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Macmillan Building and Surveying Series

Series Editor: IVOR H. SEELEY


Emeritus Professor, The Nottingham Trent University

Advanced Building Measurement, second edition Ivor H. Seeley


Advanced Valuation Diane Butler and David Richmond
An Introduction to Building Services Christopher A. Howard
Applied Valuation Diane Butler
Asset Valuation Michael Rayner
Building Economics, third edition Ivor H. Seeley
Building Maintenance, second edition Ivor H. Seeley
Building Maintenance Technology Lee How Son and George C.S. Yuen
Building Procurement Alan E. Turner
Building Project Appraisal Keith Hutchinson
Building Quantities Explained, fourth edition Ivor H. Seeley
Building Surveys, Reports and Dilapidations Ivor H. Seeley
Building Technology, fourth edition Ivor H. Seeley
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Civil Engineering Quantities, fifth edition Ivor H. Seeley
Civil Engineering Specification, second edition Ivor H. Seeley
Commercial Lease Renewals - A Practical Guide P. Freedman and E.F. Shapiro
Computers and Quantity Surveyors Adrian Smith
Construction Contract Claims Reg Thomas
Contract Planning and Contractual Procedures, third edition B. Cooke
Contract Planning Case Studies B. Cooke
Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings Surinder Singh
DeSign-Build Explained David E.L. Janssens
Development Site Evaluation N.P. Taylor
Environmental Science in Building, third edition R. McMullan
Greener Buildings Stuart Johnson
Housing Associations Helen Cope
Housing Management: Changing Practice Christine Davies (Editor)
Information and Technology Applications in Commercial Property Rosemary Feenan and
Tim Dixon (Editors)
Introduction to Valuation D. Richmond
Marketing and Property People Owen Bevan
Principles of Property Investment and Pricing, second edition W.D. Fraser
Property Valuation Techniques David Isaac and Terry Steley
Public Works Engineering Ivor H. Seeley
Quality Assurance in Building Alan Griffith
Quantity Surveying Practice Ivor H. Seeley
Recreation Planning and Development Neil Ravenscroft
Resource Management for Construction M.R. Canter
Small Building Works Management Alan Griffith
Structural Detailing, second edition P. Newton
Urban Land Economics and Public Policy, fourth edition P.N. Balchin, J.L. Kieve and G.H. Bull
Urban Renewal - Theory and Practice Chris Couch
1980 JCT Standard Form of Building Contract, second edition R.F. Fellows

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Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 2XS, England.
Cost Estimation of Structures
in Commercial Buildings
Surinder Singh
PhD, MSc, DipCE,
DipQS, FIE, FIS,
MClOB, MBIM, MCiB W-65
Associate Professor
School of Building and Estate Management
National University of Singapore
Visiting Professor
Building Construction Program
College of Architecture
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, USA

MACMILLAN
© Surinder Singh 1994
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 15t edition 1994
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of
this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or
transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with
the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London W1 P 9HE.
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this
publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil
claims for damages.

First published 1994 by


THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
ISBN 978-1-349-13032-0 ISBN 978-1-349-13030-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-13030-6
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
To my wife Manjit

my children
Rajwinder, Anjli, Sonia, Harmeen

and my grandchildren
Navreen and Gurmukh
Contents 3.4.2 Beams
3.4.3 Columns
22
41
3.4.4 Shear Walls 55
3.4.5 Total Structure 55
3.5 Effect of Number of Spans on
Constituent Quantities 57
3.6 Effect of Number of Shopping
Floors 60
3.7 Computing Constituent Quantities
for Structures 60
References 62

Preface x 4 Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 63


Acknowledgements xi 4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Structures, Loading and
List of Symbols xii
Analysis of Frames 63
4.3 Design of Structural Members 64
1 Introduction 1
4.3.1 Flat and Waffle Slabs 64
1.1 Background 1 4.3.2 Columns 64
1.2 Aim 1 4.3.3 Shear Walls 65
1.3 Approach or Choice of Methods 1 4.4 Quantities of Constituents 65
1.4 Scope of Study 3 4.4.1 Flat Slabs 65
References 3 4.4.2 Waffle Slabs 65
4.4.3 Columns 65
2 Review of Previous Work 4 4.4.4 Shear Walls 106
4.4.5 Total Structure 106
2.1 General 4
4.5 Effect of Number of Spans on
2.2 Researc,. ed on Past
Constituent Quantities 106
Completed I-'rojects 4
4.6 Effect of Number of Shopping
2.3 Research based on First Principles 8
Floors 106
References 9
4.7 Computing Constituent Quantities
for Structures 106
3 Reinforced Concrete Beam and
References 108
Slab System 11
3.1 Introduction 11 5 Prestressed Concrete Beam and
3.2 Loading and Analysis of Frames 11 Reinforced Concrete Slab System 109
3.2.1 Vertical Loading 11
5.1 Introduction 109
3.2.2 Lateral Loadi ng 11
5.2 Structures 109
3.2.3 Method of Analysis 12
5.3 Loadings 109
3.2.4 Gravity Load Analysis of
5.4 Analysis of Frames 109
Building Frames 12
5.5 Design of Structural Members 110
3.2.5 Lateral Load Analysis of
5.5.1 Solid Slabs 110
Interacting Building Frames
5.5.2 Prestressed Beams 110
and Shear Walls 13
5.5.3 Columns 110
3.2.6 Shear Core Size 13
5.5.4 Shear Walls 110
3.2.7 Plan Shape and Size 14
5.6 Quantities of Constituents 110
3.3 Design of Structural Members 14
5.6.1 Solid Slabs 110
3.3.1 Solid Slabs 15
5.6.2 Prestressed Beams 113
3.3.2 Beams 15
5.6.3 Columns 129
3.3.3 Columns 15
5.6.4 Shear Walls 134
3.3.4 Shear Walls 15
5.6.5 Total Structure 134
3.4 Quantities of Constituents 16
5.7 Effect of Number of Spans on
3.4.1 Solid Slabs 16
Constituent Quantities 134

vii
viii Contents

5.8 Effect of Number of Shopping 7.2.2 Reinforced Concrete Flat and


Floors 135 Waffle Slab Systems 161
References 136 7.2.3 Prestressed Concrete Beam
and Reinforced Concrete
6 Applications 137 Slab System 163
7.2.4 Relative Economics 165
6.1 Introduction 137
6.2 Comparative Cost Estimation -
Effect of Design Variables 137 8 Computer-Based Cost Model for
6.2.1 Problem 1 - Structural Reinforced Concrete Beam and
Schemes 137 Slab System 166
6.2.2 Problem 2 - Structural
8.1 Introduction 166
Schemes 138
8.2 Model Elements and Design
6.3 Approximate Structural Cost
Variables 166
Estimation of an Overall Project 141
8.2.1 Solid Slab 166
6.3.1 Pro~!em 3 - Total Structural
8.2.2 Beams 167
Cost 141
8.2.3 Columns 167
6.4 Checking of Estimates for Structural
8.2.4 Shear Walls 167
Works 142
8.2.5 Total Structure 167
6.5 Calculation of Quantity Index for
8.3 Flowcharts 167
Structural Works 143
8.4 Computer Model and III ustrative
6.5.1 Problem 4 - Quantity
Usage 167
Estimates 143
8.4.1 First Display and Input -
6.6 Establishing Cost Index for
Choice of Element 168
Structural Works 144
8.4.2 Second Display and Input -
6.7 Budgeting of Materials 144
Choice of Primary Design
6.8 Building Economics Studies 144
Parameter 169
6.8.1 Problem 5 - Variation with
8.4.3 Third Display and Input -
Number of Storeys and
Design Parameters 169
Structural Schemes 144
8.4.4 Fourth Display and Input -
6.8.2 Problem 6 - Variation with
Combinations 172
Number of Storeys and Grid
8.4.5 Fifth Display and Input -
Sizes 145
Unit Rates 172
6.8.3 Problem 6 - Variation with
8.4.6 Sixth Display - Output 172
Number of Storeys and
8.4.7 Seventh Display and Input -
Use of Different Grades of
Additional Combinations 173
Concrete 145
8.4.8 Eighth Display and Input -
6.9 Structures with Continuity other
Other Elements 173
than Five 146
8.5 Sample Results 173
References 173
7 Quantities/Cost - Observations,
Trends and Variations 148
7.1 148
9 Case Studies for Comparison of
Quantities of Constituents
Results 174
7.1.1 Reinforced Concrete Beam
and Slab System 148 9.1 Introduction 174
7.1.2 Reinforced Concrete Flat 9.2 Basis of Comparison 174
Slab and Waffle Slab 9.3 Salient Features of Projects 174
System 149 9.4 Theoretical Resu Its 175
7.1.3 Prestressed Concrete Beam 9.5 Collection of Information 175
and Slab System 155 9.6 Comparison of Results 176
7.2 Cost of Structures 157 9.7 Observations 176
7.2.1 Reinforced Concrete Beam
and Slab System 159
Contents ix

10 Additional Data for Preliminary 10.3 Effect of Increased Wind Loads


Cost Estimation 177 on Constituent Quantities 179
10.1 Quantities of Constituents in
Overall Structure 177
Bibliography 181
10.2 Effect of Different Live Loads on Index 183
Constituent Quantities 177
concrete beam and slab system, the flat slab and waffle
Preface slab systems, and the prestressed concrete beam and
reinforced concrete slab system. This approach to
constituent quantities will enable both students and
professionals to develop esti mates with ease, speed
and accuracy.
A critical review of the previous work relating to
structural design economics has indicated that the
investigations were either based on records of past
completed projects or on first principles by analysis,
design and computation of quantities. The former
approach has a number of drawbacks and, in view
Approximate cost estimates for structural works are of this, the author decided to follow the more scien-
always needed for one reason or another at the initial tific approach of analysis, design and computation
design stage in the building construction industry, of quantities for structures of varying heights and struc-
and the techniques generally used for their prepara- tural systems based on the latest British Standards
tion are the percentage estimate method, the super- and Codes.
ficial or floor area method (also known as the square The information on constituent quantities is pre-
metre method) and the approximate quantities method. sented in the form of charts and the effects of design
A proper application of the first two methods requires parameters such as column grid size, number of sto-
an in-depth knowledge of historical cost information reys, location of structural components, arrangement
of completed buildings and of the effect of design of beams, grades of concrete, etc. on the quantities
parameters on the construction cost. of various constituents of concrete construction for
Information on constituent quantities of completed different structural systems have been discussed.
buildings is not readily available. Realistic estimates Using the charts presented, applications for com-
may thus require the engineer to work out different parative cost estimation to assess the effect of vari-
schemes so that the most economical one may be ous design parameters, for approximate structural cost
selected. It is time consuming and unsystematic if estimation of an overall project given its design fea-
this has to be done for every project. With these tures, for checking the estimates for structural works,
drawbacks in mind, the author has supplied the basic for calculation of quantity index for structural works,
data and discussed, in relation to commercial build- and for various other building economics studies have
ings ranging from 5 to 50 storeys, the effect of different been illustrated.
design parameters on quantities of constituents for
common structural systems, namely the reinforced Singapore, 1994 SURINDER SINGH

x
My sincere thanks are also due to Professor I.H.
Acknowledgements Seeley, formerly Professor and Head of Department
of Surveying and Dean of the School of Environmental
Studies, Nottingham Trent University, and Visiting
Professor, National University of Singapore, for en-
couraging me to initiate the writing of this book and
further for the pains he took to edit it.
I am grateful to the following consulting organis-
ations who kindly allowed the collection of relevant
data of the completed projects for case studies:

Houkehua Consulting Engineers


I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my one- Langdon Every and Seah
time colleague Professor C.K. Murthy, CKM Consult- Rider Hunt Levett and Bailey
ants Pte Ltd, Singapore for his valuable assistance Steen Consu Itants Pte Ltd
and thought-provoking suggestions throughout the
stages of research over the years during which the thank Mrs Christina Chong and Miss Frances Loh
material incorporated in this book was developed. sincerely for their assistance.
My sincere thanks are due to Professor Bill Lim, Last but by no means least, the moral support and
formerly Dean of the Faculty of Architecture and the acceptance of divided attention over the years
Building, National University of Singapore, for his by the author's family are recognised with warm
unceasing encouragement and assistance throughout appreciation.
the research investigation.

xi
List of Symbols

The symbols used in this book are as follows:

Characteristic concrete cube strength


Characteristic strength of reinforcement
Characteristic strength of prestressing
tendons or strands
Gk Characteristic dead load
Qk Characteristic imposed load
Wk Characteristic wind load
N/mm2 or}
Newtons per square millimetre
N/sq mm
kN/m 2 or }
Ki lonewtons per square metre
kN/sq m

XII
1 Introduction form work. In the absence of realistic information re-
lating to variations in the quantities of materials with
changes in sizes of column grids, structural scheme,
number of storeys and other design parameters, the
quantities assumed tend to be very approximate and
the percentage errors could be large. Where more
realistic estimates are required, the engineer works
out alternative structural schemes, and the most econ-
omical scheme consistent with the requirements is
selected after the quantity surveyor has calculated
the quantities and costs for the various schemes. It
1 .1 Background is extremely unsystematic and wasteful if structural
schemes have to be worked out and costs estimated
In a framed building, four major areas which con- every time a new building project comes up. How-
sume a substantial portion of the total project cost ever, in recent years, the emphasis on research re-
are the structural frame, architectural construction, lating to building cost techniques, especially through
foundations, and mechanical and electrical services. mathematical modelling and the availability of micro-
It is essential to explore all possibilities to achieve computers at the cost of electric typewriters, have
economy in each of these areas at the design stage, provided openings to overcome these problems.
since investigations have indicated that about 80 per Trimble and Jupp [2] at Loughborough University
cent of the project cost is committed by the time 20 of Technology developed cost models using regression
per cent of the design (sketch design stage) has been techniques for various facets of building work. Gould
completed [1]. Further, in the present age of ever- [3] produced a cost model which deals with the
increasing costs, the majority of the clients of build- capital cost of heating, ventilating and air condi-
ing projects are insisting on projects being designed tioning installations for various building types. Badby
and executed to give maximum value for money. [4], Wood [5], Baker [6], McCaffer [7], Newton [8]
Hence professionals are employed to work as a team and Schofield et al. [9] also produced cost models
to an increasing extent during the design stage. As related to the various aspects of building.
buildings become more complex and building cli-
ents more exacting in their requirements, so it be-
comes necessary to improve and refine the cost control 1.2 Aim
tools.
Cost planning and cost control are complemen- The aim of this book is to illustrate in the form of
tary. During cost planning, the commonly adopted charts, in relation to high-rise commercial buildings
approximate estimating methods for computing the ranging from 5 to 50 storeys, the effect of different
cost of structures are the percentage estimate method, design parameters on quantities of constituents us-
the superficial or floor area method (also known as ing traditional structural systems, namely the solid
the square metre method) and the approximate quan- slab and beam system, the flat slab/waffle slab sys-
tities method. A proper application of the first two tem, and the prestressed beam and slab system.
methods in practice requires, on the one hand, an Using the charts relationships, the user should be
in-depth knowledge of past historical cost informa- able to compute approximate quantities and hence
tion of completed projects and, on the other hand, the cost of the structure, given the structural scheme
a knowledge of the effect of design parameters on and other design parameters.
the construction cost. The latter, though not empha- The effect of design variables such as grid size,
sised in practice is very important, since buildings structural system/scheme, grid location, grade of con-
are not generally alike and rates have to be adjusted crete, number of storeys, continuity of structure, shear
for changes in design features. Besides, past histori- core size, etc. has been investigated by the author
cal cost information needs to be adjusted by the and is presented in this book. The above parameters,
application of the cost index which is rarely avail- in addition, facilitate a study of the effect of plan
able in the desired form, especially in developing shape and size on the building structure.
countries. The charts presented are useful for analysing the
In the approximate quantities method, cost estimates effect of the following on structural cost:
for new building works are often made by assuming
approximate quantities of concrete, reinforcement and • Variation in cost of alternative structural systems.
2 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

• Variation in cost of alternative structural schemes Table 1.1 Esti mati ng accu racy.
within a specific structural system.
Estimating method Mean deviation Coefficient
• Variation in cost due to difference in number of of estimates of variation
storeys. from tenders (%) of errors (%)
• Plan shape and plan size.
1. Cost per square metre 18 22.5
• Beam and column spacings for optimum cost.
taken from one previous
• Cost variation due to continuity of a structure project
(number of spans). 2. Cost per square metre 15.5 19
• Reduction in area of columns to increase letting derived by averaging rates
space by either increasing grid size or by using from a number of previous
projects
high strength concrete in columns.
3. Elemental estimating based 10 13
• Varying frame grid to minimise column disruption on rates taken from one
to working areas. previous project
• Computation of additional cost involved for reducing 4. Elemental estimating based 9 11
beam depths to improve aesthetics. on rates derived by averagi ng
the rates taken from a number
• Additional cost involved, if any, to provide flat slab of previous projects
so as to permit services to run in both directions. 5. Elemental estimating based 6 7.5
on statistical analysis of all
The crux of the contents of this book is therefore relevant data in the database
6. Resource use and costs 5.5 6.5
to establish cost-generating data to help students to
based on contractors'
study the effect of design variables on structural cost estimating methods
and for professionals to achieve speed, reliability
and productivity in their cost advisory performance Source: Bennett, J. Cost planning and computers. In Building
at the architectural design stage. Cost Techniques: New Directions, edited by Brandon, P.S., Spon,
London, 1982, pp. 17-26.

1.3 Approach or Choice of Methods


and slab construction, in Chapter 4 for flat slab/
The quantities of materials for any structural system waffle slab construction and in Chapter 5 for pre-
can either be computed based on the past records stressed beam and slab construction.
of completed buildings, or derived from first prin- Examples of applications of the charts generating
ciples by analysis, design and computation of quan- the quantities!cost data for decision making are given
tities. The accuracy in the case of the first method in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 discusses the observations,
depends on whether the various structural compo- trends and variations in quantities/cost, while Chap-
nents of completed buildings were designed using ter 8 illustrates the computer-based cost model for
the methods being adopted at present. Murthy (10) the reinforced concrete beam and slab system. The
investigated results based on this approach and found accuracy of charts developed is discussed in Chap-
substantial differences in quantities when consider- ter 9 after having compared the theoretical quanti-
ing similar buildings, structural schemes and design ties (based on charts) with the actual quantities for
parameters. Further, a comparison of the cost esti- some local buildings. Some additional useful data
mating accuracy of different estimation methods has for preliminary estimation is presented in Chapter 10.
indicated (Table 1.1) that the percentage mean de- It has been stated earl ier that the quantities of
viation of estimates from tenders and the percent- materials may vary considerably for the same spans
age coefficient of variation of errors are lowest in and loading, depending on the engineer who de-
estimates that are based on resource use as com- signed the structure. However, the relevance of the
pared to those based on historical cost information charts developed and presented in this book can be
[111. In order to overcome the above limitations it utilised by an engineer for assessing his own design
was decided to compute and illustrate the constitu- and by a project manager for assessing whether a
ent quantities of different structural systems, consid- structure designed is too heavy or too light. This would
ering various design parameters for commercial help to check and detect if any errors have been
buildings ranging from 5 to 50 storeys, in denomi- made in the choice of the structural system or de-
nations of 5 storeys, based on first principles. The sign calculations. It must be emphasised here that
study of the effects of various parameters on quan- the maximum benefit can be derived by using the
tities of materials is presented in Chapter 3 for beam charts at the very beginning in decision making, so
Introduction 3

that an appropriate choice of the structure can be References


made before proceeding to analyse and design the
structure. 1. Kelly, J.R. Value analysis in early building de-
sign. In Building Cost Techniques: New Direc-
tions, edited by Brandon, P.5. Spon, London, 1982,
1 .4 Scope of Study pp. 115-125.
2. Trimble, E.G. and Jupp, B.C Regression analy-
Requirements in different building types are differ- sis as an aid to estimating and controlling the
ent and hence the results of any investigation rel- building client costs. Unpublished paper, 1973.
evant to any particular type of building may not be 3. Gould, P.R. The development of a cost model
universally applicable to all types of buildings. Thus for the heating, ventilation and air conditioning
it was decided to restrict the contents to commer- installation of a building. MSc thesis, Lough-
cial high-rise buildings. Pure shear wall structures, borough University of Technology, UK, 1970.
although they are suitable for the building-heights 4. Badby, CE. Development of a cost model for
(5 to 50 storeys) considered in this book, require the external walls, internal partitions, windows
exhaustive study of their own and are not included and doors of a building. MSc thesis, Loughborough
in the studies presented here. Tube structures, tube- University of Technology, UK, 1971.
in-tube structures and other special structures not only 5. Wood, A.S. Models for estimating the cost of
require exhaustive investigations, but are also con- piped heating systems in buildings. MSc thesis,
sidered suitable for building-heights outside the range Loughborough University of Technology, UK,
covered in the book. The discussion is confined to 1976.
interacting frames and shear walls incorporating beam 6. Baker, M.J. Investigation into the cost of homes
and slab, flat slab and waffle slab, and prestressed for the aged. MSc thesis, Loughborough Univer-
beam and slab floor systems, and these account for sity of Technology, UK, 1974.
the great majority of the structural systems used for 7. McCaffer, R. Some examples of the use of re-
commercial buildings in almost all countries. Fur- gression analysis as an estimating tool. Institute
ther, generally commercial buildings are built to ac- of Quantity Surveyors Journal, UK, December
commodate offices, thus the charts have been 1975, pp. 81-86.
developed to cover such buildings. However, in certain 8. Newton, S. ACE: Analysis of Construction Econ-
countries, especially those in South East Asia, the omics. Internal Report, University of Strathclyde,
first five floors of many commercial buildings are Glasgow, April 1982.
built for shopping and the remainder for office blocks. 9. Schofield, D., Raftery, J. and Wilson, A. An econ-
Likewise, in the UK shopping use is normally con- omic model of means of escape provision in com-
fined to the ground floor or possibly the bottom two mercial buildings. In Building Cost Techniques:
floors. To cover such constructions, necessary guide- New Directions, edited by Brandon, P.S. Spon,
lines have been given in the appropriate chapters London, 1982, pp. 210-220.
on how to compute the quantities of constituents. 10. Murthy, CK. A comparison of prestressed, par-
Foundations consume about 8-15 per cent of the tially prestressed and reinforced concrete struc-
project cost. The foundation cost varies with the nature tures and comparison of structural costs and
of soil, foundation type and dead weight of the super- structural systems for some commercial build-
structure. However, since an investigation of foun- ings in Singapore. C.I. Conference on Our World
dations is an exhaustive study in itself, the topic is in Concrete and Structures, 1977.
considered to lie outside the scope of this book. 11. Bennett, J. Cost planning and computers. In Build-
In many countries, the use of British standards and ing Cost Techniques: New Directions, edited by
codes is quite common, hence for the design and Brandon, P.5. Spon, London, pp. 17-26.
analysis of reinforced and prestressed concrete struc-
tures, British Standard BS 8110: 1985 has been used
for the structural calculations needed to develop charts
in this book.
(UK) between 1960 and 1968. The buildings com-
2 Review of prised a selection of postal sorting offices, telephone
exchanges and other general office type buildings.
Previous Work Data were extracted as necessary from cost analysis
and from the drawings.
Buchanan emphasised it was unlikely that a close
description of cost could be found using only the
set of 'basic' variables and that some manipulation
of these was necessary. He thus considered that the
structural part of the model could be represented by
six basic factors - namely slabs, beams, columns,
stairways, lift shafts and structural walls - and each
Research relating to structural design economics of these could be subdivided into three cost sources:
either uses records of past completed projects or concrete, formwork and reinforcement. Expressions
is based on first principles by analysis, design and were thus derived for each component of the struc-
computation of quantities. Studies carried out using tural model in terms of design variables and were
the former approach indicate that, in similar struc- called 'derived' structural variables. Considering the
tural schemes and with specific values of design basic and derived variables, the theoretical model
variables substantial variation in the quantities of was thus taken as the cost of:
constituents exists and thus a rational comparison
of structural costs cannot be made. In contrast, slab concrete + beam concrete + column con-
the results of studies based on first principles in- crete + slab formwork + beam formwork +
dicate more scientific trends. Further, limited re- columns formwork + slab reinforcement + beam
search work has been carried out in the past, both reinforcement + column reinforcement + perimeter
nationally and internationally, on aspects of struc- conditions + craft operative's wage rate + la-
tural design economics; the scientific investigations bourer's wage rate + NHI + SET + steel cost +
described in Chapters 3 to 5 of this book have cement cost + location + bank rate
never previously been reported.
The precision of the seven-variable Buchanan's model
as a predictor can be gauged from Figure 2.1 which
2.1 General plots predicted against actual values. It can be seen
that an accuracy of +5 per cent has been achieved
Limited research work has been carried out in the when predicting high values, but at the lower end
past, both nationally and internationally, on aspects of the scale the accuracy of +40 per cent is not
of structural design economics even though there is good enough.
a Working Group W 55 in the International Council Buchanan made a good attempt at developing de-
of Building Research Studies and Documentation (ClB) rived variables for different structural components
with specific interest in all areas of Building Econ- of a frame and tried to simplify the postulated model.
omics. Research relating to structural design econ- However, his efforts are open to the following criti-
omics either uses records of past completed projects cisms:
or is based on first principles by analysis, design
and computation of quantities. The work carried out • Quantities of reinforced concrete constituents for
in the past is therefore being reviewed under the the frame were based on bills of completed build-
above headings in the sections which follow in this ings, and as such the strictness with which the
chapter. individual designer followed the required design
codes is questionable. The present author, when
dealing with historical data of completed build-
2.2 Research based on Past Completed ings, has experienced substantial differences in quan-
Projects tities of constituents under similar cases of design.
The results of Murthy's [2] investigation on this
Buchanan [1] attempted to develop a cost model aspect reinforce the views of the author and are
for the reinforced concrete frame based on the 38 discussed later.
cases of rei nforced concrete frame structures con- • Buchanan's model does not reflect the variation in
structed by the Ministry of Public Building and Works cost due to differences in the arrangement of struc-

4
Review of Previous Work 5

ings in Singapore based on their final quantities of


constituents of rei nforced concrete. To avoid the
150 ~------+-------+---~~~---4
variations in tendered rates for these buildings, he
preferred to use prevailing rates for different mate-
0
0 rials in all the buildings. This was a better approach
0
4J
100 than using the tendered rates and then applying a
w cost index to change to a certain base year for com-
=>
«
...J
parison, since the projects considered were executed
> in different years. The information on quantities and
...J
« 50 cost for the typical internal panels of multi-bay build-
=>
f- ings for the structural floor are shown in Table 2.1
U
« in order of increasing spans (average of column
spacings in two directions). The values in this table
indicate that there is a wide variation in the struc-
o tural cost per square metre of typical office floors of
50 100 150
buildings. Further, considering similar flooring schemes,
PREDICTED VALUE £000 no regular trend exists between spans and costs. From
this it can be concluded that, in similar structural
Figure 2.1 Plot of actual value versus predicted schemes and with specific values of design variables,
value showing limits of accuracy. substantial variation in the quantities of constituents
(Source: Buchanan, J.A. Development can be expected; in other words, using the above
of a cost model for the reinforced methodology of basing the comparison on historical
concrete frame of a building. MSc information, it is not possible to give a rational com-
Thesis, Loughborough University of parison of structural costs. The only rational approach
Technology, UK.) for true comparison appears to be one based on first
principles of analysis, design and computation of
tural members for a given column grid size. Singh quantities, since this allows consideration of the de-
and Murthy [3] have shown the wide variation in sign variables, which affect the quantities of con-
quantities that can occur owing to changes in the stituents.
number and spacing of secondary beams in a beam Murthy made a comparison of different structural
and slab floor system. floor systems but did not consider the effect of each
• As reported, limited tests using new and independent of these systems on columns. Because this effect was
data have been made and the results have indi- excluded from the comparison, the latter cannot be
cated a substantial variation (about 40 per cent) regarded as complete since various flooring systems
between the theoretical and actual values. This considered affect the constituents of columns differ-
shows that the developed model needs to be modi- ently.
fied. Khan and Iyengar [4] have contributed substan-
• There are a number of design variables for which tially by giving guidelines for the suitability of dif-
decisions are generally needed at the design stage ferent structural systems for various number of storeys
and which have not been considered in the model (Figure 2.2) in office buildings. They have further
developed. Some of these design variables are the considered different structural systems for up to 70
effect of different beam sections, the effect of dif- storeys (Figure 2.3). The results presented appear to
ferent grid sizes in a specific structural scheme, be very useful visually since limits are provided within
the number of storeys, the concrete grade, etc. which a particular structural system is economical.
• A wide range of buildings have been considered However, if the quantity curves (Figure 2.3) for con-
in the same sample of population selected for study, crete and reinforcement for various systems are pro-
namely postal sorting offices, telephone exchanges jected backwards, it is seen that the curves do not
and other general office type buildings. intersect even for single storey construction. This
• In the absence of proper cost index, especially as indicates that the framed tube (type IV), the tube-in-
in many developing countries, the approach adopted tube (type V) and the modular tube (type VI) systems
needs to be modified. are most economical even for low-rise construction,
and further that the shear wall (type II) construction
Murthy [2] made a comparison of structural costs is cheaper than the frame (type I) system even ina
and structural systems for some commercial build- single storey office building. This does not appear
6 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Table 2.1 Quantities and structural cost per sq m of structural floor for various buildings in Singapore.
Concrete Reinforcement Form work Total cost
Code name of building per sq m of
and description Quantity Cost Quantity Cost Quantity Cost structural
per sq m per sq m per sq m persq m per sq m per sq m floor
(cu m) ($) (kg) ($) (sq m) ($) ($)
Building E: multi-bay,
typical panel 5.26 m
x 7.92 m, reinforced
concrete (RC) beam 0.184 19.50 38.42 38.42 1.15 12.62 70.54
and slab, average of
span in two directions
= 6.5 m
Building G: multi-bay,
typical panel 8.53 m
x 6.7 m, RC beam 0.225 23.80 61.00 61.00 1.85 20.40 105.20
and slab, average of
span in two directions
= 7.62 M
Building D: multi-bay,
typical panel 10.36 m
x 8.23 m, RC beam 0.170 18.03 30.28 30.28 1.5 16.65 64.95
and slab, average of
span in two directions
= 9.30 m
Building I: multi-bay,
typical panel 10.21 m
x 10.59 m, RC beam 0.355 37.67 61.60 61.60 1.31 14.45 113.70
and slab, average of
span in two directions
= 10.40 m
Source: Murthy, C.K. Comparison of structural costs and structural systems for some commercial buildings in
Singapore. Proceedings of the Seminar on Our World in Concrete, 25 August 1976, pp. 31-50.

to be realistic. Further, it has been shown that of such factors. Murthy and Tharmaratnam [6] have
formwork and labour costs are the same in different investigated this problem and have provided guide-
structural systems, and this is again not convincing. lines in this respect, in quantitative terms.
In structural system type II, it has been assumed The results presented cannot be used for studying
that this system derives all its lateral stiffness and the effect of design variables within an individual
strength from only shear walls. This is not a good system, since neither the salient structural details
assumption from economy considerations. It is rec- adopted for any structural system are given nor are
ommended by the ACI committee that the contribu- the effects of any change in values of design vari-
tion of the frame be considered in the analysis [5]. ables presented.
In addition, the premiums for wind load resistance Khan and Iyengar have selected a non-variable base
depend on the plan shape of the building, basic wind for providing quantities of concrete and reinforcement
speeds and topography of the region, the structural for different structural systems, and for formwork and
system used and the number of spans. In the text labour, in lieu of quantities, cost in absolute currency
and the results presented, mention has not been made units per unit area is presented (converted by the au-
Review of Previous Work 7

