JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 106, NO.

D19, PAGES 22,613-22,620, OCTOBER 16, 2001

Influence of sublimation on stable isotope records recovered

from high-altitude glaciers in the tropical Andes
W. Stichler,• U. Schotterer,2 K. Fr6hlich,• P. Ginot,2,3C. Kull,2 H. Gfiggeler,2,3
and B. Pouyaud4

Abstract. Sublimationdominatesthe ablationprocesson cold, high-altitudeglaciersin

the tropicalAndes.Transportof water vapor throughthe firn and exchangewith ambient
moisturealter the stableisotopecompositionof the surfacelayers.A sublimation
experimentcarriedout duringan ice core drillingcampaignon Cerro Tapado (5536 m
abovesealevel,30ø08'S,
69ø55'W)
revealed
a strong
enrichment
in the2H and•80
contentin the surfacelayer. Concerningthe deuteriumexcess,a decreaseoccurredat
daytime,while duringthe night, the valuesremainedcomparativelyconstant.At daytime
the sublimationis enhanceddue to the higher moisturedeficit of the ambient air
accompaniedby relativelyhigh firn surfacetemperatures.Low surfacetemperaturesat
nightcausecondensation of watervaporin the firn poresnear the surfaceand thusinhibit
penetrationof the isotopicallyenrichedsurfacefront into deeper firn layers.Measuringan
isotopeprofile obtainedthroughdetailedsamplingbetweenthe surfaceand 38 cm depth
provedthis mechanism.The observedmodificationof the isotopiccompositionat the
surfacewas quantitativelydescribedby a model,which alsoreproducedthe massloss
measuredwith sublimationpansand calculatedfrom relevantmeteorologicaldata. The
resultsof this studysuggestthat the influenceof sublimationon the preservedisotope
record of ice coresunder comparableenvironmentalconditionsis rather limited. In any
case,simultaneous
measurements
of 82Hand8•80 helpto identifylayersin an icecore
whichmightbe effectedby sublimation.However,sincethe masslossdue to sublimation
wasof the order of 2-4 mm per day duringthe experiment,importantpalaeoinformation
from an isotoperecordcouldbe eliminatedduringextendeddry periods.

1. Introduction the isotopic composition at the surface of penitentes were

alreadyreported from two Chilean glaciers(Parinacota,18øS
Ice coresfrom the tropical Andes contain important infor- and Echaurren,33øS)where a modificationwas found to be
mationaboutphysicaland chemicalchangesduringthe past25 stronglydependenton the exposureto solar radiation [Peha,
kyr in the atmospherecloseto a major sourceregion of the 1989].Furthermore,on the Quelccayaice capit wasalsofound
globalwater cycle[Thompsonet al., 1995, 1998]. Of particular that seasonalchangesin evaporationof snowcouldremarkably
interest are stable isotoperecordsof the coresbecausethey amplifyseasonal
changes
in 15•80[Grootes
et al., 1989].It is
directlyaddressthe temperatureand precipitationhistoryin evident that under such extreme environmental conditions the
the regionand thereforemay alsoallow reconstructingclimate variousphasetransitionsof the water molecule also influence
anomaliescausedby E1 Nifio-SouthernOscillation(ENSO), the isotopiccompositionin deeperlayers.Diffusive mixingof
beyond the limit of instrumentalrecords [Thompsonet al., water vapor which smoothesthe original isotopesignalin firn
1992,2000].However,lossof accumulatedsnowat the surface is well known and describedin detail [e.g., Johnsen,1977;
due to sublimationis substantialat thesehigh-altitudeglacier Jouzelet al., 1983;Whillansand Grootes,1985].Especiallythe
sites.Within a dry axisbetween18øSand 28øS,sublimationmay difference
in firn diffusivity
of •2H and15180
maycausepost-
be as high as 3 mm per day [Vuille, 1996] which inhibitsthe depositionalchangesin deuterium excess,defined as d =
formationof glacierseven at altitudesover 6000 m abovesea •2H - 8•180, anddenotedd-excess
[Johnsen
et al., 2000].
level (asl), underpresent-dayclimate[Kull, 1999].Meter high To clearlyverify a possiblepenetration of isotopicallymod-
snowpyramids("penitentes")are impressiveremnantsof ab- ified surface layers by sublimationinto greater depths of a
lationprocesses whichare forcedby high globalradiation,low glacier,complementary •2H and15180
measurements are re-
relativehumidity,strongwinds,and dustdepositionin cavities, quired.Plottingthe experimental
datain a •2H - •180 dia-
which lower the albedo.However, an integral theory about the gram,the influenceof evaporation(sublimation)canbe seenif
originof penitentes[Lliboutry,1954]is still missing.Changesin the slope of the trend line is lower than 8, the slope of the
meteoric
waterline(•2H -- 8•180 q- 10).Furthermore,
thed
•GSF-Institutefor Hydrology,Neuherberg, Germany. excess(which is only related to a slope of 8) can provide
2University
of Bern,Bern,Switzerland. specificinformationaboutthe sourceof the atmosphericmois-
3Alsoat PaulScherrer Institute,Villingen,Switzerland. ture formingthe precipitation[Johnsenet al., 1989]. To make
4IRD-Institutde Recherche Pourle Dfiveloppement, Lima,Peru.
full use of this information, the influence of diffusion and
Copyright2001 by the AmericanGeophysicalUnion. sublimation have to be ruled out first.

