Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044

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Construction and Building Materials

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System of inspection, diagnosis and repair of external claddings of pitched roofs

Nuno Garcez a,b, Nuno Lopes a,b, Jorge de Brito b,⇑, José Silvestre b
a
DECivil-IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
Aerodromes Engineering, Portuguese Air Force, Av. Leite de Vasconcelos, No. 4, 2614-506, Amadora, Portugal

h i g h l i g h t s

" Unprecedented expert-knowledge system on external claddings of pitched roofs.

" Classification of the pathology (anomalies and causes) of external claddings of pitched roofs.
" Classification of the use of diagnosis methods in external claddings of pitched roofs.
" Classification of the rehabilitation of external claddings of pitched roofs.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a system to support the inspection, diagnosis and repair of external claddings of
Received 10 March 2012 pitched roofs (ECoPiR). The aim of this system is to standardise and systematise the inspection of these
Received in revised form 9 May 2012 construction elements to aid the experts who perform this task. Classification systems of anomalies in
Accepted 4 June 2012
ECoPiR and their causes are proposed in this paper, along with the correlation matrices of anomalies-
Available online 15 July 2012
probable causes and inter-anomalies. A classification system of in situ non-destructive tests and the cor-
relation matrix between them and the anomalies are also presented to assist the diagnosis of anomalies
Keywords:
in ECoPiR and their causes.
Inspection system
External claddings
A set/series of approaches to carrying out repairs is proposed in this paper. They allow the maintenance
Pitched roofs and the restitution of the functional properties of ECoPiR.
Anomalies The information collected during the validation of the inspection system enabled individual files of
Causes anomalies, diagnosis methods and repair techniques to be built up.
Diagnosis The implementation of this system supports the inspection activities included in the predictive pro-
Repair active maintenance strategies of ECoPiR. The standardisation of these inspections will help improve
the efficiency and effectiveness of the actions put into practice when these claddings exhibit pathologic
phenomena.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
A 1982 analysis of 12,000 anomalies by the Institut Technique
du Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics in France led to the conclusion
that roofs present more pathological problems than most building
elements, only exceeded by the building envelope. A similar study
carried out more recently in Australia also concluded that roofs are
the second building element most affected, and where a higher
number of anomalies were observed [1].
The roof is the most vulnerable element of a building. It is ex-
posed to extreme and variable temperatures, solar radiation, rain
and snow, wind and biological agents. The consequences of an
anomaly in a small area of a roof are, in most situations, more seri-
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 21 8419709; fax: +351 21 8497650.
E-mail addresses: nfgarcez@emfa.pt (N. Garcez), nslopes@emfa.pt (N. Lopes),
jb@civil.ist.utl.pt (J.de Brito), jds@civil.ist.utl.pt (J. Silvestre).
ous than in other parts of a building. A roof’s cladding should guar-
antee its watertightness and be durable under the conditions it is
exposed to.
Anomalies in fixings, peripheral areas and ancillary coating
materials can occur long before the actual area of the cladding
deteriorates. The corrective actions in these spots can involve con-
siderable effort [2].
Roofs can be divided into flat roofs and pitched roofs and their
composition, materials and functioning are quite different and
therefore their service lives follows distinct paths. Both are sub-
jected to harsh environmental conditions but the mechanical ac-
tions they are subjected to differ significantly. Therefore, these
roofs must be analysed separately. This research has however fo-
cused solely on pitched roofs.
In general, pitched roofs are not inspected on a regular basis, de-
spite the fact that a simple visual inspection is easy. Small anoma-
lies may not cause immediate problems but failure to take

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.06.047
 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044 1035

Classification system

Anomalies Probable causes Diagnosis techniques Repair techniques

Anomaly files Diagnosis technique Repair technique

files files

Fig. 1. Classification system for ECoPiR inspection (adapted from Branco and de Brito [23]).