E
80 0-

70
III
9 55.00
>
w
Ill:
:::l

-
~ 60 0 44.00
CD
Iii «
....I
33.00
~ 50 ~-----''''''''otY.Y.I all
u:: :.:
Ill: 22.00
~ 40 0
u.. ~ 11.00
o 30 :E
Ill: 70.00
Ill:

--
W 0
CD u..
:E 20 60.00
:::l E
.- ~~""=
:::: --
Z 50.00

-
0- .~
10 ..!!!.
CI
- r- ~ ",
~ ~

t::;.:o' ~ ~
:!! 40.00
,;:::.. p
--
II. v
~~
h'Y~'N.
~ 30.00
. STRUCTURAL SYSTEM U
Ill: 20.00
....
f?
z 0.00
Figure 2.2 Concrete structural systems for office iii
Ill:
0.51 _.0:

-
buildings. (Source: Khan, F.R. and
Iyengar, H.S. Optimisation approach E 0.45 ..>- ~ ~ ~ ~r-::::: --k?"'
\\1.~"L
• -
for concrete high-rise structures. In ..!!!.eO-
0.39 ~ ....... ~ ~ K~
.~ ~ f..--:: ~ f..-
Response of Multistorey High-rise .2 0.33
Concrete Structures to Lateral Forces.
F"" r""'"
~ 0.27
ACI Publication SP-36, Detroit, Ill:
~ 0.21
Michigan, pp. 61-74.) 8 0.15
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

thor into £ per unit area, Figure 2.3). This latter infor- NUMBER OF OFFICE STOREYS
mation is not a great deal of use since it changes over
time. Figure 2.3 Quantity curves for systems. (Source:
Singh [7] and Singh and Sofat [8] attempted to Khan, F.R. and Iyengar, H.S.
establish regression equations for different materials Optimisation approach for concrete
in framed residential structures based on completed high-rise structures. In Response of
buildings, and these in turn were recommended for Multistorey High-rise Concrete
approximate cost estimation, preparation of building Structures to Lateral Forces. ACI
cost indices and for materials budgeting. The math- Publication SP-36, Detroit, Michigan,
ematical equations were related to the floor area of pp. 61-74. Converted to metric units.)
the individual tenements. Then, based on the equa-
tions, nomograms were established to show the re- the whole building and no attempt was made to
quired quantities directly. This investigation was made base them on different aspects of construction such
for residential buildings but the methodology adopted as structural system, architectural work, etc. Lastly,
could well be used for other types of buildings, both the basic source of information used was quantities
for overall building as well as for individual build- in the final bills for respective completed buildings,
ing component/elements. and the effect of various design variables in differ-
It was a good idea to relate the floor area to the ent sizes of dwellings was not catered for separately.
quantities of individual materials/labour. For any given Cost analysis of completed buildings is another
floor area, overall quantities of constituents could important source of cost information for approximate
be calculated using the regression equations and the cost estimation. At present, in UK, elemental cost
former in turn could be used to compute the build- analyses are being published regularly for completed
ing cost by applying the prevailing market rates. buildings based on lists of standard elements devel-
However, the equations established in the quoted oped by the Building Cost Information Service of
works were based on a typical construction using a the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Previously,
specific set of specifications in different building el- this information had been prepared on a number of
ements, and thus it is not possible to use them for different forms and on the basis of a variety of ap-
studying the effect of any change in the design vari- proaches and element lists, which detracted from
ables. Further, the relationships arrived at were for their value for cost comparison purposes [9].
8 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Based on a cost analysis, quantity surveyors can grid size increases, although the extra structural costs
usually prepare estimates for proposed buildings by arising from increases in storey heights are relatively
employing the interpolation method since buildings small compared with those stemming from increase
are generally not alike. This appears to be logical in grid sizes. For example, increasing storey heights
except for structural elements such as frames, upper from 3 m to 4.5 m produces a 6 per cent addition
floors, roofs, stairs and shear walls, since with sim- to structural costs for single-storey buildings, rising
ple interpolation the effect of design variables on to 16 per cent for eight-storey blocks.
quantities is not automatically taken care of. Hence As far as different floor loadings are concerned,
there is a need to use means other than interpola- the Wilderness Group has shown that variations in
tion to prepare estimates for structural elements using design of floor loadings can have an appreciable
cost analysis. A rational solution for the above ap- effect on structural costs. Adopting a grid size of
pears to be the result of research investigations into 7.5 m x 7.5 m and a 3 m storey height, a compari-
the effect of design parameters on quantities of struc- son of structural costs for buildings with floor loadings
tural elements. of 2 and 10 kN/m2, respectively, shows an increase
in cost of about 20 per cent for two-storey build-
ings, rising to about 40 per cent for eight-storey
2.3 Research based on First Principles buildings for the higher floor loadings. Further in-
creases of 2 to 4 per cent occur if the storey height
The Wilderness Study Group [10] investigated the is increased to 4.5 m.
design cost relationships of a large number of hypo- The Wi Iderness Study Group investigations pro-
thetical steel-framed buildings of equal total floor vided useful guidelines in assessing the probable cost
area and similar specification, but with the accom- relationships of'different structural designs for a project,
modation arranged on one or more storeys in build- however the study made was limited to certain spe-
ings of varying shapes with varying bay sizes, column cific design parameters of steel-framed buildings of
spacings, storey heights and superimposed floor simple design with solid in situ reinforced concrete
loadings. The Study Group confined its investiga- floor and roof slabs.
tions on the functional components of roofs, floor Singh and Murthy [11] established statistical rela-
slabs, columns, beams, ties and column foundations, tionships between the quantities of constituents of
collectively termed 'the core'. The Group produced rei nforced concrete structures and floor areas for
a set of charts designed to indicate cost relation- various number of storeys and sizes of flats in Housing
ships under varying conditions of numbers of sto- and Development Board flats, Singapore. Based on
reys (one to eight), storey heights (mainly 3 to 4.5 this investigation it was reported that when the number
m), loadings (2 to 10 kN/m2) and column spacings of storeys is increased from 5 to 20, the increase in
(3 to 12 m), but all were limited to steel-framed the quantities of both the concrete and formwork is
buildings of simple design with solid in situ rein- about 19 per cent, while the increase in steel is sub-
forced concrete floor and roof slabs. stantially higher at 33 per cent. The variation in
An examination of these charts shows increasing the constituents due to the change in the sizes of
costs with the increase in grid size of columns. Adopt- flats is much smaller. The charts developed were
ing a storey height of 3 m and floor loadings of 5 found useful in making decisions about the number
kN/m 2, a comparison is made of the effect of in- of storeys at the planning stage, preparing approxi-
crease in cost due to the increase in grid size of mate cost estimates, cost indices, budgeting of ma-
4.5 m x 4.5 m to 12 m x 12 m. The increased cost of terials and for checking of estimates. Although the
the structure resulting from the above increased grid investigation was made for residential buildings, the
size in single-storey buildings is shown as 67 per methodology is equally applicable to other types of
cent, rising to over 100 per cent for eight-storey blocks. buildings.
If the storey height is increased to 4.5 m, the in- The quantities of constituents of rei nforced con-
creases in cost are less spectacular as they are par- crete structures were based on first principles by analy-
tially offset by the extra material in the extended sis, design and computation of quantities.
columns. The extra structural cost due to the more The adopted approach was considered superior to
widely spaced columns in blocks with 4.5 m storey the one based on past records of completed build-
heights rises from about 60 per cent in single-storey ings, since it allows one design variable to be varied
buildings to 90 per cent in eight-storey blocks. It is at a time while keeping the others the same in a
interesting to note that the variations in the costs of structural system.
structures due to different storey heights reduces as Bathurst and Butler [12] made a good attempt to
Review of Previous Work 9

investigate the cost of an industrialised structural frame minimal distribution of steel. In the case of rectan-
based on quantities of materials consumed and pre- gular plans, the authors concluded that the cost was
vailing market rates. They preferred this approach controlled by the length of the short span, the longer
since they believed it was useless to base cost on span not affecting the cost much.
'live' projects since the continual changes in the relative The authors followed a rational approach for the
costs of materials and labour quickly invalidate any investigation and have provided useful information
conclusions drawn from an actual design. for cost comparison, but the study has a limited scope
A formula (not presented in their book) was de- since it was carried out for simply supported condi-
vised to calculate the cost of an industrialised struc- tions and is applicable only to roof slabs.
tural frame in relation to the floor area for various A number of handbooks on building design and
modules specified by length and breadth. The gross construction provide design information for different
floor areas of the buildings ranged from 960 m2 to structural components. Merritt [14] included charts
1200 m 2 and scatter of costs per square metre of and tables which provide quantities of reinforced
floor area within this range of floor area was found concrete constituents given such design parameters
to be very erratic, making it impossible to establish as clear span of slab, permissible stress values of
a regular cost trend on the basis of gross floor area concrete/reinforcement and live load.
of building. However, a more useful yardstick was The material supplied in such handbooks has the
found to be cost related to 'density of columns' ex- following limitations:
pressed as the average number of square metres of
floor area served per column. A statistical relation- • The information supplied is for illustrative purposes
ship was then established between cost and column only and for a limited range of values.
density. • The time taken to compute the effects of various
The approach followed above is reasonable for in- design parameters is substantial and impractical
dustrial ized frames where components are of stan- at the initial decision-making stage.
dard size and there are only limited variations. • Often, using the information supplied in handbooks
However, in the case of a traditional in situ con- it is not possible to consider the effects of all the
crete frame there can be a number of variations in variables, and computations based on first princi-
each component; in beams, for example, the size of ples have to be resorted to.
beam, grade of concrete, beam category (main or
secondary), number of spans, etc. are some of the The setting up of a computer database for quanti-
parameters to be considered. Hence the approach ties and costs of structural components for different
needs to be modified to account for these variations. building configurations, structural systems, structural
Further, in the case of the traditional 1,1 situ con- schemes and structural materials based on analysis
crete frame, statistical relationships should be estab- and design from first principles would provide pro-
lished with quantities in lieu of cost, since the latter fessionals with quick access to information and a
changes with time while no significant change is rational approach to the selection of structural sys-
likely, in the former. tems/materials and the estimation of quantities/costs.
Cheema and Sood [13] carried out a cost investi- The work presented in this book is a first step in
gation of a reinforced concrete grid beam construc- this direction and the results can be updated as re-
tion both for square and rectangular plans based on quired and enlarged to include other building con-
the first principles of analysis, design and com- figurations, structural systems and materials.
putation of quantities. Grid intervals of 1.5 m, 2 m,
2.5 m and 3 m were adopted for square plans, while
a uniform grid interval of 2 m was maintained in References
rectangular plans. The grid floors had spans varying
between 4 m and 24 m and were assumed to be 1. Buchanan, J.A. Development of a cost model for
simply supported all along the boundaries. The de- the reinforced concrete frame of a building. MSc
sign was based on the Indian Standard 15:456-1978 thesis, Loughborough University of Technology,
code and the cost was computed on prevailing mar- UK, 1969.
ket rates. 2. Murthy, C.K. Comparison of structural costs and
For square plans it was shown that the quantities structural systems for some commercial build-
of constituents and cost were higher for smaller grid ings in Singapore. Proceedings of the Seminar
intervals (1.5 m and 2 m) owing to the large number on Our World in Concrete, 25 August 1976, pp.
of ribs and their steel requirement on the basis of a 31-50.
10 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

3. Singh, S. and Murthy, C.K. Economics of struc- 9. Seeley, I,H. Cost analysis indices and data. In
tural floor systems. Proceedings of Seminar on Building Economics: Appraisal and Control of
Structural Systems for High-rise Buildings Applied Building Design Cost and Efficiency. Macmillan
Research Corporation, Singapore, 19 August 1983. Press, London, 3rd edn, 1983, pp. 142-170.
4. Khan, F.R. and Iyengar, H.S. Optimization ap- 10. Wilderness Cost of Building Study Group. An
proach for concrete high-rise structures. In Re- Investigation into Building Cost Relationships of
sponse of Multistorey Concrete Structures to Lateral the Following Design Variables: Storey Heights,
Forces. Publicaton SP-36, American Concrete Floor Loadings, Column Spacings, Number of
Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1971, pp. 61-74. Storeys. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors,
5. ACI Committee 442. Response of Buildings to lat- London, 1964.
eral forces. In Response of Multistorey Concrete 11. Singh, S. and Murthy, C.K. Cost estimation of re-
Structures to Lateral Forces. Publication SP-36, inforced concrete framed structures for high rise
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1973, residential buildings. Proceedings of the Eighth ClB
pp.281-305. Triennial Congress, Oslo, June 1980, pp. 755-761.
6. Murthy, C.K. and Tharmaratnam, K. How high 12. Bathurst, P.E and Bulter, D.A. Cost research -
can we build framed structures without premium structural frames. In Building Cost Control Tech-
for wind loads? Proceedings of International Con- niques and Economies. Heinemann, London, 1973,
ference on Tall Buildings, Singapore, 22-26 pp. 134-138.
October 1984, pp. 477-483. 13. Cheema, N.S. and Sood, V.K. Cost studies of
7. Singh, S. Manpower and materials requirements reinforced concrete grid floors. Institution of Engin-
in buildings. Journal of the Institution of Survey- eers (India) Journal, Vol. 65, 1984, pp. 72-75.
ors (India), Vol. X, No.1, 1969, pp. 20-28. 14. Merritt, F.S. Building Design and Construction
8. Singh, S. and Sofat, G.c. Manpower and mate- Handbook. McGraw-Hili, London, 3rd edn, 1975,
rials requirements for framed structures. Indian pp. 10-61 to 10-63.
Concrete Journal, Vol. 15, No.3, 1973, pp. 16-
25.
structural arrangements as shown in Figure 3.1 were
3 Reinforced analysed for 5 to 50 storeys using the STRUDl [11
package on an IBM 3081 mainframe computer sys-
Concrete Beam tem. Based on the analysis the various structural
members of the building were designed using com-
and Slab System puter programs developed by the author, and quan-
tities of their constituents as obtained from the
computer print-out were used to establish statistical
relationships. loadings adopted and procedures for
the analysis of frames and the design of structural
members are explained below, followed by presen-
tation of the quantities of constituents of reinforced con-
The effects of column grid size, number of storeys, crete for different structural components.
location of structural components, grade of con-
crete, number of continuous spans and arrange-
ment of beams in structural systems on the quantities 3.2 Loading and Analysis of Frames
of various constituents of reinforced concrete con-
struction have been studied and presented in the 3.2. f Vertical Loading
form of charts for the reinforced concrete beam
and slab structural system. The charts give the re- A dead load comprising 1.2 kN/m 2 for finishes, 0.25
lationships between the quantities of each of the kN/m 2 for ceiling and 1.0 kN/m 2 for light-weight
constituents of reinforced concrete construction, partitions was considered in the analysis and the
namely concrete, reinforcement and formwork, and service loads were taken from the British Code of
each of the various parameters of the structure. Practice CP3, Chapter V, Part 1 [21. Sometimes, the
first 2 to 5 floors of commercial buildings are built
for shopping (live load 4.0 kN/m 2) and the remain-
3.1 Introduction ing for office blocks (live load 2.5 kN/m2). This trend
was not taken into account in the various structures
The solid slab, beam and column system (RC frame) of different number of storeys. However, for analy-
is an age-old structural system for reinforced con- sis purposes, only structures with office blocks were
crete for buildings, and even at the present time is considered. For structures with shopping floors, it is
still being extensively used for both low- and high- proposed that the necessary multiplying factors be
rise building structures in its original or modified computed so that the constituent quantities can be
form. Depending upon the length-width ratio, slabs calculated for any number of shopping floors in a
span either in one of the panel directions or in two building (Section 3.6). A floor-to-floor height of 3.5
directions at right angles. The column grid size varies m was assumed.
in practice and, unless there are special reasons to
the contrary, columns are arranged at regular inter- 3.2.2 Lateral Loading
vals on a square or rectangular grid.
For the low wind-speeds prevailing in london and The assessment of wind loads followed the rec-
similar locations, framed structures can be constructed ommendations of British Code of Practice CP3,
to considerable heights without any interacting shear Chapter V, Part 2 [3] based on a basic wind speed of
walls. However, reinforced concrete shear cores are 38 m/s in the context of london (UK). As an
generally used in multi-storey buildings to enclose alternative, a second case of ultimate horizontal
Iifts and other services. load equivalent to 1.5 per cent of the total charac-
The quantities of constituents of concrete are af- teristic dead load was also considered for stability
fected by a number of parameters such as column considerations (Section 3.1.4.2 of BS 8110) [4]. The
grid size, number of storeys, slab system, strength of statistical factors Sl and S3 were taken to be 1.0
concrete, number of continuous spans and dimen- and the ground roughness factor S2 at different heights
sional constraints of member components. To inves- was taken as that for a country with many wind-
tigate the effects of the above parameters three square breaks. loads due to earthquakes were not considered
grids with sides of 6, 8 and 10 metres and having since london is free from such hazards.

11
12 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

3.2.3 Method of Analysis

The method used for the analysis of a building struc- SBC

ture depends on the complexity of the structure. This


complexity may be in the floor systems or in the
lateral load resisting systems. It is generally more
economical to carry out the analysis separately for
the gravity loads and the wind loads (lateral loads). SCHEME A1 SCHEME B1

The forces on structural members also vary with


the number of continuous spans. It was therefore
decided to analyse, design and compute quantities
for five continuous spans initially and to correlate
later the effect of other numbers of spans with the
former.
The effect of torsion in unsymmetrical buildings
will not be considered in this book.
SCHEME B2

3.2.4 Gravity Load Analysis of Building


NOTATION: MB - MAIN BEAM
Frames
SB - SECONDARY BEAM
SBC - SECONDARY BEAM OVER
One-way slab - ultimate bending moments and shear COLUMNS
forces given for over three or more spans (Table 3.13,
Section 3.5.2.4 of BS 8110) were used to design Figure 3.1 Designation of structural schemes and
continuous one-way slabs, since the characteristic components (reinforced concrete slab
imposed load did not exceed the characteristic dead and beam construction).
load and the five equal continuous spans were con-
sidered.
Two-way slab - bending moment coefficients for
slab panels supported on four sides with provision
for torsion reinforcement at corners (Table 3.15 of FLOOR
HEIGHT
BS 8110) were adopted for the design of two-way
slabs.
Main beams and columns - for structural schemes
with one-way slabs (Figure 3.1), the elastic analysis FLOOR
HEIGHT
for the gravity loads was carried out by considering
a series of sub-frames, each consisting of the beam
at a typical level together with the columns above
and below assumed to be fixed at their remote ends
Figure 3.2 Sub-frame analysis for structural
from these beams (Figure 3.2). The following arrange-
schemes involving one-way slabs.
ments of loads were considered:

• Alternate spans loaded with total ultimate load loading but retaining the pattern loading as described
(l.4Ck + 1.6Qk) and all other spans loaded with above.
minimum dead load (1.0Ck). Secondary beams over columns (Figure 3.1) - similar
• Any two adjacent spans loaded with total ultimate analysis as for main beams (but with appropriate
load (l.4Ck + 1.6Qk) and all other spans loaded loading) was carried out to determine the ultimate
with minimum dead load (1.0Ck). moment and shear force values in secondary beams
• All spans loaded with ultimate load of (1.2 Gk + over columns.
1.2 q) for combining later with results of wind load Secondary beams (Figure 3.1) - for structural
analysis (1.2 Wk). schemes involving one-way slabs, ultimate bending
moments and shear forces obtained from coefficients
In the case of structural schemes involving grid given in BS 8110 for over three or more spans (Table
beams and two-way slabs (Figure 3.1), plane grid 3.13, Section 3.5.2.4 of BS 8110) were used to design
analysis (Figure 3.3) was carried out for the vertical continuous secondary beams. However, in the case of
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 13

bined together into a single frame of equivalent proper-


ties. These equivalent frames were placed one behind
the other, connected together by links (Figures 3.4
and 3.5). The links force all the frames to deflect
equally in the horizontal direction, thus simulating
the diaphragm action of the floor slab. As shown in
Figure 3.4, Frame 2 is represented by external col-
umns, interior columns and a central column which
I I I has the properties of the shear wall. The beam con-
I I I I I
-;---t-- --t---t--
I I I I
-"t"i
I
necting the interior columns and the central columns
(shear walls) was made infinitely stiff over the length
_.l __ L_ __L_.1 __
I
I
I
I
I I -f-. of the wall. The infinite stiffness for the beams was
modelled by specifying a moment of inertia which
I I I
was 1000 times higher than that of the other beams.
I I The following two cases of horizontal loads on
__ L_.1 __
the structure were considered:
I I
I I
--t"--"t-- • Wind load as calculated from CP3 Chapter V, Part
I I 2 for a basic wind speed of 38 m/s .
• Horizontal loads corresponding to 1.5 per cent of
the total characteristic dead load applied at each
Figure 3.3 Plane grid analysis for structural
floor level as given in Section 3.1.4.2 of BS 8110.
schemes involving two-way slabs (1/4
panel only).
Critical values obtained as a result of different load-
ing combinations were considered for the design of
structural schemes involving slabs spanning in two di- individual members (Section 3.3).
rections, plane grid analysis (Figure 3.3) was carried In the absence of any specific stipulation in BS
out with pattern loading for arriving at the ultimate 8110 regarding limits on lateral deflection, a value
bending moments and shear forces. of height/SO~ was adopted for the storey drift as well
Shear walls - axial load was computed at differ- as the lateral deflection at the top of the building in
ent levels considering the floor area to be supported accordance with the recommendations of the Ameri-
by shear walls. can Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 435 [8].

3.2.5 Lateral Load Analysis of Interacting 3.2.6 Shear Core Size


Building Frames and Shear Walls
Generally, services such as lifts and plenum ducts
In practice, a common assumption is to neglect the require extensive space in tall buildings, and in ad-
frame for resistance of lateral loads and assume that dition there are electrical conduits and water pipes
all the lateral load is taken by the shear walls. This to be accommodated. It thus becomes economical
may not always be an acceptable procedure with to group services together in one or more vertical
regard to frames and it is recommended [5-71 that shafts which can act as shear cores for structural
the contribution of the frames be considered in the purposes. In addition, service shafts accommodating
analysis. Structural frames were therefore assumed stairs and toilets can be used to resist vertical and
to provide lateral stability to the structure in con- lateral loads in conjunction with frames. For analy-
junction with shear walls, and thus analysis of the sis purposes the first requirement was therefore to
frames having 5 equal continuous bays was carried fix the sizes and location of shafts accommodating
out for both vertical and lateral loads. the above services.
The elastic analysis for lateral loads must be car- A survey of existing buildings was carried out with
ried out on the complete frame, because approxi- the object of relating the lift core area with the floor
mate methods are far from being accurate and the area and the number of storeys. Based on this inves-
effect of differential shortening of columns is too tigation the required relationship was established (Fig-
important to be ignored in tall buildings. ure 3.6) by considering the average lift core area as
In buildings composed of interacting plane frames a percentage of the floor area and the number of
and shear walls, groups of similar frames were com- storeys. With this it was possible to deduce the area
14 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

INFINITELY
STIFF BE AMS
rLlNKSj
A.

.....

A.
SHEAR WALL IS
REPRESENTED BY
A.
A SINGLE VERTICAL
LINE
A.

." AI,
1 x FRAME 1 "'. "'''
.I1r
Ai'
2 x FRAME 3
.- II' I.Ir In Illr
4 x FRAME 2
AI.

Figure 3.4 Link-frame model for frame-shear wall


interaction.
3.2.7 Plan Shape and Size

Force coefficient of wind (Cf ) required to convert the


dynamic pressure to equivalent static loads depends
on the plan size and overall height of the building.
Having decided upon the storey height (3.5 m) and
the number of storeys of construction (5 to 50) it
XIX XIX X eX was necessary to decide on the plan sizes of build-
ings to be analysed. These were fixed according to
the sizes of the existing and the proposed buildings
XIX XIX X X and varied from 30 m x 30 m to 50 m x 50 m for
square plans, while for rectangular plans the maxi-
mum dimensions varied from 30 m x 78 m to 50 m
x 80 m depending upon the column grid size.

, 2 2 2 3 3 2
3.3 Design of Structural Members

Computer programs were developed to design rein-


Figure 3.5 Typical symmetrical floor plan (shown
forced concrete slabs, beams and columns to con-
half) indicating building frames and
form strictly to the requirements of British Standard
shear walls.
BS 8110: 1985 with the additional capability of com-
of core for any building floor area and number of puting the quantities of concrete, reinforcement and
storeys. Based on the above relationship, shear core formwork. The above was considered essential con-
size was computed for the required plan sizes and sidering the repetitions needed for designing structural
the number of storeys of construction and, this in components and computi ng these quantities. The
turn was considered in the lateral load analysis of development of computer programs was necessary
interacting building frames and shear walls. because of their non-availability locally at that time.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 15

22. 5 considered necessary since in practice odd dimen-


sions in these respects are avoided.

3.3.2 Beams
20. 0

«
w
/ In framed buildings, the depth of a beam is gener-
ally governed by architectural considerations pro-
vided it is structurally adequate, and it is the width

V
r::
~ 17.
II: and requirement of reinforcement which are to be
o
o...J decided according to the design forces. The program
u..
~ 15. 0 / for beams was therefore developed with this in mind
V and the width and depth of each beam were to be

/
w
(!) fed as input. The program has a number of sub-
~ routines relating to different aspects of design in ac-
Z
~ 12. 5 cordance with BS 8110. For main beams, a minimum
II:
w
V width and a minimum depth based on span-width

V
II..
and span-depth ratios of 22 and 16.5 respectively
«
were adopted. A number of other beam sections were
~ 10. 0
«
w V also considered in each grid by keeping the value

V
II: of bd2 , as obtained from above ratios, the same. For
« secondary beams the width was fixed at ~ of that of
w
~ 7. 5 V main beams, while the depth was varied from ~ to 1
u of the latter. The above variations were considered
w
u for structural schemes involving slabs spanning in one
:>
II:
w direction only, while for other schemes that are sel-
(/) 5. 0 dom used in practice a span-depth ratio of 15 was
w
(!)
« maintained for both main and secondary beams.
II:
w
~ 2. 5 3.3.3 Columns

A comprehensive computer program was developed


to design both short and slender columns, and also
o. 0 axially loaded columns with and without bending
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(both uniaxial and biaxial) based on the design for-
NUMBER OF STOREYS
mulae given in BS 8110. Given the section and design
Figure 3.6 Relationship between average service forces the program checked the section and increased
core areas and number of storeys. the size, if necessary. Square column sections were
considered for interior columns in denominations of
75 mm and the elevation of exposed columns was
3.3. 1 Solid Slabs kept the same by varying the thickness for aesthetic
considerations. Further, after every 5-storey interval,
The program developed provided for slabs spanning the sections of columns were reduced where possi-
in both one direction and two directions at right ble for economy and within the same section the
angles. The coefficients given in BS 8110 for one- reinforcement was varied for each storey depending
way continuous slabs and two-way restrained slabs upon the values of forces. The maximum percent-
were used in the program. A minimum slab thick- age of longitudinal reinforcement was limited to 4.5.
ness of 100 mm was assumed.
Requirements of minimum and maximum areas of 3.3.4 Shear Walls
rei nforcement and checks for shear, deflection and
bond were incorporated into the program as codi- A minimum thickness of 150 mm was considered
fied. In addition, reinforcement spacing rules to control from practical considerations and the forces obtained
cracking were also considered. The overall depth of from the analysis formed the basis of the design.
the slab and the spacing of the reinforcement were Further, the thickness as obtained in the design for
adjusted so as to be in modules of 5 mm. This was the ground level was adopted uniformly from ground
16 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

to the top in all storeys except in the case of 50-


storey construction. This matched the usual practice
in the industry since slip form construction is com-
monly used for shear walls. The amount of rein-
forcement was however varied at each storey
depending upon the forces at that level keeping a
minimum area of I per cent from fire resistance
considerations (Section 3.12.5.3 of BS 8110). In the
case of 50-storey construction a change in thickness
at the 25th storey level was made for economic 0.190
considerations.
0.185

3.4 Quantities of Constituents 0.180

~ fcu 30 N/sq mm I
0.175 f y 460 N/sq mm
In computing the quantities of concrete for beams,
the portion of the beam common with the slab has 0.170
been included with the latter in accordance with
the Standard Method of Measurement [9]. Similarly, 0.165
in slabs, the formwork has been reduced to the ex-
tent of the plan area of the beam webs, and the ~ 0.160
«
common portion of slabs, beams and columns has
~ 0.155
been accounted for in columns. For computing the ..J
en
quantities of reinforcement in beams and slabs, sim- ~ 0.150
plified rules for curtailment of bars as given in BS E
8110: 1985 were followed. C" 0.145
..'!!.
E
0.140
3.4.1 Solid Slabs ::l

"
~ 0.135
The quantities of concrete and reinforcement per U.J
a:
u
square metre of floor area for solid slabs spanning Z 0.130
o
in one direction are shown in Figures 3.7 to 3.9 for u
different I ive loads. Further, the quantities of re- 0.125

inforcement for different spans are plotted for various


0.120
locations of slab panels, namely for interior panels,
first interior panels and for edge panels, so that de- 0.115
pending upon the configuration of the given build-
ing and the plan size the overall quantities can be 0.110
computed. Similar information is shown in Figures
0.105
3.10 to 3.12 for slab panels of different sizes span-
ning in two directions. 0.100
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
SPAN (m)

LIVE LOAD:
• 2.5 kN/sq m

• 4.0 kN/sq m

Figure 3.7 Quantities of concrete for slabs


spanning in one direction.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 17

--J
7.5

f cu 30 N/sq mm 11
fy 460 N/sq mm
7· LIVE LOAD 2.5 kN/sq m
8.75

8.50
6.5
8.25
<I:
UJ
a: 8 I-- ~ f cu 30 N/sq mm
<I: fy 460 N/sq mm
III 6 LIVE LOAD 4 kN/sq m
<I: 7.75
....J
(Jl
u.. 7.50
0
E 5.5
7.25
cr <I:
~ UJ
a:
Cl
<I: 7
~
5 III
~ <I:
Z 6.75
/
....J
UJ (Jl
~ u..
UJ
u 0 6.50
a: 4.5 E
/
0
cr 6.25
/1
u..
Z ~
UJ Cl
a: ~ 6
4
~
Z 5.75
UJ
~
UJ
3.5 u 5.50
a:

~
0
u..
z 5.25
UJ
a: 5
3

4.75

2.5 4.50
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
SPAN (m) 4.25

Panels: 4 .//
• End 3.75

3.50
:t'
• First interior 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5
SPAN (m)
!> Interior

Panels:

Figure 3.8 Quantities of reinforcement for • End


slabs spanning in one direction:
• First interior
2.5 kN/sq m.
to Interior

Figure 3.9 Quantities of reinforcement for


slabs spanning in one direction:
4.0 kN sq. m.
18 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.150

/
I
I
/
0.145

t cu 31 . N1Sq mm
fv 460 N/sq mm
LIVE LOAD 2.5 or 4.0 kN/sq m

/
0.140

II
c( 0.135
w
a:
c(
a:

I
0

/
0
......
....I
0.130 5.5
Iff ycu 30 N/sq mm I
460 N/sq mm

/
0 LIVE LOAD 2.5 kN/sq m
E

/
IT 0.125
~

V-
5
E
2 '" c(
w
a:
w 0.120 c(
I-
w 1/ a:
a: I

/
u 0 4.5

.f V·/
z
0
u 0.115
...
0
....I

...

