ELEMENTARY STATISTICS (STAT 1)

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

DEFINITION OF STATISTICS
 Statistics is a set of numerical data.
 It is a branch of science which deals with the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of
data.

NATURE OF STATISTICS
General Uses of Statistics
a. Statistics aids in decision making
 provides comparison
 explains action that has taken place
 justifies a claim or assertion
 predicts future outcome
 estimates unknown quantities
b. Statistics summarizes data for public use
Examples on the Role of Statistics
 In the biological and medical sciences, it can help researchers to discover relationships
worthy of further attention.
Example: A doctor can use statistics to determine to what extent is an increase in blood
pressure dependent upon age.
 In business, a company can use statistics to forecast sales, design products and produce
goods more efficiently.
Example: A pharmaceutical company can apply statistical procedures to find out if a new
formula is indeed more effective than the one being used. Results can help the
company decide whether to market new formula or not.
 In engineering, it can be used to test properties of various materials.
Example: A quality controller can use statistics to estimate the average lifetime of the
products produced by their current equipment.

FIELDS OF STATISTICS
a. Statistical Methods of Applied Statistics – refers to procedures and techniques used in the
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.
 Descriptive statistics
- methods concerned with the collection, description and analysis of a set of data without
drawing conclusions or inferences about a larger set.
- the main concern is simply describe the set of data.
 Inferential Statistics
- methods concerned with making predictions or inferences about a larger set of data
using only the information gathered from a subset of this larger set.
- the main is not merely to describe but actually predict and make inferences based on
the information gathered.
b. Statistical Theory of Mathematical Statistics – deals with the development and exposition of
theories that serve as bases of statistical methods.

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 Descriptive Statistics vs. Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Inferential
 A bowler wants to estimate his chance of
 A bowler wants to find his bowling average for
winning a game based on his current season
the past 12 games.
averages and the averages of his opponents.
 A housewife would like to predict based on
 A housewife wants to determine the average
the last year’s grocery bills, the average
weekly amount she spent on the groceries in
weekly amount she will spend on groceries for
the past 3 months.
this year.
 A politician would like to estimate, based on
 A politician wants to know the exact number
an opinion poll, his chance for winning the
of votes he received in the last election.
upcoming election.

ACTIVITY #01 - __________

In each statement tell whether Descriptive or Inferential statistics have been used.

1. Yesterday’s attendance shows that five (5) employees were absent due to dengue fever.
2. If the present trends continues, architects will construct more contemporary homes than
colonials in the next 5 years.
3. In certain cities, arsonists deliberately set 3% of all fires reported last year.
4. At least 30% of all new homes being built today are of a contemporary design.
5. Based from the present sales trend, it is expected that after two years sales will be doubled.

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

 A population is a collection of all the elements under consideration in a statistical study.
 A sample is a part or subset of the population from which the information is collected.

Example: A manufacturer of a kerosene heater wants to determine if customers are satisfied with the
performance of their heaters. Toward this goal, 5,000 of his 200,000 customers are contacted
and each is asked, “Are you satisfied with the performance of the kerosene heater you
purchased?” Identify the population and the sample for this situation.

 A parameter is numerical characteristic of a population.

 A statistic is a numerical characteristic of the sample.

Example: In order to estimate the true proportion of students at a certain college who smoke cigarettes,
the administration polled a sample of 200 students and determined that the proportion of the
students from the sample who smoke cigarettes is 0.12. Identify the parameter and statistic.

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ACTIVITY 2 - __________
A. Identify the population and sample.
1. A survey of 1,353 American households found that 18% of the households own a computer.
Population: _______________________________________________________________________

Sample: __________________________________________________________________________

2. A recent survey of 2,625 elementary school children found that 28% of the children could be
classified obese.
Population: _______________________________________________________________________

Sample: __________________________________________________________________________

3. The average weight of every sixth person entering the mall within 3 hours period was 146 lb.
Population: _______________________________________________________________________

Sample: __________________________________________________________________________

B. Determine whether the numerical value is a parameter or a statistic.

1. A recent survey by the alumni of a major university indicated that the average salary of 10,000 of
its 300,000 graduates was 125,000.

2. The average salary of all assembly-line employees at a certain car manufacturer is $33,000.

3. The average late fee for 360 credit card holders was found to be $56.75.

SLOVIN’S FORMULA
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
Where:
n = sample size
N = population size
e = margin of error (0.05 or 0.01)

Example:
1. Solve for the sample size of 350 patients from Cavite Medical Center.

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 2. Solve for the sample size of 4,565 students of CvSU – Rosario.

Activity #3: _______________

Solve for the sample size of the following using Slovin’s formula:
1. 6,666

2. 12,345

3. 1000

4. 1203

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 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS (STAT 1)
CHAPTER 2: Collection and Presentation of Data

PRELIMINARIES
Steps in Statistical Inquiry
1. Define the problem.
2. Formulate the research design.
3. Collect data.
4. Code and analyzed the collected data.
5. Interpret the results.

VARIABLE AND MEASUREMENT

 A variable is a characteristic or attribute of persons or objects which can assume different values or
labels for different persons or objects under consideration.
 Measurement is the process of determining the value or label of a particular variable for a particular
experimental unit.
 An experimental unit is the individual or object on which a variable is measured.

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLE
1. Discrete vs. Continuous
Discrete – a variable which can assume finite number of values; usually measured by counting or
enumeration.
Continuous – a variable which can assume infinitely many values corresponding to a line number.

2. Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Qualitative – a variable that yields a categorical response.
Example: Occupation, Marital Status
Quantitative – a variable that takes on numerical values representing an amount or quantity.
Example: Weight, Height, Age, Number of cars

Example:
a. The dean of a certain college would like to determine the average weekly allowance of BS
Education students.