Paper number 2001JD900179. Experimentalevidenceof isotopicfractionationat the snow

0148-0227/01/2001JD 900179509.00 surfacehasbeenprovidedby earlier studiesin the Alps [Moser
22,613
22,614 STICHLER ET AL.: SUBLIMATION AFFECTING ICE CORES

SnowfieldWeissfiuhjoch,2800m, Switzerland west-windbelt with moisturesourcesin the Pacific(Figure 2,

• 21•22 •23 • 24 • 25•26 I 27 •28 • left side). At a distanceof ---200 km to the Pacific, Cerro
-90 -
March 1973 Tapado peaks at the eastern margin of the Andean chain.
Accordingto meteorological datafrom the region(F. Escobar,
DGA Santiago,personalcommunication,1999), precipitation
occursmainlybetweenMay and August(australwinter). The
/ •, I • II • t dominant weather conditionsleading to precipitation are a
northward displacementof cold fronts from the Pacific and
cutoffs of polar air interactingwith tropical air [Vuille and
-110
- Amman, 1997]. Convectivesummerstormscan, in principle,
-120 - alsogeneratesnowfallat summitregionsaroundCerro Tapado
(as experiencedduring the drilling seasons1998 and 1999).
400 Change
in
air
mass
---..
I o
0 •
d.
They may arrive from the eastwhere a summerprecipitation
regime dominates.The influenceof ENSO on the interannual
variabilityof precipitationnorth of 35øSis substantial[Escobar
andAceituno,1998].The year after the 1997/1998E1Nifio was
40
extremelydry in this region(P. Aceituno,personalcommuni-
=ø o
I
21 22
I I
23
I
24
I
25
I
26
I
27
I
28
,
cation,1999).
The southeastexposedglacierrangesfrom the summitpla-
Figure1. Diurnalvariationof the •j2Hvaluesandthe deu- teau at 5536 m to a lowest point at 4600 m. The modern
terium excessat the surfaceof a late winter snowcover(top- equilibriumline altitude(ELA) is foundat 5300m, the ratio of
most 1-2 cm) plotted togetherwith the relevantmeteorologi- accumulation to ablation area is ---1.5-1. The size of 1.5 km 2 is
cal parameters.During daytime the isotope values in the exceptionalin an otherwisecompletelydry environment.Even
surfacesnoware being enricheddue to the predominantsub-
the 700 m higherneighboringCerro Olivaresis coveredonlyby
limation process,while at night, recondensation of moisture
partly balancesfurther enrichment[after Stichleret al., 1982]. some patchyice fieldson the southeasterslopes.Accordingto
mass balance calculations an annual accumulation of 750 mm
is neededto create and maintain a glacier.It is assumedthat
local effects(topography,wind-blownsnow,albedo) are re-
and Stichler,1975]. During a fair weather period, which fol- sponsiblefor the neededsurplusof accumulatedsnow.Radar
lowed a snowfall,sampleswere collectedtwice a day from the measurementsat the top of Cerro Tapado indicateda maxi-
surfacelayerwith a thicknessof 1-2 cm at Weissfluhjoch (2800 mum ice thicknessof 40 m (at the drilling site bedrockwas
m asl, Switzerland).The measureddata (Figure 1) showa reachedat 38 m). The mean annualnet accumulationrate, as
generalenrichmentin the deuteriumcontent,accompanied by derivedfrom3H peaksof thenuclear weapontestsduringthe