/
0
E
IT
4
~

/ VI VL
0.110 CI
V :!

j
I-
Z
w
::i:
w
u 3.5
V
V
0.105
a:
...Z
I / VL
0

0.100 / w
a:

/
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 3
SQUARE PANEL (m) V

Figure 3.10 Quantities of concrete for slabs


spanning in two directions. 2.5 ..",
........... A
/
2
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
SQUARE PANEL (m)

Panels:
• Two adjacent
edges discontinuous
• One long or short
edge discontinuous
6 Interior

Figure 3.11 Quantities of rei nforcement for


slabs spanning in two directions:
2.5 kN/sq m.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 19

Based on the above basic quantities, relationships


were developed for framed commercial buildings
ranging from 5 to 50 storeys in denomination of 5
storeys and the results are shown in Figures 3.13
and 3.14 for concrete and formwork respectively.
Further, in accordance with Standard Measurement
practice [9], the reinforcement needed for beam
flanges is to be measured along with the slab. The
flange reinforcement was determined according to
7 the requirements of BS 8110: 1985. The overall re-
quirement of reinforcement incorporating the above
quantities of flange reinforcement is shown in Figures
6.5 3.15 to 3.17 for different panel locations.
Iffy 30 N/sq mm I
/
cu
460 N/sq mm

V
LIVE LOAD 4.0 kN/sq m
6

0.20

/
<{
w 5.5
a: GRID (m) SCHEME
<{
0.19
a:
a
a I
V
...J 5 0.18
V
u.
u. 10 x 10 B1
a
/ <{ 0.17
E w
a:

/ /
r:r 4.5

V
<{
~ a: 0.16
Cl a
~ a
...J
I- 0.15

/v
u.
Z
w / u.
a

V v/
/
4 10 x 10 A1
~
w E 0.14 8x8 B1
U r:r
a: '"
au.
z E 0.13
W 3.5 V
:::l

/
a: £ 10 x 10 B2
w 0.12
I- 8X8 A1
w
a:
u 0.11
3 z 6x6 B1

V
a
u
0.10 6x6 A1

2.5 0.09

0.08

2
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0.07
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
SQUARE PANEL (m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Panels:
• Two adjacent Figure 3.13 Quantities of concrete for slabs.
edges discontinuous
• One long or short
edge discontinuous
A Interior

Figure 3.12 Quantities of reinforcement for


slabs spanning in two direction:
4.0 kN/sq m.
20 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.890