corrective action can result in water infiltration. This can lead to
problems in the roof’s structure and in other parts of the building,
not to mention damage to its contents.
Careful and systematic investigation into the defects in external
claddings of pitched roofs (ECoPiR) is essential. It should include
the design stage, to make any necessary adjustments to the project
(during or after construction) and the occupants’ accounts [2].
An expert-knowledge based inspection system is essential to
developing a good maintenance strategy for ECoPiR. One of its
main advantages is that it allows reducing scatter resulting from
the subjectivity associated to different judgement by different
inspectors. Another feature of the system is that it describes and
relates all events concerning EcoPiR’s service life: their potential
anomalies, the reasons behind them, the way they can be diag-
nosed and the measures that can be taken to eliminate the anom-
alies and their causes. Such a system is not intended to replace
rational judgement and the experience of expert inspectors and
therefore must be used with caution by inexperienced personnel.
However, no works specifically related to inspection systems for
ECoPiR have been found in refereed journals or conference pro-
ceedings. Therefore, possible anomalies and their causes must be
classified, along with diagnosis and repair methods, to provide
standardised conclusions and correct diagnoses.
The inspection system of ECoPiR proposed in this paper is
simultaneously innovative and scientifically validated in other
studies. It was created and validated in two Master’s Dissertations
in Civil Engineering, using the data collected from 207 standard-
ised inspections of ECoPiR and based on a method that has been
successfully used by the same research team on gypsum plaster-
board walls [3], gypsum plasters [4], ceramic tiling [5,6], wood
flooring [7], flat roof waterproofing systems [8] and industrial floor
coatings [9]. The types of ECoPiR selected for this study were those
most commonly found on buildings in Portugal: artificial stone
(micro-concrete and ceramic roof tiles, and fibre–cement roof
sheets), natural stone (slates), metal (steel, aluminium, zinc and
copper), plastics (PC, PVC, GRP and PPMA) and composite materials
(asphalt shingle and sandwich panels). The types of support struc-
About 40–50% of anomalies are caused by design errors and 25–
35% by execution errors [10].
The knowledge of ECoPiR pathology is piecemeal and not sys-
tematised [2,10–14]. The creation of a classification system which
concentrates this knowledge is fundamental to optimising the
inspection and diagnosis of the anomalies. This system enables
anomalies to be associated with their causes and effects.
2.1. Anomaly classification
A classification system of anomalies based on the literature re-
view is proposed. This system intends to standardise the designa-
tion and typing of anomalies and to systematise the knowledge
covered by this theme.
The unequivocal grouping of anomalies by type and visual as-
pect led to four groups, three of them divided into subgroups, total-
ling 19 main anomalies (Table 1). The alpha-numeric identification
of each anomaly enabled the creation of correlation matrices pre-
sented in this paper.
The A–C Condensations group includes one of the most critical
forms of manifestation of humidity that lead to anomalies in ECo-
PiR (Fig. 2).
The A–D Displacements/deformations group concentrates on
the anomalies related to the deformation of the cladding and
movements of its elements, which originate critical points of infil-
tration of rain water (Fig. 3).
The A–E Cladding degradation group includes the anomalies
related to ageing and degradation, aesthetic alterations, loss of
cohesion and wear of cladding and roof accessories (Fig. 4).
The A–O Design/execution group refers to design/execution er-
rors, such as roofs with too steep or too low slopes, defects in any
Table 1
Proposed classification of anomalies in ECoPiR.
A-C Condensation

tures analysed were metal, reinforced concrete and timber. A-D Displacements/deformations
The classification system (Fig. 1) includes all the anomalies A-D1 significant deformation of the cladding
A-D2 misalignment of cladding’s elements
identifiable in ECoPiR, along with their causes. The most appropri-
A-D3 loosening of the cladding’s elements
ate diagnosis methods of anomalies and their causes, and the rele-
A-E Cladding degradation
vant repair techniques, complete the system.
A-E1 debris accumulation
A-E2 corrosion
A-E3 spalling/peeling/exfoliation
2. Pathology A-E4 vegetation growth/biological colonisation
A-E5 colour unevenness/changes
ECoPiR anomalies are non-structural by nature and can take A-E6 disaggregation/oxidation (ageing)
various forms, depending on the nature of the materials, the con- A-E7 cracking/fracture