a decreaseof the d excess,duringdaytimewhen sublimationof 1960s,is 300 mm water equivalent.The temperaturein the
snowprevailed.These effectsare largelycompensatedduring borehole varied between -8.5øC at the surface and -12.5øC at
the firstnightsof the observationperiod,whichis attributedto bedrock [Zweifel, 2000]. From the distribution of few, thin
condensation of the air moisture in the snow cover. After the
ice lenses, percolating meltwater can be excluded. Never-
fifth day the weather conditionschanged,as indicatedby a theless, density increases rapidly with depth reaching al-
general increaseof the deuterium values, even during the readyvaluesaround0.8 g/cm3 at 20 m. Massivesurface
nights,and by an increaseof the humidity.It is assumedthat melting occurs only at the margins of the glacier near the
the new air moisture transportedinto the study area is en- uncovered rocks where the heating of the dark volcanic
riched in heavyisotopeswith respectto the moistureof the material is substantial.(Small frozen lakes covered with
previousdays.It shouldalsobe noted that day-nightchanges
penitentescould be seen during the experiment). Near the
of the d excesscontinued,which suggeststhat the new air
drilling site (200 m apart from the rocks)the surfacewasflat
moistureoriginatedfrom the samesourcearea as the preced-
and smooth(Figure 2, right side).
ing one (samed excess,higherhumidity).
To obtain the necessarymeteorological data, portable
In the following,a similarexperimentis describedwhichwas
equipmentwas placedat 4550 m and at the summit,respec-
carriedout duringan ice core drillingcampaignin the Chilean
Andes,where sublimationdominatesthe ablationprocess.The tively.The lower stationhad alreadybeen operatingfor 1 year,
aim was to describethe modificationof the isotopiccomposi- the summitstationonlyfor the time of experimentand drilling
tion of the preservedsnow cover due to sublimationand to (10 days).Continuousdata collectionintegrating30 min inter-
assess the impacton the stableisotoperecordof the recovered vals includedrelative humidity,wind speedand direction,at-
ice cores.To detectany possible"penetration"of the isotopic mospherictemperature and pressure,and global radiation.
changesat the surfaceinto deeperlayers,a smallsnowpit was Three temperaturesensorsmeasuredfirn temperaturesat 7,
sampledin detail. 15, and 25 cm depth,respectively(Figure 3a). The moisture
deficitduringthe dayindicatesmaximumsublimation(Figure
3b). Sublimationwasmeasuredby weighingsmallpansfilled
2. Study Area and Meteorological Conditions with snow (sublimationlysimeters)during the whole period
The CerroTapadoglacier(5536m asl,30ø08'S,69ø55'W)is from sunset to sunrise and sunrise to sunset and thereafter
locatedat the southernrim of a dry axis.This axisseparatesthe modeledwith the relevantmeteorological parameters(P. Gi-
tropicalprecipitationregime (with the main moisturesources not et al., submittedmanuscript,2001) (hereinafterreferredto
originatingfrom the Atlantic and the AmazonBasin)from the as G2001).
 STICHLER ET AL.: SUBLIMATION AFFECTING ICE CORES 22,615