0.885

0.880

0.875 ~
-....:
.............
~~~
~ r-

--
0.870 .........
~
~ ~ r--.-
~
<:{
w 0.865 """"""'!
a:
<:{ ~~
a:
0 0.860
0
....
u..
u.. 0.855
0
E
r::r 0.850
Je
E
r::r 0.845
~ .............
~
~
a:
0.840
'..............
0 .............
~

-- .--- ---.
-...........

--
:E ...........
a: 0.835
0
u.. -........:
~ ~ .... r-- ............
r- . . . . .
r--._
' ~
0.830
............:::
f...':::-:' ...... -....,
'~ ....,
r-_ r--....
'
0.825
... ::::::;
-
9.5
K~ ..........
0.820
9.0
GRID (m) SCHEME
0.815
8.5
<:{
w 10 x 10 B1
0.810 a: 8.0
<:{
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 a:
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0
0
....
u..
7.5
u..
GRID (m) SCHEME 0 7.0
E
• 6x6 B1 ., 6x6 A1 r::r
III
6.5 8x8 B1
Ci
10 x 10 B1 ~
G I!I 10 x 10 A1 ~
zw 6.0

Do 8x8 B1 • 8 x 8 A1 :E
w
u 5.5
10 x 10 A1
a:
0 10 x 10 B2
v 10 x 10 B2 u..
z 5.0
jjj
a: 6x6 B1
4.5 8x8 A1
Figure 3.14 Quantities of formwork for slabs.
6x6 A1
4.0

3.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.15 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs


for interior panels.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 21

10.0
GRID (m) SCHEME
9.5
10 x 10 B1
9.0
«
U.J
a::
« 8.5
a::
0
0 8.0
...J
u..
u..
0
7.5 8x8 B1
E
C'
10 x 10 A1
'" 7.0
a.
~
I- 6.5
z
U.J 10 x 10 B2
::?i
U.J
u 6.0
a::
0 8x8 A1
u..
z 5.5
W 6x6 B1
a::
5.0
6x6 A1

4.5

4.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

10.0

Figure 3.16 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs


9.5
for end panels (spanning in one
direction) and two-way slabs (two 9.0 GRID (m) SCHEME
edges discontinuous). «
U.J
a::
« 8.5
10 x 10 B1
a::
0
0 8.0
...J
u..
u..
0
7.5
E
C'
'" 7.0
a.
~
10x 10 A1
I- 6.5 8x8 B1
z
U.J
::?i
U.J
u 6.0
a::
0
u..
z 5.5 10x 10 B2
W
a:: 8x8 A1
5.0
6x6 B1
4.5 6x 6 A1

4.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.17 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs


for first interior panel (spanning in
one direction) and two-way slabs
(one edge discontinuous).
22 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

3.4.2 Beams

In different structural schemes (Figure 3.1) the beams


can be classified as main and secondary beams. In
the case of secondary beams, further classification is

,-
0.046
to be made depending upon whether or not the beams
are running over columns. This is considered necessary 0.044
since the design forces and hence quantities of con- ~--..,
'--..,
~-
stituents depend on this parameter. 0.042
The quantities of concrete and formwork for main
0.040
beams and for various storeys of construction, grid
sizes and structural schemes are shown in Figures
0.038
3.18 and 3.19 respectively. The quantities of re- "- ~
inforcement for combinations of vertical and lateral 0.036
<C( ~ I'---
loadings are shown in Figures 3.20 to 3.22 for dif- w
~ 0.034 I'--- I
ferent locations of the main beam. The basic wind
r:c
speed considered in calculating these constituents is 0
0 0.032
38 m/s. Alternative quantities of reinforcement for ...J
LL

horizontal load equivalent to 1.5 per cent of the total LL


0 0.030
characteristic dead load (Section 3.1.4.2 of BS 8110) E
in conjunction with the dead and imposed loads are ! 0.028
shown in Figures 3.22 and 3.23. It was considered
worthwhile to show the results of the above two
E
§ 0.026
-..,
'- - ~- ,-
loadings separately since in local practice many en- w
I-
w 0.024
gineers ignore the consideration of second loading. r:c
u
However for other structural systems in this book it Z
0 0.022
is proposed to consider the more severe of the two u
loadings and design the structural components ac- 0.020
cordingly. Further results are shown in Figures 3.24
to 3.31. 0.018

The size of the building affects the magnitude of


0.016
the lateral load which in turn affects the forces on
structural members and thus the quantities of re- 0.014
inforcement needed. The variation in reinforcement
for such an effect is shown in Figures 3.32 and 3.33 0.012 ---..
~- r-- ..... 1'-'""- ~
for a grid size of 6 m x 6 m and for different build-
0.010
ing plan sizes. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
The quantities of concrete, formwork and reinforce- NUMBER OF STOREYS
ment for secondary beams running over columns are
shown in Figures 3.34 to 3.38 for different grid sizes,
GRID (m) SCHEME
number of storeys of construction and structural
schemes, while the constituent quantities for secondary • 10 x 10 A1
c 8x8 A1
beams running over main beams for these respective 0 6 x 6 A1
parameters are given in Figures 3.39 to 3.43. 0 10 x 10 B2
The effect of different beam sections on the quan- l> 10 x 10 B1
tities of constituents of main beams is shown in Fig- x 8x8 B1
ures 3.44 to 3.49 for different grid sizes and struc- v 6 x 6 B1
tural schemes. Similar effects for secondary beams
running over columns are shown in Figures 3.50 to Figure 3.18 Effect of number of storeys and grid
3.52 and for the secondary beams running over main size on quantities of concrete for
beams in Figures 3.53 to 3.5.1. main beams.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 23

0.30 12.0

0.29 I-
11.5
W
-
LOADING 1.2(Gk + (\ + Wk")
I-
11.0 * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s

--
1-
0.28 10.5 GRID (m) SCHEME

0.27 « 10.0

- --
w
"----.,
'- -- a:
« 9.5
0.26 a:
0 9.0
0
...J
u..

---
0.25 u.. 8.5 6X 6 A1
«
w
0
a: E 8.0
0.24
« a-
U>
a: 7.5

--
0 0.23 C.
0 :!! 7.0
...J
I- V 8 x8 A1
-- -
u..
zw
u..
0 0.22
~
6.5 -
w
E u 6.0
a- 0.21 a: ,/
U> 0 ..........
::::: u.. 5.5
./ ~
Z
E iii 10X10 A1
a- 0.20 a: 5.0
V
.!!!
~
a: 0.19 4.5 -..-::- - - - - Broken lines indicate
0 values for gravity
~ 4.0 loading while solid
~ 0.18 lines indicate values
a: 3.5
0 for gravity plus
u.. wind loading
0.17 3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.16 NUMBER OF STOREYS

0.15 Figure 3.20 Quantities of reinforcement for main


first interior beams for different
0.14
numbers of storeys and grid sizes:
0.13
r-
loading = 1.2(Gk + Qk + W k)·
-,
0.12
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID (m) SCHEME

• 8x8 A1
0 10 x 10 A1
6 x 6 A1
"
0 10 x 10 B2
6- 8 x 8 B1
)( 6 x 6 B1
v 10 x 10 B1

Figure 3.19 Effect of number of storeys and grid


size on quantities of formwork for
main beams.
24 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

10.0
1
9.5
9.0
W ~.)
LOADING 1.2iCit + Otc +
• Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 mls

8.5 GRID (m) SCHEME

«w 8.0

«a: 7.5
10 X 10 B1
a:
0 7.0 _i:::

-
0
....I
LL
6.5

-
--- --
LL
0 10 X 10 B2
E 6.0
c-
Ol 8x8 B1
5.5
Ci
:!! 5.0
r-
-~
--' - ~
-~ -1
V 6x6 B1
zw 4.5 lL
V
~
w
u 4.0 V
a:
0 ~ ~ -1-- 1-- 1-- 1--
LL 3.5
z
iii
a: 3.0
2.5 Broken lines indicate
values for gravity
2.0 loading while solid
lines indicate values
1.5
for gravity plus 12.0
1.0 wind loading
I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
11.5
11.0
W LOADING 1.2iCit + 0;, + ~""l
•• Load based on 1.5% of lola I dead load

10.5
Figure 3.21 Quantities of reinforcement for main ~ 10.0
first interior beams for different a:
« 9.5
numbers of storeys and grid sizes: a:
0 I.-' ~ GRID (m) SCHEME
loading = 1.2(Gk + Qk + W k)
9.0
9
(continued).
LL
LL
0
8.5 ::.~ ~~
---- -- 10x 10 A1

E 8.0
c-
Ol
7.5
~ 7.0
V axa
I-
zw ..;~ '" A1

~
w
u
6.5
6.0
i'---' ~ ..:-'" "=..;. -- -- -- ~
a:
0
LL 5.5 k-" 6X6 A1
z
iii ~
V
a: 5.0
I...--"" ~
4.5

4.0
-~ -- -- -- -- -- - Broken lines indicate
values for gravity
loading while solid
lines indicate values
3.5
for gravity plus
3.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.22 Quantities of reinforcement for main


first interior beams for different
numbers of storeys and grid sizes:
loading = 1.2(Gk + Qk + W k')
(continued ).
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 25

11.0

10.5
~ LOADING 1.2(~ + 0(. + WJc""l
10.0 ** Load based on 1.5% of total dead load

9.5

<I:
9.0
UJ GRID (m) SCHEME
a::
<I: 8.5
a::
0 8.0
0
-'
u. 7.5 ./
u. 10 X 10 B1
~~
0
E 7.0 --- -- --
C'
'"
./ 10 X 10 B2

--
6.5
0.-, ~
~
0,
"7
-
:!! 6.0
~
zUJ 5.5
.........
:!: ,..- ~ ~
--- -- -- V --
UJ 8X8 B1
u 5.0
a::
0 4.5
u.
z ~
u::;
a:: 4.0
./ 6X6 B1
V
V
3.5
3.0
~ f--
-- -- -- r- -- Broken lines indicate
values for gravity
loading while solid
lines indicate values 12.0
2.5
for gravity plus
2.0 wind loading 11.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 ~ LOADING 1.21Gk + 0(. + W~)
11.0 * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 mil
NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.5

<I: 10.0
Figure 3.23 Quantities of reinforcement for main UJ
a::
first interior beams for different <I: 9.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
a::
numbers of storeys and grid sizes: 0
0 9.0
loading = 1.2(Ck + Qk + W k') -'
u.
u. 8.5
(continued}. 0 - - -f-- 10 X 10 A1
E 8.0
C'
'" 7.5
0,
:!! 7.0
f-
Z
UJ 6.5
:!:
UJ
u
a::
6.0 - - -f-- - 8 X8 A1

0
u. 5.5 ./
z
u::;
a:: 5.0
~ 6 X 6 A1

/ ~
4.5 ....- Broken lines indicate
4.0
~ -- f-- f-- -- f-- f-- values for gravity
loading while soliri
lines indicate values
3.5
for gravity plus
3.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.24 Quantities of reinforcement for main


end beams for different numbers of
storeys and grid sizes: loading = 1.2
(Ck + Qk + W k)·
26 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

12.0

11.5

11.0
K LOADING 1.2(Gk + OJ, + Wk*)
* Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s

10.5

«w 10.0
a:
« 9.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
a:
a
a
...J
9.0
u.

- - -
u. 8.5
a 10 X 10 A1
E 8.0
a-
m
7.5
C.
~ 7.0
I- 8X8 A1
Z .".;
-- -- -...,
w 6.5
~
w
u 6.0
a:
a
u.
Z
5.5
I
W L 6x6 A1
a: 5.0
,.. V
- - - - -
4.5 Broken lines indicate
~ values for gravity
4.0 loading while solid
lines indicate values
3.5
for gravity plus
11.0 3.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
W*
10.5
LOADING 1.2(Gj. + OJ, + Wj,*)
NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.0 Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s

9.5
Figure 3.26 Quantities of reinforcement for main
«w 9.0 first interior beams for different
a: numbers of storeys and grid sizes:
« 8.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
a
a: loading = 1.2(G k + Q k + W k)·
a...J 8.0
u.
u. 7.5
a
E 7.0
a-
U)
- - 10x10 B1

6.5
......
C.
~
I-
Z
6.0 --- -- -- 10 X 10 B2

w 5.5
.....,
-- - -- -
~
w 8 x8 B1
u
a:
5.0 --;
au. 4.5
)
z
W
a: 4.0 / 6X6 B1
~
~
- - - - -
3.5 Broken lines indicate
~ values for gravity
3.0 loading while solid
2.5 lines indicate values
for gravity plus
2.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.25 Quantities of reinforcement for main


end beams for different numbers of
storeys and grid sizes: loading = 1.2
(Gk + Qk + WI:) (continued).
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 27

12.0

11.5
~ LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + Wk"") ~
11.0 -H Load based on 1.5% of total dead load

10.5
GRID (m) SCHEME
« 10.0
UJ
a:
« 9.5
10X1Q A1
a:
0 9.0
/
0
....J
u.. r""'"
-
~
8.5
u..
0 --- - --
E 8.0
rr
<J)

7.5
C,
~ 7.0 L
I- 8 x8 A1
Z ~
UJ
:E
6.5
..... .......-'l
UJ
u 6.0
-- -- - -- -~
a: /
0
u.. 5.5 ./'
z
W
a: 5.0
V 6 X 6 A1

!..--'""1 V
-- - - - - -
4.5 Broken lines indicate
.... r:::- values for gravity
4.0 loading while solid
3.5 lines indicate values
for gravity plus
11.0 3.0 wind loading
10.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
~ LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + Wk"1 NUMBER OF STOREYS
10.0 * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s

9.5
Figure 3.28 Quantities of reinforcement for main
«
UJ
9.0 first interior beams for different
a: numbers of storeys and grid sizes:
« 8.5 GRID (m) SCHEME
a:
0
0 8.0
loading = 1.2(G k + Qk + W k')
....J
u..
(continued) .
u.. 7.5
0
E 7.0 .... 10X10 B1
--- - -

-
rr
<J)
6.5
C,
~
I-
6.0 -- --- 10 X 10 B2
Z
UJ 5.5 ..1
:E .,/'
I
UJ ...-' 8x8 B1
u 5.0
a:
0
u.. 4.5
~
UJ
4.0
/V 6 X 6 B1
a:

3.5 V V - - -- Broken lines indicate


values for gravity
3.0 loading while solid
2.5 lines indicate values
for gravity plus
2.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.27 Quantities of reinforcement for main


interior beams for different numbers
of storeys am::! grid sizes: loading =
1.2(G k + Q k + W k) (continued).
28 Cost Estimation of Structures In Commercial Buildings

11.0
10.5

10.0
H LOADING 1.2(Gk + ot. + WJ.*")
** Load baoed on 1.6% of total dead load
~

9.5

<t: 9.0
w GRID (m) SCHEME
!iIE: 8.5
0 8.0
0
..J
u.. ~ 10 X 10 Bl
u.. 7.5
....... ........
0 t'
E
i
7.0
- --- -- -- I--
...- i...--"
- --- -- -- --,
6.5 10 X 10 B2
c;
:!! 6.0
I-
zw V 8x8 Bl

..- V
r
5.5
~
w
u
IE:
5.0 --;
0
u.. 4.5
z /J/ 6x 6 Bl
W
IE: 4.0
V
3.5
3.0
.....- --- - -- -- Broken lines indicate
values for gravity
loading while solid
lines indicate values
2.5
for gravity plus
wind loading 12.0
2.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF STOREYS
45 50 11.5

11.0
H LOADING 1.2(Gk + ot. + Wk*")
** load based on 1.5% oftotal dead load
~

10.5
Figure 3.29 Quantities of reinforcement for main
<t: 10.0
first interior beams for different w
IE:
GRID (m) SCHEME
<t: 9.5
numbers of storeys and grid sizes: IE:
loading = 1.2(G k + Qk + W k') 0
0 9.0
(continued).
..J
u.. ........, ~
.....
-- - -
u.. 8.5 10 X 10 Al
0
E 8.0
C'
(/)
7.5
c;
:!! 7.0
I-
Z
w 6.5
/ 8x8 Al
~
w
u
IE:
6.0 - - -.,.-"
- -
0
u.. 5.5
z
W
IE: 5.0
~ 6X6 Al
V
4.5 ,... V Broken lines indicate
4.0 -- ~ -- - -- values for gravity
loading while solid
3.5 lines indicate values
for gravity plus
3.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.30 Quantities of reinforcement for main


end beams for different numbers of
storeys and grid sizes: loading = 1.2
(G k + Q k + W k')·
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 29

11.0
I
W 1-
i I
10.5
LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + Wk*")
10.0 ** Load based on 1.5% oftotal dead load

~+ ..-
9.5

9.0 r- I
t1 t-I ~-

!!~-
<{
UJ
a:: ! GRID (m) SCHEME
<{ 8.5 r-~
r~
a::
0 8.0 t----- t---
0
~-

...J
u..
u.. 7.5 r-- r--~--

0 V 10X10 B1
~
E 7.0
C" -- -- -
(/)
6.5 L
10 X 10 B2
C,
::! .... k:-::~
2
6.0
I-
Z
UJ 5.5 --~
~--.~
::iE ~ 8 8 B1
--
X
UJ
u
a::
5.0 ~ ---
0 /
u.. 4.5
z
jjj
r-- ~v

--
a:: 4.0 r--~~ r--~
6X6 B1

3.5
V Broken lines indicate
-- -- -- - -
,.-,!~ b-
values for gravity
3.0 -
loading while solid
~

2.5 lines indicate values


for gravity plus
2.0 wind loading
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 10.0
NUMBER OF STOREYS 1
~~ GRID (m)
LOADING 61.2x (G
6
k + Ok + W •k ) }
9.0
*Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
Figure 3.31 Quantities of reinforcement for main
end beams for different numbers of <{ 8.0 1
I
storeys and grid sizes: loading = 1.2 UJ
a:: i
(G k + Qk + W k') (continued).
I
<{
I r
I I
a:: I
0 7.0 I
0 I
...J
u..
u.. II
0 PLAN SIZE
E 6.0 (mxm)
C"
(/)
30 X 78
C,
::! 5.0 I ~ 30 X 54

~
I-

~
30 X 30
Z
UJ I I
::iE 1."....-: ~V
--
UJ
u 4.0
a:: ...-:::::: !<"*"
Ir"': r'"
0
u..
Z
jjj
a:: 3.0 --r--
i
2.0 J
!
I

1.0 I I I I

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.32 Effect of plan size on reinforcement


of main interior beams: loading = 1.2
(G k + Qk + W k)·
30 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.019

0.018

0.017
r-- ~
~ r-- !t- It--

-
0.016
I'-

c( 0.015
-
- r--
w I'-- r--
a::
c( r--
a::
0 0.014
0
...J
II-
II-
0 0.013
E
CT
:!:
E 0.012
.e
~

w 0.011
I-
w
a::
u
Z
0 0.010
u

--
10.0
0.009
GRID(m) 6x6 ~
1'---" ' - -
9.0 LOADING 1.2 (~+ C\ + Wk·") r--- i'-- '--
** Horizontal load baNd on
1.5% of total dead laid 0.008
(Section 3.1.2.2. CP 110)

c( 8.0
w
a:: 0.007
c(
a::
0 7.0
0
...J
II-
0.006
II- 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0 PLAN SIZE
(mxm) NUMBER OF STOREYS
E 6.0
CT
III
30 X 78
~ 5.0 ~ 30 X 54
GRID (m)
10 x 10
SCHEME

ty • B2

v-::: ~ ~
I- 30 X 30
Z
~
w • 10 x 10 B1
4.0
~
II-
~~ f" iii. 8 x 8 B1
Z
iii
a:: 3.0
v 6 x 6 B1

2.0
Figure 3.34 Quantities of concrete for secondary
beams over columns.
1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.33 Effect of plan size on reinforcement


of main interior beams: loading = 1.2
(G k + Qk + W k")·
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 31

0.1350

0.1325

~
0.1300 ~
~
~ r---..
<{
0.1275
w
a:
<{ ~
a:
0
0 0.1250 r-... ~
"" ~
"'"~
...J
LL.

'"
LL.
0
E
e- 0.1225
:g
E
~ ~
e-
2- ~ ~ r"-..

'"'""""
0.1200

"" ~ ~
~

"'"
a:
0
~
~
3.50
::E
a:
0 0.1175
~
"-
~ 0.....
LL.
GRID (m) SCHEME
3.25
10 x 10 Bl
0.1150 t'-..
3.00
"-"
~ <{

0.1125 ~ w
a:
<{
a:
2.75
0
0
...J
LL.
LL. 2.50
0.1100 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 E
NUMBER OF STOREYS
-e-
li)

CD
~
2.25 axa Bl

GRID (m) SCHEME I-


Z
~ 2.00 10 x 10 B2
• 10 x 10 B2
w
u
a:
It ax a Bl o
~ 1.75
iii
a: 6x6 Bl
'" 10 x 10 Bl
1.50 +---+-+--+-+--+-If---+---+---l
v 6 x 6 Bl

1.25 +---+-+--+-+--+-1---+----+---1
Figure 3.35 Quantities of formwork for secondary
beams over columns.
1.00 +--+-+---4--.j....-I--I-+--+~
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.36 Quantities of reinforcement secondary


beams over columns - interior
beams.
32 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

4.00

3.75

3.50 GRID (m) SCHEME

«w
~ 3.25 10 x 10 B1
a:
0
9
u.
u. 3.00
0
E
i
.... 2.75
i
I-
Z
w 2.50
::E
w
(.)
a: 8x8 Bl
0
u. 2.25
z
iii
a:
2.00 10 x 10 B2

1.75 +-+-+----+--t-+--+----l-i---t
6x6 B1

1.50 -+--+-+-+-+-+-+--+-+--1 5.00


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 4.75

4.50
Figure 3.37 Quantities of reinforcement for « 4.25
w
secondary beams over columns - a:
« 4.00
first interior beams. a:
0
0 3.75 GRID (m) SCHEME
...J
u.
u. 3.50
0
E 3.25
C" 10 x 10 81
~ 3.00
i
I-
2.75
zw
2.50
::E
w 8x8 81
a: 2.25
(.)

0
u. 2.00 10 x 10 82
z
iii
a: 1.75
6x6 81
1.50

1.25 +--+-t--t--t-+--+----l---t----t
1.00 +--+--1-+--+--1-+--+--I----!
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.38 Quantities of reinforcement for


secondary beams over columns -
end beams.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 33

0.036

0.034

0.032

0.30
0.030

0.028
0.28
«
w
a:
« 0.026
a:
0 0.26
0
...J
u. 0.024
u.
0
E
c-
0.022 «
w
0.24
o!!!. a:
E «
a:
:::l 0.020 0
~ 0 0.22
...J
w u.
I-
w U.
a: 0.018 0
u
Z E
0 c- 0.20
u
0.016 ~
E
c-
~
0.014 :.t 0.18
a:
0
~
0.012 :!!
a:
0 0.16
u.
0.010
,- ,..-r-- I'- - I'- - I'-- to--

0.008 0.14
5 10 15 20 25 30
NUMBER OF STOREYS
35 40 45 50
I- I"--1'-- ~- ..- ...- J--
GRID (m) SCHEME 0.12


0
10 x 10
10 x 10
B2
A1
• 8 x 8 A1 0.10
40
0 6 x 6 A1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 50
A 10 x 10 B1 NUMBER OF STOREYS
x 8x8 B1
v 6 x 6 B1 GRID (m) SCHEME

• 10 x 10
8x8
B2
0 A1
Figure 3.39 Quantities of concrete for secondary
• 10 x 10 A1
beams running over main beams for
different numbers of storey and grid
0
A
6 x 6
8x8
- A1
B1
sizes. x 10 x 10 B1
v 6x6 B1

Figure 3.40 Quantities of formwork for secondary


beams running over main beams for
different numbers of storey and grid
sizes.
34 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

7.0

6.5
GRID (m) SCHEME
6.0
<I:
UJ
a: 5.5 10 x 10 B2
<I:
a:
a
a
....I 5.0
U.
U.
a 4.5 10 x 10 B1
E
.,C' 10 x 10 A1
4.0
Ci
~
I- 3.5
z
UJ ax8 B1
::!: ax8 A1
UJ
u 3.0
a:
au. 6x6 B1
z 2.5
6x6 A1
ijj
a:
2.0

1.5

1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

7.0
Figure 3.42 Quantities of reinforcement in first
6.5
interior secondary beams.

6.0
<I: GRID (m) SCHEME
UJ
a: 5.5
<I: 10x10 B2
a:
a
a
....I 5.0
U.
U.
a 4.5
E 10 x 10 B1
.,
C'
4.0
Ci 10x 10 A1
~
I- 3.5
z
UJ
::!:
UJ
ax a B1
3.0
u
a: ax a A1
au.
z 2.5 6x6 B1
ijj 6x 6 A1
a:
2.0

1.5

1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.41 Quantities of reinforcement in interior


secondary beams for different
numbers of storey and grid sizes.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 35

0.028

0.027
t-- r-- r--
0.026 I'--

-- r--. r---,
t-- ""-

-
0.025
r-- r-- i'--IL
0.024
I'-- I"'"-.
I'-- it--

- r---
0.023 ~
r-- r---
r-- r-- P- r-- 1'---
« ~
w
a:: 0.022
r-- -
- -- -- ----
« ~ r-- ~
a::
0 0.021
r-- r-- r--
r-
......
0
r-- '-- '--
....I

0.020
0
E
C' 0.019
~
E 0.018

---.
::J
.2
w 0.017
I-
'-- -.. '--. ~
r-
-.., ..-.
w
a::
u 0.016
z
0 ~
u
0.015

0.014
7.0
0.013
6.5
GRID (m) SCHEME 0.012
6.0
«w 0.011
«a:: 5.5 10 x 10 B2
a:: 0.010
0 5 15 40
10 20 25 30 35 45 50
......
0 5.0
....I
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0
4.5

..
E
C'
4.0
10x 10

10 x 10
B1

A1
GRID (m)/ BEAM
SCHEME SECTION (mm) • 10 x 10 B1 450 x 670
C.
:!! A 10 x 10 B2 695 x 540 A 8 x 8 B1 445 x 495
I- 3.5
zw
8x8 B1 0 10 x 10 B2 560 x 600 0 8 x 8 B1 360 x 550
::l1
w 3.0 8x8 A1
u x 10 x 10 B1 695 x 540 )( 8 x 8 B1 300 x 605
a::
...0z 2.5 6x6 B1 v 10 x 10 82 450 x 670 v 6 x 6 B1 270 x 400
iii 6x6 A1
a::
2.0
• 10 x 10 B1 560 x 600 • 6 x 6 B1 225 x 440

1.5 Figure 3.44 Effect of beam section on quantities


of concrete for main beams.
1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.43 Quantities of reinforcement for


secondary end beams for different
number:; of storey and grid sizes.
36 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

12

11
ilOADING 1.2( Gk + OJ, + Wk">
* Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
l BEAM
GRID (m)1
SCHEME SECTION
(mm)
10
0.144

-' .....- 10X1081 695 X 540

0.142 t'-.."'C «
UJ
II:
9
« 10x1081 560 X 600

~~ -~
II:
g8
N ~"
0.140 ..J
~ u..

l'--. u.. 10x1081 450 X 670

'" N ~ "- ~
o ,....-;~
0.138
~ E 7
11
I
~ C,

""""~"
~ 0.136 :!! 6
~~
I-

~~
270 X 400

~
II: 6 X 6 81
« Z

./
UJ
II:
g 0.134 ~ ~
UJ

V
N
u 5 I-
........... ~ II: 6 X 681 225 X 440
~

,: '"
ou..
v'
..J

~ r....
u..
~
"-
u.. Z
o 0.132 :::".. ......... A

""'"
~ 4
~
"~ ~
E
~ ""'" '-"'" ~
~
C'
.!!!. ~
E ~ ~
'---' ~

""
0.130 3
~
~~ ~
C'
~
:.;:
~ 0.128
t-.... ~ ~
'" ~ ~
~"- ~ "-
2
:=~ 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
II:
ou.. r... ~,

'"
0.126

~~ ~
~
Figure 3.46 Effect of different beam sections on

'"~ ~
0.124
quantities of reinforcement for main
~ interior beams: loading = 1.2(G k +
~ wiJ;
""
0.122 Qk + 6 x 681;10 x 10 81.
~
0.120

0.118 -
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID (m)1 BEAM


SCHEME SECTION (mm) • 8 x 8 B1 360 x 550

A 10 x 10 B2 450 x 670 A 8 x 8 B1 445 x 495

0 10 x 10 B2 695 x 540 0 6 x 6 B1 270 x 400

)( 8 x 8 B1 300 x 605 )( 10 x 10 B1 450 x 670

v 10 x 10 B2 560 x 600 v 10 x 10 B1 695 x 540

• 6 x 6 B1 225 x 440 • 10 x 10 B1 560 x 600

Figure 3.45 Effect of beam section on quantities


of formwork for interiorlfirst interior
main beams.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab Systems 37

12.0
LOADING 1.21Gk + OJ. + Wk"*) GRID (m)1 BEAM
11.5
11.0
I ** Load based on 1.5% of total dead load
I SCHEME SECTION
(mm)

10.5 10x10B1 695 X 540


V
10.0
~
,...... ,,/

<
UJ
9.5
10x10B1 560 X 600
a:: .J
< 9.0
~
a::
0 ./
0 8.5 ~~
-'
u..
u.. 8.0 10x10B1 450 X 670
V
_........
0
E 7.5
C"

--en
CI)
7.0
~ 6.5
I-
z
UJ 6.0
~
UJ
6 X 6 B1 270 X 400
u 5.5
a::
0
u.. 5.0
V 6 X 6 B1 225 X 440
z
W
a:: 4.5
t' /
~ ./V
i>'"
9.0
4.0 ;....-
...... ..........
{LOADING 1.21~
+ OJ. + Wk") ,~ GRID Im)/ BEAM 3.5 ,-
8.5 * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s SCHEME SECTION
Imm) 3.0

10 X 10 B2 695 X 540 2.5


8.0 ~ 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

< 7.5
UJ
a:: Figure 3.48 Effect of different beam sections on
<
a:: 10x10B2 560 X 600 quantities of reinforcement for main
g
-'
7.0
~
interior beams: loading = 1.2(G k +
u..
u..
o
Qk + Wk'); 6 x 6 B1; lax 10 B1.
E 6.5
g- 10 X 10 B2 450 X 670

~ ~ 8x8B1 445 X 495


.....-
~
;: 6.0
zUJ
~
UJ
&! 5.5 8x8B1 360 X 550
ou.. ..........
Z .......... ~
V
~ 5.0
8 X 8 B1 300 x 605
....? ~ ~
4.5

4.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.47 Effect of different beam sections on


quantities of reinforcement for main
interior beams: loading = 1.2(G k +
Q k + WiJ; 8 x 8 B1; lax 10 B2.
38 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

10.0

9.5 -1 LOADING 1.2(Gk + Die + WJc*,,)


•• Load based on 1.5% of total dead load
t- GRID (m)1
SCHEME
BEAM
SECTION
(mm)

9.0 10 10 B2 695 540


.., ("" V
X X
«w
«
a:
a:
8.5
~
..- 0.042
0

-
0 10 X 10 B2 560 600 0.040
8.0
r-- r-- r--
X

V
....I
u..
r--- ~
- ---
u..
0 ~
7.5 0.038
E
10 X 10 B2 450 X 670
c- Ii-- P--

-
Ol

t::
7.0 0.036
C.
:!!
V V 8 X 8 Bl 445 X 495
-)

--
~
z 6.5
~
0.034

-
;.u
::?! 8 X 8 Bl 360 X 550
w 6.0 0.032
u ......
a:
0
u.. I000o'' '"'
V «
Z 5.5 ~ 0.030
iii
a:
~ 8 X 8 B1 300 X 605 «
5.0 ~ ga: 0.028
~ ~It" ....I
u..
4.5 u.. 0.026
o
4.0 E 0.024
C-
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 .!!?
NUMBER OF STOREYS E
:>
0.022
2
~ 0.020
Figure 3.49 Effect of different beam sections on w
a:
quantities of reinforcement for main ~ 0.018
interior beams: loading = 1.2(G k + o
u
Qk + Wk'); 8 x 881; 10 x 10 82. 0.016

0.014

0.012

0.010

0.008

0.006
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID (m)1 BEAM • 10xl0Bl 335 x 670


SCHEME SECTION (mm)
A 8 x 8 Bl 340 x 495
A 10 x 10 B2 515 x 540 0 8 x 8 Bl 275 x 550
o 10 x 10 B2 420 x 600 x 8 x 8 Bl 225 x 605

x 10 x 10 B2 335 x 670 v 6x 6 Bl 245 x 360


v 10 x 10 Bl 515 x 540 • 6 x 6 Bl 200 x 400

• 10 x 10 Bl 420 x 600 • 6x 6 Bl 165 x 440

Figure 3.50 Effect of different beam sections on


quantities of concrete for main
interiorlfirst interior beams over
columns.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 39

6.1
GRID (m)1 BEAM
5.7 +--+-+--+-f---+--+-+--+--I SCHEME SECTION
(mm)

5.3 ~~~~~--~~--.--.--.--tl0xl0B2 515x540


<
UJ
a:: 4.9
0.29 <
a::
0 10 x 10 B2 420 x 600
0.28 0 4.5
...J
u.
U. lOxl0Bl 515 x 540
0
0.27 4.1 lOx 10 B2 335 x 670
E
C"
Ol

0.26 3.7
C, 8 x 8 Bl 420 x 600
::!
f- 3.3
0.25 z
UJ 10xl0Bl 335 x 670
:2
UJ
0.24 u 2.9
a::
< 0
u. 8 x 8 Bl 340 x 495
UJ
a:: 0.23 z 2.5
< jjj
a:: 8 x 8 Bl 275 x 550
a::
0 0.22 2.1 8 x 8 Bl 225 x 605
0
...J 6 x 6 Bl 245 x 360
U.
u. 0.21 1.7 6 x 6 Bl 200 x 400
0
6 x 6 Bl 165 x 440
E
C" 0.20 1.3 +--+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--1
-"!. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
E 0.19 NUMBER OF STOREYS
C"
~

a:: 0.18
~

0 Figure 3.52 Effect of different beam sections on


:s: quantities of reinforcement for interior
:2 0.17
a::
0
u.
secondary beams over columns: 6 x
0.16 6 B1; 8 x 8 B1; 10 x 10 B1; 10 x
10 B2.
0.15

0.14

0.13

0.12

O.ll· .....- .....-I--I-~I---iI---!---1--+--f


5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID (m)1 BEAM


SCHEME SECTION (mm)
• 8 x 8 Bl 275 x 550

'" 10xl0Bl 335 x 670


6 10 x 10 B2 335 x 670 0 8 x 8 Bl 340 x 495
0 10 x 10 B2 420 x 600 x 6 x 6 Bl 200 x 400
x lOx 10 B2 515 x 540 v 10xl0Bl 420 x 600
v 8 x 8 Bl 225 x 605 • 10xl0B1 515 x 540

• 6 x 6 B1 165 x 440 • 6 x 6 B1 245 x 360

Figure 3.51 Effect of different beam sections on


quantities of formwork for interiorlfirst
interior secondary beams over
columns.
40 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.046 """''''''''-''''''''"''T"-r--'''T''"""'''T-'T''""-r--,GRID (m)1 BEAM


SCHEME SECTION
0.044 +--+-+--+----i-+---t--t----t---t (mm)
0.042 10 x 10 B2 515 x 540
0.040 10 x 10 B2 420 x 600

0.038 +-+-+--+---+-+--+-+-+----1
......._~-+-.....- .....-+_._+--t10x 10B2 335x670
0.036 +--+-+--+-+---+--+-+--+-----1
0.034 -+---+-+--+-+---+--+--t----t------I

~ 0.032 +-+----1f-----t--+-+-+---+--t-----t
<
:s 0.030 +-+-+--+-t----+--I-+--+-----t
9
...... 0.02a +--+-+--+-+---+--+-+--+-----1
~ 0.026
II 0.024 +--+-t--+----t-+--+---t-t---1
E 0.022 +--+-+-+--+-t----+--+-1----1

i :::~:~::;::;;;t::t~;;;~;t~~
::I

10 x 10 B1 515 x 540
10 x 10 B1 420 x 600
~ 0.016-t:::t~~t::::t:~:::t=:t:=t~ 10 x 10 B1 335 x 670
u axa B1 340 x 495
0.014 . .-tjI-IIt-....- i t -...-tIo-~~--tt: axa B1 275x 550
axa B1 225x 605
0.012 +--+-+--+----i-+---t-+----t---t
GRID (m)1 BEAM
6x6 B1 245 x 360 SCHEME SECTION
0.010 t=!;::;!:!=~!====!::!=! 6x6 B1 200 x 400
0.29
(mm)
o.ooa +--+-t---+--+-1---+---+-+----1 6x6 B1 165 x 440 1OX10B2335x670
0.2a
0.006 +-+~r--+--+---+-+-+-+---l 10x 10 B2 420x600
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0.27 10 x 10 B2 515 x 540
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.26

0.25
Figure 3.53 Effect of different beam sections on <
w
quantities of concrete for interior and
!1i 0.24
a:
first interior secondary beams. o 0.23
9
...
...
o
0.22

E 0.21
II 0.20
E 0.19
!:..: 0.1a
a:

~
0.17

a: 0.16
...o 0.15
axaB1 225 x 605
0.14 6x6B1 165x440
axaB1 275 x 550
0.13 10x10B1335x670
axaB1 340 x 495
0.12 6 x 6 B1 200 x 400
10x 10 B1 420x600
0.11 10x10B1515x54O
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 506x6B1 245 x 360
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.54 Effect of different beam sections on


quantities of formwork for interior
and first interior secondary beams.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 41

B.2 0.090

7.B 30 N/sq mm
GRID (m)/ BEAM
0.OB5
~ f,"

/;
SCHEME SECTION fy 460 N/sq mm
<{ 7.4
w (mm)
a:
<{ 7.0
10 x 10 B2 515 x 540 O.OBO

VI/.
a:
0
0 6.6
...J
u..

II If
u.. 6.2 0.075
0 10 x 10 B2 420 x 600
E 5.B

~ VI
0-
U)
10x10B1 515 x 540 0.070
..... 5.4 10x 10 B2 335 x 670
0,
<{
:!! 5.0 10x 10 B1 420 x 600 w
t- a: 0.065
I
~ V~
Z <{
w 4.6
~ a:
w 10x 10 B1 335 x 670 0

ILrL V/;
u 4.2 0 0.060
a: ...J
0 u..
u.. 3.B u..
z 0 0.055
iii a x B B1 340 x 495

VIL ~
a: 3.4 E
a x a B1 275 x 550
3.0
0-
..re 0.050 .L
~ "I-V
a x B B1 225 x 605
2.6 6 x 6 B1 245 x 360 E

r
:::I
6 x 6 B1 200 x 400 2
2.2 w 0.045

~ rfL
6 x 6 B1 165 x 440 t-
w
1.B a:
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 u 0.040
50 z

Ii ~ ~
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0
u
0.035

~
Figure 3.55 Effect of different beam sections on
0.030 ~
I)
quantities of reinforcement for
secondary interior beams.
0.025

0.020
ldV
0.015
V
3.4.3 Columns 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
The quantities of constituents for the interior column
of different grid sizes and structural schemes in terms GRID (m) SCHEME
of concrete, formwork and reinforcement are shown l> 10 x 10 B1
in Figures 3.56 to 3.58, while for the exterior and BxB
0 B1
corner columns the same parameters are shown in
Figures 3.59 to 3.61 and Figures 3.62 to 3.64 re- v 10 x 10 A1

spectively. • 10 x 10 B2
The use of higher grades of concrete helps in re-
ducing the section of the column and this in turn • axB A1

yields more usable space. This effect was studied for x 6 x 6 B1


different grid sizes and structural schemes and the 0 6x6 A1
results in terms of concrete, formwork and reinforce-
ment are shown in Figures 3.65 to 3.67, Figures 3.68
to 3.70, Figures 3.71 to 3.73 and Figures 3.74 to Figure 3.56 Quantities of concrete for interior
3.76 for grid sizes of 6 m x 6 m, 8 m x 8 m, 10m columns: feu = 30 N/sq mm 2 •
x 10m (Scheme 81) and 10m x 10m (Scheme 82)
respectively. Similar results for exterior and corner
columns are shown in Figures 3.77 to 3.79 and 3.80
to 3.82 respectively.
42 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

In
0.32 30
I I
0.3 1 M I
feu 30 N/sq mm I
L W feu 30 N/sq mm I
VI
fy 460 N/sq mm 28 f y 460 N/sq mrr
0.30
j '/
I VI
0.29
1/ V 26

J '/
0.28

JIfj~V
24
0.27
/)
7, 7 /
Iii~LII
0.26 22
<
w
<
w 0.25 a:
a:
< j 'j /
<

'/V/
a:

~VI
20
a: 0.24 0
0
0 l/ ~
V 0
...J

:/
~

V
0.23
V
...J

VIVI
18
/
~ ~

~ 0
0
Vj /
0.22
/
E
E J
II VI
C"

V
16
C" 0.21
j! V
~
V
~
/ / ~ CI
::!
E 0.20
/ /./ /

'1/ I)V
~~
I- 14
C"
!! j// z
w
0.19
:.!
a:
0 ~/
/
~/ / ~~
::!:
w
u J
:=:::E
L 1/ / / I/;II /
0.18 a: 12

a: 0.17 / ~~
0
~
z
0
7/ / ./' / ~ w

i ~1/
~
a: 10
0.16
V V / W
7
0.15 8

0.14
V
/
~
~
~ ~V
V
--L 6
0.13

0.12
V ~rr
~~
4
0,11 .,..~ ~
/

0.10 2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID (m) SCHEME GRID (m) SCHEME


10 10 Bl
'" 6x6 Bl '" X

!J 6x6 Al 0 10 X 10 A1

10 10 B2
V 8x8 Bl " X

• 8x8 Al • 8 X 8 B1

• 10 X 10 Bl • 8 X 8 A1

X 10 X 10 Al X 6 X 6 B1

0 10 X 10 B2 !J 6x6 A1

Figure 3.57 Quantities of formwork for interior Figure 3.58 Quantities of reinforcement for
columns: feu = 30 N/sq mm 2 • interior columns: feu = 30 N/sq
mm 2 .
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 43

0.050 0.24

0.048 --, fcu 30 N/sq mm I 0.23 H 30 N/sq mm /


/
fcu
/
0.046 /
0.044
/ 0.22
/.,.-
/ / 0.21
0.042
I II 0.20
/
/ !v /
0.040
< < ~
V (I
w

V
w

/
a: 0.038 a: 0.19
< <
a: a:
0.036
,; 0
I V /
0 0.18
~
0 0
/ ....I

/
....I

/ II V
u. 0.034 U.

/
0 0.17
a:
/
0

/ //
a: 0.032 (!)

//' I /
(!)

I
u.
0 0.16

/
u.
0
V ~
.1 II
0.030
E E
,g 0.15
/
'i
/
./
C'
.!!? 0.028
E h .j
/ E
C' 0.14 - L
/
0.026
.e"
I If I ~
~
w
I- 0.024
~
a: 0.13 - /
II /
w 0
a:
u
z 0.022 / ~
~ ~ / ~
II. '/ V
0 a: 0.12

'/ ~
u 0
u.
0.020
/'
/) // / 0.11
0.018

/: W: V 0.10 / ~
0.016
~V /o~
lY.
0.09
0.014

0.012 V 0.08

