever can be found in north and west regions, with
lowers percentages in eastern central areas.
All maps can be viewed at http://bit.ly/exeterhayfever
theWeather Club Newsletter Issue 19 Autumn 2017

+ Weather Photographer of the Year Winners

Weather were submitted from more than 60
countries. Forty-eight photographs were
• 2nd place, 17 and over category
– Michele Palazzo - Flatiron Building

Watch shortlisted, from which the winners were

selected.

The shortlisting panel consisted of:

Image: Calmer, Fogbow by Scott Robertson
- 2017 Weather Photographer of the Year -
public favourite
Now in its second edition, the search
for the 2017 Weather Photographer of
the Year began earlier this year with a
call for the best photographs depicting
weather from around the world. Entries
in two categories – 16 years and under
and 17 and older - range from weather
phenomena such as clouds, lightning,
rain, fog or snow through to the impact
of weather on humans, cities and the
natural landscape.  Other venues and dates will be added as
The Royal Meteorological Society (RMetS)
and The Royal Photographic Society
(RPS) have announced the winners of the
2017 Weather Photographer of the Year
competition. Around 2000 photographs
• Prof Liz Bentley; Chief Executive
of the Royal Meteorological Society  of the Year 2017 – Luisa Imazio -
• Dr Michael Pritchard; Chief
Executive of the Royal Photographic
Society
• Matt Clark; Photo Editor of the
RMetS Weather magazine. 
• Matt Taylor; BBC Weather
Presenter and RMetS Fellow  Robertson – Calmer, Fogbow
• Ben Cherry; 2016 Weather
Photographer of the Year - 1st place,
over 16s
• Sue Brown FRPS, Fellow of the
RPS
Commenting on the images BBC
weatherman and selector, Matt Taylor,
said: “We were swept away by the blizzard
of high quality photographs that the public
sent in, and choosing the winners was a
far more difficult task for us than we were
expecting.”
The winners are:
• Overall Weather Photographer
of the Year 2017 - Mike Olbinski -
Superstrike
• 1st place, 17 and over category
– Adrian Theze - Eye of the Storm
in the Blizzard
• 3rd place, 17 and over category
– Marveille Admomou - Frozen Fall
• Young Weather Photographer
Photographer’s Troubles
• Runner up, 16 and under
category – Marco Imazio - White
Cloth of Snow
• The Public’s Favourite – Scott
The RPS and RMetS would like to
congratulate all seven winners, as well as
the 48 finalists!
The Weather Photographer of the Year
exhibition will go on tour around the UK
later this year and into 2018. Exhibitions
currently scheduled include:
• 7-8  October 2017, Liverpool.
Digital Splash
• 4 November 2017, London.
WeatherLive 
they are confirmed. 
A 2018 calendar containing shortlisted
images can be purchased at www.
rmets.org/shop

WeatherLive
WeatherLive is a new event for the Society and is the
ultimate day out for weather enthusiasts. This year the
Royal Meteorological Society is working with the Royal
Horticultural Society and the Royal Photographic Society.
The one-day event in London will focus on three main
sessions:
• Photography
• The 1987 storm
• Gardening in a changing climate
A host of respected speakers will present throughout the
day, sharing experiences and knowledge include well-
known names such as Michael Fish and Peter Gibbs. Prices
start at just £49 to attend for Society members, so don’t
delay and book your place today!
www.rmets.org/weatherlive Image: Superstrike by Mike Olbinski - 2017 Weather
Photographer of the Year - overall winner