Population: _______________________________________________________
Variable: _________________________________________________________
Type of Variable: ___________________________________________________

b. The CvSU – CCC Admissions Office would like to conduct a survey on the preferred courses of
4th year high school students in Cavite.

Population: _______________________________________________________
Variable: _________________________________________________________
Type of Variable: ___________________________________________________

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LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal Level – the nominal level or classificatory scale is the weakest level of measurement where
numbers or symbols are used simply for categorizing subjects into different groups.
Examples: Sex: M-Male F-Female
Marital Status: 1-Single 2-Married 3-Widowed 4-Separated
2. Ordinal Level – the ordinal level of measurement contains the properties of the nominal level, and in
addition, the numbers assigned to categories of any variables may be ranked or ordered
in some low-to-high manner.
Examples: Teaching Ratings 1-poor 2-fair 3-good 4-excellent
Year Level 1-1st year 2-2nd year 3-3rd year 4-4th year
3. Interval Level – the interval level is that which the distances between any two numbers on the scale
are of known sizes.
Example: IQ level, Temperature
4. Ratio Level – the ratio level of measurement contains all the properties of the interval level, and in
addition, it has a “true zero” point.
Example: Number of correct answers in exam.

ACTIVITY 4: __________

A. Identify each item as discrete or continuous.

_______________1.Student enrolment in Cavite State University – Cavite City Campus
_______________2.Weight of the students
_______________3.Student number
_______________4.Amount of time spent surfing the internet per week.
_______________5.Number of persons in a family

B. Determine whether the data are qualitative or quantitative.

_______________1. The colors of automobiles on a used car lot.
_______________2. The numbers on the shirts of a girl’s soccer team.
_______________3. The seats in a movie theater.
_______________4. A list of house numbers on your street.
_______________5. The ages of a sample of 350 employees of a large hospital.

C. Identify the data set’s level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).
_______________1. Hair color of women on a high school tennis team.
_______________2. Number of milligrams of tar in 28 cigarettes.
_______________3. Temperatures of 22 selected refrigerators.
_______________4. The ratings of a movie raging from “poor” to “good’ to “excellent”.
_______________5. List of zip codes for Chicago.

D. Identify the population, variable of interest, and type of variable of the following:
1. From all students registered this semester, the Mathematics Department would like to know how
many students like mathematics.
Population: _________________________________________________________________________
Variable: ___________________________________________________________________________
Type of Variable: ____________________________________________________________________

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 2. A study to be conducted by an NGO would determine the Filipinos’ awareness about the war against
IRAQ.
Population: _________________________________________________________________________
Variable: ___________________________________________________________________________
Type of Variable: ____________________________________________________________________

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
1. Primary vs. Secondary
a. Primary Source – data measured by the researcher/agency that published it.
b. Secondary Source – any republication of data by another agency.
Example: The publication of the National Statistics Office (NSO) is primary sources and all
subsequent publications of other agencies are secondary sources.
2. External vs. Internal
a. Internal Data – information that relates to the operations and functions of the organization
collecting the data.
b. External Data – information that relates to some activity outside the organization collecting the
data.
Example: The sales data of SM is internal data for SM but external data for any other organization
such as Robinson’s.
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Data Collection Methods
1. Survey method – questions are asked to obtain information, either through self-administered
questionnaire or personal interview.

Self-administered Questionnaire Personal Interview

 It can be administered to a large number of
people simultaneously.
 Respondents may feel free to express views
and are less pressured to answer immediately.
 It is more appropriate for obtaining objective
information.
 It is administered to a person or group one at
a time.
 Respondents may feel more cautious
particularly in answering sensitive questions
for fear of disapproval.
 It is more appropriate for obtaining about
complex emotionally-laden topics or probing
sentiments underlying an expressed opinion.

2. Observation method – makes possible the recording of behavior but only at the time of occurrence.
3. Experimental method – a method designed for collecting data under controlled conditions. An
experiment is an operation where there is actual human interference with the conditions than
can affect the variable under study.
4. Use of existing studies – e.g., census, health statistics, and weather bureau reports.
Two type:
 Documentary sources – published or written reports, periodicals, unpublished documents, etc.
 Field sources – researchers who have done studies on the area of interest are asked personally
or directly for information needed.
5. Registration method – e.g., car registration, student registration and hospital admission.

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ACTIVITY 5 - __________

A. Cross out the column that defines the statement, whether it is a self-administered questionnaires or
personal interview.

Self-Administered Personal
Questionnaires Interview
1. It is more appropriate in obtaining objective information
2. lower response rate
3. higher response rate
4. Respondents may feel cautious particularly in answering
sensitive question
5. It is administered to a person or group one at a time
6. The respondents may feel free to express views and opinions
7. Obtained information is limited
8. Vague responses are minimized
9. It is appropriate in obtaining emotional responses or opinion
10. It can be administered to a large number of people
simultaneously

B. Identify which data collection method is best used on the following statements:

_______1. Tracer Study on BSBM graduates of CvSU – CCC from 2011-2016

_______2. The role of Brgy Officials in maintaining peace and order in the community.
_______3. The effects of entertainment media to the academic performance of senior high school
students.
_______4. Grading the demonstration teaching of pre-service teachers at CNHS
_______5. Testing the new vaccine for Parvo virus on puppies.

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GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF COLLECTING DATA
 Census of complete enumeration is the process of gathering information from every unit in the
population.
- not always possible to get timely, accurate and economical data
- costly, especially of the number of units in the population is too large
 Survey sampling is the process of obtaining information from the units in the selected sample.

PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 A sampling procedure that gives every element of the population a nonzero chance of being selected in
the sample is called probability sampling. Otherwise, the sampling procedure is called non-probability
sampling.
 The target population is the population from which information is desired.
 The sampled population is the collection of elements from which the sample is actually taken.
 The population frame is a listing of all individual units in the population.