0.010 0.07 -
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID (m) SCHEME GRID (m) SCHEME

Bl
'" 10 x 10 Bl
'" 6 x 6

a 10 x 10 B2 0 8 x 8 Bl

v 8 x 8 Bl v 10 x 10 Bl

• 6 x 6 Bl • 10 x 10 B2

Figure 3.59 Quantities of concrete for exterior Figure 3.60 Quantities of formwork for exterior
columns: feu = 30 N sq mm 2 . columns: feu = 30 N sq mm 2 •
44 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

16 0.027

15 f--.l feu 30 N/sq mm I


0.026
W feu 30 N/sq mm I J
~ I
0.025 f y 460 N/sq mm

VI
14 0.024

If// 0.023
13

jj / 0.022
/ II
II l
hrr /
c( 12
0.021
'/ /
w c(
cc w
CC
c(
c(
cc

1/ I
11 0.020
0
0
CC
0
0 / I /
II /
~
u.. ~ 0.019

;J " /
10 u..
c c 0.018
/ VI
ii:
CI CC
/
Jr !
CI
u.. 9 u.. 0.017
1/1 /
0
0
E E 0.016 /
JCl/ /
C"

ji
8 C"
~ V ~
E
CI
~
I- 7
J ::l
0.015
7/V /
zw
~
w ~
~
J
V ~
w
I-
w
0.014
I 'II /
u CC 0.013
// V
f
6 -/
cc
0
u..
A
/ u
Z
0.012
/ f/ /
Z 0

It
U
W 5
cc
/ 0.011
J // /
4
V 0.010
/h V/ /
~
0.009

~ (/ /
3
,/
0.008
2 V /
0.007
/
1 0.006
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID (m) SCHEME GRID (m) SCHEME


A 10 x 10 Bl
6 10 x 10 Bl

0 10 x 10 B2
0 10 x 10 B2

V 8x8 Bl
v 8 x 8 Bl

• 6 x 6 Bl • 6 x 6 Bl

Figure 3.61 Quantities of reinforcement for Figure 3.62 Quantities of concrete for corner
exterior columns: feu = 30 N/mm 2• columns: feu = 30 N/mm 2 •
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 45

0.125 8.5

0.120
1 1 J
.1
II
8
/V
feu 30 N/sq mm feu 30 N/sq mm
f y 460 N/sq mm f y 460 N/sq mm
0.115
/ 7.5

0.110
/
/
7
J.W
/
0.105

/
y !!JV /
/(f /
c(
c( 6.5
w
w 0.100 ~ a:
a:
c(

/ / c(

II
a: 6·
a:
L'1 0 II

V
0 0.095 0
0
.....
u.. V .....
u..
I
/
/
5.5

!JV
0
0.090

V
0
V ~
~
CJ
/ ,/ CJ
u..

1/
u.. 0.085 0 5
0
E V /
V
/ V E
C7 I
;) V
0.080
~ 4.5
/ /
C7
~ V Cl I
E
0.075 /' ~

YV
C7 I-
V

"if /
~ zw 4
~
a: 0.070
y
/' ~

V/
w

iI /
0 u 3.5
~
~
0.065 / a:
0
u..

/'t'
a:

/ /
0 Z

v:/ ./
u.. w 3
V
~ f/
a:
0.060

v: fL
2.5
0.055 V
2 J
~t'
0.050

0.045
V/ / 1.5
.All
V ~
0.040 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID (m) SCHEME GRID (m) SCHEME


I> 6 X 6 B1 I> 10 X 10 B1

0 8 X 8 B1 0 10 X 10 B2

V 10 X 10 B1 V 8x8 B1

• 10 X 10 B2 • 6 X 6 B1

Figure 3.63 Quantities of formwork for corner Figure 3.64 Quantities of reinforcement for corner
columns: feu = 30 N/mm 2 • columns: feu = 30 N/mm 2 •
46 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.070 0.32

/ 0.31
H GRID (m) 6 x 6 I
r
j
H GRID (m) 6 x 6 SCHEME B1

W
0.065
SCHEME B1 I 0.30

~
/)
0.060 0.29

0.28 II J
V V
}V V
0.055
A

rV VI /
«w «
w
0.27
a:
a: 0.050 «
« a: 0.26
a:
0
0 /
0
0
...J
u. 0.25
j /
J.b1 /
/(1 /
...J
u. 0.045
u.
u. 0
0

III /
E 0.24
E

V/
0.040 C"
C"
!!: !!:
E 0.23
~ V/
E C"

WV
::l o!!

Wi V
2 0.035 0.22
~
w a:
I- 0
w

1 f7
a: ~ 0.21
u ~
z 0.030

~V
a:
0 0
u u. 0.20
){j
V
0.025 0.19

~ ~ff; I
!JV
0.020 / 0.18

~
~

W
0.17
0.015
0.16
IV
0.010 - 0.15
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRADE OF GRADE OF
CONCRETE CONCRETE

A 30 A 30
0 35 o 35

• 40 • 40

Figure 3.65 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.66 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of concrete for interior quantities of formwork for interior
columns: 6 m x 6 m; Scheme B1. columns: 6 m x 6 m; Scheme B1.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 47

26 0.090

24 .J GRID (m) 6 x 6
SCHEME B1 l 0.085
H GRID (m) 8 x 8
SCHEME B1
I
J
0.080 I
..L
/
/
22

/ /
0.075

/
20

/ JV
0.070
/
«
w
«
V /;
a: 18 0.065
« 1/

~
w

/
a:
a:
0
«

Lrt /
0 a: 0.060
16
V
0
V
...J

~
u. 0
U. ...J
U.
0
/ 0.055

jVi V
u.
E 14 0

~
C"

V kf~ E
0.050

VL ~
C"
CI
-!!!.

Vkf
~ j
12
..... E
zw ::> 0.045
.e
~
w 10 w
~~
~ If
u .....
w 0.040
a:

/ ty~
a:
0 u
u. z
z 0 0.035

0
w 8 u

/~
a:

0.030 /
V
rf 1~
6

~
If:V
0.025
4

~~
0.020

2 ~
0.015
V
o 0.010 -
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 lO 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRADE OF GRADE OF
CONCRETE CONCRETE

t. 30 :. 30
0 35 o 35

• 40 • 40

Figure 3.67 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.68 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of reinforcement for interior quantities of concrete for interior
columns: 6 m x 6 m; Scheme B1. columns: 8 m x 8 m; Scheme B1.
48 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.27 32

---i GRID 1m) 8 x 8 I H GRID 1m) 8 x 8 .L


I'
0.26 30
SCHEME B1 I SCHEME B1 J
0.25 28

I I /
tL
0.24
V 26

0.23
/ L V
VI ~ / /
24

i /;V
0( 0(
w 0.22 w
a:: a:: 22
0(

L J
0(
a:: 0.21 a::
J
J ~V
0 0
20

VVV
0 0
...J ...J
IL
IL

V
0.20 IL

I, V V
IL
0 18
)V J
0
E E

VIVj
IT 0.19 IT
~ 16

LL
~

i
CI
E :!!
!
/ VI
0.18 I- 14

VL ~L
Z
:w: w
a:: :::E
0 0.17
V;; V
w
u 12
V V
lL VL
~ a::
:::E
a:: ) 0
IL

V) V
0 0.16 Z 10

£ VJ
IL w
a::

II)V;I
0.15 8
V
0.14 6 ~~

0.13
~~
V
4 ~V
V
0.12 2 ~
0.11 o
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRADE OF
CONCRETE GRADE OF
CONCRETE
A 30
A 30
o 35
o 35
• 40
• 40

Figure 3.69 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.70 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of formwork for interior quantities of reinforcement for interior
columns: 8 m x 8 m; Scheme B1. columns: 8 m x 8 m; Scheme B1.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 49

0.095 0.22

0.090
.-1 GRID (m) 10 x 10 I
I
~ GRID (m) 10 x 10
SCHEME B1
I
V
SCHEME B1 0.21

0.085

I/ / V~
0.20
0.080

j i
/ r;l;
0.075 0.19

/ /1
J LV
0.070 <t

V
<t w 0.18
w

/ v~
rc rc
<t

VI tL
<t 0.065
rc rc
0

~V
0 0 0.17
0

/W
0.060 ...J
...J
u.. u..
u.. u..
0 L
v;;V
0

I~ V
0.16
0.055 E
E
C"

~
C"
0.050 J ~

VI V ~V
E E 0.15
C"
2'" 0.045
~

/~
~
w

WV
I- rc 0.14
w 0
rc ~

J t:'l
0.040
u
z ~
rc
0 0 0.13

j,~
u 0.035 u..

~V
IfV
0.030 0.12

0.025 j) ~
l/V 0.11
0.020

0.015
V 0.10 ~
V
0.010 0.09
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRADE OF GRADE OF
CONCRETE CONCRETE

.!l. 30 .!l. 30

o 35 0 35

• 40
• 40

Figure 3.71 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.72 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of concrete for interior quantities of formwork for interior
columns: 10 m x 10 m; Scheme B1. columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B1.
50 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

32 U.U!l5

- - { GRID (m) 10 x 10 I ~ GRID (m) 10 x 101


30
SCHEME B1 I 0.080 - SCHEME B2

/ ~
/
28

!j
0.075

/ I
26

!J
0.070
/
24
I 7 /
/
;,f/ /
0.065
«w ), «w
// /
a: 22
« a:
«

1/II
a: 0.060
0 20 a:

I II /
0 0
..J
u.. 0

/) 1//
..J
u.. u.. 0.055
0 18

V/ fI u..
E
V 0
I E

71V V ;:VJ
C"
C" 0.050
~ 16
Ol ..!!? V
::! E

/77
I- 14

!j /
z :l 0.045
w .£
~ w
w I-

VI /
u 12 w

~!
a: a: 0.040
0 u
u.. z
z 10 0
u

~~
Y
w

j
a: 0.035

~~ 0.030
6

/~
J~
~ V-
0.025
4

~
I'
0.Q20
2

o 0.015
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRADE OF GRADE OF·


CONCRETE CONCRETE

30 A 30

o 35 o 35

• 40 • 40

Figure 3.73 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.74 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of reinforcement for interior quantities of concrete for interior
columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B1. columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B2.
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 51

0.21 29

-J I WGRID 1m) 10 x 10 I
WI
GRID 1m) 10 x 10

/
0.20 SCHEME B2 27 SCHEME 82

25

W I
0.19
~
/ II Jj
23

l} I
0.18
V ~
21

/ V/
~
~ w f/
w II:
a: 0.17

/;VI
~
~
a: V II:
19
0
V
J
0 0

I
0 --'
--' 0.16 u..
u..
V
IIVI
u..

1/V
17

I
u.. 0
0
E
E cr
0.15

/II;lL /
~ 15
V
C'

/)1/
~ 0>
E ~
I-

/ V
C'
z 13

VI
!!!. 0.14 w
~
a: V ~

~
w
0 U

)V;:V
~ II: 11

VI
~ 0.13 0
V
u..

v: ~
a: Z
0
;)
u.. W
9

) r;
II:

0.12
V 7

0.11
V ~~
~
5

r;?'
0.10
IV 3 ~
V
0.09 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRADE OF GRADE OF
CONCRETE CONCRETE

f). 30 A 30

o 35 o 35
• 40 • 40

Figure 3.75 Effect of grade of concrete on Figure 3.76 Effect of grade of concrete on
quantities of formwork for interior quantities of reinforcement for interior
columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B2. columns: 10m x 10m; Scheme B2.
52 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.038 0.23

1--1 f," 40 N/sq mm I j I--l f," 40 N/sq mm

!/)
0.036 0.22

/
V V
0.034 0.21

)
V
0.20

V'l
0.032

0.19
/
0.030 V
~V /
<
<
w
a:: /
/v
w < 0.18
a::
IIj
0.028
<
a:: V a::
0
/
V
0 0.17
0

1/
....I

II II
) u..
0 0.026
....I
u.. 'I 0
u.. a:C1
V V
0.16
0

VV/
0.024 u..
E 0 /
r:r
/ E 0.15
V V V
VI
~ 0.022 r:r
E .!!!. /
E 0.14
V" V
:::J

J
~
2
w 0.020 r:r
/
I-
;j / V ~ /

r/
:.;: 0.13

V
W
a:: a:: V
u
z 0
/
~V V
0.018
0 ~
u :E 0.12
a::
0
)/ ,~ V
~V V
0.016 u..
0.11 /
V V
0.014
V ~
d~
0.10

0.012
0.09
~ ~
~ '/
0.010 0.08
/
/'

0.008 0.07
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID 1m) SCHEME GRID (m) SCHEME

I> 10 x 10 B1 l> 6 x 6 B1

o 10 x 10 B2 o 8 x 8 B1

v 10 x 10 B1
v 8 x 8 B1
• 10 x 10 B2
• 6 x 6 B1

Figure 3.77 Quantities of concrete for exterior Figure 3.78 Quantities of formwork for exterior
columns: feu = 40 N/mm 2 • columns: feu = 40 N/mm 2 .
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 53

13 o.02
o.022 f---- '.40 NIMI mm
I fc • 40 N/sq mm I GRID 1m) SCHEME
12 o.021

/ o.0
J
10 x 10 B1

,IJ
11 o.01 10 x 10 B2
//
'(II
.011 Ixl B1
~ 0

Ij
10 ~ 0.017
c:(
f /)V
~
w
a:: Ixl B1
0 .01
~I i
c:(

~I !
~
II.
9 o 0.01
o
....I
Ii.
E
! 0 .01
IA I /
C E j,~ /

V!
a: 8
! 0 .01
CJ
Ii.
o ~ J
/ ~
.A
.012
0 I' /

~V
E
CT
7
8 0.011
('
~
o.01 A~
.l!W~V
~

IIV
I- 6
zw o
::E o.008 W.V
~V
w

)V
~ 5
o o.007
Ii.
Z
iii o.008 ~ :I
'/
I)V
a:: 4
o
II 10 111 20 211 30 35 40 " 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

I.V
3

Figure 3.80 Quantities of concrete for corner


2 ~
columns: feu = 40 N/mm 2 •
~ ,/'
1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

GRID 1m) SCHEME

6 10 x 10 B1

c 10 x 10 B2

9 8x8 B1

• 6x6 B1

Figure 3.79 Quantities of reinforcement for


exterior columns: feu = 40 N/mm 2 •
54 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.125

0.120 - t... 40 Nile! mm


GRID (m) SCHEME
0.115

0.110 II x II B1

0.105
... V
/V
...C
V
0.100
II:
C
0.095
II:
8.... 0.090 ./
V 8 x8 B1
I&-

~ 0.085 /" ./
V
E
IE 0.080
V /
V

! 0.075
V
/ 10 x 10 B1
..:
II:
0.070
..IV ~ 10 x 10 B2

~
:I 0.085
II:
/
V
/. Y
/ ~ Y'
0
I&-

0.080

0.055
V ./ ~"
0.050 ~V
0.045
~V
0.040 ~ 9.0

0.035
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 too ..0 N/lq mm I
NUMBER OF STOREYS 8.0 r-- GRID (m) SCHEME

Figure 3.81 Quantities of formwork for corner 10 x 10 B1


7.0
columns: feu = 40 N/mm 2 •

~
10 ~ 10 B2
c 8 x 8 B1
~ 11.0

V
~~-

I&-
o 5.0
I
~ 8x8 B1

~//
E '/
I
~
!Z A
f V"
4. 0

~
)
~:I;VV
~
II:
~ 3.0
/
Z
i1
2. 0
V
-- r--
~
1. o~ ~
O. 0
5 ro ~ ~ ~ 30 ~ 40 ~ 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.82 Quantities of reinforcement for corner


columns: feu = 40 N/mm 2 •
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 55

3.4.4 Shear Walls GRID 1m) SCHEME


6 x 6 A1,81
o /
Based on the mean percentage of I ift core area for
different number of storeys (Figure 3.6) and the de-
signed thickness of shear walls, the quantities of their o.£;5
V
constituents were calculated using grade 30 concrete.
The results are shown in Figures 3.83 to 3.86 for I
VI 8x8 A1,81

o.50
concrete, formwork and reinforcement.
V
II
10 x 10 A1. 81. 82

3.4.5 Total Structure J /


VV
.45
V
Various combinations specifically arISing from the
J V
VV
use of different possible beam sections and struc- .40

tural schemes will result in changed quantities of con- /


I
stituents for the total structure. However, charts E 0.35 / J /
V
/ V
developed for total quantities for an interior grid using !
"
main beams with span-width and span-depth ratios
~ I /
L V
of 22 and 16.5 respectively (Section 3.3.2) are dis- :I
II:
0.30
cussed in Chapter 7. f2

o.25 /
V
o.20 /~
/

~
0.1 8

0.1 7 f - -

I
f. 30 N/eq mm o.15 5 10 15 20 25 30 3l; 40 45 50
0.1 If-- fy 480 Nleq mm
NUMIER OF STOREYS

0.1

0.1 4 GRID 1m) SCHEME Figure 3.84 Quantities of formwork in shear


walls: feu = 30 N/mm 2 •
0.1 3
~ I x I AI, Bl
~ 0.1 2
) 8 x 8 AI, Bl
~ 0.1 1
II.
:!; 0.1 0
1// 10 x 10 AI, II, B2

E
I iL IlL
E 0.08
0.08
If/V
~ 0.07
II /
~ 0.08
/J '/
8 0.05
/, ~

0.04 ~
0.03
~
o. 02 /~
o. 01~
~
o. 00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.83 Quantities of concrete in shear walls:


feu = 30 N/mm 2 •
56 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

18.0

LOADING 1.2 (Gk + Q k + W;)


11.0 - 'Wind load based on basic
wind speed 38 mis

14.0

GRID 1m) SCHEME


~
~ 12.

§ Ixl Al, B1
II.

~ 10.0 ~ axa
10 x 10
A1, Bl
A1, B1, B2

l0V ~
E

!
~ a.0
!Z
~
~
~ I .0
~ ~
~~
II.
Z
i!
4 .0

2 .0
~~
~~
17.0

LOADING 1.2(Gk + Q\/ W;·)


o.0 10 15 20 25 30 40 45 50
""Load based on 1.5 0
3" 18.01-- of total dead load ~

NUMBER OF STOREYS

14.0
Figure 3.85 Quantities of reinforcement in shear
GRID 1m) SCHEME
walls: feu = 30 N/mm 2 • Loading ~
= 1,2(G k + Qk + W k)· 8
~
12.0
axl A1,· B1
..... ax a
j
II. A1, Bl

iJ r
10 x 10 Al, B1
~ 10 x 10 B2
E 10.0

!
~
!Z

II
8. 0
...
~
~
r
~
II:
o
~ I. 0
iii
II: t'
4.0 ~
~
r-
2. 0

~
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 411 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.86 Quantities of reinforcement in shear


walls: feu = 30 N/mm 2 • Loading =
1.2(G k + Qk + Wk').
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 57

3.5 Effect of Number of Spans on in Figures 3.90 to 3.92 for columns and in Figure
Constituent Quantities 3.93 for shear walls. The effett for different grid sizes
was similar. Using the above results multiplying fac-
In building projects, the number of continuous spans tors for different numbers of spans, considering re-
varies from project to project. Analyses were there- spective constituents quantities as 1 for 5 spans, were
fore made, both with gravity and lateral loads and computed and multiplying factors were established
with different numbers of continuous spans varying (Tables 3.1 to 3.3). Using these factors it is possible
from 2 to 4 (Section 3.2.3). The structural components to compute quantities for any continuity, i.e. number
were designed and constituent quantities were com- of spans (2 to 4) based on the quantities for 5 spans
puted. The comparative effect for different numbers for which various figures have been developed in
of spans is shown in Figures 3.87 to 3.89 for beams, this chapter.

10.0
10.0
GRID 1m) 6 x 6
SCHEME B1 •
GRID 1m) 6 x 6 9.0 LOADING 1.2 IGk + Ok + W k )
SCHEME B1
9.0 r--- LOADING 1.2 IGk + 0 + W;) r--- - * Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s
'Wind load based on basic
wind speed 38 mls
<
w
B.O
cr:
8.0 <
cr:
I, 0
7.0
<
w
0
...J
a:: I :
NUMBER OF u.
< SPANS u. NUMBER OF
a:: 7.0 0
0 SPANS
0 E 6.0
I
...J
u.. CT 4
u.. '"
0
E
6.0
V
3 C,
= 5.0
I/; 5

V
V /' ~~
0- I-
~ Z
CD 5 w
:!! ::E
I- 5.0
V
/'
u
w
4.0
V
VV~
Z
...-:::::: :::;:.... ~
w cr:
~ 0
w u.
u
a::
0
4.0
./ . / Z
u::;
cr: 3.0
""-
u.. ;.--
z .,/ ,..-/
W ~ ~
a::

2.0
3.0

1.0
2.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

1.0 I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Figure 3.88 Effect of number of continuous spans
NUMBER OF STOREYS on quantities of reinforcement for
main first interior beams: Grid (m)
Figure 3.87 Effect of number of continuous spans 6 x 6; Scheme B1. Loading = 1.2(G k
on quantities of reinforcement for +Qk+Wk).
main interior beams: Grid (m) 6 x 6;
Scheme B1. Loading = 1.2( G k + Qk +
W k)·
58 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

10.0
GRID (m) 6 x 6
SCHEME 61 •
9.0 LOADING 1.2 (Gk + Ok + Wk)

* Wind load based on basic wind speed 38 m/s

«
w
8.0
a:
« NUMBER OF
a:
0 SPANS
0 7.0
...J

r
U.
U. 2
0 I
E 6.0
c-
UI
3
C» 4
:! 5.0 /
5

~~
~
I-
Z

~
w
::!:
w
u 4.0
~ ~
a:
0
Ir-::::::: ~ .....:::: V
u.
Z
W
a: 3.0

2.0

36. a
1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 34 .Ot--

I
GRID 1m) 6x6
NUMBER OF STOREYS SCHEME B1
32 .Ot--

Figure 3.89 Effect of number of continuous spans 30


NUMBER OF
on quantities of reinforcement for 28 .0
SPANS
main end beams: Grid (m) 6 x 6;
« 26 .0
Scheme B1. Loading = 1.2(G k + Qk + w
a:
..L
W k)· «
a:
24 .0

~
4
o 5
g
...... 22 .0

o 20 .0 4V
hW
E
~ 18 .0
~
~ 16.0
@
w
::;: 14.0
l@
w
u
a:
o... 12 .0 ~~
.AI ~
z
~ 10.0

.0 £
6 .0 IL
.OV ~
.0

a.0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.90 Effect of number of continuous spans


on quantities of reinforcement for
main interior columns: Grid (m)
6 x 6; Scheme B1. Loading = 1.2(G k +
Qk+ W k)·
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 59

19.0

18. 0 -
I
I
GRID 1m) 6x6
SCHEME Bl I
17. 0 -
NUMBER OF
16.0 SPANS

15 .0

;';'i 14.0
a:
«
a: 13.0 I /J.
o
f//;
I
g
LL 12 .0
LL
o
E 11 .0
j;, ~
<7
:!t?: 10.0 W
~
!z 9 .0 IA ~
Iff!
,.
w
a:J 8 .0

A
u
a:
~ 7.0
z

,,-
iii
a: 6 .0 ~
~

.,
5 .0
~
.0 ~ I

.ol/ ~
.0 10.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS 9.5 t--


I
GRID 1m) 6 x 6
SCHEME Bl
9.0 t--
NUMBER OF
Figure 3.91 Effect of number of continuous spans 8. 5
SPANS

on quantities of reinforcement for


8.0
exterior columns: Grid (m) 6 x 6;
Scheme B1. « 7.5 1
JIJ
w
a:
« 7.0

I(j!J
a:
o
g
j;, r;
6.5
LL
LL
o 6. 0
E
<7
~ 5.5
VI/;
~
>- 5.0 ~V
zw
WL
,
ill 4. 5
U
a:
~ 4. 0
J, V
~
Z
iii
a: 3. 5

3. 0

2. 5 ~
2. 0 L
1.
:vL 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 3.92 Effect of number of continuous spans


on quantities of reinforcement for
corner columns: Grid (m) 6 x 6;
Scheme B1.
60 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

19. 0 Table 3.1 Multiplying factors for effect of different


18.Ot--
numbers of continuous spans on quantities of
GRID (m) 6 x 6
SCHEME Bl reinforcement in main beams (compared with 5
17.Ot--
'" continuous spans taken as 1).
30 N/sq mm

18. 0
NUMBER OF Con tin u ity/ Multiplying factors for
SPANS
15.0 No. of storeys
Interior First interior End
~ 14. 0 beams beams beams
..
~ 13.0
/, 3 Two continuous spans
9
IIJ Storeys 5 1.00
12.0
IL
IL
o 5 10 1.03

/1 VI
11. 0
E 15 1.05
~ 10.0 20 1.07
~
!z 9.0
I~ 25 1.10
w
~ 8. 0 IfA~ 30
35
1.14
1.16
u
~ 7.0
/,W 40 1.19
45 1.21
~
Z
2! 8. 0 50 1.23

5. 0 ~ W' Three continuous spans


4. 0 ~~ Storeys 5 1.00 1.00
10 1.01 1.02
3.0 ..4 ~ 15 1.04 1.03
2.0 ~~ 20 1.07 1.04

1.0
....... 't' 25
30
1.10
1.12
1.06
1.09
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
35 1.13 1.10
NUMBER OF STOREYS
40 1.13 1.14
45 1.14 1.16
50 1.14 1.17
Figure 3.93 Effect of number of continuous spans
on quantities of reinforcement for Four continuous spans
shear walls: Grid (m) 6 x 6; Scheme Storeys 5 1.00 1.00
B1; feu = 30N/sq mm 2 • 10 1.01 1.02
15 1.01 1.02
20 1.02 1.03
25 1.02 1.03
30 1.03 1.04
35 1.03 1.04
40 1.04 1.05
45 1.04 1.06
50 1.05 1.07
3.6 Effect of Number of Shopping Floors

In the charts developed so far the number of shop- grid. For example, for an exterior grid, the constitu-
ping floors taken is nil (Section 3.2.1). However, to ent quantities for half interior column and one exte-
adjust the constituent quantities for any number of rior column are to be added together. Likewise for a
shopping floors, appropriate multiplying factors have corner grid, the constituent quantities for a quarter
been worked out (Table 3.4). The factors established interior column, one exterior column and one corner
are related constituent quantities for respective number column are to be considered.
of office floors taken as 1.

3.7 Computing Constituent Quantities for


Structures

To compute constituent quantities for a specific grid,


appropriate charts for slabs, beams and shear walls
can be read directly. However for columns, these
are to be built up based upon the location of the
Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 61

Table 3.2 Multiplying factors for effect of different Table 3.3 Multiplying factors for effect of numbers
numbers of continuous spans on quantities of of continuous spans on quantities of reinforcement
reinforcement in columns (compared with 5 in shear walls (compared with 5 continuous spans
continuous spans taken as 1). taken as 1).
Continuity/ Modification factors for Continuity/ Multiplication factor
No. of storeys No. of storeys
Interior Exterior Corner
columns columns columns Two continuous spans
Two continuous spans Storeys 5 1.06
Storeys 5 1.00 1.00 1.01 10 1.07
10 1.01 1.01 1.02 15 1.08
15 1.02 1.03 1.04 20 1.09
20 1.03 1.05 1.06
1.04 1.07 1.08
25 1.10
25
30 1.05 1.09 1.10 30 1.12
35 1.06 1.11 1.12 35 1.14
40 1.07 1.13 1.14 40 1.16
45 1.11 1.15 1.16 45 1.18
50 1.13 1.17 1.19
50 1.21
Three continuous spans
Storeys 5 1.00 1.00 1.01 Three continuous spans
10 1.01 1.01 1.02 Storeys 5 1.05
25 1.02 1.02 1.03
10 1.06
30 1.03 1.04 1.05
35 1.04 1.06 1.07 15 1.07
40 1.06 1.08 1.09 20 1.08
45 1.08 1.10 1.11 25 1.09
50 1.10 1.12 1.13 30 1.10
Four continuous spans
35 1.11
Storeys 5 1.00 1.00 1.00 40 1.12
10 1.00 1.01 1.01 45 1.13
15 1.01 1.02 1.02 50 1.15
20 1.02 1.03 1.03
25 1.03 1.04 1.04
30 1.04 1.05 1.05
Four continuous spans
35 1.05 1.06 1.07 Storeys 5 1.01
40 1.06 1.07 1.09 10 1.02
45 1.07 1.08 1.10 15 1.02
50 1.08 1.09 1.11 20 1.03
25 1.03
30 1.04
35 1.04
40 1.05
45 1.06
50 1.08
62 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Table 3.4 Multiplying factors for effect of varying


Element!constituent! Multiplying factors for storeys
numbers of floors for shopping in a building
shopping floors 5 10 20 30 40 50
(compared with office block taken as 1).
Shear walls
Element!constituent! Multiplying factors for storeys Concrete
shopping floors 5 10 20 30 40 50 5 1.052 1.033 1.020 1.013 1.009 1.007
4 1.041 1.022 1.015 1.010 1.007 1.005
Slabs
3 1.031 1.017 1.012 1.008 1.005 1.003
Concrete
2 1.020 1.014 1.010 1.006 1.003 1.001
5 1.046 1.023 1.012 1.008 1.006 1.005
1.015 1.012 1.007 1.004 1.001 1.000
4 1.037 1.018 1.009 1.006 1.005 1.004
Rei nforcement
3 1.027 1.014 1.007 1.005 1.004 1.003
5 1.411 1.152 1.104 1.063 1.042 1.021
2 1.018 1.009 1.005 1.003 1.002 1.002
4 1.332 1.112 1.081 1.051 1.023 1.017
1.009 1.005 1.002 1.002 1.001 1.001
3 1.251 1.092 1.061 1.030 1.019 1.014
Reinforcement
2 1.161 1.061 1.032 1.020 1.015 1.012
5 1.134 1.067 1.034 1.022 1.017 1.014
1 1.082 1.029 1.018 1.014 1.012 1.010
4 1.107 1.054 1.027 1.018 1.014 1.011
3 1.081 1.040 1.020 1.013 1.010 1.008
2 1.054 1.027 1.014 1.009 1.007 1.005
1.027 1.014 1.007 1.005 1.004 1.003

Beams
Concrete References
5 1.105 1.073 1.062 1.050 1.041 1.032
4 1.083 1.071 1.060 1.041 1.032 1.020 1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research
3 1.071 1.062 1.051 1.031 1.021 1.018 Report R68-91. ICES STRUDL-II. The Structural
2 1.061 1.052 1.048 1.019 1.017 1.010
1 1.049 1.038 1.032 1.015 1.010 1.008
Design Language Engineering User's Manual. Vol-
Reinforcement ume I, Frame Analysis. ICES Users Group, Inc.,
5 1.205 1.102 1.051 1.034 1.026 1.020 Cranston, Rhode Island, 1979.
4 1.164 1.082 1.041 1.027 1.021 1.016 2. BS CP3. Code of Basic Data for the Design of
3 1.123 1.061 1.031 1.021 1.053 1.012 Buildings. Chapter V, Part 1: Dead and imposed
2 1.082 1.041 1.021 1.011 1.009 1.008
1.041 1.021 1.010 1.007 1.005 1.004
loads. British Standards Institution, London, 1972.
Formwork 3. BS CP3. Code of Basic Data for the Design of
5 1.091 1.052 1.022 1.018 1.010 1.006 Buildings. Chapter V, Part 2: Wind loads. British
4 1.072 1.031 1.015 1.009 1.006 1.004 Standards Institution, London, 1972.
3 1.050 1.020 1.011 1.006 1.004 1.002 4. BS 87 70: Part 7: British Standard for the Struc-
2 1.033 1.012 1.007 1.005 1.003 1.001
l 1.020 1.008 1.006 1.004 1.002 1.001 tural Use of Concrete - Code of Practice for De-
sign and Construction. British Standard Institution,
Columns London, 1985.
Concrete 5. ACI Committee 442. Response of buildings to lat-
5 1.057 1.041 1.031 1.020 1.014 1.009
4 1.039 1.035
eral forces. In Response of Multistorey Concrete
1.024 1.017 1.010 1.006
3 1.029 1.026 1.020 1.013 1.007 1.004 Structures to Lateral Forces. Publication SP-36,
2 1.021 1.019 1.014 1.008 1.005 1.001 American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan,
1 1.019 1.014 1.009 1.006 1.004 1.001 1973, pp. 281-306.
Reinforcement 6. Khan, F.R. and Iyengar, H.S. Optimization approach
5 1.601 1.032 1.152 1.1 01 1.075 1.062
4 1.482
for concrete high-rise buildings. In Response of
1.241 1.121 1.082 1.061 1.048
3 1.360 1.180 1.091 1.062 1.045 1.036 Multistorey Concrete Structures to Lateral Forces.
2 1.241 1.123 1.062 1.041 1.032 1.024 Publication SP-36, American Concrete Institute, De-
l 1.121 1.062 1.031 1.023 1.015 1.012 troit, Michigan, 1973, pp. 61-74.
Formwork 7. Cowan, H.J. and Gero, J.5. Design of Building Frames.
5 1.093 1.074 1.055 1.038 1.020 1.017
4 1.071 1.058
Applied Science Publishers, London, 1976, p. 366.
1.039 1.025 1.017 1.012
3 1.057 1.040 1.022 1.018 1.013 1.009 8. ACI Committee 435. Allowable Deflections. ACI
2 1.039 1.024 1.019 1.013 1.009 1.006 Journal, Proceedings, Vol. 65, No.6, June 1968,
1 1.024 1.019 1.014 1.010 1.007 1.003 pp. 433-444.
9. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and Build-
ing Employers Confederation. Standard Method of
Measurement of Building Works, 7th edn, Lon-
don, 1988.
4 Flat Slab can be economical to use mild steel in lieu of high
yield steel reinforcement since the resulting higher

and Waffle Slab


percentages allow a correspondingly higher ultimate
concrete shear stress (Table 3.9 of BS 8110). In view

Systems
of this, at places where the difference in cost of high
yield steel and mild steel is negligible, the use of
the former can be considered by permitting lower
values of stresses in the design. The effects of the
column grid size, number of storeys, use of mild/
high yield steel reinforcement, location of structural
element, grade of concrete and provision of column
heads on the quantities of various constituents of
The effects of column grid size, number of sto- reinforced concrete construction using flat and waffle
reys, use of mild/high yield steel reinforcement, slabs have been studied in different grid sizes and
location of structural element, grade of concrete number of storeys ranging from 5 to 50 in denomina-
and provision of column heads in structural sys- tions of 5 storeys, and the results presented in the
tems on the quantities of various constituents of form of charts and statistical relationships.
reinforced concrete construction using flat slabs and
waffle slabs have been studied and presented in
the form of charts and mathematical equations. The 4.2 Structures, Loading and Analysis of
charts give relationships between the quantities of Frames
each of the constituents of reinforced concrete con-
struction, namely concrete, reinforcements and Three square grids, with sides of 6, 8 and 10m for
formwork, and each of the various parameters of structural schemes with flat slabs (Figure 4.1 a & b)
the structure. and with sides of 6.4, 8 and 10.4 m for those with
waffle slabs (Figure 4.2) were considered. The grid
sizes in the latter case were varied so as to accommo-
4.1 Introduction date the standard moulds available in the UK [2].
The analysis and design were carried out in ac-
A flat slab construction has many advantages over cordance with the limit state design proposed in British
the traditional beam and slab floor. It permits much Standard BS 8110: Part I: 1985, the service loads
simpler formwork and helps to reduce storey heights. being taken from British Code of Practice CP3, Chapter
Windows can extend up to the underside of the slab V, Parts 1 and 2: 1972. As in the previous chapter,
and there are no beams to obstruct the light and the all structures considered are for office floors. Dead
circulation of air. Further, unlike slab and beam con- loads of 1.2 kN/m 2 for finishes, 0.25 kN/m 2 for ceil-
struction, service ducts can run directly under the ing and 1.0 N/m 2 for light-weight partitions have been
flat slab in either direction without obstruction from considered in the design. A floor-to-floor height of
beams. It is also claimed that the absence of sharp 3.5 m was assumed.
corners gives greater fire resistance since there is less The assessment of wind load is in accordance with
danger of the concrete spalling and exposing the British Code of Practice CP3 incorporating a basic
reinforcement [1]. wind speed of 38 m/s in the context of London (UK).
In flat slab construction (Figure 4.1), slabs without As an alternative, a second case of ultimate hori-
drops are not common since they are more expensive zontal load equivalent to 1.5 per cent of the total
compared to those with drops. characteristic dead load was also considered from
Where standard forms are available, waffle slabs stability considerations (Section 3.1.4.2 of BS 8110).
which are lighter may provide a suitable alternative However, for the design of structural components,
to flat slabs. Though waffle slabs are about 40 per most severe forces due to the above loadings were
cent deeper than flat slabs, the reduction in con- considered and the results presented in this book
crete and steel quantities is considerable and where (Section 3.4.2). The statistical factors SI and S3 were
exposed, they are aesthetically appealing. taken to be 1.0 and the ground roughness factors S2
An important aspect in the design of flat and waffle at different heights were taken as for a country with
slab floors is the calculation of punching shear at many windbreaks. Load due to earthquake was not
the head of the columns and at the change in depth considered since London is free from such hazards.
of the slab, if drop panels are used. In this respect it Shear core sizes and allied information to deter-

63
64 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

- 1 - - - - L _ _ _.....,~Jo
r--' r--,

~~-:-.--:--------:-._:~--;1
L. .. _~ L. __ .J
A
~

. . ---1
L

r--,
: :
r- -,
: :
L __ .J '- __ oJ

I I
.J...-- L ------J..

I. SLAB WITH DROP AND COLUMN b. SLAB WITH DROP AND COLUMN
WITH COLUMN HEAD WITHOUT COLUMN HEAD

c. SLAB WITHOUT DROP AND COLUMN d. SLAB WITHOUT DROP AND COLUMN
WITH COLUMN HEAD WITHOUT COLUMN HEAD
a. COLUMN WITH COLUMN HEAD
SECTION A-A

Figure 4.1 Flat slab construction.

mine the lateral loads as explained in Sections 3.2.5


and 3.2.6, were adopted.

4.3 Design of Structural Members

Computer programs were developed to design re- b. COLUMN WITHOUT COLUMN HEAD
inforced concrete flat and waffle slabs and columns
[3] with the additional capability of computing the
quantities of concrete, reinforcement and formwork. SECTION A-A
Characteristic strengths of 30 N/mm2, 250 N/mm 2 and
460 N/mm 2 were considered for concrete, hot rolled Figure 4.2 Waffle slab construction.
mild steel and high yield steel respectively.

4.3.1 Flat and Waffle Slabs drop panels in flat slabs were kept as half of the
corresponding dimensions of those of the slab panel.
Flat slabs and waffle slabs were designed with and
without column heads according to the empirical 4.3.2 Columns
method codified in BS 8110: Part I: 1985 (Section
3.7). The effect of the use of mild steel in lieu of Square column sections were considered in denomina-
high yield steel in flat slabs was studied, maintain- tions of 75 mm keeping 400 x 400 mm as the mini-
ing the provision of high yield steel reinforcement in mum section. After every 5-storey intervals, the sections
columns in both cases. The width and thickness of of columns were reduced where possible for economy,
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 65

and within the same section the reinforcement was 0.34


varied for each storey depending upon the values of INTERiOR PANEL GRID (m) STEEL *
the forces. 0.32
10 x 10 HY
4.3.3 Shear Walls
0.30
<I:
The empirical method [4] for the design of flat and w
a:
<I:
waffle slabs suggests that the stability of the struc-

-
~ 0.28
ture be provided by shear walls designed to resist 9u... 10 x 10 MS
all the lateral forces, hence the latter were designed u...
likewise. A minimum thickness of 150 mm was con- oE 026
.
sidered from practical considerations and the forces go 8X8 HY
obtained from the analysis were taken for the design E 0.24
along with other parameters as discussed in Section
3.3.4.
~
:>
....
~

-
~ 0.22 8X8 MS
u
z
4.4 Quantities of Constituents 8
0.20
6X6 HY

In computing the quantities of concrete for slabs, the


portion of the slab common with the column has 0.18
been included with the latter in accordance with the
Standard Method of Measurement [5]. 0.16
- 6X6
• MS
MS
Mild steel

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 HY High yield steel