7
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
theWeather Club Newsletter
+
World
Weather
A traveller’s guide to Wellington, New Zealand
Wellington City, with its Victorian
timber architecture, bushy hillsides,
waterfront promenades, and craggy
shorelines, is the Capital of New
Zealand, and a rather small Capital
at that, with a population of just
405,000 people. It is located in the
Greater Wellington Region on the
south-western tip of the North Island,
bordering the Cook Strait between
the North and South Islands. As
such, Wellington is the crossing point
between the two islands, and a well-
trodden path for travellers.
Any visitor would be delighted with
the array of museums, theatres, art-
house cinemas, funky boutiques,
endless restaurants and hip bars
with live bands. For the craft beer
enthusiasts, Martinborough Brewery
is the place to go whilst in Wellington
(in fact, you’ll find craft breweries
located across the whole of New
Zealand!) Whilst in the city, a trip up
the 196 m high Mount Victoria to take
in the views is a priority!
The Te Papa Museum in Wellington is
New Zealand’s national museum and
a ‘must see’ attraction. It is interactive
and full of surprises, including an
amazing collection of Māori artefacts,
natural history and environment
exhibitions, Pacific and NZ history
galleries, themed hands-on ‘discovery
centres’ for children, as well as the
National Art Collection. A visit to City
Gallery Washington should also be
included in your ‘to-do’ list.
Parks and gardens are in abundance
in Wellington. The hilly 25 hectares
8
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
of Wellington Botanic Gardens,
complete with native forest, can be
viewed by cable car, whilst the Queen
Elizabeth Park on the Kapiti Coast,
with its relaxed, beachy atmosphere,
is perfect for swimming, walking,
cycling, horse riding and picnicking.
If wildlife and nature are mroe your
taste, Wellington has a number of
reserves to explore. Zealandia is a
wildlife reserve, hidden in the hills
BOX 1: Windy Welly: The real windy city
As a whole, New Zealand enjoys higher
temperatures and longer daylight hours
than the UK in comparable months. The
North Island is favoured with a more
consistent climate than its southern
counterpart, but it does not escape
extreme events – in April this year, ex-
cyclone Debbie brought a ‘once in 500-
year’ flood to large parts of the east coast
of New Zealand.
The Wellington region has a mild,
temperate marine climate with few
climate extremes. But because of its
exposure to weather systems from the
Tasman Sea, it is a very windy region. In
fact, Wellington is the world’s windiest
city, with an average wind speed of
over 16 mph. The Cook Strait has a
wind-funnelling effect, which leads to a
high frequency of strong winds around
the southern coast, whilst the rugged
landscape results in local variations in
wind direction and strength. Amongst
the windiest spots are Cape Palliser and
Castlepoint on Wellington’s Wairarapa
coast. Winds of up to 124 mph were
recorded at Kelburn on the 10th April
1968, and a gust of 133 mph was
recorded at Hau Nui on the 19th October
1998.
Issue 19 Autumn 2017
about 2 km west of Wellington City,
and home to 30 native bird species,
whilst Pukaha Mt Bruce National
Wildlife Centre is one of NZ’s most
successful wildlife and captive
breeding centres. The Kapiti Island
nature reserve can be found on the
Kapiti Coast. Wairarapa and the Kapiti
Coast are both warmer and less windy
than other parts of the region. The
Wairarapa plains lie to the northeast
Like the UK, Wellington has a
reputation for blustery, cold, grey
weather, but – like the UK – this isn’t
the whole story. The most settled
weather occurs during summer and
early autumn (December to March).
Summers are warm, with blue skies
and daytime temperatures typically
ranging 19 to 24°C, yet they seldom
exceed 30°C. Winter (June to August)
is usually the most unsettled time
of year, with June and July being the
wettest months, though it is generally
quite wet all year round. Frosts are