24 ,•

30"---

Ta,ado 5500rn

•33
i

Figure 2. Geographiclocation,overviewof the glacier,and drillingsiteat the top of the Cerro Tapado (5534
m). The tongue of the southeastexposedglacier terminatesat 4600 m. The importanceof sublimationis
illustratedby the evolutionof penitentesnear the drilling site and the meteorologicalstation.

3. Experiment plastictubes and shippedto the laboratoryin a frozen state.

Beside the 2H and •80 contents a detailed set of chemical
The experimentwas carried out at the summit of Cerro
constituentswas analyzed,includingthe major anionsand cat-
Tapado during the drilling campaignin February 1999. It was
ions and organiccompoundsaswell. The stableisotoperatios
designedto obtain the daily changesin the isotopiccomposi-
were measuredtwice by standardmassspectrometry(analyti-
tion of the surfacefirn layer due to sublimationand refreezing
calerrorof _+0.5%• for •2H and _+0.05%•for •80, respec-
of condensedair moisture accordingto the previousexperi-
tively)to obtaina highprecisionin d-excessvalues.A detailed
ment describedabove.A flat snowfield,50 m away from the
discussion of chemicaland meteorologicalresultsis givenelse-
drillingsite,waschosenbecausethe smoothundulatingsurface
where (G2001).
indicated little influence of penitentesformation. As a first
step,a smallpit wasdugfrom whichsampleswere taken in 1-3
cm intervalsdownto a depth of 38 cm where a hard firn layer
4. Results and Discussion
marked a changein accumulationconditions.The whole pro-
file appearedvery homogeneouswithout ice lenses(except Theobtained8180- depthprofile(Figure5) shows
a steep
some small-scaleicy cruststhat where excludedfrom sam- decreasein the uppermost7 cm followedby a more gradual
pling).The overalldensity
was0.4g/cm
3. Thereafter,
theup- decreasefarther down. The d excessincreasessharplywith
permost7 cm were removedto create a new flat surfaceto be depth in those uppermostlayers.At about 7 cm the d excess
exposedto the influenceof air moistureexchangeforced by reaches a maximum and farther below remains rather constant
sublimation(Figure 4). Twice a day, after sunriseand before at about 15%•. The drasticchangeof both parametersis also
sunset, thin slices of ---1 cm thickness were collected corre- reflectedin the 82H - 8•80 plot (Figure6). The valuesare
spondingto about 4 mm of water equivalent.This procedure spreadabout a line with the slopeof 8 (meteoricwater line)
wasrepeated for3• days.Theisotope content of theairmois- exceptfor the last three values,which define a typical subli-
ture was derived from intensiveriming that occurred in the mation (evaporation) line with a slope of s = 4.88. These
eveningon February14.All sampleswere storedin precleaned findingsindicatethat there is a modificationof the isotopic
22,616 STICHLER ET AL.: SUBLIMATION AFFECTING ICE CORES

ß ß Air temperature
ß Snow temp. 7cm depth
ß Snow
temp.
15cm
depth
ß Snowtemp.20cmdepth

ß .• •, ß !.• ,'

E -lO

-15 ..

-2O , , , , , ,

11. Feb. 12. Feb. 13. Feb. 14. Feb. 15. Feb. 16. Feb.
12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00
1999

Figure 3a. Diurnal variationsof air temperatureat 2 m height(February10-16, 1999)andfirn temperature

at three depths.Note that the near-surfacetemperatureduringnight is lowestdue to strongreemittedinfrared
radiation(clear sky),which is additionallyenforcedby coolingof continuingsublimation.

compositionof the firn by sublimation,whichis restrictedto a limation, while at night, the valuesremain more or lesscon-
depth of 7 cm only. stant.The /32Hand/5•sOvaluesare plottedalsoin Figure6.
The surfacesublimationexperimentshowsa steadyincrease The calculatedregressionline resultswith the sameslope(s =
of/5•80of about5%0anda stepwise decrease of thed excess 4.86) as that of the uppermostpit samples.The (rather inci-
by 10%oduringthe observationperiod(Figure7). Concerning dentallysoclose)agreementof the two observedslopescaused
the d excess,the decreaseoccursmainly at daytime,reflecting by the sameprocessindicatesa dynamicequilibriumbetween
the influenceof the kinetic isotopeeffect duringintensesub- masslossand depth penetrationof the sublimationfront.

lOO

• Rel. Humidity
'------Moisture Deficit

8o

._4•-
60
E

2O

11. Feb. 12. Feb. 13. Feb. 14. Feb. !5. Feb. 16. Feb.
I2:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 t2:00
1999

Figure 3b. Diurnal variationsof relativehumidityand moisturedeficit(differencein absoluteand relative

humidity)coveringthe time of sublimationexperiment.
 STICHLER ET AL.: SUBLIMATION AFFECTING ICE CORES 22,617

-80

•52H
=8,0
•5•O
+16,0•
•,,•e
.,•slope
=4,88
4> slope= 4,86
•.-d •'•
-r-130

• • SPsurface
• • sublimation
experiment
• • LMWL
-- -- RL of SP suEace layer
.... RL • subl. experiment
-180 I . . I . !
-25 -20 -15 -10
•--.•-..--•••
.v•.
......
-- •:--•..,: '••.• ..,•'"•i•:
':' •=O (%ø)

Figure6. The •2H - •80 diagramof thepit andthesurface

samples.The slopeof the regressionline (RL) of the upper-
Figure 4. View of the surfaceexperiment.The snowpit was
mostpit samplesand the samplesfrom the surfaceexperiment
dug downto a hard layer, indicatinga changein accumulation
are characteristicfor evaporation(sublimation),the samples
conditions.The undulatingsurfacecontaininglittle icy pieces from below 7 cm depth follow perfectly the meteoric water
is shaped by sublimation.The surface part was removed to line.
provide a homogeneoussurfacefor the experiment.