4.4.1 Flat Slabs NUMBER OF STOREYS

The relationships between the number of storeys and Figure 4.3 Quantities of concrete in slabs, for flat
quantities per square metre of floor area for an in- slab construction, using mild steel
terior panel are shown in Figures 4.3 to 4.6 for con- (MS)/high yield steel (HY)
crete, formwork and reinforcement respectively in flat reinforcement (for schemes both with
slab using mild steel and alternatively high yield steel and without column heads).
reinforcement. The quantities of reinforcement are
affected by the provision of column heads or flares,
so these quantities were computed both with and 4.11 respectively for different grid sizes and storeys
without column heads but maintaining the same slab of construction. The quantities of reinforcement were
thickness. studied both with and without column heads while
The location of the slab panel affects the quantity keeping the same slab thickness.
of reinforcement in it. The quantities were therefore The quantities of reinforcement for an exterior panel
computed for exterior slab panels using both mild using waffle slabs both with and without column heads
steel and high yield steel reinforcement and the re- are shown in Figure 4.12.
sults are shown in Figure 4.7 and 4.8 for flat slabs
with and without column heads respectively. 4.4.3 Columns

4.4.2 Waffle Slabs The relationships between the number of storeys and
the quantities per square metre of floor area for dif-
Having established the effect, on quantities, of the ferent grid sizes in interior columns are shown in
use of mild steel in lieu of high yield steel re- Figures 4.13 to 4.17 for flat slabs, and similar results
inforcement in flat slabs (Section 4.4.1) it was not are shown in Figures 4.18 to 4.21 for waffle slab
considered worthwhile to repeat the calculations for construction.
waffle slabs since similar differences were expected. The effects of the grade of concrete on quantities
Hence, the use of high yield steel reinforcement was of constituents for different grid sizes and number of
considered for waffle slabs. The quantities per unit storeys in interior columns using flat slabs (without
area for an interior panel, for concrete, formwork column heads) are shown in Figures 4.22 to 4.31.
and reinforcement, are illustrated in Figures 4.9 to Similar results for exterior columns are shown in
66 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

1.032

1.030
INTERIOR PANEL
1.028

1.026

1.02 4~
1.02
~'\ ~
2~
~
~ 1.02 Ot\: ~'\ ~
8...... 1.018 \
~ 1'.'\ ~
l!; 1.01 6
r\ ~'\ ~ l"'\
E
Ii
1\" r\.~ ~ 1"'-
"
1.01 4

!'E 1.01 2
'\ ~~
~ "- GRID 1m' STEEL'
\ '\ ~~ "-

"- '\l\ ,
'"
111 1.01 0
~
::Ii 1.008 '\ '\ ~ ~ 6x6 HY

~
... 1.006

1,\
6x6 MS
,~
1.004 ~ 8x8 HY

\
~
10 x 10 HY
1.00 2

1.000
\ 8x8 MS

0.998 I'\. 10 x 10 MS 45.0


'MS Mild steel
0.996 INTERIOR PANEL
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 HY High yield steel
40.0
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.4 Quantities of formwork in slabs, for «


w
35.0 GRID (m) STEEL *
flat slab construction, using mild steel a::
«
(MS)/high yield steel (HY) a::

reinforcement (for schemes both with


g
....I
30.0
LL 10 x 10 MS
and without column heads). LL
o
E 25.0
g
8X8 MS
~
f- 20.0
zw
~
w 10 x 10 HY
a! 15.0
o
LL
6x6 MS
Z 8x8
iij HY
a:: 10.0

6x 6 HY
5.0
* MS Mild steel
HY High yield steel
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.5 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs,


for flat slab construction without
column heads, using mild steel (MS)/
high yield steel (HY) reinforcement -
interior panel.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 67

36.0

INTERIOR PANEL
32.0

«
w
2a.o GRID (m) STEEL*
IE:
«
IE:
0 10x 10 MS
0 24.0
....I
u..
u..
0
E 20.0
c-
UI
axa MS
Ci
~ 16.0
I-
zw
10 x 10 HY
~
w 6x6 MS
u 12.0
IE:
0
u.. axa HY
Z
W
IE: a.o
6x6 HY

4.0
* MS Mild steel
HY High yield steel 45.0
0.0
I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 EXTERIOR PANEL
NUMBER OF STOREYS 40.0

Figure 4.6 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs, ~~


;;s STEEL *
35.0
r-.. r-- GRID (m)
for flat slab construction with column
~ r-.. r-- r-- (SLAB)
heads, using mild steel (MS)/high
yield steel (HY) reinforcement - interior
IE:
og 30.0
r-- 10 x 10 MS
u..
panel. u..
o ~
E 25.0

g
i - axa MS

20.0
!zw 10 x 10 HY
~
w
~ 15.0 6x6 MS

f2z axa HY
W
IE: 10.0
6x6 HY

5.0
* MS Mild steel
HY High yield steel
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.7 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs,


for flat slab construction without
column heads, using mild steel (MS)/
high yield steel (HY) reinforcement -
exterior panel.
68 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.32

0.3 1 INTERIOR PANEL t--


0.30

GRID (ml
0.29

0.28 10.4 x 10.4

0.27
0(
w
!f 0.26
Ie
§ 0.25
u..
~ 0.24
E
~ 0.23
E
.2 0.22
8.0 x 8.0
~ 0.2 1
Ie
u
z 0.20
o
u
0.19

0.18

0.1 7

0.16
36.0 6.4. x 6.4
0.15
EXTERIOR PANEL
0.14
32.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
GRID (m) STEEL * NUMBER OF STOREYS

«
w
28.0
a: Figure 4.9 Quantities of concrete in slabs for
« 10 x 10 MS
waffle slab construction (for schemes
a:
0
0
-oJ
24.0 without column heads).
u..
u..
0
E 20.0 8X8 MS
e-
li)

Ci
:!! 16.0
I- 10 x 10 HY
zw
~ 6x6 MS
w
u 12.0
a:
0 8X8 HY
u..
Z
jjj
a: 8.0
6x6 HY

4.0

• MS Mild steel
HY High yield steel
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.8 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs,


for flat slab construction with column
heads using mild steel (MS)/high yield
steel (HY) reinforcement - exterior
panel.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 69

14.0
I
INTERIOR PANEL

-
13.0 GRID (m) STEEL *
"- ~ ~
--.. ~
--.. "-
~ 12.0 10.4 x 10.4 WCH
a:
<
a:
o
o 11.0
....I
~ 10.4 x 10.4 CH
~
o
E 10.0
g
-a
::!! f-., ~
9.0 ""'1'-...,
I-
Z
w h '-...,
h h

-
~
w '-..., 8x8 WCH
u 8.0 -., ~
a:
0 '"- 8x8 CH
z
~

iii ~ 6.4x6.4 WCH


a: 7.0
6.4x 6.4 CH

1.00
6.0
* CH Column head
~~~
INTERIOR PANEL
WCH Without column
0.99 head
5.0
I": ~
~ ~~ TOTAL QUANTITIES
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
~.9 8
~~~, GRIO 1m)
........
~
~~
6.4 x 6.4
8x8
Figure 4.11 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs
~ 0.97
10.4 x 10.4 for waffle slab construction with (CH)
~ and without (WCH) column heads -
II:
interior panel.
9
u.
0.9
~
u. ~
o
E
~ 0.80
E PORTION WITH
,g 0.7 0
WAFFLES

'"~ 0.6
~
§ ,
II:
~

0.2 5
t!!!oo. PORTION WITH
0.2 4 SOLID SLAB

o.~ 3
~
~ t;::: t-- ~ GRID 1m)
6.4 x 6.4

0.2 2
~
~ t::::: 8x8
10.4 x 10.4

0.2 1

0.2 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.10 Quantities of formwork in slabs for


waffle slab construction (for schemes
both with and without column
heads).
70 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

15.0

EXTERIOR PANEL
14.0 GRID (m) STEEL *
~
~ 10......,
10......,
~ 10......,
< 13.0
"'"- 10.4 x 10.4 WCH
w
II:
<
II:
812.0
......
....I
10.4 x 10.4 CH
o
E 11.0

-
g
]i ........,
;:: 10.0
Z ~~
w ~ 10......,
~
W r--. r--.. 8.0 x 8.0 WCH
~ 9.0
...
o
z
.........
~~
10......,
iii ~
8.0 x 8.0 CH
II: 8.0
~ 6.4 x 6.4 WCH

6.4 x 6.4 CH
7.0
• CH Column head
WCH Without column
head
6.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 GRID Iml
0.10 5
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.100
to x 10
0.09 5
Figure 4.12 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs
for waffle slab construction with (CH) 0.09 V
and without (WCH) column heads - 0.08 5 I 8 x 8

exterior panel.
0.080
/ /
/
~
II:
0.Q7 5 / 6x6

/
<{
II:
o I /
...g 0.Q7 0

o 0.06 5
/ / I
E
/ j
/
~ 0.060

Q
E
0.05 5
/ V/
~ / /
j
Vj /'
0.050
II:
u

/ V//
~ 0.045
u
0.040

0.03 5
VI V
0.03 0 / ~
0.02 5 / //
0.02
/~
01(/
0.01 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.13 Quantities of concrete in interior


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 71

0.42 GRID (m)

0.40

0.38

0.36
I
0.34

0.32
«
w 6 x 6
a::
« 0.30
.....-:
a::
0
0 0.28 /'
....J
u.
u.
0 0.26
/
E / 8 x 8
0" 0.24
~
E V ./
,/'
0.22
. . .V ",V
0"
!!
><
a::
0
;;::
0.20
y V V
10 x 10

::E 0.18 ..... /' ./


a::
0
u.
0.16
V V /"
V
0.14
/ / ./V 0.42 GRID (m)

/
,/ /V 0.4 0
0.12
/ ,/'
0.10 /' 0.38
;"

0.08 0.3 6 I---

0.3 4
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0.3 2
«
w 6 x 6
~ 0.3 0
/'

Figure 4.14 Quantities of formwork in interior


a::
g 0.28 - /' '-----

columns for flat slab construction


....J
u.
~ 0.26
/ -
without column heads (with high E ~/
0.2 4 8 x 8
yield steel reinforcement in slabs), {
0"
/ /
E
0.2 2
~ ./
V V
0"
!!
~ 0.20 / ./ 10 x 10
1./ ~
~
::E 0.18
/ /" /~
a::
ou.
0.1 6 /
V
V V"'"
/ /
/ ./
,/'
0.14
V /'
0.12 /
'/
0.10 ~
0.08

0.06
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.15 Quantities of formwork in interior


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads (with mild
steel reinforcement in slabs),
72 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

45. 0 GRID (m)

40. 0

10 x 10
/

/
35. 0

«
w 8x8
a::
« 30. 0 I

I J /I
a::
9
LI- 6x6
J

~V
LI-
o 25.0
E V
I
I-
'"
:!!
20.0 /
z
w

~ /
~ '/
:::!:
~
a::

~V
~ 15.0
z
W
a::

10.0 h 45.0 GRID (m)

5.0
,.,j ~~ 40.0
~
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 35.0

NUMBER OF STOREYS
« 10 x 10

/
w
a::
«
30.0
V
a::
0
Figure 4.16 Quantities of reinforcement in interior 0
8x8

/ I
-'
columns for flat slab construction LI-
\.L.
0
without column heads (with high :::!: 25.0
V

///
yield reinforcement in slabs). 0
6x6
~
(.'l
~
20.0

./ /
I-

~/
Z
w
:::!:
w
u
a::
0 15.0 I
~V
Ll-
z
W

~V
a::

10.0
V
5.0
f; ~
"f""
~
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 o 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.17 Quantities of reinforcement in interior


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads (with mild
steel reinforcement in slabs).
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 73

GRID 1m) SCHEME·


0.10 5
I I I
0.10) 0 - f Cy 30N/sqmmi 10.4 x 10.4 CH

0.09 5 I 10.4 x 10.4 WCH

0.09 0 I 8.0 x 8.0 CH

0.08 5
/
/1 8.0 x 8.0 WCH

0.080 / ! '/
«
w I
~/
~
a;
o
0.07 5

0.07
I,- j/V 6.4 x 6.4 CH

~
a 0.06 5
//
J / // 6.4 x 6.4 WCH

~ 0.060
/ 11/ / /V
~, 0.05 5
I
If V / / V
u
~ 0.050
I / / / 1'/
w
a;
~ 0.04
/ I /. ./
/
o .II (/ /
u
0.04
o / Ij
0.035 i / /
0.03 oL ~ / /
V
• CH With column heads
WCH Without column heads
0.02

J1/- ./
5 "
0.02

0
~
0.Q1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.18 Quantities of concrete in interior 0.4 2 GRID (m) SCHEME'


I I I I
columns for waffle slab construction 0.4 or-- feu 30 N/sq mm

(for schemes both with and without 0.38


column heads),
0.3

0.3 4

0.3 2
~
~ 0.30
6.4)( 6.4 CH
a;
o " 6.4 X 6.4 WCH
~ 0.2 8
/

o 0.2 6
/ ~ B.O 8.0 CH
// .-'" ....-'
X

E
.g 0.2 4
./ 8.0 X 8.0 WCH

E 0.2 2
/'" / 1,.../
/"
,/

~
'" -;:-- V
--
." ~
~ 0.2 0
.,/ .... 10.4 X 10.4 CH
~;'
~ 01 8
/ /" .... 10.4 X 10,4 WCH
a;
~ V /- /-
V
."..,.,
0.1 6
1 ...-: V' /f-'
0.1 4
.... I'
0.1 2 / ~ *CH With column heads

/V WCH Without column heads

0.1
0/
0.08

6
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.19 Quantities of formwork in interior


columns for waffle slab construction
(for schemes with (CH) and without
(WCH) column heads,
74 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

45. 0 GRID em.

'oo 30 N/oq mm I
40.0

10.4 x 10.4
35. 0
/
~
~ 30.0
/ 8.0 x 8.0
/ /
~ / I
~ 25 8.4 x 8.4
E
/ / /
I!z 20
,I /
V/
V
/
Ii
III '/
:I /
~
J / /
u//
~ 15.0
z /
iii
II:
/
/1
/
/~
/'
/ r-
10.0
II
~>
v'
/.
/'
Ii.o~
I~ ~/

8 .0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 ~
45.0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
I I I I
'oo 30 N/aq mm 1
40.0 GRID em. Figure 4.21 Quantities of reinforcement in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
with column heads.
3&.0

10.4 x 10.4

i 30.0 I 8.0 x 8.0

l0V '/
II:

~
~ 2&.0

~ /
E 8.4 x 8.4
!
itz J J

tIV
20.0
V

VJ
III
:I

~...z 15.0
VV
~V V
iii
II:

10.0 /
~
5.o ~ ~V
~
0.05
w ~ 20 ~ 30 3& 40 45 ~

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.20 Quantities of reinforcement in interior


columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 75

GRADE OF
0.1 CONCRETE
IN/8q mm)
GRID 1m) 8)( 8 I
0.09 30

0.08
/ 35

I~ ~
40

r;
~
~ 0.07

L~
a:
9
LL

~ 0.0

V
L~
E
IE
" 0.05
.e
~a:
li
8
0.04 ~~
0.03 ~~
V

2~ ~
"
0.0
o.1
I
GRID 1m) 8)( 8 I GRADE OF
CONCRETE 1
INJoq mm) 0.0 5 10 15 20 26 30 35 40 45 60
o
NUMBER OF STOREYS

o.08 Figure 4.23 Effect of grade of concrete on


30
quantities of concrete in interior
~
~ 0.07
) 36
columns for flat slab construction

If II
a:: V 40 without column heads. Grid (m)
...o~ 0
8 x 8.

~/
E
IE
! 0.06
~
VV
f/
8~ 0.0

o A eV
o.02 ~~
~
o.01
6 10 15 20 25 30 36 40 46 60
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.22 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of concrete in interior
columns for flat slab construction
without column heads. Grid (m)
6 x 6.
76 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

GRADE OF
CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)

30

/
0.1 0 - GRADE (m) 10 x 10

35

/ I;
0.0

40

/ (;
0.0

;:I J /
fj
~ 0.07

~
a:
o
o
.....
u..
0.06
/
V
~

~
E
"
~ 0.05 I
V
I~
I!:!
w
a:
~ 0.0 4

/; ~
o
u

~V
0.03
36.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)
GRADE (m) 6 x 6 I
0.0
32.0

0.0 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 28. 0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
..: 30

/
w
a:
~ 24.0

I
o
Figure 4.24 Effect of grade of concrete on o.....
quantities of concrete in interior
... 35

~ ~
V V
40
columns for flat slab construction E 20.0

without column heads. Grid (m)


lOx 10.
~
~
...
z
16.0
V
/ ,..A f
/ ~
w
:;:

~
w
U
a:
~ 12.0

~~
Z
iii
a:

8.0 /.
I
V

4.0 /~
~v

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.25 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of reinforcement in interior
columns for flat slab construction
without column heads. Grid (m)
6 x 6.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 77

36.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
GRID (m) 8 x 8 I (N/oq mm)

32.0

30

28.0
J
V 35

~
~ 24.0
/ I
VVV
a: 40
9
IL
IL
oE
VV
20.0

I
~ ~J J

I ~ jt
... 16.0
zw
~
w
u
a:
~ 12.0
V
~~
~

V
8.0

4. O~
V
~ GRADE OF
CONCRETE
36 (N/lq mm)
30

I
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 GRID (m) 10 x 10 I
NUMBER OF STOREYS
32
'IT 35

Figure 4.26 Effect of grade of concrete on /I


/ VII
28 .0
quantities of reinforcement in interior 40
columns for flat slab construction ~
without column heads. Grid (m) ~

I~ / V
24 .0
a:
8 x 8.
9
IL

rl V
IL
o 20 .0
E
;i
I~ /
~ r;
l... 16.0
zw V
~
w
U
~ 12 .0

~V ~
z
iii
a:

8 .0
I

4 .o~ ~
o.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.27 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of reinforcement in interior
columns for flat slab construction
without column heads. Grid (m)
10 x 10.
78 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

36 .0

GRID (m) 6 x 6 1
32 .0

28 .0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)
«
w
a:
~ 24 .0
o 30
o

II
....J
u..
u..
o 20. 0

Vi~
E
.,. 35

+V l/.)~
~
40
~ /
V
f- 16. 0
z ~f/
w
::E
w
u
a:
~ 12. 0
z V

~~
W
a:

8. 0
,/
V~
~
4.
o v:::
~
0.42 GRIO (m) GRADE OF
CONCRETE
~
0.40 (N/sq mm)
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.38
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.36

0.3 4 Figure 4.29 Effect of grade of concrete on


« 0.32f-- - 1-- f---- quantities of reinforcement in interior
w
a: 6 x6 30 columns for flat slab construction
« 0.30 35
without column heads (using mild
A~
a:
o 40
g steel in flat slab). Grid (m) 6 x 6.
...... 0.28
V
o
~ V
b7 . /V
0.2 6
E

~V
~ 0.2 4 8 x 8 30
E /.
V 35

v-: V
./
! 40
V
0.2 2 !7
/. ~
"~ 10 x 10 30
f/: t::/V Vf::::::
0.20
~~
35
~ ./ 40

~ t? . / ~V
a: 0.1 8
~
0.1 6 AW'
I/' ~ ~ ~ [:::/
~

0.1 4

0.1
/. ~ VCd ~
2~
0.1 O~
~
V
0.08

0.06 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.28 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of formwork in interior
columns for flat slab construction
without column heads.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 79

36.0 GRADE OF
i CONCRETE
GRID (m) 10 x 10 I (N/sq mm)

/
32.0
30

35

V/
28.0

«w
a:: 40

I;/ V
~ 24.0
o
o
...J
LL
LL
o 20.0 J
V/
~/
E

!/ V
f- 16.0
zw
:::;

/
w
u
a::

Jy V
o 12.0
LL
Z
iii
0::

8. 0

~
36.0

I
o~
GRID (m) 8 x 8
4.
32.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
V
(N/sq mm)

o. 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
28.0 30

j
NUMBER OF STOREYS
«
w

y
a:: 35
« 24.0 Figure 4.31 Effect of grade of concrete on
a::

~
0
0
...J
quantities of reinforcement in interior
LL
LL 40 columns for flat slab construction
0 20.0

/
without column heads (using mild

I~~
E

~
C'
steel in flat slab). Grid (m) lOx 10.
~

IIJ~V
f- 16.0
zw
:::;
w

VI'
u
a::
0
LL
12.0 /
z

~
iii
a::

8.0 /:
V

4.0 ...--:: ~~
~
0.05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.30 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of reinforcement in interior
columns for flat slab construction
without column heads (using mild
steel in flat slab). Grid (m) 8 x 8.
80 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Figures 4.32 to 4.40 and for corner columns in Figures 0.055 GRID (m)

4.41 to 4.49.
The effects of grade of concrete on quantities of
t," 35 N/sq mm l 10 x 10

constituents for interior columns without column heads


/
V
0.050

and using waffle slabs are shown in Figures 4.50 to


4.56 and for interior columns with column heads in
Figures 4.57 to 4.65. Similar results for exterior 0.04 5
I
1/
8x8

columns are shown in Figures 4.66 to 4.74 and for


corner columns in Figures 4.75 to 4.83. « I 1/
IIV
6 x 6

V
~ 0.04 0
«
c

I
i'i:
...00.03 5
l!l

~
E
E

:> 0.03 0
V
/
7
1/V ~/
~
2

/
~
w
0::
U /
~ 0.02 5
'/

,j } ~
u
0.1 2 GRID (m)

10 x 10

/
too 30 N/sq m m 0.02 0
I

II
V
0.1 1
V 0.01
~
5~ ./
0.1 0 / V
/ 8 x 8

/ ;. 0.01 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

V
0.0 9 NUMBER OF STOREYS
«
w V
/
0::
« 6 x 6 Figure 4.33 Quantities of concrete in exterior
/

/ /I V
~ 0.0 8 columns for flat slab construction
o...J
...... without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •
o
j /

V'/ / .I
E 0.0 7
~ V
E
:>
2

VVV
w 0.06
I-
w
0::
U
Z
o
u

r~ ~V
0.05

l/
0.04

0.03 L~
~
0.02
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.32 Quantities of concrete in exterior


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 •
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 81

40 .0
GRID IMI

'00 30 N/sq m m I
10 x 10

/
36.0

//
32 .0
8 x 8

///
28 .0
w 6 x 6
a:
«
o
~

1;7
a: 24 .0

~
~
0-
:l
III
u.

~V
o 20 .0
E
C'
~
~

~V
f- 16 .0
z
w
:<
w
u
a:
~ 12 .0
I-
z
~/
If jI
iii
GRID Iml a:
0.055

I
V
8.
'" 40 N/sq mm

0.050 10 x 10
~
0.04 5 I / 4. a

«
w / O. a
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

./ I
~ 0.040 8 x 8 NUMBER OF STOREYS
o
a:
(!)
u. Figure 4.35 Quantities of reinforcement in

V V[7 V
o 0.035 6 x 6
E exterior columns for flat slab
.g construction without column heads:
E / ) 30 N/mm 2 •

Vf/V
~ 0.030
LU
[7
f-
LU
a:
U
~
J

/ V
0.025

/ ~
u

~ // V
0.020

V
0.Q15

~
/"
0.Q1°5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.34 Quantities of concrete in exterior


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 •
82 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

18. 0 GRID 1m)

f," 35 N/sq mm I
10 x 10

II
16. 0

8 x8

II V
14.0

<
w
I

V V
~ 12. 0
6 x 6

J J V
c
a:t!l
IL
o 10. 0
VV
~/
E

~
~ I
;;V/
I- 8.0
zw V
~
w
U
a:
fr
V
6.0
z ~
~/
iii
a:

4.0 ~
~V
18. 0 GRID 1m)

2.0 ~/ 16. 0
f," 40 N/sq mm 1

14. 0 10 x 10

/
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

<
w 8x8

/ 7/
Figure 4.36 Quantities of reinforcement in ~ 12. 0
c
exterior columns for flat slab a:t!l 6x6
construction without column heads: IL
) J

~tI
o 10.0
35 N/mm 2 , E 7
!
~ /
V
I- 8.0
zw

~~
~
w
U
a:

t1
~ 6. 0
z
W
V
l/
a:
t'/
k{V
4. 0

2.0
~V
V
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.37 Quantities of reinforcement in


exterior columns for flat slab
construction without column heads:
40 N/mm 2 ,
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 83

o. 55

'" 30 N/sq mm I
o. 50
6x6

o. 45
V
V
«
w
/
V
~ O. 40
V
V
II:
o 8x8
9
o O. 3
IL
/ l/
V V
V
E
!i
E ./
V V.
10 x 10

V
C" 0.3 0
V
V
!!!
'"o V
51 V V
II:

3:
:;: 0.2

VVV
II:
o

V l/
IL

0.2
VV
0.1 5
V 0.2 75 GRID (m)

f,. 35 N/sq mm I
0.2 50
0.1 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.2 25
f/ 6x6

Figure 4.38 Quantities of formwork in exterior V


columns for flat slab construction «
~ 0.2 0
/
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 • «
o
;z: V
Cl
IL
o 0.1 75
/ 8x8
E
~ V V
V
E
,g 0.1 50
'/ ./ ./ 10 x 10

'"
II:

~
V V
V
V
V
~
~ 0.1 25
V V ..
1
/

o
VV
IL

/'
0.10
°vV V

0.07 5 V

0.05 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.39 Quantities of formwork in exterior


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •
84 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.045

feu 30 N/sq mm 1
0.040

GRID 1m)

0.035

10 x 10
)
!Ii~ 0.030
/

//
8 x 8
o
a:
Cl
6x6

/
~ 0.02
/
/. ~ /
E
IE
7
i/V
" 0.020
.e
~
5
~ 0.01 5
/ ~
V
t% ~
u

/
8/
0.01
0l,0 ,/

0.00
~

0.00
5 10 15 20 25 o 35 40 45 50

0.275 GRID 1m) NUMBER OF STOREYS

". 40 N/sq mm l
0.2 50
Figure 4.41 Quantities of concrete in corner
columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 .
0.2 25
6x6
/
~ 0.2
/
!Ii
o /
a:
Cl
V
V
~ 0.1 75
E
V V 8 x 8

~ V
VV
E 0.1 50 /
! V V 10 x 10

'"a: V , /V
! 0.1 2 5 /
/
VVV
c
~
V
IL

/'
/' / V
0.100
V

0.07 5 /

0.0505
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.40 Quantities of formwork in exterior


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 .
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 85

0.04

'" 40 N/sq mm J
0.040

0.03 5

GRID (m)
<{
w
~ 0.03 0
o
a: 10 x 10
...o
(!)

/
E 0.02 5

VV
8 x 8
C"

~
.£ / /
v / 6 x 6

~/
0.0 2

~
w
a:
u
Z
o 0.01 5
/ ./
/
V
u

0.0 10 ~ ~~
~~
~
0.00

0.0 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.04 5
NUMBER OF STOREYS

'" 35 N/sq mm I
0.04 0 Figure 4.43 Quantities of concrete in corner
columns for flat slab construction
GRID (m)
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 .
0.03 5

<{
w
~ 0.030
o 10 x 10
a:
(!)

:sE V 8 x 8

~V
0.02 5
6 x 6

~
E
.£ /
V ~V
0.02 0
~
V
w
a:
u
z
8

~V
0.01 5

/' '/
t/
0.01 0

V
0.00
~ ~

0.00 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.42 Quantities of concrete in corner


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 ,
86 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

12. 0

f" 30 N/sq m m I GRID 1m)


11. 0

10 x 10

1/'
10 .0

9 .0

//
8 x 8

I II I
8. 0
«
w SxS
a:
«

/) /j
Q 7. 0
a:
(!l

/
LL
o

~:;
E S. 0
0'
~
'" 5. 0 J
~V
~
f-
Z

I
w
~ 4. 0

~V
u
a:
oLL

VV ~
Z
iii 3. 0
a:

2. n ~
V
1. 0
~ I 12. 0

f" 35 N/sq mm I
o. 0 I 11. 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS GRID 1m)


10. 0

Figure 4.44 Quantities of reinforcement in corner 9. 0 10 x 10


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 •
«
w
/
L
~ 8. 0
o 8 x 8
0:
" 7. 0
L
V;
~

i
E
C' 6 x 6

:I / /
~ 6. 0
~
>-
~ 5. I
/. /I /
:;:
w
V
u
a:
~ 4 .0
z
W
a:
~V /
/
V
~ ~~
V
2. 0
V
~
1.
°v
O.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.45 Quantities of reinforcement in corner


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 87

12.0

11.0
'" 40 N/sq mm I

10.0

9.0 GRID (m)

«
w
a:
« 8.0
c
a: 10 x 10
Cl
IL
0 7.0 /
E V 8 x 8

~
C"
I /
V
6.0

V
~ 6 x 6
I-
Z
w
5.0 /
V
~

~~
w
u
a:
0
IL
4.0

V
Z

~
iii
a:

3.0 /
~ V
2.0 ~~ 0.18
V
1.0 ~
V
~ 0.17

0.16
- '" 30 N/sq mm

GRID (m)

0.0 0.15
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0.14 / 6x 6

/.
V
0.13
Figure 4.46 Quantities of reinforcement in corner «
w
a:
columns for flat slab construction « 0.12

without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 •


c
a:Cl 0.11
/ ~ 8x8
IL
0 /,
V /"
0.10
E
C"
// ./
V V 10 x 10
~ 0.09
E
C"
!! 0.08
/ V /
,/'

><
:5 0.07 V /'
V
v
/'
~
~
a: 0.06 /' V
0 V V
IL

0.05 ./
0.04
V
0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.47 Quantities of formwork in corner


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 •
88 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.18

0.17 - '" 40 N/sq mm

0.16

0.15 GRID (m)

0.14

0.13 6 x 6
<{
w
a: V
<( 0.12 /"
'/
C
a: 0.11
V
l!)
LL
0
A ../ 8 x 8
E 0.10
V
,/
C"
~ /
E 0.09
V v
C"
~ 0.08 ./' V 10 x 10
~
a:
0 0.07 ./
V /" /
V
~ f"'"
::!:
a: 0.06
0
V /
LL

../
V ./
./'
0.05

0.04
.,,/V

0.03
0.1 8
0.02
0.1 7 - f" 35 N/sq m m
0.01
GRID (m)
0.1 6
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.1 <
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.1 4 6 x 6

0.1 3
. . .V Figure 4.49 Quantities of formwork in corner
<(
w ./ columns for flat slab construction
~ 0.1 2 / without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 .
C
a: 0.1 1 L
V
l!)

V
LL 8 x 8
o
E 0.1 0
C"
~ 0.0 9
V ./'
,,/'
10 x 10
E
C"
/
V / ~
I-'"
~ 0.08
V V v
./" ,/
~
a:
~ 0.07 /
;/" V
::!:
~ 0.06 ./ ./"
.,/
LL
V ./
0.0 5
V
0.0 4

0.0 3

0.0 2

0.0 1

0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STORE'yS

Figure 4.48 Quantities of formwork in corner


columns for flat slab construction
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 89

GRADE OF
0.10 CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)
GRID (m) 8 x 8 J

1/
0.09 30

35

.1~
0.08

40
«
w

VjI;
0.07
V
II:
«
II:

r
0
0
...J
u..
u.. 0.06

~
0
E
C'
~
E 0.05
(I
~
~"
w

/.
f-
w
II:
u 0.04
z

~~
0
u
GRADE OF
0.10 CONCRETE

f
0.03

GRID (m) 6.4 x 6.4 I


(N/sq mm)
V
0.09 0.02 ~
.f'
0.0 8
0.01
I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
« 30
~ 0.07
« Figure 4.51 Effect of grade of concrete on

1/
o
~ 35 quantities of concrete in interior
o 0.06
(!)
columns for waffle slab construction
40

~/
E without column heads. Grid (m)
C'
8.0 x 8.0.
~
~
E /

V
" 0.05
~ V
~
w
f-
w
II:
,;,
y::
U
z 0.04
o
u /
0.03 ~~
;/

0.02 ~~
~V
0.01
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.50 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of concrete in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads. Grid (m)
6.4 x 6.4.
90 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

GRADE OF
CONCRETE
0.10 (N/sq mm)

/
30
GRID (m) 10.4 x 10.4 I
0.09
35

//
r;
40
0.08

«
w
II:
« 0.07 - /~
V
/ V~
II:
0
0
...J
LL
LL
0 0.06

l~ ~
E
C"
~
E
0.05
"

~~
~
w
f-
w
II:
u
z 0.04

V
~
0
u
36.0 GRADE OF
I CONCRETE

0.03 ~ GRID (m) 6.4 x 6.4 I (N/sq mm)

I; ~
32.0

0.02
'/
28.0

0.01
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
«
w
II:
« 30

/
NUMBER OF STOREYS 24.0
II:
0
0
...J

Figure 4.52 /
LL
Effect of grade of concrete on LL
35
0 20.0
quantities of concrete in interior V
V/ ~
E
columns for waffle slab construction ~
C" 40
C>
without column heads. Grid (m) ~

/ V
f-
16.0
10.4 x 10.4. zw

/ A~
::!:
w
U
II:
0 12.0
V
~
LL
z

l0~
W
II:

8.0

~~
~
4.0
;:;.-""
~
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.53 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of reinforcement in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads. Grid (m)
6.4 x 6.4.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 91

36.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
GRID 1m) 8 x 8 I IN/sq mm)

32.0

30

28.0 J
4: V 35

/
w
a:
4: 24.0 J
a:
0
0 VV 40

/ / /
...J
LL
LL

VVV
0 20.0
E V
C'

g
~

V
I- 16.0
z

~~
w
::;;
w
U
a:
L

I;;~
0

V
LL
12.0
z
W GRADE OF
a: CONCRETE
36. 0
I I
(N/sq mm)
I
8.0 30
I

~ ~ /
GRID (m) 10.4 x 10.4

~
/
32. 0
4.0

V 35

J J
VV
28 .0
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
4: 40
NUMBER OF STOREYS w
a:
4: I / )
VV
24 .0

~/
a:
0
Figure 4.54 Effect of grade of concrete on 0

:;V
...J

J
LL
quantities of reinforcement in interior LL
0 20
columns for waffle slab construction E
without column heads. Grid (m) C'

I
~
8.0 x 8.0. ~

V
I- 16.0
z

!J ~
w
::;;
w
u
a::
0
LL 12 .0
(IV
V
Z

~
W
a::

8 .0
V
4 .o~ ~
o.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
I NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.55 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of reinforcement in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads. Grid (m)
10.4 x 10.4.
92 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.1 2

GRID 1m) 6.4 x 6.4 I


0.1 1

0.1 0

0.0 9
GRADE OF
«w CONCRETE
ex:
« 0.08 IN/sq mml
ex:
o
30
~ 35
~ 0.0 7

~~
E 40
cr
~ 0.06
V /
.....ww 0.0 5 .L ~~
VV
~~
ex:
u
~ 0.0 4
u
V
0.0 3 ~~
V

0.0 2~ ~
0.0 1

0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

0.36 GRID (m) GRADE OF


CONCRETE
0.34 (Nlsq mm)
Figure 4.57 Effect of grade of concrete on
0.32 quantities of concrete in interior
0.30
columns for waffle slab construction
6.4 x 6.4 30
with column heads. Grid (m)
0.28
6.4 x 6.4.
~
35
« 0.26 40

...--:: ~ V
w
a:
« 0.24 8.0 x 8.0 30

0
,/
a:
~ 0.22
/' ~ 35

V /" ~ ~
40
..-1~
..d ~ v:; ~ V ,.-
~ 0.20
E
v 10.4 x 10.4 30
.g 0.18

~ V /. ~ V
35
E ~~
e:-
40
! 0.16

'"~ 0.14
~~ l-d :;;::::V
V V
~
~ 0.12
/,~ d ~
:r ~ ~ ~ ;..--
0.10

0.08
~
0.06

0.04

0.02

0.0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.56 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of formwork in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 93

0.12

GRID Iml 10.4 x 10.4 I GRADE OF


0.11 CONCRETE
IN/sq mml
30
I
I
0.10

35
J /
7
/
0.09
40
..:
w
/ /
jj /
II:
..: 0.08
II:
0
0
..J
u. 0.07
/
/, ~ /
u.
0
E

V
CF 0.06

~
~
E
:J
~ 0.05 /
V
~~
w
0-
w
II:
u
z
0
u
0.04
""
~ /'"
0.03
~

0.02

0.1 2

0.01
GRID Iml 8.0 x 8.0 I
0.1 1
GRADE OF
CONCRETE 0.00
IIN/sq mml 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.1 0
NUMBER OF STOREYS
30
0.09
..: 35
Figure 4.59 Effect of grade of concrete on
w )1),
II:
quantities of concrete in interior

~/
..: 0.0 8
II:
o 40 columns for waffle slab construction
g
0.0 7 / with column heads. Grid (m)

,/C07
LL.
U.
o
E
10.4 x 10.4.
0' 0.0 6
~ ./
w 0.0 5
~~
./~
0-
w
II:
U
~
is 0.0 4

~
~
u

0.0 3/
~
0.0 2

0.0 1

0.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.58 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of concrete in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
with column heads. Grid (m)
8.0 x 8.0.
94 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

45 .0

GRID (m) 6.4 x 6.4 J


40 .0

35 .0 .- -

«
w
~ 30 .0 GRADE OF
a: CONCRETE
o (N/sq mm)
o....I
o
u..
25. 0 30

~
~
E
C"

Cl
20. 0 /
V 35
/
V ~~
I- 40
Z
w
::!:
w
u
15 15. 0
u..
z ./ ~
W
a:
10. 0
V~
~~
~
45. 0

I GRID (m) 8.0 x 8.0 I


I
5. 0

~ 40. 0

~
O.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 35. 0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
NUMBER OF STOREYS
(N/sq mm)
«
w
a:
« I 30
Figure 4.60 Effect of grade of concrete on 30. 0

V
a:
o
quantities of reinforcement in interior o
....I
i
;
u.. 35
columns for waffle slab construction u..
o 25. 0 J
with column heads. Grid (m) E / V
//V
6.4 x 6.4. ~
C" 40

~'"
I- 20. 0
z
/
~~
w
::!:
w
u
a:
J
V
~ 15

~~
Z
W
a: I
~
10 .0
y
5. ~~
o~ y I

o. 0 I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.61 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of reinforcement in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
with column heads. Grid (m)
8.0 x 8.0.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 95

45.0

GRID (m) 10.4 x 10.4 1


40.0 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
(N/sq mm)

35.0
30

<{
w
~ 30.0 /
/
a:
o
o...J I I I

VIJr
U. 35
~ 25. 0 J 40
E
C"
~
~ 20. 0 J
V V
.j A~
I-
Z
w
~
w
U
~ 15. 0
u.
E7
~~
z
W
a:

10. 0 /

~
~ 0.42

5.
o~
~ /,
0.40 f-.--

0.38
GRID (m) 6.4 x 6.4

0.36
o. 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0.34 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.32 (N/sq mm)
<{ I
w
a:
<{ 0.30
Figure 4.62 Effect of grade of concrete on a:
30

quantities of reinforcement in interior 0


0 0.28 f-.-- l - . ~ 35
V
~
...J
columns for waffle slab construction U.
u. I / L'
40
0 0.26

~ ~V
with column heads. Grid (m) !
E ,
10.4 x 10.4. C" 0.24
~
E
~- ~V
0.22
~v
~V'
C"
!! I
'"a:0 0.20
v
:;:
~ 0.18
~~
a:
0
IV
u.
0.16
I I

1 ,
0.14

0.12

0.10 I
~
0.08 I--- t-- i
0.06
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.63 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of formwork in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
with column heads. Grid (m)
6.4 x 6.4.
96 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.4 2

0.4o-f-- GRID (m) 10.4 x 10.4

0.38

0.3 6

0.3 4

0.32
«
w
~ 0.30
a:
o
9 0.28
LL

~ 0.26 GRADE OF
CONCRETE
E (N/sq mm)
~ 0.24
E
.,. 0.22
.!! 30
~ 0.20 35
~::!! 0.18
~ l.:::::: ~ 40
V
~~~
a:
o
u.. 0.1 6