commonly experienced inland, in the
hill suburbs and the Hutt Valley during
clear calm conditions, however snow
is very rare at low altitudes (though
record-breaking snow storms did
affect the city and many other parts
of the Wellington region in July and
August 2011, depositing the first
notable snowfall in over twenty years!).
Typical winter daytime maximum
air temperatures range from 10°C to
14°C. However, Wellington is known
for its southerly winds at this time of
year, which make the temperature feel
much colder.
theWeather Club Newsletter
Image: Wellington Regional Map (Source: communities.co.nz)
[Inset: The Region of Wellington (‘Greater Wellington’) within
of Wellington, beyond the Rimutaka
Range (a mountain range that runs
parallel to the east coast, north from
Wellington City), and along with
Lake Wairarapa, a shallow 80 km2
lake, it is dotted with quiet towns,
farms and wineries.
Wellington is also the hometown of
Peter Jackson, Director of Lord of the
Rings films. The trilogy was filmed
extensively across New Zealand, and
many tourists take a ‘Middle Earth’
tour around the country to explore
the scenery from film locations, as
Image: Take the Wellington cable car to a look
out point
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
NZ {source: wiki commons)]
well as exploring sets and other links
to the film. In Wellington itself, Lord
of the Rings film locations include
the Shire, the Gardens of Isengard,
and Minas Tirith which can be
visited, as well as a Weta Workshop
and exhibit, where many of the
special effects and props for the
movies were created.
Wellington must be a welcome
addition to anyone’s bucket list and
not simply for ticking off the world’s
windiest city or visiting the Shire!
Image: Wellington waterfront
Issue 19 Autumn 2017
BOX 2: A whimsical
look at the climate
of Middle Earth
Although a place of fiction, it hasn’t
stopped people being fascinated by
the climate of Middle Earth. Indeed, as
part of public engagement work, one
scientist at University of Bristol’s Cabot
Institute – who gave themselves the
pseudonym ‘Radagast the Brown’! -
even ran a climate model simulation
of the ‘Middle Earth’ complete with of
elves, dwarves, hobbits and wizards. It
was found that:
• The climate of Middle Earth has a
similar distribution to that of Western
Europe and North Africa.
• Mordor had an inhospitable
climate, even ignoring the effects
of Sauron - hot and dry with little
vegetation.
• Ships sailing for the Undying
Lands in the West set off from the Grey
Havens due to the prevailing winds in
that region.
• Much of Middle Earth would have
been covered in dense forest if the
landscape had not been altered by
dragons, orcs, wizards etc.
• Lincolnshire or Leicestershire in
the UK, or near Dunedin in the South
Island of New Zealand, have an annual-
average climate very similar to that of
The Shire.
• Los Angeles and western Texas in
the USA, and Alice Springs in Australia,
have an annual-average climate very
similar to that of Mordor.
Climate of Wellington
Average min temperature range:
6.6°C in July to 14.5°C in Feb
Average max temperature range:
12.2°C in July to 21.1°C in Feb
Average driest month:
Feb with 54.5 mm and 6 rain days
Average wettest month:
June with 111.4 mm and 12 rain days
Average daily sunshine:
5 hours in Jan to 12 hours Sept
9
 theWeather Club Newsletter
+
Science
Lesson
Global Atmospheric Circulation
The weather we get on earth is driven by the sun’s energy; the atmosphere is heated by the sun
and spun by the rotation of the earth.
The sun’s energy does not fall evenly onto
our spherical planet: some parts of the
earth (a on image 1) are pointing directly
at the sun, therefore the sun’s energy has
less distance to travel to reach the surface
and is focused over a small surface area;
whereas other parts (b on image 1) point
away from the sun, therefore the same
amount of sunlight has further to travel
(which allows more solar energy to be
deflected back into space by particles
in the atmosphere) and is spread over a