These experimentalfindingscan be explained as follows:

The sublimation processis driven by the difference in the
temperatureof the ambient air and of the surfaceand deeper
layersof the firn (see Figure 3a). The sublimationis strongest
during daytime due to the highestmoisturedeficit of the am-
bient air accompaniedby high firn surfacetemperature. This
processresultsin an isotopicenrichmentat the surface(Figure
6). The low temperature of the firn surface at night causes
condensationof the vapor and thuspreventspenetrationof the
isotopicallyenrichedfront into deeperlayersof the firn profile.
The observedhigher d excessat a depth of about 7 cm also
points to the existenceof sucha condensationfront.
To quantitativelydescribethe effect of sublimationon the
isotopecompositionof firn at the surface,a model has been
derivedwhich has two main features:(1) the isotopicenrich-
ment at the surface,which is describedby a net diffusiveflux of
the isotopespeciesi (i standsfor deuterium and oxygen18,
respectively)into the interior of the firn profile, and (2) a
time-dependentcoordinatesystem(its origin is definedby the
firn surface)which accountsfor the firn lossat the surfacein
terms of an apparent advectivemovementof the firn layers
toward the surface.The velocityof this movementis equal to
sublimationrate v. Feature (1) can be expressedby
ORi a
-D •xx: (aiRi+ biRi)v,
where D is an apparent diffusioncoefficient(the small differ-
ence betweenits value for deuterium and oxygen-18has been
neglected),R• (R••) is the isotope ratio of the firn at the
surface(of atmosphericwater vapor abovethe firn surface),v
is the sublimationrate (in cm firn layer per day), and the
factorsa• and b• are defined by the expressions
a•= 1- a•(l- h)(1+ n©C•)' (2a)

Deuterium Excess (%o)

5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
.... I .... | 1

---•-'•"--••'1•' I surface
of
the
-10 -10

•.. -2o -20 •.

-3O -30

-25 00 -20.00 -15.00 -t0.00

5•0 t%)

Figure5. Oxygen
18contentanddeuterium
excess
profilesof thepit samples.
Thet5•80valuesshowa strong
decreasein the upper 7 cm of the profile followed by steadyfurther decrease.After a sharpincreasedown to
7 cm, the deuterium excessremains rather constant.The latter might be due to diffusive mixing under
equilibriumconditions.
22,618 STICHLER ET AL.: SUBLIMATION AFFECTING ICE CORES

-14.00 20.0

-15.00 "-,,

15.o
-16.00 •

-17.00 .•• ....'&'

,,,,, ••---'--Deuterium
Excess 10.0

-18.00
/
-19.00 I I , I I I
ll•
.....
ß''''''3,
I I I 5.0
12.2.99 12.2.99 13.2.99 13.2.99 14.2.99 14.2.99 15.2.99 15.2.99 16.2.99 16.2.99
0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00 12:00

Figure 7. Oxygen18 contentand d-excess

variationsin the firn surface(1 cm) duringthe sublimation
experiment.

h phase.Accordingto the equilibriumfractionationfactor a of

bi--(1--h)(1+ n©C•)' (2b) 1.016256and 1.143587at -6øC for oxygen18 and deuterium,
respectively [Majoube,1971;Merlivatand Nief, 1967]the iso-
In theseexpressions, h is the averagerelativehumidityduring topic compositionof the air moistureresultsin 15•80-
observation(h = 40%), ai is the equilibriumfractionation -21.31%oand •2H = -146.2%o.Sincethe moisture, which
factor,andtheparameter n, 0,andC• characterize thekinetic causedtheriming,wastransported withtheprevailing westerly
fractionationfactor a•,i (J. Gat, manuscriptin preparation, winds,thesevalueswereadoptedasthe averageisotopiccom-
2001) (hereinafterreferredto asJGat): positionduringthe experiment.
It shouldbe notedthatfor longertimeperiodsthetemporal
aki= 1 + (1 -h)n©C•. (3)
fluctuationof R7 mustbe takenintoaccount. The temperature
The parametern reflectsthe wind conditions at the glacier dependenceof the equilibriumfractionationfactoris of minor
surface(0.5 -< n -< 1), 0 (0.5 -< 0 -< 1) accountsfor the influenceon the isotopicfractionduringsublimation.For a
influenceof sublimated watervaporon the isotopiccomposi- calculationa valueof -6øC wasadopted,whichis closeto the
tionof thefreeair abovethefirnsurface, andC• characterizes averagesurfacetemperatureduringthe experiment.The value
the diffusivetransportat the interfaceto the atmosphere. of the parameterC• is 0.0285for oxygen18 and0.0251for
In a firstapproximation(neglectingdiffusivetransportin the deuterium,respectively (J.Gat). The valueof the productn 0
poresof the interiorof the profile),feature(2) is reflectedby hasbeenderived fromtheslopes in the•2H - •80 diagram
the equation (Figure6). Usingthe expression
ORi/Ot- -vORi/Ox. (4) OR2/ ORis
The solutionof (4) under the specialboundarycondition
s= -•xx
/ Ox ' (6)
(equation(1)) provides a quantitative
descriptionof thespatial the slopecanbe calculatedusing(1). It shouldbe notedthat
and temporalchangeof the isotopiccompositionof the firn theslope inthe•2H - •80 diagram is,withintheassumptions
near the surface.For the changeof R• at the surfacebetween of the model,independent from the "kinetic"parametersD
the observationtimest • and t 2 we obtain (diffusionof watervaporinto the firn) and v (sublimation
of
firn intothe freeatmosphere).The resultsareshownin Figure