struction techniques used, their causes and when they occur. A-O Design/execution defects
Anomalies affecting EcoPiR may range from slight to very seri- A-O1 defects in the connections
A-O2 defects in tail-ends
ous. They should be eliminated in order to prevent damage not A-O3 lack or deterioration of sealants
only to the roof but to the whole construction. Successful elimina- A-O4 too little or too much overlap
tion is achieved via a thorough knowledge of the pathology and the A-O5 defects in the thermal insulation
suitable treatment of its causes. A-O6 defects in the ventilation system
A-O7 too low/too steep slope
The causes of anomalies in ECoPiR are related to lack of rigour
A-O8 deficient interventions
and quality in design, execution and maintenance of the claddings.
1036 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044
Fig. 2. Condensation on the inner surface of a ceramic roof cladding.
Fig. 3. Loosening of micro-concrete roof tiles.
Fig. 4. Oxidation/ageing of plastic cladding.
of the elements of an ECoPiR (e.g. fixings, joints, tail-ends, ventila-
tion system and thermal insulation), and also inadequate interven-
tions (Fig. 5 shows a repair intervention using small pieces of
aluminium bituminous membrane that avoid replacing the broken
or cracked cladding; however, this intervention failed due to the
scatter in size of the aluminium pieces and big amount of mortar
used).
Most of the anomalies listed in this classification occur in all
types of ECoPiR (anomalies from groups A–C and A–D); but some
(from A–E and A–O groups) are specific to certain claddings. Spall-
ing/peeling/exfoliation, for example, does not occur in plastics or
Fig. 5. Inadequate intervention on fibre–cement roof cladding.
fibre–cement claddings. And disaggregation/oxidation (ageing) is
observed in metal and mixed claddings (with the exception of as-
phalt shingles), while the absence/deterioration of sealants occurs
only in fibre–cement, metal, plastic, and mixed claddings.
2.2. Classification of probable causes of the anomalies
This paper does not describe each cause exhaustively but it does
typify them in groups related to human responsibility or natural
phenomena. Therefore, a classification system of the causes of ECo-
PiR anomalies is presented in which they are organised according
to order of occurrence (Table 2). This classification comprises two
main groups of causes: direct (or near) ones and indirect (or first)
ones [15]. The first group contains actions that induce the anoma-
lies in a direct manner and includes mechanical actions and envi-
ronmental actions. The second group is related to causes that
need the addition of a direct cause to trigger the pathological pro-
cess and comprises design, execution, and use/maintenance errors.
2.2.1. Design errors
Design errors C–P, e.g. missing or ambiguous design/detailing
of materials, dimensioning errors and incorrect general design of
construction assemblies, are the main causes of defects in con-
struction according to a study carried out by the Centre Scientifi-
que et Technique de la Construction presented by Cnudde [16].
They are also an important source of pathologic problems in ECo-
PiR [17].
The position and function of each element of a roof, in particular
the location of the insulation and the vapour barrier, are among the
factors that determine the higher or lower probability of condensa-
tion occurring. The corrosion of metal elements may result from an
incompatibility between materials that leads to bimetal corrosion.
2.2.2. Execution errors
Execution errors C-E are mostly the result of unskilled work-
manship and the subcontracting of the majority of construction
works.
Execution errors are common in ECoPiR, particularly incorrect
application and the use of unsuitable materials [18].
2.2.3. Mechanical actions
Mechanical actions C–M are characterised by their unpredict-
ability and by their ability to cause damage, even in claddings with
adequate strength.
In metal claddings, the traffic of people and loads can lead to
bending deformation of the sheets and the rotation of their edges.
This problem is even worse for flexible metal sheets. These
mechanical actions can also cause folding or oxidation spots which
 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044
Table 2
Proposed classification of the causes of anomalies in ECoPiR.
C–P – Design errors
C–P1 incorrect design of the support structure
C–P2 incorrect design/detailing of the roof’s slope
C–P3 missing or incorrect design/detailing of the ventilation systems
C–P4 missing or incorrect design/detailing of the thermal insulation system
C–P5 missing or incorrect design/detailing of the vapour barrier
C–P6 missing or incorrect design/detailing of the roof pathway accessories
C–P7 incorrect design/detailing of the elements’ overlapping
C–P8 incorrect design/detailing of the tail-ends areas
C–P9 specification of inadequate or incompatible materials
C–E – Execution errors
C–E1 incorrect interpretation of the execution plans
C–E2 inexperienced or poorly qualified workmanship
C–E3 incorrect positioning of the ventilation elements
C–E4 incorrect positioning of the thermal insulation elements
C–E5 incorrect positioning of the vapour barrier
C–E6 careless execution of the slats and alignment of elements
C–E7 incorrect handling of the materials or use of inadequate tools
C–E8 excessive amount of bedding mortar
C–E9 use of non-prescribed, inadequate, or incompatible materials
C–E10 connections too tight or insufficient/excessive number of fastenings
C–E11 incorrect positioning of sealants
C–E12 incorrect tail-end of the polycarbonate plates
C–E13 use of poor quality and/or uncertified materials
C–E14 use of uneven materials due to mixing errors
C–M – Mechanical actions
C–M1 deformation of the roofs C-M4 impact of heavy objects
supporting structure during storms
C–M2 movement of people or loads over C-M5 vandalism
the cladding
C–M3 heavy equipment on the roof
C–A – Environmental actions
C–A1 strong winds C-A6 icing/de-icing cycles
C–A2 solar radiation C-A7 atmospheric pollution
C–A3 chemical action of pigeon-related C-A8 temperature
pollution
C–A4 biological action C-A9 inner humidity
C–A5 stagnant water (rain/snow)
C–U – Use/maintenance errors
C–U1 absent/inadequate maintenance
C–U2 use of mortar over the cladding in rehabilitation works
C–U3 use of asphaltic membranes over the cladding in rehabilitation works
C–U4 change of the cladding material or addition of new cladding layers
C–U5 replacement of elements with others of different shape
C–U6 replacement of elements with others of different colours
C–U7 change of the initially predicted in-service conditions
lead to the rupture of metal claddings. Traffic over plastic claddings
can cause cracking/fracture.
2.2.4. Environmental actions
Environmental actions C-A are the main causes of anomalies in
ECoPiR, especially rainwater that gives rise to pathological pro-
cesses and helps to worsen existing anomalies.
Strong winds can cause the detachment of cladding elements,
chiefly in steep or low sloped roofs, with incorrectly placed or de-
graded elements, or with unfixed elements [17,19,20].
Solar radiation affects the colour of plastic claddings. Its contin-
uous action, along with the low resistance to temperature fluctua-
tions, can also cause cracking in plastic claddings [21].
The continuous action of icing/de-icing cycles can cause some
claddings to peel, mostly when coupled with poor roof ventilation.
Environmental actions are also responsible for colour changes
in metal claddings. This anomaly is due to the formation of a cor-
roded layer. Oxygen is the most reactive agent and is responsible
for the corrosion of metal elements in non-polluted and moist
environments [17]. Atmospheric pollution is the main cause of
the deterioration of the fibre–cement matrix, causing it to age [22].
1037
2.2.5. Use/maintenance errors
Use/maintenance errors C-U can help to induce various anoma-
lies in ECoPiR. The introduction, during maintenance operations, of
materials or technologies different from the existing ones can gen-
erate operational incompatibilities.
The absence of maintenance allows the anomalies, once they
have taken hold, to progress freely and with more severity. Their
effects can trigger the appearance of new anomalies, thus contrib-
uting to the worsening of the degradation phenomena.
2.3. Anomaly/probable cause correlation matrix
The anomaly/probable cause correlation matrix was based on
Tables 1 and 2 and defines the correlation between the anomalies
and their probable causes. Table 3 presents an extract from this
correlation matrix, showing the anomalies in rows and causes in
columns. At the intersection of each row and column, each correla-
tion degree (0, 1 or 2) signifies [23]:
 0 – no correlation – there is no direct or indirect relationship
between the anomaly and the cause;
 1 (h) – low correlation – indirect (first) cause of the anomaly
related to the triggering of the deterioration process; cause
not necessary for deterioration to progress;
 2 (j) – high correlation – direct (near) cause of the anomaly,
associated with the final stage of the deterioration process;
when one of these causes occurs, it is one of the main reasons
for the deterioration process and is essential to its development.
The first stage was to build up the correlation matrix using
information obtained during the literature review. The matrix
was then evaluated and validated in a second stage, after the con-
clusion of an inspection programme that covered 207 ECoPiR. This
validation led to some changes being made in some initial correla-
tion indexes; these are underlined in the matrix (Table 3).
2.4. Inter-anomaly correlation matrix
Defects detected in ECoPiR can occur in isolation or near one or
more previous ECoPiR defects. Therefore, an inter-anomaly correla-
tion index may establish the likelihood of other defects occurring
once one is detected. This index is obtained from the defects/prob-
able causes correlation matrix (Table 3), using a method described
in detail in Silvestre and de Brito [5]. It follows the principle that
the number of probable causes that a defect shares with another
one is directly proportional to the likelihood that they will arise
simultaneously. Each inter-anomaly index is represented in Table
4 and estimates the probability of anomaly j (column j) occurring
when anomaly k (row k) occurs.
3. Diagnosis techniques
The causes of anomalies in ECoPiR are extremely diverse. There-
fore, it is essential to correctly diagnose the anomalies in order to
determine their causes. Sometimes the accuracy of the diagnosis
can only be verified in the medium term. The disappearance or a
pause in the progression of an anomaly can only be verified quite
a long time after the intervention, because of its pace or the cyclic
nature of some of these phenomena.
The diagnosis is made several times in successive approxima-
tions, and all the data collected during the research is correlated:
technical data on the ECoPiR and its surroundings; in situ observa-
tion of the anomaly.
The diagnosis techniques presented in this paper do not include
laboratory tests, which are complex to execute, slow to give con-
1038 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044