larger region. The amount of solar energy
an area gets over a period of time is known
as insolation. As a result, the Equator and
the Tropics are much warmer as they
receive more insolation, with temperature
decreasing towards the Poles as insolation
decreases.
This difference in solar input generates
major global patterns of atmospheric
circulation: air that is strongly heated at the
equator has the greatest tendency to rise.
If we were on a planet which didn’t rotate,
this would result in one large circulation
‘cell’ – one in which warm air would rise
Image 1: Insolation variability with latitude
(Image credit: Peter Halasz ‘Oblique rays’ (via wikicommons))
10
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
Issue 19 Autumn 2017
at the equator, move to the colder polar
regions, sink and flow back to replace the
air at the equator (image 2a).
However, since our planet does rotate.
If you imagine standing on the equator,
over the course of a day you cover a large
distance (about 24,874 miles), whereas
if you were standing at the poles, you
wouldn’t move any distance, but simply (a)
rotate on the spot. You don’t ‘feel’ the speed
you are moving as the air is moving at the
same rate. Therefore, air at the equator
moves much faster than air at the poles, so
as it rises and moves towards the poles, it is
moving faster than the underlying ground.
So it seems as though the air overtakes
the ground and moves from west to east;
in contrast, as air is pulled from the poles
towards the tropics, it is moving more
slowly than the underlying earth, so it
looks like it is moving east to west. In short,
nothing in the atmosphere moves in a (b)
straight line: everything in the northern Image 2: Global atmospheric circulation cells
hemisphere is deflected to the right. This is a) without the Earth’s rotation b) with the
known as the Coriolis Effect. Earth’s rotation (Images from www.ux1.eiu.
edu/~cfjps/1400/circulation.html)
As a result, the Earth’s atmosphere contains
six rotating cells of air (three in the northern
hemisphere, and three in the southern
hemisphere) which engulf the earth like
giant ‘air doughnuts’ (image 2b and 3):
1. The Hadley Cell: This is driven
by warm air rising. This Coriolis Effect
causes the air that has risen at the
equator and moving to the poles
to deflect and become increasingly
westerly high up in the atmosphere that
the circulation breaks down and the air
sinks back towards the ground in the
sub tropics (30° – the ‘horse latitudes’).
Once the air has descended back to the
ground, it returns to the equator and is
deflected to the east – they are known
as the easterly trade winds.
theWeather Club Newsletter
Image 3: Side-view of atmospheric circulation cells
2. Polar Cell: The same thing
happens in the polar regions, but it is
driven by cold air sinking; the sinking,
cold air at the poles moves back
towards the equator, but because it is
slow moving it becomes increasingly
easterly as the underlying earth moves
faster, and the circulation eventually
breaks down at around 70° latitude.
The air then rises again and returns
to the poles, resulting in another
atmospheric cell.
3. Ferrel Cell: This lies in between
the Polar and Hadley cell, and is a little
more complicated. Put simply, it is
the net effect of air motions from all
the storms or ‘depressions’ that occur
in the mid-latitudes. Air sinks in the
sub tropics and rises around 60-70°.
In this region, westerly surface winds
occur. This drives most of the weather
systems we experience here in the UK,
with weather moving off the Atlantic
(see Box 1).
These drive air flow, atmospheric pressure
(weight of the air pressing down on the
earth) and rainfall. The rising and sinking
of air causes high and low pressure at the
surface, respectively: A low pressure belt is
found around the equator – known as the
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)*,
where the northern and southern trade
winds meet. In the images in this article,
this is positioned precisely at the equator.
However, since the earth tilts on its axis, the