Ri(t2)-Ri(tO=(Ri(tO
•RT)(exp
(t2-t0
1) 8, wherethe productn 0 is usedasa free parameter.As men-
tionedabove,bothslopesin Figure6 reflectthe sameprocess,
namely,isotopicfractionationdue to sublimation.With a mean
valueof the slopes of 4.87 and the averagerelativehumidity
Furthermore,on the basisof (4) the sublimationrate v canbe duringthe observationperiod of h = 40%, the valueof the
estimatedusingthe measuredisotopicdepthgradientat the productn 0 is 0.5. This resultis in goodagreementwith the
surface(Figure5) andthe isotopic"enrichment rate,"i.e., the expected value.The prevailingstrongwindregimeobserved at
measuredtemporalchangeof the isotopiccomposition of the theglacier(turbulentconditions) suggests
thatn iscloseto 0.5.
firn at the surfaceof the glacier(Figure7). Moreover,the influenceof sublimatedwatervapor(giventhe
In thefollowing,theparameters includedin theaboveequa- relativelysmallsurfaceof the glacier)on the isotopiccompo-
tionsare determined,and the theoreticalresultsderivedby sitionof the air moistureappearsto be negligibleundersuch
theseequationsare comparedwith the experimental data.The conditions which results with a value of 0 dose to 1.
value of R7 has been calculatedfrom the collectedrime as- The sublimation rate v can be estimated from the ratio of
sumingisotopicequilibriumbetweenthe condensed
(withval-
the measuredtemporalchange(Figure7) anddepthgradient
uesof &•80-- -5.41%oand•32H= -23.6%0)andthevapor (Figure5) of theisotopiccomposition
of thefirn at thesurface.
 STICHLER ET AL.: SUBLIMATION AFFECTING ICE CORES 22,619

9t
81
---•x---
n'0
=
* n.0
0.4
=0.5 .,,,•Z,?
t --E•--
n'0
=0.6 ,....•"

.... , .... , .... , .... .... , .... , .... , .... , .... , ....
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative Humidity (%)

Figure8. Plotof relativehumidi•versusslope(A&•H/A&•80)for estimating

the productof n and 0,
parameters
involvedin thekineticprocesses
duringsublimation.
Fromthemeasured slopeof s = 4.88and
underthe experimental
conditions(h = 40%), nO resultsin 0.5.

The valuederivedfrom the relevantoxygen18 data and for an day hasbeen derivedfor the rate of the temporalchangeof
averagerelativehumidityof h = 40% is 1 cm firn per day(4 oxygen18 at the surface.Thisresultis comparable with earlier
mmweq).It hasbeenusedto estimate the diffusioncoefficient findings[Grooteset al., 1989]wherea valueof 0.5%0per day
by (1). The obtained
valueis 20 cm2/day. the was obtainedfor an observationperiod of 12 daysand more
Furthermore,
temporalchangeof the isotopiccomposition of the firn at the humid conditionsthan at the Tapado glacier.
surfaceof the glaciercouldbe calculatedusing(5). The results
are plotted in Figure 9 usingthe measuredinitial isotope
5. Conclusions
valuesfor deuteriumandoxygen18 of -130.6 and -18.53%o,
respectively. (It shouldbe notedthat in the equationsderived Two importantpostdepositional processes may influencea
above,the isotopiccomposition is givenin termsof the isotope palaeoclimaticreconstructionderived from stable isotope
ratio, but in the figures,the corresponding •3valueshavebeen recordsin tropicalicecores:(1) diffusivemixingof watervapor
used).For the observation periodthe calculated curvefitswell within the firn layer and (2) sublimationat the surfaceof the
with the experimental data.Deviationsbetweenmodeledand snowcover.Especiallythe latter is crucialfor applyingthe d
observeddata mightoccurif the isotopiccompositionof the excessas a sourceindicator for atmosphericmoisture.How-
atmospheric moisturechanges(the model assumes that this ever,fromthe 8•H - 8•80 relation(slope)it is evident,that
parameteris constantin time). The goodagreementsupports layersaffectedby sublimationreacha depthof about5-10 cm
the assumptionthat the isotopiccompositionof the atmo- only,evenunderextremedryenvironmental conditionsaspre-
sphericmoisturecalculatedfrom the rime wascharacteristic vailingbefore and duringthe experiment.Condensation and
for the periodof the experiment. Finally,a valueof 0.7%0per refreezingof water vapor duringnight at the surface(the