METHODS OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Purposive sampling – sets out to make a sample agree with the profile of the population based on
some pre-selected characteristic.
2. Quota sampling – selects a specified number (quota) of sampling units possessing certain
characteristics.
3. Convenience sampling – selects sampling units that come to hand or are convenient to get information
from.
4. Judgment sampling – selects sample in accordance with an expert’s judgment.

METHODS OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Simple random sampling – is a method of selecting n units out of the N units in the population in such
a way that every distinct sample of size n has an equal chance of being drawn.
2. Stratified random sampling – the population of N units is first divided into subpopulations called
strata. Then a simple random sample is drawn from each stratum, the selection being made
independently in different strata.
3. Systematic sampling – is a method of selecting a sample by taking every kth unit from an ordered
population, the first unit being selected at random.
4. Cluster sampling – is a method where a sample of distinct groups, or cluster, of elements is selected
and then a census of every element in the selected cluster is taken.
5. Multistage sampling – the population is divided into a hierarchy of sampling units corresponding to the
different sampling stages. In the first stage of sampling, the population is divided into primary
stage units (PSU) then a sample of PSUs is drawn. In the second-stage units (SSU) then a sample
of SSUs is drawn.
6. Sequential sampling – units are drawn one by one in a sequence without prior fixing of the total
number of observations and the results of the drawing at any stage are used to decide whether
to terminate sampling or not.

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ACTIVITY 6 - __________

Identify the sampling technique used (random, cluster, stratified, convenience, systematic).
_______________1. Every fifth person boarding a plane is searched thoroughly.
_______________2. At a local community College, five math classes are randomly selected out of 20 and all
of the students from each class are interviewed.
_______________3. A researcher randomly selects and interviews fifty male and fifty female teachers.
_______________4. Based on 12,500 responses from 42,000 surveys sent to its alumni, a major university
estimated that the annual salary of its alumni was 92,500.
_______________5. A community college student interviews everyone in a biology class to determine the
percentage of students that own a car.

TABULAR AND GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

Textual Presentation – data incorporated to a paragraph of text.

Advantages Disadvantages
 When a large mass of quantitative data are
 It gives emphasis to significant figures and included in a text or paragraph, the
comparisons. presentation becomes almost
incomprehensible.
 It is simplest and most appropriate approach  Paragraphs can be tiresome to read especially
when there are only a few numbers to be if the same words are repeated so many
presented. times.

Tabular Presentation – the systematic organization of data in rows and columns.

Advantages
 More concise than textual presentation
 Easier to understand
 Facilitates comparisons and analysis of relationship among different categories
 presents data in greater detail than a graph

Parts of a Formal Statistical Table

1. Heading – consist of a table number, title, and a head note.
2. Box Head –the portion of the table that contains the column heads which describe the data in each
column.
3. Stub – The portion of the table usually comprising the first column on the left. The row caption is a
descriptive title of the data on the given line.
4. Field – main part of the table; contains the substance or the figures of one’s data.
5. Source note – an exact citation of the source of data presented in the table (should always be placed
when the figures are not original).
6. Foot note – any statement or note inserted at the bottom of the table.

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 Table 4.4 – CRIME VOLUME AND RATE BY TYPE: 1991 – 1993
heading
(Rate per 100,000 populations)

1991 1992 1993

Type Crime Crime Crime boxhead
Volume Volume Volume
Rate Rate Rate

Total 121,326 195 104,719 164 96,686 148

Index Crimes 77,261 124 67,354 106 58,684 90

stub Murder 8,707 14 8,293 13 7,758 12
Homicide 8,069 13 7,912 12 7,123 11
Physical Injury 29,862 35 20,462 32 18,722 29 field
Robbery 13,817 22 11,164 18 9,856 15
Theft 22,780 37 17,374 27 12,940 20
Rape 2,026 3 2,149 3 2,285 4

Nonindex crimes 44,065 71 37,365 59 38002 58

Source: Philippine National Police

Graphical Presentation – a graph or chart is a device for showing numerical values or relationships in pictorial
form.
Advantages:
 Main features and implications of a body of data can be grasped at a glance.
 Can attract attention and hold the reader’s interest.
 Simplifies concepts that would otherwise have been expressed in so many words.
 Can readily clarify data; frequently bring hidden facts and relationships.

Quality of a Good Graph

1. Accuracy
2. Clarity
3. Simplicity
4. Appearance

Common Types of Graph

1. Line chart – graphical presentation of data especially useful for showing trends over a period of time.
2. Pie chart – a circular graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is distributed among a group
of categories.
3. Bar chart – consist of a series of rectangular bars where the length of the bar represents the quantity
or frequency for each category if the bars are arranged horizontally. If the bars are arranged
vertically, the height of the bar represents the quantity.
4. Pictorial unit chart – a pictorial chart in which each symbol represents a definite and uniform value.

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ACTIVITY 7 - __________

Construct a graphical presentation of the given data below.

1. Show a pie chart presentation of the preferred types of transportation by the commuters. Find
the percentage of each type.
Type No. of Commuters Percent Degrees
Bus 450 102°
FX Taxi 225 51°
Jeepney 800 181°
Metered Taxi 110 25°
Total 1,585 360°

2. Construct a bar graph presentation of the monthly sales of a medical representative for a
period of six months.
Month Sales (in thousand pesos)
January 120
February 89
March 94
April 125
May 75
June 100

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 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS (STAT 1)
CHAPTER 3: Frequency Distribution

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

 The raw data is the set of data in its original form.
Example: Final grades of Stat 101 students.