0.14
.........::: ~ ~V
0.42
0.12
~~
0.40 - GRID (m) 8.0 x 8.0
0.10
0.38
0.08
0.36
0.06
0.34 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS
«
w
0.32

~ GRADE OF
a:
o
0.30
CONCRETE
Figure 4.65 Effect of grade of concrete on
o (N/sq mm) quantities of formwork in interior
it 0.28
...o columns for waffle slab construction
30
E 0.26
.,. ..,...-1
/< 35
with column heads. Grid (m)
~ 0.24 10.4 x 10.4.
V
40
~~
E
~ 0.22
..:
a:
o 0.20 V ~~
~ ../ ~ ~V
...
~ 0.18

~
V
0.16 ./ ~
V
0.14 ~
0.12

0.10

0.08

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.64 Effect of grade of concrete on


quantities of formwork in interior
columns for waffle slab construction
with column heads. Grid (m)
8.0 x 8.0.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 97

GRID (m)
0.055

f~ 35 N/sq mm I
0.050

10.4 x 10.4
)
0.045
/

..:
Ii!
/ 8.0 x 8.0

/ //
0.040
..:
Cl
0:
<!l
6.4 x 6.4

V/ 7 /
~ 0.035
E

~
E I /'

/ VV
V
0.030
~
V
'"
~
w
0:
U j
z 0.02 5
o
/ /
/
u

/ i/
/ 1/'
0.02 0

0.01 5 j /

0.01 0
~~
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.055 GRID (m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS

1 10.4 10.4

/
X
feu 30 N/sq mm
Figure 4.67 Quantities of concrete in exterior
0.050
7 columns for waffle slab construction
) 8.0 X 8.0
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •

/ 7
0.045

..:
Ii!
7
0.040
..:

V1.;
Cl
0:
...
<!l
) J
6.4 X 6.4

V/
o 0.035
E /
~
E
V
VV /
~ 0.030

'"
w
....
w
0:
U
15
) J
V) /
0.025
u V
/
V
0.020
V
0.015 I ~~
V
~
0.010
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.66 Quantities of concrete in exterior


columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 •
98 Cost Estimation of Structures In Commercial Buildings

0.05 5

f" 40 N/sq mm J GRID 1m)


0.050

10.4 x 10.4

V
0.04 5

«
::! 0.040 -'-
«
o
a:
V 8.0 x 8.0

<!l
~ 0.035 / /
/ .; V
E V
~
E 6.4 x 6.4

I
" 0.030
~

~ V
w
a::
u / /
V/
Z 0.025

/
o
u

/ /
VV
0.020
V
0.015 VV V V

0.010
~~ GRID 1m)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 18.0

NUMBER OF STOREYS 10.4 x 10.4


I
/
feu 30 N/sq mm

16.0 8.0 x 8.0

~
Figure 4.68 Quantities of concrete in exterior
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 . 14.0 J
«w
«
a::
12.0 1 ~V .1.
6.4 x 6.4

~/
0
a:
...<!l
0
I
/ V/
E 10.0
C"
~
~

:; V
....Z 8.0
w

J~ /
:;;
w
u
a::
~

V/ ~
6.0
Z
W
a::

eV
4.0 l~

2.f)

0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.69 Quantities of reinforcement in


exterior columns for waffle slab
construction without column heads:
30 N/mm 2 .
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 99

18.0

'" 35 Nlsq mm I GRID 1m)


16.0

10.4 x 10.4
)

V
14. 0
8.0 x 8.0

<
w
II:
< 12 .0 I
VV
"a:
...0CI 6.4 x 6.4

VV I V
E 10.0
.,.
~
g
I /

V
!zw 8 .0
V
:;
w
U
:§ ) / /
~
iii
6.n

~ VV
~v/
II:

.0

.O/,
I v~V
o.0 18.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 4 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
'" 40 N/sq mm I
16
GRID 1m)
Figure 4.70 Quantities of reinforcement in
exterior columns for waffle slab
construction without column heads: 14.0
10.4 x 10.4

II
35 N/mm 2 • <
W
II:
< 12 .0
8.0 x 8.0
a:CI"
...o
E 10
// 6.4 x 6.4

!zw I~ I / L

V/
8 .0
:; V
w

~
U
II:
o
~ 6
'/ V
~ /'
iii
II:

/-
V
4. 0
V

'v
~0#

o
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.71 Quantities of reinforcement in


exterior columns for waffle slab
construction without column heads:
40 N/mm 2 •
100 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.27 5 GRID 1m)

f", 35 N/sq mm I
0.2 50

0.2 25

6.4 x 6.4
<
w
a: 0.2 00
<
V
c V
0:
CJ
LL
0 0.1 75 /
V
8.0 x 8.0

V
E

~
'" V /
! 0.1 50 / --
V V
/v
10.4 x 10.4
'"a:0
/' /.
~
:;
a: 0.1 25 / V
0 /'
/ V
/
LL

0.1 00
V V
V V
V V
0.07 /
V

0.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.27 5 GRID 1m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS

f" 30 N/sq mm I
0.250
Figure 4.73 Quantities of formwork in exterior
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 .
0.22 5
6.4 x 6.4

< V
VV
~ 0.200
<
c
0:

V
CJ 8.0 x 8.0
LL
o 0.17 5 L
E
V /
r'"

~
!
E
0.15 0
/V V 10.4 x 10.4
/'
V /

~
'"
a:

:; 0.12 5 V V VV
/"
/
a:

./ V V
oLL V

V ./
°v V
0.10

0.07
VV
0.05
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.72 Quantities of formwork in exterior


columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 •
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 101

0.045

fw 30 N/sq mm I
0.040

GRID (m)

0.03 5

..: 10.4 X 10.4


~ 0.03 0

~
c B.O X B.O

/
iE
(!l

o 0.025
E
Y.
~
/~ /'
6.4 x 6.4

yV V
E
~ 0.02 0
£

~V
~
w
a:
u

~V
~ 0.01 5

V
u

0.01 0 / V
~ ~

0.00 5
~V
0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.27 5 NUMBER OF STOREYS

feu 40 N/sq mm I
0.250 Figure 4.75 Quantities of concrete in corner
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 ,
0.22 5 GRID (m)

..:
~ 0.20 0 6.4 X 6.4
..:
c V
iE
...o
(!l V
0.17 5 /'
E
V V
B.O X B.O
~
E )/ /'
!
""o
0.150
VV /' 10.4 X 10.4

/V V
II:

~ :,/' /.
~ 0.12 5
...o V V
V V
~
0.10
v/ /

V
,/
V
/
/
0.07
\./
0.05 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.74 Quantities of formwork in exterior


columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 ,
102 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

o.04
f.. 35 N/sq mm I
o.040

o.036
GRID Im(
00(
::!
00(
0.0
c 10.4 x 10.4
ii:
CI
o
IL
O.02 / 8.0 x 8.0

~V
.,.
E
..!!!.
8.4 x 8.4
E / L
0.020
V/
"
,g

~
a::
8 o.
U
016 / ~/
V
o.010 ~~
/.
~
~V
o.00·
~~
o
5 10 15 20 26 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 0.04

f.. 40 N/sq mm I
Figure 4.76 Quantities of concrete in corner 0.040

columns for waffle slab construction


without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •
0.035

i
GRID Im(
0.03
c
ii:
,.
V ;:,
CI 10.4 x 10.4
~ 0.02

.,.
E 8.0 x 8.0
..!!!.
E
" 0.02
V 8.4 x 8.4

~~ /
,g
~
W
II:
U
/
0.01 5

~V V
~
u

0.01 A ~ /'
~ V
0.005
~ ~
0.000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.77 Quantities of concrete in corner


columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 •
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 103

12.00

feu 30 N/sq mm I
11.00 GRID (m)

10.00
10.4 X 10.4

9.00 /
..: / 8.0 X 8.0

/
w
a: /
..: 8.00
0
a:
...0
(!) /; /
6.4 6.4

V
7.00 X

/
~
E
~ 6.00
~
....z
w 5.00
/; / /
;)/ / /
::;:
w
u
a:
~ 4.00
z '/ ."
/~ ,/
W
a:
3.00

2.00 h ~/ V
1.00 ~~
0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS 12.0

feu 35 N/sq mm j
11.0
Figure 4.78 Quantities of reinforcement in corner
columns for waffle slab construction 10.0 GRID (m)

without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 ,


9.0

..: 10.4 X 10.4


w
a:
..: 8.0 J
0
a: / 8.0 X 8.0
...0
(!)
7.0

~
E
C"
6.0
1//
/
J~ /
6.4 6.4
~ X

....
zw 5.0

/ ~ /
::;:
w
u
a:
~ /

Vj V V
4.0
z
iii V
a:

~/ V
3.0
V
2.0
/,
~, /
1.0 ~ /'
,./

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.79 Quantities of reinforcement in corner


columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 ,
104 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.1 8

0.1 7 - feu 30 N/sq mm

0.1 6

0.1 5 GRID (m)

0.1 4

0.1 3 6.4 x 6.4


«
L"J
/'
~ 0.1 2
«
"1Cc:> 0.1 1 / L
8.0 x 8.0

LL
o 0.1 0 V /.
!
E
0.09 ~
/' / 10.4 x 10.4
E
./ ./
V ,/
! ./

V
0.0
/V ,/"
""a::
VV
0.0
~
~ 0.06
7/
/
V
~
0.0 5
. . . .V V
V
0.0 4/
0.0 3

0.0 2

0.0 1

0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
12.0 NUMBER OF STOREYS

fw 40 N/sq mm I
11.0
Figure 4.81 Quantities of formwork in corner
10.0
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 30 N/mm 2 •
9.0
GRID (m)
«w
It:
« 8.0
c
1C
c:> 10.4 x 10.4
7.0
:5
.,.E
;g, 6.0
/ 8.0 x 8.0

'"
:!
....
/ /
z / / 6.4 x 6.4

V/ /
w 5.0
::<
w
/
U
It:
0 4.0 /
l0/ V
LL
Z
iii
It:

3.0
("

~ ~V
V
2.0
V
~
1.0 r? . /
,/'
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.80 Quantities of reinforcement in corner


columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 .
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 105

0.1 8

0.1 7 t-- f" 40 N/sq mm

0.1 6

0.1 5

0.1 4 GRID (m)

0.1 3

~ 6.4 x 8.4
V
0:: 0.1 2
«
c ./
iii: 0.1 1
...o
C)

0.1 0
V V'
8.0 x 8.0

E V 1/
./
~
E
0.0
V ./
V
! 10.4 x 10.4

V
0.08 i.-'"
V
/
:w:

~~
0.0

0.06
7v ../
V
V
V
V

... ./
V V
0.05

0.04
V "'"
0.03

0.0 2

0.0 1

0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
o. 18 NUMBER OF STOREYS

o. 17 f--- f~ 35 Nlsq mm

0.1 6 Figure 4.83 Quantities of formwork in corner


0.1 5 GRID (m)
columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 40 N/mm 2 •
0.1 4

0.1 3 6.4 x 6.4


«
w
~ 0.1 2
V
c V
~ 0.1 1
./
V
8.0 x 8.0
o 0.1 0 V
E
./
V ./
V
~ 0.0
E
! 0.08
i./ V ./
10.4 x 10.4

"
It: 0.07
V
V ./
V
./
V
~ V ./
V
~ 0.06
o...
0.0 5
vV' ./
V
0.0 4 . /V
0.0 3

0.0 2

0.0 1

0.0
5 10 15 20 2~ 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.82 Quantities of formwork in corner


columns for waffle slab construction
without column heads: 35 N/mm 2 •
106 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

4.4.4 Shear Walls o.18 GRID 1m'


I I I
o.17 i--- f~ 30 N/lq mm
Quantities (per unit area) of constituents in shear walls
o.18
for flat and waffle slab schemes are illustrated in
Figures 4.84 to 4.87 for different numbers of storeys o.15
of construction. o.14
o.13 8 x 8
4.4.5 Total Structure ~ /
The relationships between the number of storeys and
~ 0.12
II:
8 o. 11
1/ 8 x 8

quantities per square metre of floor area for different ...


.....
~ 0.1
JI
design parameters could be established based on the E V 10 x 10
i 0.09
results already presented in this section. However,
for uniformity (Section 3.4.5) the relationships for to- ~ 0 / V/
tal structure are presented for an interior grid and for
~
I!! I 'J 7
... 0.07
different grid sizes in Chapter 7. II:
~ o. oe
1/ /
8
o.0
/) //
4.5 Effect of Number of Spans on o. 04 / ~/

Constituent Quantities o. 0 / ~v
o. 02 ~ ~
The effect of different numbers of spans on constitu-
ent quantities for structures using flat and waffle slabs o. 01 ~~
is similar to that discussed in the previous chapter. o.0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Thus the multiplying factors shown in Tables 3.2 and NUMBER OF STOREYS
3.3 to adjust the constituent quantities for columns
and shear walls can be used, if required.
Figure 4.84 Quantities of concrete in shear walls
for flat or waffle slab construction.
4.6 Effect of Number of Shopping Floors

Office floors were considered for the charts developed


(Figures 4.3 to 4.87). However, to adjust the con-
stituent quantities for any structure having 1 to 5
shopping floors, multiplying factors as provided in
the previous chapter (Table 3.4) can be used to ad-
just the constituent quantities shown in the figures
in this chapter.

4.7 Computing Constituent Quantities


for Structures

Guidelines given under Section 3.7 can be used to


compute constituent quantities for slabs, columns and
shear walls.
Flat Slab and Waffle Slab Systems 107

o.80 GRID(m,

o.85 t-- fw 30 Nloq mm

o
o.75
o.7 )

c 0
I
II!
c 0.80 J / 8)(8

~ V jV/ 10)( 10
9 0.E
II.

V VV ~

/V
.EA

V
.4

/ V. V
.... )j~ Y'
~V
-

o.211 ~V
;;.-'
o.20 ./ ~
o. 15 ~
o.10
o.05
o.0
6 10 III 20 25 30 311 40 45 50
18.0 GRID 1m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS

LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + Wk"


"Horizontal load based on 1.5%
Figure 4.85 Quantities of formwork in shear walls 18.0 f--
of total dead load (Section 3.1.2.2
CP 110'
~
6)(6
for flat or waffle slab construction.
I
II
14

cW 8)(8
II:

l7~
~ 12
10)( 10

v, 1/
l!; 10.0

~Cl
E

~
g
I- 8 .0
z

~~
w
~

~
V
~ 8

~
z
iii
II:

4.0
/

2.0
~~
~~
o.0 5 10 15 20 26 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.86 Quantities of reinforcement in shear


walls for flat slab construction.
108 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

References
I
18 GRID 1m)
I
LOADING 1.2(Gk + Q k + W;')
"*Horizontal load based on 1.5% 1. Mosley, W.H. and Bungey, J.H. Reinforced Con-
of total dead load
16. 0 - crete Design. Macmillan Press, London, 4th edn,
1990, pp. 114.
2. GKN (UK) Pte. Ltd. CKN Floors M Moulds, April

1/
14 .0 6.4 x 6.4
1977, London.
~
w
II:
3. Singh, S. Cost models for approximate cost esti-

/ 7;
~
II:
12 .0 8.0 x 8.0 mation of structural systems in commercial high
0
0
...J rise buildings. PhD thesis, Vol. 2, National Uni-
u..
u..
0
10.4 x 10.4
versity of Singapore, 1986.
10.0
E
/ 4. BS 8110: Part 1: British Standard for the Struc-
I
~
...
zw
8 .0
/~ tural Use of Concrete - Code of Practice for De-
sign and Construction. British Standard Institution,

~ ~v
:lE London, 1985.
w
5. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and Build-

/~r
U
II:
l2z 6
ing Employers Confederation. Standard Method of
iii
II: Measurement of Building Works, 7th edn, London,
1988.
I'

~ ~
~ ~
F===' ......
o
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 4.87 Quantities of reinforcement in shear


walls for waffle slab construction.
5 Prestressed SBC

Concrete Beam
and Reinforced
Concrete Slab
SCHEME A2 SCHEME B2

System MB SBC

SCHEME A3 SCHEME B3
Using a prestressed concrete beam and an RC slab
system, the effects of design parameters such as NOTATION: MB - MAIN BEAM
SB - SECONDARY BEAM
column grid size, location of structural element, SBC - SECONDARY BEAM OVER
number of storeys, arrangement of beams and the COLUMNS

grade of concrete on the quantities of the various


Figure 5.1 Designation of structural schemes and
constituents of rei nforced and prestressed concrete
components (prestressed beams and RC
construction have been investigated for square grids slab construction).
varying from 10 m x 10 m to 14 m x 14 m.

5.1 Introduction 5.1. Structural arrangements with a minimum of two


secondary beams were adopted since Singh and Murthy
Prestressed concrete structures have been found to (1) have shown that, compared to having one sec-
be more suitable than reinforced concrete structures ondary beam, such arrangements were more econ-
for long spans and heavy loads. In the case of com- omical.
mercial buildings, though the loads are not so heavy
as in the case of certain other types of buildings struc-
tures, there is a general tendency to go for larger 5.3 Loadings
spans especially in podium blocks with the objec-
tive of achieving greater column-free space. From this Vertical and lateral loadings as described in Sections
aspect it was considered worthwhile to examine the 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 were considered for the analysis of
use of prestressed post-tensioned beams in conjunction frames.
with traditional solid slab and columns as a structural
system for the buildings under study, and to investi-
gate the effect of different design parameters on the 5.4 Analysis of Frames
quantities of constituents. A parabolic profile of
prestressing strands in the beams was considered. The The analyses for vertical and lateral loads were carried
analysis and design procedures for such structural out in a manner similar to those described in Sec-
systems have been presented in this chapter. tions 3.2.4 and 3.2.5. The dead load was considered
Results presented in this chapter can form the basic in two parts, namely the self weight of the beam
data for an interactive computer program using the and slab (Gkl) and the weight of ceiling, finishes
prestressed concrete beam and RC slab system. and partitions (Gk2). The bending moments derived
by loading all the spans with Gkl was necessary for
checking serviceability limit state stresses at the time
5.2 Structures of transfer. The combined effects of Gkl, Gk2 and
the imposed loads with pattern loading to give the
Three square grids, with sides of 10, 12 and 14 m most severe stresses were determined for checking
for structural schemes with slabs spanning in one or the final stresses.
both directions were considered as shown in Figure Factored loads as discussed in Sections 3.2.4 and

109
110 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

3.2.5 were used in the analyses to determine moments and final stages exceed the permissible limits, the
and shears for the ultimate limit state design. depth of the beam section is increased and the de-
sign process is repeated.
For main beams a minimum width based on a span-
5.5 Design of Structural Members width ratio of 22 was considered and for depth, span-
depth ratios of 18.75 to 19.4 were taken, the higher
Design of structural members was carried out ac- figure being for the longer spans. For secondary beams,
cording to the requirements given in British Stan- the width was fixed at three-quarters that of main
dard BS 8110: Part 1: 1985 using computer programs beams while keeping the same depth as that of main
developed by the author with the additional capa- beams from deflection considerations.
bility of computing the quantities of concrete, re-
inforcement and formwork. Characteristic strengths
of 35 N/mm2, 460 N/mm 2 and 1874 N/mm 2 were 5.5.3 Columns
considered for concrete, high yield steel and pre-
stressing strands respectively. The computer program described in Section 3.3.3 was
used to design columns in denominations of 75 mm.
5.5.1 Solid Slabs As before, square column sections were considered
for interior columns and the elevation of exposed
The computer program described in Section 3.3.1 was columns was maintained the same in any specific
used to design slabs spanning in one or two direc- number of storeys for aesthetic considerations. Fur-
tions at right angles. The coefficients given in BS ther, after every 5-storey interval, the sections of
8110 for one-way continuous slabs and two-way re- columns were reduced where possible for economy
strained slabs were used. A minimum slab thickness and within the same section the reinforcement was
of 100 mm was assumed. Requirements of minimum varied for each storey if feasible, depending upon
and maximum areas of reinforcements as codified the values of the forces.
were adopted and reinforcement spacing rules to
control cracking were taken care of. Further, overall 5.5.4 Shear Walls
depth of slab and spacing of reinforcement were ad-
justed so as to be in modules of 5 mm. Shear walls were designed for different numbers of
storeys of construction based on the considerations
5.5.2 Prestressed Beams described in Section 3.3.4.

Prestressed beams were designed as class 3 mem-


bers [2] with a limiting crack width of 0.2 mm. A 5.6 Quantities of Constituents
computer program [3] was developed by the author
to determine the prestressing force required in the As in the reinforced concrete beam and slab system
beams to satisfy the serviceability and ultimate limit (Chapter 3), the portion of the beam common with
states as required by BS 8110. In selecting a pre- the slab has been measured with the latter in ac-
liminary value for the prestressing force, the program cordance with the Standard Method of Measurement
assumed decompression to take place under the dead (6) and the common portion of slabs, beams and
load of slab and beam as suggested by Ramaswamy columns has been accounted for in columns.
[4] and Walther and Bahl [5].
The program then checks the beam sections for 5.6.1 Solid Slabs
the ultimate limit state in accordance with section
4.3.7 of BS 8110 and provides untensioned steel, if The quantities of concrete, reinforcement and form-
necessary, to satisfy the requirement. The stresses at work per square metre of floor area for sol id slabs
transfer and final are checked to see if the service- in different panel locations and structural schemes
ability limit state according to section 4.3.4 of BS are shown in Figures 5.2 to 5.6. In calculating the
8110 is satisfied. Additional untensioned steel is pro- quantities of reinforcement for slabs, flange re-
vided, if required, subject to the tensile stress at the inforcement for beams has been measured with the
final stage not exceeding the maximum permissible former in accordance with the Standard Method of
value of 7.8 N/mm 2 in accordance with section 4.3.4.3 Measurement [6].
of BS 8110. Finally, if any of the stresses at the transfer
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 111

0.24
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
0.22

0.20
<
w
a:: GRID (m) SCHEME
<
a::
0 0.18
0
..J
u..
u..
0 0.16 B2
14 x 14

..
E
0'
12 x 12 B2
E 0.14 14 x 14 A2
"
~
83
w 14 x 14
I-
w { 10 x 10 B2
a:: 0.12 12 x 12 A2
U
Z
0 14 x 14 A3
U 10 x 10 A2
0.10

0.08

0.06
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
12.0
fcu 35 N/mm2
Figure 5.2 Quantities of concrete in slabs for fy 460 N/mm2
11.0
prestressed concrete beam and RC
slab construction.
GRID (m) SCHEME
<
LU
10.0
a::
<
a::
0
0 9.0
..J
u..
u..
14 x 14 B2
0

.
E
0'
8.0
12 x 12 B2
C,
~
I-
7.0
Z 14 x 14 B3
LU
~
LU
U
14 x 14 A2
a:: 6.0
0 14 x 14 A3
u..
Z
UJ 12 x 12 A2
a:: 5.0 10 x 10 B2
10 x 10 A2

4.0

3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.3 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs -


interior panels.
112 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

12.0
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
11.0

GRID 1m) SCHEME


<
w
10.0
a:
<
a:
0
0 9.0
...J
~ 14 x 14 B2
~
0
E B.O
i 12 x 12 B2

l
I-
7.0
14 x 14 A2
Z
14 x 14 B3
w 14 x 14 A3
:1:
w 12 x 12 A2
u 6.0
a: 10 x 10 B2
0
z
~
10 x 10 A2
iii
a: 5.0

4.0

12.0
3.0 fcu 35 N/mm2
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
fy 460 N/mm2
NUMBER OF STOREYS 11.0
GRID (m) SCHEME

Figure 5.4 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs - < 10.0


w 14 x 14 B2
first interior panel (slabs spanning in a:
<
one direction) and panel with one a:
0
0 9.0
edge discontinuous (slabs spanning in ...J
~
12 X 12 B2
two directions). ~
0 14 X 14 A2
E B.O
C"
en 14 X 14 B3
14 X 14 A3
tn 12 X 12 A2
~
7.0
I- 10 X 10 B2
Z
w
~
w 10 X 10 A2
u 6.0
a:
0
~
Z
Uj
a: 5.0

4.0

3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.5 Quantities of reinforcement in slabs -


edge panel (slabs spanning in one
direction) and panel with two edges
discontinuous (slabs spanning in two
directions).
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 113

.8

.8
- '-- '"'-
- '--
r--
GRID (ml

12 x 12
SCHEME

B2
5.6.2 Prestressed Beams

The quantities of constituents in main prestressed


O.
r----:; 10 x 10 B2 beams for different grid sizes and grid locations are
.82 14)( 14 B2
shown in Figures 5.7 to 5.9 for concrete, Figures 5.10

- --
.81 to 5.13 for reinforcement, Figures 5.14 to 5.16 for
prestressing strands and Figures 5.17 to 5.19 for
~ .7
r-- formwork.
:i -"r--, r-- 14 x 14 The quantities of constituents in prestressed sec-

--
9
a: B3
O. 78
ondary beams are shown in Figures 5.20, 5.21 to

-- --
... 0 .77
l5 r-- "-- 5.25 and 5.26 for concrete, reinforcement and
'-- '--

-
E 0 .7
....., r- formwork respectively.
~

-- -
12 x 12 A2
E 0.7 ~
The quantities of constituents in prestressed sec-
! '-- ~ 10 x 10 A2
"a: O.
7( '--- ondary beams over columns are shown in Figures
o
~ 0.7
I -r- 14 x 14 A2 5.27 and 5.28, Figures 5.29 to 5.32, Figures 5.33
::Ii
a:
5! O.72
and 5.34 and Figures 5.35 and 5.36 for concrete,
reinforcement, prestressing strands and formwork re-
O. 71
spectively .
o.7

-
o.8

o
.87

ro
r-- '--- '--
~ W ~
-
~

NUMBER OF STOREYS
~
.........,
~
r--
~ ~
,.)( " A3

Figure 5.6 Quantities of formwork in slabs for


0.09
prestressed concrete beam and RC I
slab construction. feu 35 N/mm2

0.0 f, '60 N/mm2

f pu 1874 N/mm2

0.07

«w
:i 0.06 GRID (ml SCHEME

~ ~
r- ---r-r-r-
-
~ 0.05 14 X '4 A3
E ~ "- 14)(14 A2

~
E
~

~
0.04
- 12 X 12 A2

a: 10 X 10 A2
~ 0.03
o
u
14)(14 B3
14)(14 82
0.02 12 12
X B2

10 X 10 B2

0.G1

0.00
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.7 Quantities of concrete in main beams


in interiorlfirst interior grids.
114 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

o.0
I
f .. 36 N/mm2
460 N/mm2
o.0 8 - f,

f .. 1874 N/mm2 SCHEME


GRID 1m)

- -- --
o. 07
:-- r--, r--

-
'-- r-
I:li
~ O. 0
r-- '-- ~
:-- 14 x 14 A3

14x14 A2
0:

~ '- r--
r- r - - ......
~ O. 05 12 x 12 A2
E
IE '-
10 x 10 A2
i:J O.04
14 x '4 B3
~0: 14x14 B2

8 o.
U
0
12 x 12 B2

10 x 10 B2

o. 02

o. 01

o.
ro ~ w ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.8 Quantities of concrete in main beams


in the external grid.
0.09

I
fall 35 N/mm2

-
r-, '-- ~~ ~4N~7:~2 GRID 1M) SCHEME
0.0
8r--. '-- .......... -.., r--
r- ~ r--, r-
~ r-- :-- 14 X 14 A3

0.07 r---. '"- 14 x 14 A2

.......... r--, ........,


I:li r--, -..,
~ r--.
0:
0.0
r-- 14 x 14 A3

~ ~

~
E
0.05
- 10 X 10 A2

I
....
; 0.04
.!! 14 X 14 B3
~
0:
14 xU B2

~ 0.03
8 12 X 12 B2

10 X 10 B2

0.02

0.0 1

0.0 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.9 Quantities of concrete in main beams


in the corner grid.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 115

20.0
feu 35 N/mm2
19.0
fy 460 N/mm2
18.0
fpu 1874 N/mm2
17.0

«w 16.0 GRID (m) SCHEME


a:
« 15.0
a:

-
0
0 14.0
..J
u.. 14X 14 A3
u.. 13.0
0
E 12.0
0-
m
...... ~ 14x14 A2

11.0
C,
~ 10.0
I-
Z
w 14 X 14 B3
::E
9.0 ..... 12 X 12 A2
w

--
u 8.0 14 X 14 B2
a:
0
u..
z 7.0 ~ 10 X 10 A2
12 X 12 B2
W
a: 6.0 10 X 10 B2
I>-
5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
20.0

- -t- fcu 35 N/mm2


19.0
fy 460 N/mm2
Figure 5.10 Quantities of reinforcement in main 18.0 f--f -
(pu 1874 N/mm2
beams in the interior grid. ----
GRID (m) SCHEME
17.0 '--
!
«w 16.0

«
II:
15.0 j--- r-- t- ..... 14X14 A3
a:
0
0 14.0 1 - ---- I---- -
..J
u.. 14X 14 A2
u.. 13.0
0
E 12.0 r-- --
r--- t-
0-
m
11.0 - f--- i--+--

+
C,
~ 10.0
I- 12 X 12 A2
Z
uu 9.0 ..... 14 X 14 B2

-
::E ,
LU 14 X 14 B3
U
a: 8.0 10 X 10 A2
0 12 X 12 B2
u.. 7.0
Z
W
II: 6.0 10 X 10 B2

5.0
,
4.0

3.0

2.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.11 Quantities of reinforcement in main


beams in the first interior grid.
116 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

23.0

22.0 feu 35 N/mm2


fy 460 N/mm2
21.0
fpu 1874 N/mm2
20.0
GRID (m) SCHEME
«w 19.0
a:
« 18.0
a:
0
.--V
0 17.0 14x 14 A3
...J
U.
u. 16.0
0
E 15.0 14X14 A2
C"
II)
....- ~
14.0
C,
::! 13.0
I-
z
w 12.0
::iE

--
w
u 11.0 12 X 12 A2
a:
0 14 X 14 B3
u. 10.0
Z 14 X 14 B2
W 12 X 12 B2
a: 9.0
10 X 10 B2
8.0 10 X 10 B2

7.0

6.0

5.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
23.0
feu 35 N/mm2
22.0
fy 460 N/mm2 Figure 5.13 Quantities of reinforcement in main
21.0 1874 N/mm2
fpu
beams in the corner grid.
20.0

«
w
19.0
a: GRID (m) SCHEME
« 18.0
a:
0
0 17.0
...J
U.
u. 16.0 14X14 A3
0
E 15.0 14X14 A2
C"
II)

14.0
C, I
::! 13.0
I-
z
w 12.0
::iE
w
u 11.0
a: 12X12 A2

-~
--- ~
0 14 X 14 B2
u.
z 10.0 14 X 14 B3
W
a: 9.0 12 X 12 B2
I.....-- lOx 10 A2
8.0 10 X 10 B2
!
7.0
I I
6.0

5.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.12 Quantities of reinforcement in main


beams in the external grid.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 117

4.5
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
4.0 1874 N/mm2
/pu

«
UJ
GRID (m) SCHEME
cr:
« 3.5
cr: 14x14 A3
0
0
...J
u..
u.. 3.0
0
E
c-
en
2.5
~
~ 14 x 14 A2
0
z 2.0
«
cr:
14 x 14 B3
14 x 14 B2
I-
00 12 x 12 A2
(!)
z 1.5 12 x 12 B2
Vi
00
UJ 10 x 10 A2
cr:
I-
00
UJ
1.0 10 x 10 B2
cr:
c..