I I

ß 5•80 (measured)
-- 5•80(calculated)
0 -10
[] Deuterium Excess (measured)
....... Deuterium Excess (calculated)

-15 -10

-2o ,
-2o

0 1 2 3 4
time (day)

Figure9. Measured
andcalculated
•3•80valuesanddeuterium
excess
versus
time(days)afterstarting
the
sublimationexperiment.
22,620 STICHLER ET AL.: SUBLIMATION AFFECTING ICE CORES

coldestpart of the profile at that time) blocksthe penetration precipitationunderpresentand glacialconditions,Tellus,Ser.B, 41,
452-468, 1989.
of the enrichedisotoperatiosto deeperlayers.The total mass
loss at the surface also has to be considered since it removes Johnsen,S. J., H. B. Clausen,K. M. Cuffey,G. Hoffmann,J. Schwan-
der, andT. Creyts,Diffusionof stableisotopesin polar firn andice;
instantaneouslythe enrichedlayer, thus limiting the actual the isotopeeffect in firn diffusion,in Physicsof Ice CoreRecords,
isotopicenrichment.The processendswith the next snowfall. editedby T. Hondoh,pp. 121-140,Hokkaido Univ. Press,Sapporo,
Remnantsof the sublimationprocessmaybe preservedalways Japan,2000.
Jouzel, J., L. Merlivat, J. R. Petit, and C. Lorius, Climatic information
by a new snowcover.Amount of disturbedlayersand their over the last centurydeducedfrom a detailedisotopicrecordin the
subsequent smoothingby diffusionwill dependon the duration South Pole snow,J. Geophys.Res.,88, 2693-2703, 1983.
of dry periodsand/or on amountand frequencyof precipita- Kull, C., ModellierungpalfioklimatischerVerhfiltnissebasierendauf
tion events.In any case,suspicioussamplesfrom an ice core der jungpleistozfinenVergletscherungin Nordchile--Ein Fall-
recordmaybe identified
withinthe •52H- •5•80diagram. beispielausden nordchilenische
Anden, Z. Gletscherkd.
Glazialgeol.,
35, 35-64, 1999.
The experimentaldatacouldbe described by a model,which Lliboutry, L., The origin of Penitentes,J. Glaciol., 2(15), 331-338,
also reproducedthe amount of sublimationsufficiently.The 1954.
averagelossof 4 mm weq per day seemsto be an upper limit Majoube,M., Fractionnementen oxygbne18 entrele glaceet la vapeur
when comparingit to 2 mm weq as derivedfrom sublimation d'eau,J. Chem.Phys.,68, 625-636, 1971.
Merlivat, L., and G. Nief, Fractionnementisotopiquelors deschange-
pans.Nevertheless, one hasto take into accountthat the latter
mentsd'btatsolide-vapeur et liquide-vapeurde l'eau h destemp6r-
doesnot includethe moisturetransportfrom deeperfirn layers atures inf6rieures h 0øC, Tellus, 19, 122-127, 1967.
to the surfaceduringnight and might thereforebe considered Moser, H., and W. Stichler,Deuterium and oxygen-18contentsas an
asa lowerlimit. The masslossitselfmayhaveconsequences for indexof the propertiesof snowcovers,in Proceedings
of Symposium
on Snow Mechanics,IAHS Publ., 114, 122-135, 1975.
a palaeorecordtoo becauseextendeddryperiodscouldremove
Pefia,H., Mediciones
de •80 y 2H en "penitentes"
de nieve,in Pro-
important isotopic information from previousprecipitation ceedings of a Meetingon EstudiosdeHidrologiaIsotopicaenAmerica
events.
Latina, IAEA-TECDOC-502, pp. 143-154, Int. At. Energy (UN),
Moreover, the result of this experiment will have major Vienna, Austria, 1989.
consequences for the interpretationof chemicalspeciesob- Stichler,W., D. Baker, H. Oerter, and P. Trimborn, Core drilling on
Vernagtferner(Oetztal Alps, Austria) in 1979:Deuteriumand ox-