Earth is only overhead at the equator twice
a year, at the equinox. Throughout the rest
of the year, the precise location of the ITCZ
changes: it moves north to the Tropic of
Cancer (20° N) during the UK summer and
south to the Tropic of Capricorn (20° S) in
the UK winter (see Box 2).
Two more low pressure regions are found
at around 60° north and south of the
equator, known as subpolar lows, which
lie between the polar cell and the Ferrel
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
cell, where air ascends. As air rises, pressure
falls and the air cools. As cooler air can
hold less moisture, condensation occurs.
Therefore in these regions clouds form and
precipitation is likely to develop.
Conversely, where air sinks, pressure
increases and areas of high pressure
develop resulting in clear skies, with no
cloud formation and therefore less rainfall.
Subtropical high pressure is found at 30°
north and south of the equator, as air sinks
between the Hadley and Ferrel cell. Once
this dry air reaches the surface it starts
to pick up moisture from the surface,
resulting in bands of deserts at 30° and dry
regions at the north and south poles.
The interactive effect of the three
circulation cells (Hadley, Ferrel and Polar),
combined with the influence of the Coriolis
effect results in the global circulation. The
net effect is to transfer energy from the
tropics towards the poles in a gigantic
conveyor belt.
BOX 2: ITCZ and Monsoons
As the ITCZ changes location during the
year, the location of wet monsoon weather
also changes. In the summer, air over land
is heated more than air over ocean. This
is because the sun’s energy is absorbed
and re-emitted back into the atmosphere
over land, whereas over oceans energy
can be mixed to lower depths and stored.
This shifts the ITCZ toward land regions,
namely Asia and Australia which lie north
and south of the equator, respectively.
During December and January, the
Southern Hemisphere is heated more
strongly by the sun than the Northern
Hemisphere, so the ITCZ is found just
south of the equator. Winds from the
Northern Hemisphere blow across the
Issue 19 Autumn 2017
BOX1: Globalcirculation
and UK weather
In the northern hemisphere, warm
moist air from the tropics moves
northwards by the surface winds
of the Ferrel cell. This meets cool,
dry air moving south in the Polar
cell. The polar front forms where
these two air masses meet, leading
to ascending air and low pressure
at the surface, often around the
latitude of the UK.
The polar front jet stream drives this
area of unstable atmosphere. The UK
and many other countries in Europe
often experience unsettled weather
due to these wandering areas of low
pressure which form when moist air
rises along the polar front. The jet
stream guides these systems, so its
position is important for UK weather
(see tWC article on jet streams:
theweatherclub.org.uk/node/195)
An educational video to compliment this
article can be viewed on YouTube – it also
contains some ideas for experiments and
demonstrations to help explain some of
the concepts covered.
*When crossing the equator, sailors in the
1700s would get boats stuck for weeks due
to lack of wind in the ITCZ, so the expression
‘feeling down in the doldrums’ (meaning a
person is depressed or lacking energy) is
believed to be derived from this.
equator towards the ITCZ, picking up
moisture as they move over the warm
tropical ocean towards northern Australia.
Meanwhile, in India, dry air descending
over land resulting in little precipitation.
Conversely, during June and July, the
Northern Hemisphere is heated more
strongly by the sun, so the ITCZ lies just
north of the equator and winds blow
from the Southern Hemisphere across the
equator to reach the ITCZ in the Northern
Hemisphere. As the winds head towards
India and other parts of south Asia, they
pick up moisture from the tropical ocean
and monsoon rains fall. Elsewhere in
northern Australia, very dry conditions
prevail as air descends.
11
theWeather Club Newsletter Issue 19 Autumn 2017