Table 3
Taken from the anomaly/probable cause correlation matrix.

Note: Each anomaly has an acronym: an A (for ‘anomaly’) plus a hyphen, the group reference and a sequential number (see Table 1). Each cause has an acronym: a C (for
‘cause’) plus a hyphen, the group reference and a sequential number – see Table 2. In this table, ‘h’ represents ‘low correlation’, ‘j’ represents ‘high correlation’ and ‘_’, ‘h’ or
‘j’ represent a correlation degree that was changed after on-site validation.

Table 4
Inter-anomaly percentage correlation matrix (%).

Note: Each anomaly has an acronym: an A (for ‘anomaly’) plus a hyphen, the group reference and a sequential number (see Table 1). In this table, ‘hhhh’ represents ‘0%’,
‘jhhh’ represents ‘]0;25]%’, ‘jjhh’ represents ‘]25;50]%’, ‘jjjh’ represents ‘]50;75]%’ and ‘jjjj’ represents ‘]75;100]%’.
 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044 1039

Table 5 3.2. Anomaly/diagnosis technique correlation matrix

In situ diagnosis techniques.

D-A – Visual analysis The anomaly/diagnosis technique correlation matrix is pre-

D-A1 visual inspection
D-A2 slope measurement
D-B – Electric methods
D-B1 induced currents
D-C – Thermo-hygrometric methods
D-C1 temperature and humidity measurement
D-C2 infra-red thermography
D-D – Ultrasonic methods
D-D1 ultrasounds
clusions, and costly. Only in situ tests – simpler and less intrusive –
were considered. The visual inspection and professional experience
of the inspector are crucial to the interpretation of results and to
sorting the relevant from the less relevant information.
3.1. Classification of diagnosis techniques
This paper presents a classification of techniques for diagnosing
ECoPiR anomalies. There are four groups (Table 5), in accordance
with the execution procedure and equipment used. To build the
correlation matrix between anomalies and diagnosis techniques,
each diagnosis technique was assigned an identification code.
Visual inspection (D-A1) is one of the methods most often used
to diagnose roof claddings anomalies, because it is simple, rela-
tively cheap, and requires no special equipment. This technique
‘only’ requires one highly experienced professional who is knowl-
edgeable in the field of ECoPiR pathology, and some simple auxil-
iary equipment. Visual inspection can be used alone or to
supplement other diagnosis techniques.
Slope measurement (D-A2) confirms whether the ECoPiR slope
complies with the minimum and maximum values. These limits
vary with the type and exposure of the cladding, roof type and
length, location, and constructive characteristics. This technique
sented in Table 6. It enables the selection of the most suitable
method for the diagnosis of an anomaly, with respect to its exten-
sion and severity.
The figure at the intersection of each row (representing an
anomaly) with each column (representing a diagnosis method)
indicates their degree of correlation (0, 1 or 2) in accordance with
the following criteria [23]:
 0 – no correlation – there is no relationship between the anom-
aly and the diagnosis technique;
 1 (h) – low correlation – diagnosis technique suitable for the
characterisation of the anomaly, but has shortcomings in terms
of technical practicality or cost, which may reduce its
usefulness;
 2 (j) – high correlation – the diagnosis technique is suitable for
the characterisation of the anomaly and its scope of application
is wide.
As stated, visual inspection (D-A1) is a technique that can be
used alone (to diagnose anomalies A-D2 misalignment of cladding
elements, A-E6 disintegration/oxidation (ageing), A-O1 defects in
connection systems, A-O4 too little or too much overlap, and A-
O6 defects in the ventilation system). For the remaining anomalies,
this technique is used to supplement more specific methods.
As an example of the use of the anomaly-diagnosis techniques’
correlation matrix, it can be concluded that for the diagnosis of
anomaly A-E2 corrosion, three high correlation techniques can be
used (D-A1 visual inspection, D-B1 eddy currents and D-D1 ultra-
sounds) along with a low correlation technique (D-C2 infra-red
thermography). The validation of this matrix through an extensive
Table 6
Anomaly/diagnosis technique correlation matrix.