82 82 83 72 79 71 84 59 77 50 87
83 82 63 75 50 85 76 79 68 69 62
79 69 74 53 73 71 50 76 57 81 62
72 88 84 80 68 50 74 84 71 73 68
71 80 72 60 81 89 94 80 84 81 50
84 76 75 82 76 53 91 69 60 89 79
59 62 79 82 72 81 60 84 68 66 94
77 78 87 75 86 82 74 73 72 84 51
50 69 75 70 77 87 86 77 75 96 66
87 73 84 68 85 62 87 92 69 52 65
 An array is an arrangement of observations according to their magnitude, either in increasing or
decreasing order.
Example: Final grades of Stat 101 students arrange in array.

50 50 50 50 50 50 51 52 53 53 57
59 59 60 60 60 62 62 62 62 63 65
66 66 68 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 69
69 70 71 71 71 71 72 72 72 72 72
73 73 73 73 74 74 74 75 75 75 75
75 76 76 76 76 77 77 77 77 78 79
79 79 79 79 80 80 80 81 81 81 81
82 82 82 82 82 82 83 83 84 84 84
84 84 84 84 85 85 86 86 87 87 87
87 87 87 88 89 89 91 92 94 94 96
Advantage:
1. easier to detect the smallest and largest value
2. easier to find the measure of position
 In the construction of a frequency distribution, the various items of a series are classified into groups.
The frequency distribution table shows the number of items falling into each group.

PARTS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

1. Classes – these are mutually exclusive categories defining the lower limit and upperlimit with equal
intervals.
2. Class frequency – the number of observation falling in the class
3. Class interval – the numbers defining the class
4. Class limits – the end numbers of the class
5. Class boundaries – the true class limits; lower class boundary (LCB) is usually defined as halfway
between the lower class limit of the class and the upper class limit of the preceding class while
the upper class boundary (UCB) is usually defined as the halfway between the upper class limit
of the class and the lower limit of the next class.
6. Class size – the difference between the upper class boundaries of the class and the preceding class
Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 13
 7. Class mark – midpoint of a class interval

Example:
Class Frequency LCB UCB CM
50 – 54 10 49.5 55.5 52.5
56 – 61 6 55.5 61.5 58.5
62 – 67 8 61.5 67.5 64.5
68 – 73 24 67.5 73.5 70.5
74 – 79 22 73.5 79.5 76.5

Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution Table

1. Determine the number of classes using the Sturge’s formula.
Sturge’s Formula : 𝐾 = 1 + 3.322 log 𝑛
Where: 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Example: 𝐾 = 1 + 3.322 𝑙𝑜𝑔110 = 7.78 𝑜𝑟 8

2. Determine the approximate class size.

 solve for the range, 𝑅 = max − 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
 compute for 𝐶 = 𝑅 ÷ 𝐾
Example: 𝑅 = 96 − 56 = 40
𝐶 = 40 ÷ 8 = 5

3. Determine the lowest class limit. The first class must include the smallest value in the data set.
4. Determine all the class limits by adding the class size to the limit of the previous class.
5. Tally the frequencies for each class. Sum the frequencies and check against the total number of
observations.
6. Determine the lower class boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from the lower limits.
7. Determine the upper class boundaries by adding 0.5 to the upper limits.
8. Determine the class mark by getting the average of the lower and upper limits.

VARIATIONS OF THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

1. Relative Frequency (RF) Distribution and Relative Frequency Percentage (RFP)
RF = Class Frequency ÷ No. of observation
RFP = RF x 100%
2. Cumulative Frequency Distribution (CFD) – shows the accumulated frequencies of successive
classes, beginning at either end of the distribution.
Greater than CFD – shows the no. of observations greater than the LCB
Less than CFD – shows the no. of observations less than the UCB
Class Frequency LCB UCB CM <CFD >CFD RF RFP

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ACTIVITY 8 - __________

Construct a Frequency Distribution Table (FDT) for the following data.

1. Below is a list of the scores of 43 students in a 40-point prelim examination in statistics subject.
26 24 19 12 18 14 28 22 39 18 30
24 23 32 23 24 35 15 12 18 15 36
12 26 24 12 26 19 22 18 36 21 27
22 19 26 16 21 15 22 21 20 17

K: Range: Class size:

Class Frequency LCB UCB CM <CF >CF RF RFP

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GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

1. Frequency Histogram – a bar graph that displays the classes on the horizontal axis and the frequencies
of the classes on the vertical axis; the vertical lines of the bars are erected at the class boundaries and
the height of the bars correspond to the class frequency.

2. Frequency Polygon – a line chart that is constructed by plotting the frequencies at the class marks and
connecting the plotted points by means of straight lines; the polygon is closed by considering an
additional class at each end and the ends of the lines are brought down to the horizontal axis at the
midpoints of the additional.

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 3. Ogives – graphs of the cumulative frequency distribution
a. < ogive – the <CF is plotted against the UCB
b. > ogive – the >CF is plotted against the LCB

ACTIVITY 9 - __________

Sketch the graph of the FDT on SW#07.

1. Frequency histogram

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 17

2. Frequency Polygon

3. Ogives

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 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS (STAT 1)
CHAPTER 4: Measures of Central Tendency

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY: UNGROUPED DATA

 It is any single value that is used to identify the “center” or the typical value of a data set. It is often
referred to as the averages.
a. Mean – this is obtained by summing up all the observations and divided by the sum by the number of
observations. We call this the simple mean.
∑𝑥
Formula: 𝑥̅ = 𝑛
Where: 𝑥̅ = mean
𝑥 = value of the particular item
𝑛 = number of items in the sample
Example:
A sample of 10 students was taken and was asked how much time they travel from their respective
places of residences to the school. The results are listed below. Compute the mean.
Student Travel time
A 30 min
B 15
C 35
D 20
E 25
F 45
G 10
H 25
I 30
J 15
Solution:

∑𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝑛
30+15+35+20+25+45+10+25+30+15
= 10

= 25𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠

Weighted Mean – this is used when several observations have similar values.