+
Weather
View Prof Paul Hardaker
Chief Executive of
The Institute of Physics

12
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
theWeather Club Newsletter
Prof Ellie Highwood
Professor of Climate
Physics at the
University of Reading
RMetS trip to Austrialia
I have been fortunate enough to travel
widely through my career as a climate
scientist – taking in aircraft campaigns
in Senegal and Italy, and conferences
everywhere from China to Hawaii.
However, until recently, I had not ventured
out of the Northern Hemisphere! All that
changed in August thanks to an invitation
from the Australian Meteorological and
Oceanographic Society (AMOS) to share in
the celebrations of their 30th anniversary.
And so I found myself on a very long plane
journey to Melbourne. The flight, though
long, was not as bad as I expected. I had
beautiful views of the Caspian Sea and
the desert around it, before flying into the
dark for a midnight change of planes in
Singapore. Crossing the equator and flying
above the Intertropical Convergence Zone
was certainly bumpy, but no more so
than a late night flight from Heathrow to
Edinburgh in a winter storm. I was relieved
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
+
Climate
View
not to directly experience any of Paul
Williams’ much publicised research on
clear air turbulence!
I landed in Melbourne to be met by Mary
Voice, the President of AMOS, and driven
to my hotel. Despite being tired, I had an
urgent task to complete – going over my
slides for a research seminar at Monash
University. I always go over my slides the
evening before a seminar – however this
time, I made an embarrassing discovery.
All my slides referred to weather systems
and regional climate of the Northern
Hemisphere! Fortunately one of the great
things about having been at Reading
Meteorology Department for over two
decades is the considerable number of
ex PhD students and postdocs who have
been through the department and in
particular are now at Monash. Confiding in
them the following day, they reassured me
Issue 19 Autumn 2017
that a Northern Hemisphere bias is entirely
normal for a newbie to the Southern
Hemisphere and I appeared to be forgiven.
After a day at Monash, it was time to
enjoy the AMOS celebrations in central
Melbourne. AMOS began as a regional
branch of the Royal Meteorological
Society 45 years ago, but became a
Society in its own right in 1987. The
new Society increased the emphasis on
oceanography and air –sea interaction
was an important international theme
for the first conferences. The birthday
conference focussed on “Science for
Life” including themes around assessing
and communicating risk associated
with extreme weather and climate
change. WMO (World Meteorological
Organisation) President David Grimes
emphasised the importance of thinking
about the vulnerable polar regions,
whilst David Carlson of the World Climate
Research Programme discussed whether
climate change was now so complex that
the evolution of our brains cannot keep up
- the conclusion being that climate change
is too complex for any individuals or
individual nations to solve, necessitating
a global collaboration. Trainee forecasters
from the Bureau of Meteorology took
advantage of the opportunity to network
with some of the leading figures in global
meteorology. It was also fascinating to hear
about the outreach initiatives, including a
schools art competition. Last years’ winner,
on the theme of “weather warriors” was
very creative.
One of the differences in my trips now
tends to be that I have less spare time
around them to be a tourist. However, I did
have a day and a half so got to see the Yarra
Valley and Healesville Sanctuary as well as
reflect on the history of immigration to
Australia. One of the oddest things? The
completely different bird sounds - I had
not realised how much birdsong is a part
of my everyday soundscape. It certainly
reminded me to “observe” with all my
senses.
13
theWeather Club Newsletter Issue 19 Autumn 2017

+
My
Weather
Jo Elworthy - Head in the Clouds
Dr Jo Elworthy is Director of Interpretation at the Eden Project. Jo has worked at Eden since its inception and is
dedicated to sharing the amazing workings of our planet Earth with Eden’s visitors: ‘Visiting the rainforest and
experiencing weather and finding out about the relationship between rainforests and climate first hand can
help transform our understanding of our world and how we interact with it.’ Here, Jo takes us on a journey to
‘The Weather Maker’ in the Rainforest Biome at the Eden Project.

The Eden Project in Cornwall has grown Southeast Asia, West Africa and tropical forecasts. Next the Biodiversity Platform
the largest rainforest in captivity inside South America, you’ll start a gentle gives views out across the Biome with
a massive conservatory: the Rainforest climb towards the canopy walkway. its huge diversity of plants. This leads
Biome. Twelve years after planting, the Mist spilling down from the pathway to a fully accessible high-level route
trees have grown so much that the ahead gives hints of what is to come. and an alternative 23 metre wobbly
Eden team have been able to build a A boardwalk takes you up into the rope bridge which shows some of the
fully accessible canopy walkway to give canopy to the first exhibits in the ways canopy scientists get around in
visitors the chance to experience the Weather Maker experience: the Climate the real rainforests. Both routes lead
forest from on high. There are many Platform and Weather Station. Here to a further range of Weather Maker
important stories to tell about the you’ll discover what’s in the air around exhibits. Rainforests make rain and rain
rainforest. Completed this spring was you and how components of it either makes rainforests. You can get a feel
the latest section of the Walkway, the warm or cool the climate. You can also for what it’s like being in a tropical rain
Weather Maker, which explores one of read live weather data and learn how storm as you shelter from downpours
the most vital stories of our time: how computer climate modelling helps in the Rain Shack and discover more
rainforests help regulate the climate
and how, by conserving them, they
can help us in the fight against climate
change. Rainforest conservation
is a challenge that requires global
cooperation, because despite the
importance of these ecosystems an
area the size of Eden’s Rainforest Biome
is lost every ten seconds. Visiting the
rainforest helps people to understand
their beauty and importance and fuels
their desire to care. That’s why Eden
helps millions of visitors who might
otherwise never get to visit a real
rainforest experience one right here in
the UK.