is simple and does not require skilled labour either to execute it

or to interpret the measurements.
The induced currents test (D-B1) consists of measuring the coil
impedance variation i.e. the limitation to the propagation of an in-
duced current. It can thus detect cracks, corrosion, dimension
changes (loss of thickness) and allow the measurement of the
thickness of the protective layers [24]. It is a clean and fast method,
despite requiring technology and experience to carry it out and
interpret the results.
The temperature and humidity measurement (D-C1) detects
changes in the thermal insulation and the inner relative humidity.
The final aim is to evaluate the possibility of condensation on the
ECoPiR.
Infra-red thermography (D-C2) detects degradation or disconti-
nuities in the roofs’ thermal insulation, or confirms that none is
present. This technique also detects the colder areas of the roof,
which are critical to the occurrence of condensation. Thermal
images can help assess the watertightness of a roof by detecting
water infiltrations, thus leading to a more limited and cheaper
intervention. This diagnosis method does not necessarily require
direct access to the roof, which prevents it from being damaged.
Ultrasounds (D-D1) detect defects and internal discontinuities,
and are also used to estimate the thickness of materials or corro- Note: 1 Only plastic ECoPiR; 2 Only metal and mixed ECoPiR (except asphalt shin-
gles); 3 Only metal and slate ECoPiR. Each anomaly has an acronym: an A (for
sion products, via the propagation of acoustic waves. With slates, ‘anomaly’) plus a hyphen, the group reference and a sequential number (see Table
the speed of propagation of the ultrasonic waves allows the indi- 1). Each diagnosis technique has an acronym: a D (for ‘diagnosis’) plus a hyphen, the
rect evaluation of their degradation. This method is non-destruc- group reference and a sequential number – see Table 5. In this table, ‘h’ represents
tive and cheap, but requires a professional with specific training ‘low correlation’ and ‘j’ represents ‘high correlation’.
and good experience to interpret the results.
1040 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044

Table 7
Diagnosis technique file D-C2 – infra-red thermography.

Diagnosis technique file D-C2

Name
Infra-red thermography
Destructive (D)/Nondestructive (ND)
ND
Objectives
To evaluate the water tightness and locate discontinuities in roof thermal insulation by capturing the heat radiation from the
materials

Equipment needed
Thermal camera sensitive to infra-red radiation; thermocouples for monitoring temperatures and video or image equipment for recording the thermographic images
Description of the method
1 – taking advantage of the warming caused by solar radiation, observe the thermographic images obtained by infrared camera; 2 – record on video or image equipment
the images collected, for further interpretation and diagnosis
Advantages
Low cost and effective technique, allowing the inspection without contact with the elements to diagnose; technical testing areas instead of points; a picture of the area
analysed is obtained
Limitations
Infra-red observations imply further – more localised – tests; the interpretation of the results requires a professional with experience and knowledge in the field of
materials’ thermal behaviour

inspection programme resulted in changes being made to the the-
oretical correlation degrees.
3.3. Diagnosis techniques file
Individual files were built for each diagnosis technique, contain-
ing the following information:
 Name and illustrative picture of the diagnosis technique.
 Type of test (destructive/non-destructive).
 Aim of the test.
 Required equipment.
 Technique procedure.
 Advantages and limitations.
Table 7 gives an example of a file of the diagnosis technique D-
C2 infra-red thermography.
4. Repair
This section describes the repair techniques used for anomalies
on ECoPiR and the elimination of the corresponding causes.
4.1. Classification of repair techniques
The repair techniques are arranged in Table 8 according to the
degree of intervention, with the depth of the intervention increas-
ing as it rises in the category (R.A to R.E). Repair techniques of ECo-
PiR can be classed in curative (RC), preventive (RP) and/or
maintenance (M) (adapted from Silvestre and de Brito [5]), as pre-
sented in Table 8. The correlation between repair techniques and
the materials for which they are suitable is also shown in this table.
ECoPiR cleaning (R.A1) begins with the use of a water jet. When
some incrustation is observed, manual brushing or the use of
appropriate mechanical equipment is recommended. If necessary,
this can be followed by the application of a suitable chemical prod-
uct. The final stage is cleaning the whole area with water [25]. This
technique removes the dirt and accumulated debris, eliminates
biological growth and prevents the development of any parasite
vegetation that has accumulated over the ECoPiR.
Application of water repellent (R.A2) to ceramic roof tiles in-
creases their watertightness while preserving their vapour perme-
ability [26]. This measure prevents biological growth, debris build-
up and salt penetration in ECoPiR, while keeping its original aspect.
The disadvantages of this kind of product are its limited service life,
significant flammability, and the reduction of ECoPiR’s ‘breathing’
[26–28]. This technique should be combined with the application
of a water repellent layer on the render.
The removal of corrosion and reestablishment of the ECoPiR’s
anti-corrosion protection (R.A3) starts with cleaning the surface
with a water jet (e.g. at a pressure of 3000 psi), removing all the
loose material and the protective layer. Then, the corrosion is re-
moved by mechanical or manual brushing with the aid of a solvent,
if necessary. The next step is to apply a primer, followed by another
primer to provide adherence, and a finishing paint.
The rehabilitation of the surface of plastic ECoPiR (R.A4) begins
with substrate preparation by polishing with emery paper, fol-
lowed by the application of a protective gel of isophthalic resin
in a layer about 400 lm thick. Finally, a glicerophthalic, acrylic or
polyurethane paint is applied [25].
Joint filling sealants (R.A5) should be repaired when they are de-
tached from the ECoPiR. Repair begins with the removal of the dete-
riorated sealant by brushing, followed by the application of a
solvent. Next, a primer is applied to the joint followed by the sealant
(preferably an acrylic polymer). The sealant is applied with a spray
nozzle to uniformly fill the joint (without bubbles or cavities) [27].
The repair of flexible barriers (R.A5) starts by removing the dete-
riorated material by brushing and a solvent (when necessary). Then
the flexible barrier is applied to restore the roof’s watertightness.
With slates, flat roof tiles (without slots) and asphalt shingles, it
is possible to apply double overlapping (R.A5) to restore the roof’s
watertightness. This technique consists of increasing the overlap
between elements by reducing the spacing between the beams of
the support structure [26].
With artificial stone (except micro-concrete roof tiles, flat –
without slots – and curve ceramic roof tiles) and metal ECoPiR,
overlapping (R.A5) is the correct fitting of ECoPiR in suitable slots.
 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044 1041