∑ 𝑤𝑥
Formula: 𝑥̅𝑤 = ∑𝑤

Where: 𝑥̅ = mean
𝑥 = value of the particular item
𝑤 = weight or number of observations of the same values
∑𝑤 = sum of the weights

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 19

 Example:
XYZ Construction firm has 10 workers who are paid P350 per day, 5 workers who are paid P455 per day
and 2 workers who are paid P600 per day. What is the weighted daily wage of the 17 workers?

∑ 𝑤𝑥
Solution: 𝑥̅𝑤 = ∑𝑤
10(350)+5(455)+2(600)
= 17
= 𝑃410.29

The weighted mean is also used to compute the weighted average rating of the students in his subjects
with different number of units.
Rating of students in Four Subjects
Subjects Number of Units Rating
Bar Management 6 90%
Statistics 3 85%
Physical Education 2 87%
Personality Development 1 95%

∑ 𝑤𝑥
Solution: 𝑥̅𝑤 = ∑𝑤
6(90)+3(85)+2(87)+1(95)
= 12
= 88.67%

b. Median – It is the middle value after arranging the set of observations into ascending or descending order.
If the number of observation is odd number, the median is the middle value and if the number of
observation is even number, the median is the average of the two middle values or observations.
Formula:
ODD EVEN
𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛
(2) + (2 + 1)
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 =
2 2
Example:
1. A sample of 10 students was taken and was asked how much time they travel from their respective
places of residences to the school. The results are listed below. Compute the mean.

Student Travel time

A 30 min
B 15
C 35
D 20
E 25
F 45
G 10
H 25
I 30
J 15

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 20

 Solution: Arrange the set of the observations according to its magnitude.
10 15 15 20 25 25 30 30 35 45
𝑛 𝑛
( )+( +1)
2 2
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 2
𝑛 10
(2) = = 5 → 5th observation is 25
2
𝑛 10
(2) + 1 = + 1 = 6 → 6th observation is 25
2
𝑛 𝑛
( )+( +1) 25+25
2 2
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = = = 25
2 2
2. Find the median for the following set of scores
3 8 6 7 9 9 3 3 10
Solution: Arrange the set of the observations according to its magnitude.
3 3 3 6 7 8 9 9 10
𝑛+1 9+1
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 2 = 2 = 5 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 5𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 7.

c. Mode – it is the observation that appears most often. Mode is the least preferred measure of central
location.
Example: Find the mode
Observations Mode
3 8 6 7 9 9 3 3 10 3 - unimodal
10 15 15 20 25 25 30 35 45 15 & 25 - bimodal
10 15 15 20 25 25 30 30 35 45 15, 25 & 30 - trimodal
3 8 6 6 7 7 9 9 3 6 3 10 7 9 3, 6, 7, & 9 - multimodal

ACTIVITY 10 - __________

Answer the following questions with solutions:

1. The owner of a newly opened Internet café recorded the number of customers who are coming in
to his Internet café. Below is a tabulation of the number of customers for 10 days.
Days No. of Customers
1 st 8
2 nd 5
3rd 9
4 th 12
5 th 12
6 th 10
7 th 15
8th 15
9 th 15
10 th 14
Calculate the mean, median and mode.

2. A computer shop was able to sell the following unit of laptop for the month of July: two Dell
laptops @ P89, 900 each; 3 Samsung laptops @ P45, 000 each; 2 Toshiba laptops @ P26, 000 each;
3 Acer laptops @ P65, 000 each. Find the average sale for that month.

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 21

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY: GROUPED DATA
a. Mean
∑ 𝑓𝑥
Formula: 𝑥̅ = 𝑛
Where: 𝑥̅ = mean
𝑓 = frequency
𝑥 = value of the particular item
𝑛 = number of observation

Example:
Final grades of Stat 110 students arrange in array. Solve for the mean.
50 50 50 50 50 50 51 52 53 53 57
59 59 60 60 60 62 62 62 62 63 65
66 66 68 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 69
69 70 71 71 71 71 72 72 72 72 72
73 73 73 73 74 74 74 75 75 75 75
75 76 76 76 76 77 77 77 77 78 79
79 79 79 79 80 80 80 81 81 81 81
82 82 82 82 82 82 83 83 84 84 84
84 84 84 84 85 85 86 86 87 87 87
87 87 87 88 89 89 91 92 94 94 96

Solution:
𝐾 = 1 + 3.322 𝑙𝑜𝑔110 = 7.78 𝑜𝑟 8 𝑅 = 96 − 50 = 40 𝐶 = 46 ÷ 8 = 6
Class Frequency CM (x) fx ∑ 𝑓𝑥
50 – 55 10 52.5 525
𝑥̅ = 𝑛
56 – 61 6 58.5 351
62 – 67 8 64.5 516 8175
=
68 – 73 25 70.5 1,762.5 110
74 – 79 22 76.5 1,683
80 – 85 23 82.5 1,897.5 = 74.32
86 – 91 12 88.5 1,062
92 – 97 4 94.5 378
N= 110 fx = 8,175

b. Median
𝑛
( 2 −<𝑐𝑓𝑝 )
Formula: 𝑥̃ = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑑 + [ 𝑓𝑚𝑑
]𝑖
Where: 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑑 = lower class boundary of the median class
𝑛 = number of observations
< 𝑐𝑓𝑝 = sum of the frequencies before the median class
𝑓𝑚𝑑 = frequency of the median class
𝑖 = class interval/size

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 22

 Example:
Final grades of Stat 101 students arrange in array. Solve for the median.
Class Frequency LCB <cf
50 – 55 10 49.5 10
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24
68 – 73 25 67.5 49
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