Welcome to the Weather Maker

As you wander deep into the 15,590

square metres of Eden’s massive
Rainforest Biome, through the towering
forests and verdant landscape of
Image: The Weather Maker map (by Steve Tanner)

14
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
theWeather Club Newsletter
Image: The Climate Platform
(by Steve Tanner)
about the water cycle. Close by, the
Transpiration Tree shows how water is
pulled up through plants by the power
of the sun, evaporating from their
leaves, helping to cool the Earth. One of
the most popular exhibits is the Cloud
Bridge; where you are fully enveloped
in white mist and clouds before
emerging to find out about albedo, a
measure of the Earth’s reflectivity, and
how the rainforest’s giant white clouds
reflect sunlight, helping to cool the
planet. Near a crashing waterfall you’ll
cross the Carbon Platform which shows
how, as rainforests grow, they capture
carbon dioxide and store it as solid
carbon compounds in wood, leaves,
roots and soil. This helps to lower the
Image: The Cloud Bridge (by Steve Tanner)
www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
Issue 19 Autumn 2017
concentration of this greenhouse gas
in our atmosphere, so cooling the
Earth. Back on the forest floor you’ll
come across the Rainforest Research
Camp, housing the latest research from
scientists at the University of Exeter who
are working in the tropics exploring
links between climate change and
rainforests. One project is investigating
the impacts of lightning on tropical
trees. Lightning strikes could increase
in a warming climate, potentially killing
the tallest trees in the tropics and
affecting the entire ecosystem.
Here’s a summary of how rainforests
help to regulate the Earth’s climate:
• Air movers: Rainforests enhance
the rise of warm, moist air. This
powers winds which circulate air
around the world
• Sun reflectors: Massive white Image: The Canopy Rope Bridge
clouds form above rainforests which (by Steve Tanner)
reflect sunlight
• Rain makers: Rainforests make rain
• Flood defenders: Rainforest roots
and rain makes rainforests
and soil hold on to water like a
• Water sweaters: Water evaporates
sponge
(transpires) from leaves. This has a
cooling effect (just like sweating)
Read more at www.edenproject.com/
• Carbon catchers: Forests take in
learn/for-everyone/rainforests-and-
CO2 from the air as they grow. It’s
climate
stored as solid carbon compounds in
their wood.
Conserving the rainforest
Alongside our on-site exhibits and
entertainment, Eden works with a
range of organisations such as Survival
International and Cool Earth. We hope
that by working with experts in their
field we will be able to make some
progress on helping with rainforest
conservation projects. Eden’s newly
appointed Director of Life Sciences,
Professor Mike Maunder, is working
with the team to instigate a range of
new conservation projects here at Eden.
We’ll soon be revealing more about
these projects and how our visitors
can get involved at our Conserving
the Rainforest display in the Rainforest
Biome.
Find out more to www.edenproject.
com/visit/whats-here/rainforest-
biome/conserving-the-rainfores
15
 +
Weather Facts

With wind speeds of The world record for

up to the strongest recorded
190 mph wind speed at the
surface is
and measuring 1,380
miles across, Typhoon 253 mph
Tip in 1979 was the on Barrow Island,
largest, most intense Australia in 1996
hurricane on record

The warmest A rainbow was visible

autumn on record for
for the UK was in
2006 with average 6 hours
temperatures of
Wetherby, Yorkshire
11.4oC on 14 March 1994

Rainbows and Weather Machines

Saturday 18 November 2017
11:00 - 16:00
Tate Britain, London

Exploring the role of

rainbows in art and poetry
as well as looking at the
latest rainbow science and Saturday 4th November
how best to photograph a Central Hall Westminster, London
rainbow. www.rmets.org/weatherlive

info@theWeatherClub.org.uk theWeather Club is part of the Royal Meteorological Society

www.theWeatherClub.org.uk
theWeather Club
Facebook/RMetSoc
104 Oxford Road
Twitter @RMetS
Reading RG1 7LL
LinkedIn RMetS
Tel: 0118 956 8500
Instagram rmets_