tained from glaciersunder comparableenvironmentalcondi-
ygen-18contents,Z. Gletscherkd. Glazialgeol.,
18(1), 23-35, 1982.
tions(low humidity,smalland event-basedaccumulation rate, Thompson,L. G., E. Mosley-Thompson,and P. A. Thompson,Recon-
highsublimationrate). The largedifferencesin changescaused structinginterannualclimatevariabilityfrom tropicaland subtropi-
by sublimationamongvolatile,soluble,and insolublecompo- calice-corerecords,in El Niho:PaleoclimaticAspects of theSouthern
nentsare discussed in detail elsewhere(G2001). Oscillation,editedby H. Diaz, and V. Markgraf, pp. 325-356, Cam-
bridgeUniv. Press,New York, 1992.
Since sublimationis known to be an important processin Thompson,L. G., E. Mosley-Thompson,M. E. Davis,P.-N. Lin, K. A.
cold, dry environmentstoo, the experiment should be re- Henderson,J. Cole-Dai, J. F. Bolzan, and K. Liu, Late glacialstage
peated,and the model couldbe adaptedto the differentam- and Holocenetropicalice core recordsfrom Huascaran,Peru, Sci-
bient conditionsat siteswhere sublimationis expectedto in- ence, 269, 47-50, 1995.
Thompson,L. G., et al., A 25000-yeartropical climate historyfrom
fluence palaeoenvironmental records from ice core Bolivian ice cores, Science,282, 1858-1864, 1998.
measurements.
Thompson,L. G., K. A. Henderson,E. Mosley-Thompson, and P.-N.
Lin, The tropical ice core record of ENSO, in El Niho and the
SouthernOscillation,MultiscaleVariabilityand Global and Regional
Acknowledgments.We wishto thank Hans Peter Erismann(Swiss Impact, edited by H. Diaz, and V. Markgraf, pp. 295-322, Cam-
Ambassadroin Chile), Robert Gallaire (IRD, La Paz), and the Chil- bridge Univ. Press,New York, 2000.
ean Army (Regimentode Infanteria21 in La Serena)for supporting Vuille, M., Zur raumzeitlichenDynamikvon Schneefallund Ausape-
field work, Anna Olfmann and Harald Lowag for the precisestable rung im Bereich des sadlichen Altiplano, S•idamerika, Geogr.
isotopemeasurement,and our reviewersfor their valuablecomments Bernensia,G45, 1-118, 1996.
that substantiallyimprovedthe manuscript.The work was supported Vuille, M., and C. Amman,Regionalsnowfallpatternsin the high,arid
by the SwissNational ScienceFoundation. Andes, Clim. Change,36, 413-423, 1997.
Whillans,I. M. and P.M. Grootes,Isotopicdiffusionin coldsnowand
firn, J. Geophys.Res.,90, 3910-3918, 1985.
Zweifel, B., Kernbohrungen in kaltenGletschern,Diplomarbeit,ETH-
References
Z•irich, Zurich, Switzerland, 2000.
Escobar,F., and P. Aceituno,The ENSO phenomenoninfluenceon
snowfallin the Andean sectorof central Chile duringwinter, Bull. K. Fr6hlich and W. Stichler,GSF-Institutefor Hydrology,P.O. Box
Inst. Fr. Etud. Andines, 27, 753-759, 1998. 1129,D-85758,Neuherberg,Germany.(stichler@gsf. de)
Grootes, P.M., M. Stuiver, L. G. Thompson, and E. Mosley- P. Ginot, C. Kull, H. Gfiggeler,and U. Schotterer,Universityof
Thompson,Oxygenisotopechangesin tropicalice, Quelccaya,Peru, Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
J. Geophys.Res.,94, 1187-1194, 1989. B. Pouyaud,IRD-Institut de RecherchePour le D6veloppement,
Johnsen,S. J., Stableisotopehomogenisationof polar firn and snow, Lima, Peru.
in Proceedingsof lsotopes
andImpuritiesin SnowandIce,IAHS Publ.,
118, 210-219, 1977. (ReceivedAugust25, 2000;revisedFebruary5, 2001;
Johnsen,S. J., W. Dansgaard,andJ. W. C. White, The originof Arctic acceptedMarch 13, 2001.)