Solution:
1. Determine the median class by dividing the total number of observations by 2.
𝑛 110
= 2 = 55
2

2. Go over the entries in the less than cumulative frequency column. The class that immediately has a
sum of frequencies greater than the result of step 1 is the median class.
𝑛
( 2 −<𝑐𝑓𝑝 )
Class Frequency LCB <cf
𝑥̃ = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚𝑑 + [ ]𝑖
50 – 55 10 49.5 10 𝑓𝑚𝑑
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24 110
( −49)
68 – 73 25 67.5 49 𝑥̃ = 73.5 + [ 2
]6
22
74 – 79 22 73.5 71 Median class
80 – 85 23 79.5 94
86 – 91 12 85.5 106 𝑥̃ = 75.14
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

d. Mode
𝑓𝑚 −𝑑1
Formula: 𝑥̂ = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚 + (2𝑓 )𝑖
𝑚− 𝑑1 −𝑑2
Where: 𝑥̂ = Mode
𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑚 = LCB of the modal class
𝑓𝑚 = Frequency of the modal class
𝑑1 = difference between the frequency of the modal
class and the frequency before the modal class
𝑑2 = difference between the frequency of the modal
class and the frequency preceding the modal class

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 23

 Example:
Final grades of Stat 101 students arrange in array. Solve for the median.
Class Frequency LCB <cf
50 – 55 10 49.5 10
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24
68 – 73 25 67.5 49
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110
Solution:
1. Determine the modal class by identifying the class that contains the highest frequency or
observation.
Class Frequency LCB <cf 𝑓𝑚− 𝑑1
50 – 55 10 49.5 10
𝑥̂ = 𝐿𝐶𝐵 𝑚 + ( 2𝑓𝑚 −𝑑1 −𝑑2
)𝑖
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24 25−17
𝑥̂ = 67.5 + (2(25)−17−3) 6
68 – 73 25 67.5 49 Modal class
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94 𝑥̂ = 69.10
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

ACTIVITY 11 - __________

Complete the Frequency Distribution Table to find the mean, median and mode of the data set given:
Class F CM (x) fx LCB <CF
10-19 3
20-29 1
30-39 3
40-49 2
50-59 9
60-69 8
70-79 35
80-89 30
90-99 9

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 24

MEASURES OF LOCATION: UNGROUPED DATA
 These are values below which a specified fraction or percentage of the observations in a given set must
fall.
 Measures of location are the quartiles, deciles and percentiles.
 Quartiles divide the set of observation into 4 equal parts, Deciles into 10 and percentiles into 100
divisions. At some points, the three measures are equal as illustrated below

Percentile (P) …10 …20 …25 …30 …40 …50 …60 …70 …75 …80 …90 …100
Decile (D) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Quartile (Q) 1 2 3 4

𝑖(𝑛+1)
a. Percentile – to compute for the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ percentile: 𝑃𝑖 = is the value of the [ ] 𝑡ℎ observation in the array.
100
Where: 𝑃𝑖 = Percentile location
𝑖 = Percentile of interest
𝑛 = number of observation

The following guidelines will help us identify the quantile location:

1. If Pi is a whole number, the percentile location is the Pth in the ordered set of observations.
2. If Pi is not a whole number, the percentile location is between the P th and (P+1)th , by taking the
difference between the Pth and (P+1)th location and multiply the result by the decimal portion of P i.

Example:
Below is the list of the daily wages of 20 workers of XYZ Construction Company. Compute for P 87.
200 200 265 285 290 300 300 315 330 350
375 450 450 500 550 550 600 615 630 650
Solution:
𝑖(𝑛+1)
𝑃𝑖 = [ ] 𝑃87 = 615 + 0.27(630 − 615)
100
87(20+1)
𝑃87 = [ 100 ] 𝑃87 = 619.05 𝑜𝑟 619
𝑃87 = 18.27𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑖(𝑛+1)
b. Decile – to compute for the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ decile: 𝐷𝑖 = is the value of the [ 10 ] 𝑡ℎ observation in the array.
Where: 𝐷𝑖 = Decile location
𝑖 = Decile of interest
𝑛 = number of observation
Example:
Below is the list of the daily wages of 20 workers of XYZ Construction Company. Compute for D 7.
200 200 265 285 290 300 300 315 330 350
375 450 450 500 550 550 600 615 630 650
Solution:
𝑖(𝑛+1)
𝐷𝑖 = [ ] 𝐷7 = 500 + 0.7(550 − 500)
10
7(20+1)
𝐷7 = [ 10 ] 𝐷7 = 535
𝐷7 = 14.70𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 25

 𝑖(𝑛+1)
c. Quartile – to compute for the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ quartile: 𝑄𝑖 = is the value of the [ ] 𝑡ℎ observation in the array.
4
Where: 𝑄𝑖 = quartile location
𝑖 = quartile of interest
𝑛 = number of observation
Example:
Below is the list of the daily wages of 20 workers of XYZ Construction Company. Compute for Q 3.
200 200 265 285 290 300 300 315 330 350
375 450 450 500 550 550 600 615 630 650
Solution:
𝑖(𝑛+1)
𝑄𝑖 = [ ] 𝑄3 = 550 + 0.75(550 − 550)
4
3(20+1)
𝑄3 = [ 4 ] 𝑄3 = 550
𝑄3 = 15.75𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ACTIVITY 12 - __________

Answer the following questions with solutions:

The owner of a newly opened Internet café recorded the number of customers who are coming in
to his Internet café. Below is a tabulation of the number of customers for 10 days.
Days No. of Customers
1 st 8
2 nd 5
3rd 9
4 th 12
5 th 12
6 th 10
7 th 15
8th 15
9 th 15
10 th 14
Calculate the following:
Q1 D8