Table 8
Classification of ECoPiR repair techniques.

ECoPiR repair techniques ECoPiR materials

S C MC F MT P CM
R.A: Upper surface of the ECoPiR
R.A1: Cleaning RC and M X X X X X X X
R.A2: Application of water repellent RP and M – X – – – – –
R.A3: Corrosion removal and reestablishment of the anti-corrosion protection RC – – – – X – X
R.A4: Surface rehabilitation of the of plastic ECoPiR RC – – – – – X X
R.A5: Repair/execution of supplementary water-tightening measures RC and RP X X X X X X X
R.A6: Application/repair/replacement of the ECoPiR connections RC and RP X X X X X X X
R.A7: Construction of circulation pathways RP – X X – – – –
R.A8: Installation of ventilation tiles or accessories RP X X X X X X X
R.A9: Repair of tail-ends and singularities RC X X X X X X X
R.A10: Encapsulation RC and RP – – – X – – –
R.B: Inner surface of the ECoPiR
R.B1: Installation of under-roofing RP – X X Xa – – –
R.B2: Flocking RP – – – – X – –
R.B3: Application/repair/replacement of vapour barrier RC and RP X X X X X X X
R.B4: Application/repair/replacement of thermal insulation RC and RP X X X X X X X
R.C: Upper and inner surface of the ECoPiR
R.C1: Application of spray polyurethane foam
R.C1–A: Upper surface of the ECoPiR RC and RP – – – – X – –
R.C1–B: Inner surface of the ECoPiR RC and RP – – – – X – –
R.D: Change of the ECoPiR
R.D1: Replacement of the ECoPiR RC X X X X X X X
R.E: Change of the ECoPiR’S supporting structure
R.E1: Execution of a roof slab RC – X – – – – –
R.E2: Repair/strengthening/replacement of the support structure RC and RP X X X X X X X

Note 1: S – Slates, C – Ceramic, MC – Micro-concrete, F – Fibre–cement, MT – Metal, P – Plastic, CM – Composite.

Note 2: Repair techniques can be classed in curative (RC), preventive (RP) and/or maintenance (M).
a
Conversion into under-roofing if the supporting structure allows it.

With sandwich panels, metal sheet, plastic and fibre–cement ECo-
PiR, the overlap (R.A5) applied should be appropriate to local expo-
sure. Increasing the overlap can correct the too-low slope of a roof
[25].
When corroded, metal connections (R.A6) should be replaced
by similar fixings of copper, stainless or galvanised steel. Rings
missing from fixings should be replaced and a plastic hood must
protect the fixings [25]. Broken fixings should be replaced by sim-
ilar ones of a larger diameter. Weakened rivets require the instal-
lation of self-tapping screws beside them. However, when the
rivet allows water to enter, it should be replaced by a similar one
of a greater diameter, or the damaged ECoPiR should be replaced
[25]. When mortars or synthetic materials deteriorate they must
be removed and reapplied as specified by the manufacturer.
The creation of walkways (R.A7) gives access to roofs for
inspection and maintenance work while preventing possible dam-
age that these activities might cause to ECoPiR [29]. On ceramic
and micro-concrete roof tiles, walkways can be built of cement
mortar and roof tiles to create a reinforced area, or with stepping
tiles.
The installation of ventilation tiles or accessories (R.A8) corrects
inadequate or provides roof ventilation (where there is none).
These are fitted by creating holes in the eaves, windows, grilles,
double vent tiles or blades, depending on the ECoPiR type.
Tail-ends and singularities (R.A9) are repaired by removing the
elements that had been poorly executed and rebuilding them prop-
erly. If possible, the existing materials should be utilised to reduce
the cost of the intervention. The accessories used should be suit-
able and provide the required performance, because adaptations
are sources of anomalies.
Encapsulation (R.A10) repairs fissures, spalling/peeling/exfolia-
tion on ECoPiR and avoids biological growth. This technique uses
products capable of agglomerating the particles of the upper face
of the ECoPiR and fixing them to the cementitious matrix. Encapsu-
lating products can be applied by impregnation – by saturating the
surface layer which binds the fibres and fixes them to the matrix –
or by covering, creating a continuous protective layer that is thick
and compact, over the sheet’s surface.
The installation of under-roofing (R.B1) corrects loss of water-
tightness due to infiltration or to low slope. This technique also im-
proves ventilation and allows the correction of any cladding
deformation. With fibre–cement roofs with low slope or loss of
watertightness, the existing ECoPiR can be used as the undertile
of a new ECoPiR [25].
Flocking (R.B2) of ECoPiR prevents the accumulation of mois-
ture due to condensation on its under-face [25]. This technique
also improves fire resistance, and thermal and acoustic insulation.
Flocking is the application of small textile fibres (natural or syn-
thetic) over the substrate, which has previously had an adhesive
material applied to it. The fibres are fixed to the surface by pneu-
matic projection.
The application/repair/replacement of a vapour barrier (R.B3)
protects the roof from the degrading action of condensations. If
there is no vapour barrier then one should be installed as soon as
possible and, when damaged, it should be repaired by means of a
patch. The patch should be mechanically fixed and sealed with
bi-adhesive tape, including the joints. Vapour barriers that reach
the end of their service life, or whose characteristics are not suit-
able for the amount of water vapour produced, should be replaced.
If there is no thermal insulation then it must be installed (R.B4)
and any damaged thermal insulation should be repaired. It can be
repaired by applying sprayed expansive polyurethane foam (SEPF)
when cracks are of significant thickness or by mastic when they are
thin. When the insulation is seriously damaged it should be totally
replaced.
Applying SEPF to the upper surface of the ECoPiR (R.C1-A) in-
creases protection against ultraviolet radiation, reduces the volu-
metric variations due to thermal differentials, improves the
prevention of condensation, protects against air pollution and acid
rain and discourages the accumulation of debris and biological
1042 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044