Q3 P45

D3 P89

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 26

MEASURES OF LOCATION: GROUPED DATA

a. Quartiles – the formula for quartiles will be patterned from the median formula.
𝑘𝑛
( −<𝑐𝑓𝑝 )
Formula: 𝑄𝑘 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑄𝑘 + [ 4𝑓 ]𝑖
𝑄𝑘
Where: 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑄𝑘 = lower class boundary of the quartile class
𝑛 = number of observations
< 𝑐𝑓𝑝 = sum of the frequencies before the quartile class
𝑓𝑄𝑘 = frequency of the quartile class
𝑖 = class interval/size
Example:
Final grades of Stat 101 students arrange in array. Solve for the Q1.
Class Frequency LCB <cf
50 – 55 10 49.5 10
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24
68 – 73 25 67.5 49
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

Solution:
1. Determine the Quartile class by dividing the number of observation by 4.
𝑛 110
= = 27.5
4 4
2. Go over the entries in the less than cumulative frequency column. The class that has a sum of
𝑛
frequencies greater than the 4 is the quartile 1 class.
𝑛
Class Frequency LCB <cf ( −<𝑐𝑓𝑝 )
4
𝑄1 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑄1 + [ ]𝑖
50 – 55 10 49.5 10 𝑓 𝑄𝑘
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
110
62 – 67 8 61.5 24 (
4
−24)
68 – 73 25 67.5 49 𝑄1 = 67.5 + [ ]6
25
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94 𝑄1 = 68.34
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 27

b. Deciles
𝑘𝑛
( 10 −<𝑐𝑓𝑝 )
Formula: 𝐷𝑘 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝐷𝑘 + [ 𝑓𝐷𝑘
]𝑖
Where: 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝐷𝑘 = lower class boundary of the deciles class
𝑛 = number of observations
< 𝑐𝑓𝑝 = sum of the frequencies before the deciles class
𝑓𝐷𝑘 = frequency of the quartile class
𝑖 = class interval/size
Example:
Final grades of Stat 101 students arrange in array. Solve for the D8.
Class Frequency LCB <cf
50 – 55 10 49.5 10
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24
68 – 73 25 67.5 49
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

Solution:
1. Determine the Deciles class by dividing the number of observation by 10.
𝑘𝑛 8 ∗ 110
= =
10 10
2. Go over the entries in the less than cumulative frequency column. The class that has a sum of
𝑛
frequencies greater than the 10 is the deciles 8 class.
𝑘𝑛
Class Frequency LCB <cf (
10
−<𝑐𝑓𝑝 )
𝐷8 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝐷8 + [ ]𝑖
50 – 55 10 49.5 10 𝑓𝐷𝑘
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24
68 – 73 25 67.5 49
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 28

c. Percentile
𝑘𝑛
(100−<𝑐𝑓𝑝 )
Formula: 𝑃𝑘 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑃𝑘 + [ 𝑓𝑃𝑘
]𝑖
Where: 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑃𝑘 = lower class boundary of the percentile class
𝑛 = number of observations
< 𝑐𝑓𝑝 = sum of the frequencies before the percentile class
𝑓𝑃𝑘 = frequency of the percentile class
𝑖 = class interval/size
Example:
Final grades of Stat 101 students arrange in array. Solve for the P57.
Class Frequency LCB <cf
50 – 55 10 49.5 10
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24
68 – 73 25 67.5 49
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

Solution:
1. Determine the Percentile class by dividing the number of observation by 100.
𝑛 57 ∗ 110
= =
100 100
2. Go over the entries in the less than cumulative frequency column. The class that has a sum of
𝑛
frequencies greater than the 100 is the percentile 57 class.
𝑘𝑛
Class Frequency LCB <cf (
100
−<𝑐𝑓𝑝 )
𝑃57 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝑃57 + [ ]𝑖
50 – 55 10 49.5 10 𝑓 𝑃𝑘
56 – 61 6 55.5 16
62 – 67 8 61.5 24
68 – 73 25 67.5 49
74 – 79 22 73.5 71
80 – 85 23 79.5 94
86 – 91 12 85.5 106
92 – 97 4 91.5 110
N= 110

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 29

ACTIVITY 13 - __________

Complete the Frequency Distribution Table to find the Q3, D6 and P94 of the data set given:
Class F LCB <CF
10-19 3
20-29 1
30-39 3
40-49 2
50-59 9
60-69 8
70-79 35
80-89 30
90-99 9

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 30

 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS (STAT 1)
CHAPTER 5: Measures of Variability

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
 It indicates the extent to which individual items in a series are scattered about an average.
Some Uses for Measuring Dispersion:
 To determine the extent of the scatter so that steps may be taken to control the existing variation.
 Used as a measure of reliability of the average value
General Classifications of Measures of Dispersion:
1. Measures of Absolute Dispersion
2. Measures of Relative Dispersion

MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE DISPERSION: UNGROUPED DATA

 Expected in the units of the original observations.
 They cannot be used to compare variations of two data sets when the averages of these data sets
differ a lot in value or when the observations differ in units of measurement.