Table 9
Repair file R-A2 – Application of water repellent.

Repair file R.A2

Designation: application of water repellent on the upper surface of roof tiles (RP and M)

Type of ECoPiR: ceramic cladding

Characteristics of the materials: water repellent for ceramic roof tile
Work description: 1. Cleaning of the cladding with removal of all biological material and accumulated
debris; 2. ECoPiR drying;
3. Application of two layers of water repellent with spray gun (1 dm3 for each 20 dm3 of water in areas with low humidity; 1 dm3 for each 15 dm3 of water in areas with
moderate humidity and 1 dm3 for each 10 dm3 of water in areas with high humidity); 4. Consolidation of the water repellent in the substrate
Problems and special needs: the water repellent should be applied at a temperature around 20 °C in order to guarantee its adherence to the substrate and the
effectiveness of the technique
Labour and execution time estimated: Cleaning and protection of 5 m2 of cladding = 1 man  1 h
Equipment: spray gun
Estimated cost: 10 €/m2
Expected result: low technical demand; prevents the accumulation of water in the ECoPiR; retards the appearance of micro-organisms and eases rainwater drainage,
thus preventing its infiltration into the roof inner space

agents. This technique starts by cleaning the ECoPiR with a water-
jet. Next, any corrosion and the anti-corrosive layer – if any – are
removed by polishing, and the joints are sealed. Then, the primer
and the SEPF are applied (e.g. the latter at 600 psi pressure) and
the resulting surface is smoothed. Finally, an elastomeric mem-
brane (e.g. acrylic, butyl rubber, CSPE, neoprene, silicone or poly-
urethane elastomer or modified asphalt) is applied, followed by a
finishing paint – of a light colour in warm climates.
Applying SEPF to the inner face of the ECoPiR (R.C1-B) fills small
cracks, lowers its susceptibility to condensation and improves the
roof’s thermal insulation [25,30]. SEPF is applied using a spray gun
(e.g. at a pressure of 600 psi) with enough coats to achieve a layer
40 mm thick. It can then be polished or painted, if required.
Slate, asphalt, ceramic, micro-concrete, and fibre–cement ECo-
PiR replacement (R.D1) is mandatory when it exhibits cracks, frac-
tures, spalling, peeling, exfoliation or ageing (end of service life).
Metal (or sandwich panel) ECoPiR should be replaced when the
elements show excessive deformation or widespread/deep corro-
sion. Plastic ECoPiR aged by UV radiation must also be replaced.
The execution of a roof slab (R.E1) gives extra watertightness
and stiffness, while improving the thermal and acoustic insulation
with permeable tiles and a timber support structure. This tech-
nique includes the execution of a thin (30–50 mm) cement mortar
slab, reinforced with stretched galvanised steel mesh (openings
smaller than 5 mm) nailed to the support structure.
The repair/strengthening/replacement of the support structure
(R.E2) involves a previous analysis and description of its deteriora-
tion, including the factors that contributed to it. Depending on the
type of support structure (i.e. wood, steel or concrete) the best re-
pair/reinforcement/replacement technique for restoring its func-
tionality and safety should be chosen and the correct design
procedure should be implemented [31,32].
Table 9 shows an example of an individual file from those pro-
duced for each repair technique.

Table 10
Anomaly/repair technique correlation matrix.