1. Range – it is the difference between the largest and smallest values.

Range = maximum – minimum
Example:
a. The IQ’s of 5 members of a certain family are 108,112,127,116 and 113. Find the range.
Range = maximum – minimum
Range = 127 -108 = 19
2. Mean Absolute Deviation or Average Deviation
∑ |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |
𝑀𝐷 =
𝑁
3. Standard Deviation – is the most frequently used measure of dispersion.
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Formula: 𝑠=√ 𝑛−1
Where: 𝑠 = sample standard deviation
𝑥 = observation
𝑥̅ = sample mean
𝑛 = number of observation
Steps in Calculating the Standard Deviation
1. Compute the mean
2. Compute the deviations by subtracting the mean from each of the observations
3. Square the deviations
4. Take the sum of the squared deviations
5. Divide the sum by N – 1
6. Take the square root of the sample variance

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 31

 Example:
Below is the list of the scores of two groups of students in a grammar quiz.
Group A Group B
13 10
14 10
15 15
16 18
19 18
20 19
25 26
30 36
Solution:
1. Compute the mean
∑𝑥 152 ∑𝑥 152
𝑥̅𝐴 = = = 19 𝑥̅𝐵 = = = 19
𝑛 8 𝑛 8
2. Compute the deviations by subtracting the mean from each of the observations, and then square
the deviations.
Group A 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 Group B 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
13 -6 36 10 -9 81
14 -7 49 10 -9 81
15 -4 16 15 -4 16
16 -3 9 18 -1 1
19 0 0 18 -1 1
20 1 1 19 0 0
25 6 36 26 7 49
30 11 121 36 17 289

3. Take the sum of the squared deviations, then divide the sum by N – 1, then take the square root of
the sample variance
∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 268 ∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 518
𝑠𝐴 = √ = √8−1 = 6.19 𝑠𝐵 = √ = √8−1 = 8.60
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

ACTIVITY 14 - __________

A pediatrician has clinic hours in two leading hospitals. His clinic schedule in Alabang is 10:00 to 12:00
pm, MWF. His clinic schedule in Makati is 2:00 to 4:00 pm, TTh. The logbook of his secretaries shows the
number of patients who visited him for the last two weeks.
Hospital in Alabang Hospital in Makati
4,800 4,200
4,200 3,600
4,200 3,600
3,000 3,000
2,400 4,800

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 32

MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE DISPERSION: GROUPED DATA
Mean Deviation
∑ 𝑓|𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |
𝑀𝐷 =
𝑁
Standard Deviation – is the most frequently used measure of dispersion.
∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
Formula: 𝑠=√ 𝑛−1
Where: 𝑠 = sample standard deviation
𝑓 = frequency
𝑥 = class mark
𝑥̅ = sample mean
𝑛 = number of observation
Steps in Calculating the Standard Deviation
1. Compute the mean
2. Compute the deviations by subtracting the mean from each of the class mark
3. Square the deviations
4. Multiply the squared deviations by its corresponding frequency
5. Take the sum of the product of the squared deviations and the frequency
6. Divide the sum by N – 1
7. Take the square root of the sample variance

Example:
Final grades of students in Stat 101 arranged in FDT. Solve for the Standard deviation.
Class Frequency CM (x) 𝑓𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
50 – 55 10
56 – 61 6
62 – 67 8
68 – 73 25
74 – 79 22
80 – 85 23
86 – 91 12
92 – 97 4
N= 110

∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 ∑ 𝑓|𝑥− 𝑥̅ |
𝑠=√ 𝑀𝐷 =
𝑛−1 𝑁

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 33

ACTIVITY 15 - __________

Complete the Frequency Distribution Table to find the standard deviation of the data set given:
Class F CM (x) 𝑓𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
10-19 3
20-29 1
30-39 3
40-49 2
50-59 9
60-69 8
70-79 35
80-89 30
90-99 9

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 34

 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS (STAT 1)
CHAPTER 6: Normal Distribution

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Properties of a Normal Distribution

a. The mean, median, and mode are all equal and are located at the center of the distribution.
b. The distribution is symmetric. The distribution depicts a bell-shaped curve where the left area is a
mirror image of the right area.
c. The total area under the normal curve is 1 or 100%.
d. The distribution is asymptotic.
e. The location of the distribution is determined by the mean and the standard deviation determines
dispersion of the distribution.

The graph below shows the graph of a normal distribution:

𝜇 − 3𝛿 𝜇 − 2𝛿 𝜇 − 1𝛿 𝜇 𝜇 + 1𝛿 𝜇 + 2𝛿 𝜇 + 3𝛿

The mean and the standard deviation determine the shape of the distribution. Below are illustrations
of normal distributions with different means and standard deviations.

 Normal distribution with equal means but differential standard deviations

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 35

  Normal Probability Distribution with equal standard deviations and different means.

 Normal Probability Distribution with different means and standard deviation.

As previously stated, there are infinite families of curves depending upon the standard deviation of the
distribution. This may suggest that we have to use different table corresponding to a particular mean and
standard deviation. Well, it is not. It is necessary that we need to standardize a given observation. the
standardized score may also be termed as Z-value, Z statistics, standard deviate, standard normal value or just
normal value. The formula is shown below.
𝑥−𝜇
𝑍=
𝜎
Where: 𝑧 = normal value
𝑥 = value of any particular observation
𝜇 = mean of the distribution
𝜎 = standard deviation of the distribution

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 36

The different rules presented by examples can be summarized as follows:

Z - values Rules
1. The z – values are positive and negative Add the areas of the corresponding Z – values.
2. Both Z – values are positive or both Z – Value In either case, subtract the smaller area from the
are negative bigger area
3. To the right of a positive z – value or to the left
Subtract the area from 0.5
of a negative z value
4. To the right of a negative z value or to the left
Add area to 0.5
of a positive z value

Examples:
Find the area under the normal distribution curve of the following z values:
1. 0 < z < 1.63

2. 0 > z > - 2.44

3. z < 2.44

4. z > - 1.63

5. z > 1.63

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 37

 6. z < -2.44

7. – 2.44 < z < –1.05

8. – 1.05 < z < 1.63

9.

ACTIVITY 15 - __________

Sketch the normal distribution of the given problem. Show your solutions.
A data set follows a normal distribution with a mean of 40 and a standard deviation of 4.75.
What is the area under the normal curve?
a. Between 34.06 and 46.08?
b. Between 28.6 and 35.11?
c. Greater than 49.5?
d. Less than 44.04?

Elementary Statistics – STAT 1 Page 38