Note: Each anomaly has an acronym: an A (for ‘anomaly’) plus a hyphen, the group reference and a sequential number (see Table 1). Each repair technique has an acronym,
including the group reference and a sequential number – see Table 8. In this table, ‘h’ represents ‘low correlation’ and ‘j’ represents ‘high correlation’.
 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044 1043

4.2. Anomaly/repair technique correlation matrix
The relationship between repair techniques and anomalies is
presented in Table 10 as a correlation matrix. Each row of this ma-
trix corresponds to an anomaly and the columns represent ECoPiR
repair techniques. At the intersection of each row with each col-
umn, there is a figure which indicates the degree of correlation be-
tween the anomaly and the repair technique, defined as follows:
 0 – no correlation – there is no relationship between the anom-
aly and the repair technique;
 1 (h) – low correlation – repair technique suitable for the anom-
aly, or to eliminate its causes(s), but with limited applicability;
 2 (j) – high correlation – the best technique to repair the
anomaly or eliminate its causes(s).
Table 10 shows the anomalies in association with various repair
techniques. When one of these anomalies is observed the choice of
the repair technique must take into account that low correlation
techniques should only be used in particular situations. When
there are two or more high correlation techniques associated with
the same anomaly, it is necessary to confirm their suitability in
terms of the ECoPiR material and the extent of the area affected
so that the best one is chosen. Nevertheless, two or more repair
techniques may be necessary to repair the anomaly and eliminate
its causes [5].
5. Anomaly files
The information related to each anomaly in ECoPiR was summa-
rised in individual files. They are an essential tool of this inspection
system as they gather important data, concisely.
The format and contents of anomaly files are based on previous
works by the same research team [5,23] and include the following
data:
 Anomaly name and picture of a real example.
 A short characterisation of the anomaly.
 Its probable causes, in accordance with the anomaly/probable
cause correlation matrix in Table 3; near causes are underlined.
 Possible consequences of the anomaly.
 Items to be checked.

Table 11
Anomaly file A-C – Condensation.

Anomaly file A-C

Designation
Condensation
Description
Formation of water droplets under the cladding surfaces due to the liquefaction of the water vapour produced within

Probable causes
– Missing or incorrect application of thermal insulation elements (C-P4, C-E2, C-E4)
– Missing or incorrect application of ventilation elements (C-P3, C-E3)
– Missing or incorrect application of elements of the vapour barrier (C-P5, C-E5)
– Use of insulation materials that do not respect the functional requisites (C-P9, C-E9, C-E13)
– Excessive environmental humidity/high production of water vapour (C-A9)
– Temperature on the cladding’s surface equal or less to the dew point (C-A8)
– Change of the initially predicted in-service conditions (C-U7)
Possible consequences
– Degradation of the cladding
– Degradation of the underlying layers, due to contact with water
– Formation of dark patches due to dust retention
– Development of fungus and mould
– Detachment, formation of bubbles and cracking in asphalt shingles
– Corrosion of metal elements
Aspects to inspect
– Temperature and inner and outer thermo-hygrometric conditions
– Thickness of each of the roof’s layers
– Thermal conductivity or thermal resistance of each of the roof’s layers
– Resistance to the diffusion of water vapour of each of the roof’s layers
– Thermal bridges (Y/N)
– Condition of the thermal insulation
– Excessive production of water vapour (Y/N)
– Type of use of the spaces beneath the roof
– Insufficient ventilation (Y/N)
Tests to conduct
– Visual inspection (D-A1)
– Measurement of the temperature and of the superficial and/or atmospheric humidity (D-C1)
– Evaluation of the distribution of temperatures by infra-red thermography (D-C2)
Classification parameters
– Conditions for the phenomenon to progress (Y/N)
– Excessive humidity in the space underneath the ECoPiR (Y/N)
– Aesthetic value of the areas affected (high; medium; low)
Severity level/repair urgency
1 – When conditions are right for the progression of the phenomenon and consequent degradation of the cladding
2 – When the phenomenon is limited and conditions are not right for it to progress
1044 N. Garcez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 35 (2012) 1034–1044
 Diagnosis techniques to be applied in situ, according to the
anomaly/diagnosis technique correlation matrix in Table 6, with
the high correlation techniques underlined.
 Classification parameters.
 Severity level/repair urgency (0 – immediate intervention; 1 –
intervention in the medium-term; 2 – anomaly surveillance)
and repair solutions.
Table 11 shows an example of an anomaly file, for defect A-C –
Condensation.
6. Conclusion
This paper presents a system to support the inspection, diagno-
sis and repair of external claddings of pitched roofs (ECoPiR). It was
devised in the context of the Master’s Dissertations of the first two
authors and was validated using the data collected in 207 ECoPiR
inspections. The systematic approach used in the construction of
this inspection system is innovative and can help the in situ inspec-
tor in making its activities more objective and, at the same time,
standardising its procedures.
The classification system concerns the anomalies, probable
causes, and diagnosis and repair techniques. Subsequently, inter-
anomaly, anomaly-cause, anomaly-diagnosis techniques and
anomaly-repair techniques correlation matrices are created and in-
cluded in the system.
The different classification systems and correlation matrices
were initially built based on reference literature. The scale of the
inspection campaign allowed the calibration of both, leading to
minor changes being made which adapted these tools to real ECo-
PiR pathologic situations. Relevant results were also derived from
the inspection programme, but their statistical analysis is beyond
the scope of this paper and is presented in another paper of the
first three authors [33].
The information collected during the inspection campaign in-
cluded also files for the anomalies, diagnosis and repair technique
files to be compiled. These files summarise the relevant informa-
tion in a user-friendly manner, and are fundamental to dealing
with real situations.
The inspection system proposed in this paper can be used in all
the stages of the ECoPiR life cycle: design, execution, use or main-
tenance, with a view to maximising service life. A computerised
tool that assimilates the components presented in this paper
should be developed to make this inspection system easier to
implement. This tool can be made into a module of a wider scope
knowledge-based software system to support buildings inspection,
comprising other elements such as façades claddings, window fra-
mings, internal wall and floor coatings, wall partitions, and water-
proofing flat roof membranes.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support of the research centre
ICIST (Instituto de Engenharia de Estruturas, Território e Con-
strução), IST, Technical University of Lisbon and FCT (Foundation
for Science and Technology).
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