0.5

0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
4.5
NUMBER OF STOREYS
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
4.0 Figure 5.15 Quantities of prestressing strands in
/pu 1874 N/mm2

« main beams in the corner grid.


UJ
cr:
« 3.5
GRID (m) SCHEME
cr:
0
0
...J
u..
u.. 3.0
0 14X 14 A3
E
c-
en
2.5
~
~
0
z 2.0
«
cr: 14 x 14 A2
I-
00
(!)
z 1.5 12 x 12 A2
Vi
00
UJ
14 x 14 B3
cr: 14 x 14 B2
I- 10 x 10
00 1.0 A2
UJ
cr: 12 x 12 B2
c..
10 x 10 B2
0.5

0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.14 Quantities of prestressing strands in


main beams in interior/first interior
grids.
118 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

4.5
35 N/mm2
!
feu !
I
fy 460 N/mm2 I
4.0 --- I----j----
fpu 1874 N/mm2
, I I
t~-
«w I

t--
! GRID (m) SCHEME
a:::
« 3.5 f--'--
!
1--- ---
a:::
0
......
0
..J
1 i 1 14X 14 A3
3.0
;
----i---i
0 I :! i
E I I• I
--I !
I
C'
III
2.5 I
---.. " t - - -r :--1--- :--1-- 14 X 14 A2
C. ,
:!! )
0
z 2.0
I i ! 14 X 14 B3
«
a::: 14 X 14 B2
ti 12 X 12 A2
(!)
z 1.5 12 X 12 B2
iii
I/)
w
a::: 10 X 10 A2
l-
I/)
1.0 1 10 X 10 B2
w
a:::
!
1: I~
Q"
I
!
0.5 --+ I
i
0.0
5
J
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
1
i
I
I
45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.16 Quantities of prestressing strands in 0.27

main beams in the external grid. I I I


fcu 35 N/mm'
0.2a r-- " 480 N/mm'
f.... 1874 NJmm'

0.26
1"-1'
~ l"--
i
_ 0.2 4
~ ~ l"-- r-.... GRID 1m, SCHEME

r"'- ~ ~ ~ ~
~ r--..... l'-... :--...", ~~
t--.
~ 0.2
r-...... r-..., 10 x 10 A2

f', ~
E M)( '4 A3

IE ~ 14 x 14 A2

! ~
. 0.2 12 x 12 A2

0:

~
~
0:
0.1 3
~
r- r-- r-
0.1 2
~
- r--:- ""- 14 x 14
10 x 10
B3
82
0.1 I 12 x 12
x"
82
14 B2

0.1
5 ro ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.17 Quantities of formwork in main


beams in interior/first interior grids.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 119

0.36
I
0.3 5 t-- feu 35 N/mm2

f, .60 N/mm2
0.3 4 t--
f pOJ 1874 N/mm2
0.33

0.3

r--
2r---.

:li 0.3 If""=:::


f:::::: ~ r--..... t"---.

-
GRID (ml SCHEME
II:
..:
II:
o
0.3
r-- r-- ~ r=:::: ~ ~
~ 0.29 -.., 14 14 A3
... t-- ~ ~ ~
X
10 X 10 A2
o
r-
0.28 14x14 A2
E 12 X 12 A2
D' 0.2 7
~
! 0.26

'" •
~ ~

-- - ---
~ 0.20
~
0.1
9!--
o. 18 !--
""- 14 X 14 B3
0.1 7
...... 10
12
14
X
X
X
10
12
14
B2
B2
B2
0.1 6

o. 15
o. 14
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.18 Quantities of formwork in main


beams in the external grid.
0.42

r--
',"
0.4 1
35 N/mm2

0.410 t-- ', 460 N/mm2

f pu 1874 N/mm2
0.39

0.38 .....
i'-- 1'--..
0.37
.......
~ ~ J"-.. r--....
..:
w GRID (ml SCHEME
~ 0.3
r--.., r--..... i""
II:

~ 0.35
~ b::: ::::--..
--
...o r-.......,
t"---. 0........:::: ~ ~
14 x 14 A3
0.34 10 x 10 A2
E
........ 14 x 14 A2
.............
:l 0.33
......... 12 x 12 A2
E
! 0.32

'"
~ ~
~ 0.20
~

----
o. 191--
0.1 8
~
r-- ' -
0.1 7
r-- r-- 14 x 14
10 x 10
B3
B2
12 x 12 B2
0.1 6
"""" 14 x 14 B2

0.1 5

0.1 4
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.19 Quantities of formwork in main


beams in the corner grid.
120 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

16.5
feu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
15.0
fpu 1874 N/mm2

<I: 13.5
w
a:
<I:
a:
0
0 12.0
..J
LL.
LL.
0
E 10.5
c-
eo
GRID (m) SCHEME

:!! 9.0
f-
Z 14 X 14 A3
w
~ 14 X 14 B2
w
u 7.5
a:
0
LL. 12 X 12 B2
Z
iii 14 X 14 B3
a: 6.0

10 X 10 B2
14 X 14 A2
4.5
12 X 12 A2
10 X 10 A2

3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

0.1 B Figure 5.21 Quantities of reinforcement in


I I prestressed secondary beams in the
0.1 7 - , "" 35 N/mm2

0.1 6 - f , 480 N/mm z interior grid.


f pw 1874 N/mml
0.1 5 GRID Iml SCHEME

0.1 ,
0.1 3 14 x 14 A3

~
~ 0.1 2
a:
o 0.1 1
~
b 0.1 0
E
,[ 0.0
14 x '4 A2
~ 0.0

~ 0.0 7 12 x 12 A2
a: '4 x 14 B3
~ 0.06
o
u 10 x 10 A2
0.05

0.0 , 14 x '4 82

12 x 12 B2
0.0 3
10 x 10 B2
0.0 2

0.0 1

0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.20 Quantities of concrete in secondary


beams.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 121

16.5
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
15.0
tilu 1874 N/mm2

<C 13.5
w
a: GRID (m) SCHEME
<C
a:
0
0 12.0
...J
u.
U.
0
E 10.5
C"
en 14 x 14 A3
Oi
::!!
I- 9.0
Z 14 x 14 B~
w
::iE
w
u
a: 7.5 12 x 12 B2
0 14 x 14
u. B3
z
iii
a: 6.0 14 x 14 A2
10 x 10 B2
12 x 12 A2
4.5
10 x 10 A2

3.0
16.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
15.0
tilu 1874 N/mm2
Figure 5.23 Quantities of reinforcement in
secondary beams in the external grid.
<C 13.5
w
a:
<C
a:
0 GRID (m) SCHEME
9
u.
12.0
u.
0
E 10.5
i
14 x 14 B2
~ 9.0 14 x 14 A3
I-
Z
w
::iE 14X 14 B3
w
w
7.5 12 x 12 B2
u
a:
0
u.
z
iii 6.0
a: 14 x 14 A2
10 x 10 B2
12 x 12 A2
4.5
10 x 10 A2

3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.22 Quantities of reinforcement in


secondary beams in the first interior
grid.
122 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

16.5
feu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
15.0 1874 N/mm2
fi,u

13.5
«
LU GRID 1m) SCHEME
II:
«
II:
0 12.0
0
...J
u..
'0
E 10.5 14 x 14 A3
C'
II)

C.
:!! 9.0
f- 14 x 14 B2
Z
LU
~
LU
u 7.5 12 x 12 B2
II:
0 14 x 14 B3
u..
Z
Ui
II: 6.0
14 x 14 A2
10 x 10 B2
12 x 12 A2
4.5
10 x 10 A2

3.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

.4 f - -
Figure 5.24 Quantities of reinforcement in f" 35 Nlmm'
.3 f - - f, 460 Nlmm'
secondary beams in the corner grid.
f., 1874 Nlmm'
.2 f - -
GRID Iml SCHEME
.1
«
w
a: .0 14 x 14 B3
«
a:
o 1.9
9...
...
o
E .7
14 x 14 B2
~
~1 .6
14 x 14 A2
o
~ 1.5

~ 1.4
(!)
z
iii 1 12 x 12 B2
'"a:w
t;; 1.2
w
g: .1
12 x 12 A2
.0 14 x 14 A3

10 x 10 A2. B2

.8

.7
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.25 Quantities of prestressing strands in


secondary beams.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 123

.9

,'" 35 N/mml

.8i-- "
,~
460 N/mm2

1814 N/mm2 GRID 1m) SCHEME

14 x 14 A3

.7

'"
w
a;

'o"
a;
.6

~
~ .5
E 10 x 10 A2
12 x 12 A2
IE '4 x 14 A2

.4

14 x 14 B3

.3

10 x 10 B2
14 x 14 B2
12 x 12 B2
.2

.1

o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.26 Quantities of formwork in secondary


beams. 0.036
I
0.03 41--
, '" 35 N/mm2

"
460 N/mm2
0.03 21--
, 0" 1874 N/mm2
0.03 0

0.02 8

0.02 6 GRID 1m) SCHEME


~
a;
'" 0.02 4
a;
o
~ 0.02 2

a 0.02
E 14 x '4 B3
~ 0.01 8
14 x 14 B2
E
a 0.01 6 I

~ 0.01 4 12 x 12 B2
a;
u
15 0.01 2 10 x 10 B2
u
0.01 0

0.00 8

0.00 6

0.00 4

0.00 2

0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.27 Quantities of concrete in secondary


beams over columns - interiorlfirst
interior/external grids.
124 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

5.5
feu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
5.0 1874 N/mm2
fpu

4.5
<I:
UJ
a::
<I:
a::
0 4.0
0
...J
u..
....0 GRID (m) SCHEME
E 3.5
C'
'"
C,
~ 3.0 14 X 14 B2
I-
Z
UJ
~
UJ
u 2.5
a:: 12 X 12 B2
0
u..
Z
W
a:: 2.0
10 X 10 B2
14x14 B3
1.5

1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

0.04 6 Figure 5.29 Quantities of reinforcement in


I I secondary beams over columns
0.04 4 -
f" 35 N/mm2
interior grid.
2- f, 460 N/mm2
1874 N/mm2
f '"
0.040

0.038

" 0.03

-
w
a:
" 0.03 4
a: GRID 1m) SCHEME
o
~ 0.032
...o 0.03 ~
......... ~ ........
- .........
E
......... '"- ~ ...... 14 x 14 B3
;[ 0.02
E ~ ........
2 0 .02 6 ~
14 x 14 B2

•h
w
tu 0.02
a:
u
is 0.02 2
~~ .........
--..,
u ~ '""- 12 x 12 B2
0.02 0

0.01 8 10 x 10 B2

0.01 6

0.01 4

0.01 2

0.01 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.28 Quantities of concrete in secondary


beams over columns - corner grid.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 125

6.0
fcu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
5.5
(pu 1874 N/mm2

5.0
«
UJ
a:
«
a:
0 4.5
0
...J
LL
0
E 4.0
c-
eil
GRID (m) SCHEME

~ 3.5
I-
zUJ 14x14 B2
~
UJ
u 3.0
a:
0
LL 12 x 12 B2
Z
Ui
a: 2.5

10x 10 B2
2.0
14x 14 B3

1.5
6.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
35 N/mm2 NUMBER OF STOREYS
fcu
fy 460 N/mm2
5.5
(pu 1874 N/mm2
Figure 5.31 Quantities of reinforcement in
secondary beams over columns -
«LJ.J 5.0 external grid.
a:
«
a:
0 4.5
0
...J
....0
LL

E 4.0 GRID (m) SCHEME


c-
eil

C» 14 x 14 B2
~ 3.5
I-
z
LJ.J
~
LJ.J
U 3.0
a:
0 12 x 12 B2
LL
~
UJ
a: 2.5

14x14 B3
10 x 10 B2
2.0

1.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.30 Quantities of reinforcement in


secondary beams over columns - first
interior grid.
126 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

6.0
feu 35 N/mm2
fy 460 N/mm2
5.5 1874 N/mm2
fpu

5.0
«
UJ
a:
«
a:
0 4.5
0
-'
u.
....0 GRID (ml SCHEME
E 4.0
e-
rn 14 X 14 B2
C,
~ 3.5
r
z
UJ
:::!: 12 X 12 B2
UJ
u 3.0
a:
0
u.
Z
W
a: 2.5
10x10 B2
14x14 B3
2.0

1.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

.9

Figure 5.32 Quantities of reinforcement in


f" 35 N/mml
secondary beams over columns f 460 N/mm2
.8-
corner grid. f '"
1874 N/mm2
GRID 1m) SCHEME

.7
~
a:
<
a: 14 x 14 B2
o
.
~
o
0.6

E
~
0-
0 .5 12 x 12 B2
14 x 14 B3
~
"
z
<
~ 0.4

'z"
iii
10 x 10 B2

i:!'" 0 .3
~
a:
0..

o. 2

.,

'0 '5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.33 Quantities of prestressing strands in


secondary beams over columns -
interiorlfirst interior/external grids.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 127

1.2

," 35 N/mm2

-
',."
1.1 460 N/mm2

1874 N/mm2

1.0

:1i
a:

'"
a:
0
0.9
GRID 1m) SCHEME
~
u.
0
O.B
E
C"
~

~ 14x14 82

c 0.7
z
'a:"
I-
U)

(!)
z 0.6 12 x 12 82
iii
"x14 83
~
a:
I-
~
a: 0.5
"-

0.4 lOxl0 82

0.3
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.34 Quantities of prestressing strands in


secondary beams over columns - 0.13 5
corner grid.
,'",
35 N/mm2

0.13 0 - 460 N/mm2

f po 1874 N/mm2

0.12 5

:1i
a:
a: 0.12 0
'"
o
~
u.
o 0.11 5
E
C"
.........
............ GRID 1m) SCHEME
~
E r-----.,
g 0.11
............
O~ "-....,
"" ~
~ ~ ~ b- ~ ............
~
~ 0.10 5 14 x 14 B3
fr t::::::::
~~
~
10 x 10 82
12 x 12 B2
0.100 14 x 14 B2

0.09

0.09
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.35 Quantities of formwork in secondary


beams over columns - interior/first
interior/external grids.
128 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.1 8 5.6.3 Columns


I I
f"" 35 N/mm2

0.1 801-- f, 460 N/mm2 GRID 1m) SCHEME The quantities of constituents for the interior column
f pu 1874 N/mm2 of different grid sizes and structural schemes in terms
r- r-- r-- of concrete, reinforcement and formwork are shown

«w
0.17 5

--r--.r---r-- r--. r--. in Figures 5.37 to 5.39, while for exterior and corner
columns the same parameters are shown in Figures
~ 0.17 0
Ux14 83
5.40 to 5.42 and Figures 5.43 to 5.45 respectively.
~ ~
The quantities of constituents for the interior column,
~
-
-....::::
~ 0.16
........ ~ t - 10 x 10 B2
using grade 40 concrete, are shown in Figures 5.46
14x14 B2
E ~ 12 x 12 82 to 5.48.
IE
!
.
a:
0.180

~
c
a:
0.155
fr
0.150

0.10 GRID 1m) SCHEME

0.14 5

0.09 f, 460 N/mm2 14 x '4 A3


14 x 14 A2
0.14 5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
14 x '4 B2
NUMBER OF STOREYS
0.08 '412 xx 1412 B3
A2
12 x 12 B2
Figure 5.36 Quantities of formwork in secondary ~
a: 0.07 10 x 10 A2
«
beams over columns - corner grid. a:
0 10 x 10 B2
~
"- 0.06
0
E
C"

~, 0.05
.!!
~
w
a:
u
Z 0.04
0
U

0.01~"""+'_1--I--I_-I-"""+'_+--I---1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.37 Quantities of concrete in columns


i nteriorlfi rst interior grids.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 129

0.2

0.2 2 _ GRID Iml SCHEME

0.2 I f - -
f •• 35 N/mm2
f, 480 N/n')m 2 I
0.2 10 x 10 A2
10 x 10 B2
0.1 ~
~~
« 0.1
12 x 12 A2
w
a: ~f' / 12 x 12 B2
~ 0.1 7
8it 0.' ~
". /. ~ 14 x 14 A3
14 x'4 A2
...0 0 .1 ~ /. Y ~
'4 x 14 B2
5 14 x 14 B3

~ V~ ~ ~
E
~
! 0.1 4
E
! 0.1
V ~ ~~
IV

"~ 0.1 2
/ ~ V..I. ~
0:
::; V # ~V
V ~ /; V
~ 0.1

0.1

0.0 / ~ V"
0.0 ~ ""
0.0 7

0.0

0.05
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.39 Quantities of formwork in columns -


i nteriorlfi rst interior grids.
36.!fy-_,........,.._.,-....,._..,...-,_...,..._,......""'I
GRID Iml SCHEME

32.0

14 x 14 A3

28.0+---+-+--l--+--f--+-+--+-f-I
14 x 14 A2
;:Ii UxU B2
a: 14 x 14 B3
~ 24.0t---+-+--t--+--I--+-t---fIcf-lllt 12 x 12
12 x 12
A2
B2
o
~ 10 x 10 A2
10 x 10 B2

!
~
!z 16.0+--t--+-+---+--f-1~P>L+7'-f--f
w
::;
tl
a:
o
~
W
a:

0.01'5-1±0~-:l:15:---::I20::---::I2:-5--::31::-0---:3b5--:4:1:0-4±5~50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.38 Quantities of reinforcement in


columns - interiorlfirst interior grids.
130 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

4-

2-
f '"
f,
35 N/mm2

460 N/mm2
J
I GRID (m) SCHEME

0 UxU A3

8
I 14 x 14 A2

«
lLL 14x14
14x14
82
83
w
0:
« 24
jVh 12 x 12
12 x 12
A2
82
~ V~ W 10 x 10
~ 2 A2
u.
o 20 L ~ f/1 10 x 10 82

~
E
18 ~ WV-
~
...Z 16
,~ WW
"'~ /~ r~
14
;.r
u
a:
~ 12 ~ ~~
Z
W
a: 10 ~r-~ V
8
A ~~
~~
6~ ~~
4~
2

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.41 Quantities of reinforcement in


columns - exterior grid.
0.11

0.1 GRID (m) SCHEME

UxU A3
o.
'4 x 14 A2

« 14 x 14 B2
"'«0: 12 x 12 A2
0:
0
~ 12 x 12 B2
10 x 10 A2
~
E 10 x 10 B2

~
E 0.0
~
~
"'
0:
U
Z
0
U

0.0

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.40 Quantities of concrete in columns -


exterior grid.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 131

0.11

0.10 GRID 1m) SCHEME

14 x 14 A3
14 x 14 A2

..
..
14 x 1• B2
w
II:
12 x 12 A2
II: 14 x 14 B3
0
12 x 12 B2
~
...0 10 x 10 A2
E 10 x 10 B2

~
E
,
"
~
II:
U
Z
0
U

0.02:1--±-+-""""*-±--:l::--±---1--I----4
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.43 Quantities of concrete in columns -


corner grid.
0.2 6
I GRID 1m) SCHEME
0.25 r-
'" I
35 N/mm2

0.24 -
" 460 N/mm2
10 x 10 A2

0.23

0.2 2
// 10 x 10
12 x 12
B2
A2

.. 0.2 1 ~ Y': 12 x 12 B2

~~ /
w 14 x 14 A3
~ 0.20 '4 x 14 A2

~ 'l: '/ ~ x 14
II: 14 B2
o
14 x 14 B3

/-V/ Y' ~V
~ 0.19

~ 0.18
E
cr 0.17
~ '/ ~V
~ - V~~~
V ~ ~ /"
--
~ 0.16

~ I
./'W. ~ /"
0.15

~
::; 0.14 I
/;V
~V
II:

~
~
0.13
I
0.12

0.11
~~ V I

0.10
V
0.09 I
0.08
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.42 Quantities of formwork in columns


exterior grid.
132 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

38
I GRID 1m' SCHEME

I
34f-
' .. 35 N/mm2
32- f., 480 N/mm'
'4 x,4 A3

/ 14 x 14 A2

'l
2S
14 x 14 B2
U. x '4 B3

h~
2 12 x 12 A2
12 x 12 B2
2
VjJ, W 10 x 10 A2

;J, 'U I'-


22
10 x 10 B2

lIA- r/ 7
2

1S
~~ ~
~ W/)
1

14

12
~b
~ V..,j
$}
1
!V

8~
t~ ~
4~

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.44 Quantities of reinforcement in


columns - corner grid.
0.29 GRID 1m' SCHEME
I 10 x 10 A2
0.2s f -

0.27 '--
'eu
fv
35 N/mm2
480 N/mm2
Ii / 10 x 10 B2

0.2 6 / ~ 12 x 12 A2

~ 7) 12 x 12 B2
0.25

« 0.24
/J / '/ 14 x 14
14 x 14
A3
A2
w
~ ~ /j / ,# Ux14 B3

)V1 '/ 7 /
0.23 14 x 14- B2
'"
9
... 0.22
W,Vj
~ 0.21
A ~

l
E
,~ '~ V), ~)
Vg ~ 7
0.20

!
E
J vJ.
V V. ~ /
0.19

"~
'/ ~ / I'
0.18
~
ill 0.17
fi'
0.16 / .h .IV
~.., ~
0.15 ""),

0.14 ~~
0.13 h
~
0.12

0.11
5 10 15 20 2 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.45 Quantities of formwork in columns -


corner grid.
Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 133

0.1 GRADE .0 CONCRETE


I

0.0I S -
f""
f,
45 N/mm2
460 N/mm2 I GRID 1m) SCHEME

0.08
14x14 A3
UxU A2

~
~ 0.0 7
j '4 x 14 B2
14)( 14 B3

~~
II: 12 x 12 A2
o 12 x 12 B2
~
~ 0.0
~7
~V
E
I
~

~V
0.0

~II:
~ 0.0
• I.
~
8

0.0 ~~
V

0.0 ~ ~ ~
~
0.0 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 3 .0 .5 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.46 Quantities of concrete in columns


interiorlfirst interior grids: 38. 0 GRADE .a CONCRETE
I
feu = 45 N/mm 2 •
32 .of--
f ".
f,
45 N/mm2

460 N/mm2 l
28. GRID 1m) SCHEME

0(
w
~
II:
24

...o~
Ux , .. A3

20. 0
'4 x '4 A2
E

~
14><14 B2
14><14 B3
~

~~
12 x 12 A2
~ 12 x 12 B2
~ 16

~
u
II:
f2 12.
/-
z
/'"
h ~~
W
II:

8. 0
V
~
~
.~.,.. P'
~
o
10 1 20 25 30 35 .0 .5 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.47 Quantities of reinforcement in


columns - interior/first interior grids:
feu = 45 N/mm 2 •
134 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

0.2 1 GRADE 40 CONCRETE 5.6.4 Shear Walls


I
0.2 Of--
f e.. "5 N/mm2

0.1 9 f-- fy 460 N/mmz I GRID Iml SCHEME


The quantities of constituents for the shear walls are
shown in Figures 5.49 to 5.51 for different grid sizes
0.1 8
and structural schemes.
0.1 7 12 x 12 A2
12 x 12 B2
0.1 6
/. 5.6.5 Total Structure
<
w ~
;/ 14x14 A3
~
V ~
0.1
14xU A2
a:
h ,. x 14 B2 The quantities of constituents for the total structure
~ 0.1 4 14 x 14 B3

~ 0.1 3
~
V
~ !?' can be built up based on the results of elements al-
ready covered (Sections 5.6.1to 5.6.4). However, for
E
i 0.1 2
~
V
~V an interior grid and different grid sizes, charts have
E
! 0.1 1
~ -d~ been developed and are shown in Figures 7.10 to
~ 0.1 0 / ~ ~ 7.13.
~~ l/ A ~
V. ~
0.09
~
f? 0.08
5.7 Effect of Number of Spans on
0.0 7~ Constituent Quantities
0.06

0.0 The charts developed in this chapter are based on


0.0 4 structures having five or more continuous spans. The
0.0
5 lb 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.48 Quantities of formwork in columns -


interiorlfirst interior grids: feu = 45
N/mm 2 •
0.1 0 GRID 1m) SCHEME
I I

0.09!--
feu 35 N/mmz
ff 460 N/mm2 I
10 X 10 A2. 62

/
0.0

;1i

V./
~ 0.07
12 x 12 A2.62
a:
o
~
a
VVII
0.06
E 14x14 A2. 62. A3. 63
~
E 0.0

~
a:
! /V

/
~ 0.0
o
u
V /
0.0 / J
V
0.0 2 ~~
1~ ~
~
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUM6ER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.49 Quantities of concrete in shear walls.


Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced Concrete Slab System 135

effect of varying continuity (less than 5) was studied, 10.8'~-.---r-""--.---r-""--.---r----. GRID Iml SCHEME
and based on this investigation multiplying factors 10 x 10 A2
LOADING 1.2(Gk + Ok + W;')
were established. These showed similar results to those **Lateral load based on 1.5% 10 x 10 82
9.6 of total dead load
in Chapter 3. For structures having fewer than 5 spans,
the constituent quantities as obtained using the charts
12 x 12 A2
in this chapter need to be adjusted by using multi- 8.41+----1---+-+
12 x 12 82

plying factors (Tables 3.1 to 3.3).


:5a: '4 x 14
oct: 7.2
A3
14 x 14 A2
a:
o 14 x 14 82, 83

5.8 Effect of Number of Shopping Floors ~


(; 6.0
E

The charts developed for different constituents (Fig-


ures 5.2 to 5.51) are meant for office floors only.
However for structures having 1 to 5 shopping floors
at the lower end, multiplying factors for different struc- 3.6 - +--I-+--iJ~t-I-+----+--I----I
tural components were calculated and these showed
similar values to those shown in Table 3.4. The ef-
2.4 ------+-~_F_.~_+___+-+__+______I
fect on constituent quantities for structures with shop-
ping floors can thus be worked out using the charts
developed in this chapter and the multiplying fac- 1.2 -t---~~~+_--+--+--+ -+--+---1
tors shown in Table 3.4.
0.0f--I-.......-4--I-.......-4--I-.......--I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUM8ER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.51 Quantities of reinforcement in shear


walls.

0.50 GRID Iml SCHEME


I
[
f 35 N/mm2
0"
f 460 N/mm2 10 x 10 A2, B2
f---

V
0.45

II
0.40

:5a: 12 x 12 A2, 82
J
oct:
a:
o
0.35

v [7
~
a 0.30 / V
I /V/
E

l/
14 x 14 A2. B2. A3, B3
C"
.!"
E
.¥ 0.2 5

Y V
V .// V
V VV
0

0.15
k;:; ~ V./
~

0.1 0

5
0.0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUM8ER OF STOREYS

Figure 5.50 Quantities of formwork in shear


walls.
136 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

References rise buildings, PhD thesis, Vol. 2. National Uni-


versity of Singapore, 1986.
1. Singh, S. and Murthy, C.K. Economics of struc- 4. Ramaswamy, G.S. Modern Prestressed Concrete
tural floor systems. Seminar on Structural Systems Design. Pitman, New York, 1976.
for High Rise Buildings, Applied Research Corpora- 5. Walther, R. and Bhal, N.S. Partial Prestressing (Pre-
tion, Singapore, 1983. stressed Reinforced Concrete). University of Stutt-
2. BSCP 110: Part 1: Code of Practice for the Struc- gart, 1971.
tural Use of Concrete. British Standard Institution, 6. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and Build-
London, 1972. ing Employers Confederation. Standard Method of
3. Singh, S. Cost models for approximate cost esti- Measurement of Building Works, 7th edn, Lon-
mation of structural systems in commercial high don, 1988.
6 Applications
6.2 Comparative Cost Estimation - Effect of
Design Variables

One of the objectives laid down (Section 1.2) in this


book is that the charts developed should be capable
of supplying comparative cost information for the
effects of different design parameters on the struc-
tural cost which is needed at the architectural de-
sign stage. This requirement can be seen to have
been fulfilled from the solutions presented in this
chapter. For clarity, in each case, the design prob-
lem has been defined first and, based on the data
The application of charts developed for RC beam given, a solution using the charts/statistical relation-
and slab construction (Chapter 3), flat/waffle slab ships has been obtained.
constructions (Chapter 4) and prestressed beam and In actual practice, an architect does not really need
RC slab construction (Chapter 5) has been demon- to consider grid sizes over such a large range as that
strated for (a) comparative cost estimation to as- in some of the problems which follow; the various
sess the effect of various design parameters, (b) grid sizes have been included to show the flexibility
approximate structural cost estimation of an over- and usefulness of the charts developed in carrying
all project given its design features, (c) checking out such studies.
the estimates for structural works, (d) calculation
of quantity index for structural works and (e) vari- 6.2.1 Problem 1 - Structural Schemes
ous other building economics studies. For clarity,
problems have been defined and, using the charts/ A design team is involved in the planning of a 40-
statistical relationships, solutions to these problems storey commercial high-rise building and the design
obtained are shown. The applications given are is at the beginning of the initial stage. The Structural
merely illustrative although the charts developed Engineer has been asked to present the comparative
are capable of generating valuable and voluminous unit costs, for a typical interior panel in a structure
quantity/cost information about the effects of vari- having five continuous spans, for the following struc-
ous design parameters for each of the structural tural schemes using the given data:
elements.

Structural scheme Grid size


6.1 Introduction (m)
RC beam and slab with 6.0 x 6.0
The usefulness of any research investigation can be one secondary beam
assessed from the applications for which the results (Scheme B1, Figure 3.1) 8.0 x 8.0
or findings can be utilised in practice. In this chap- 10.0 x 10.0
ter efforts have been made to show the usefulness of RC beam and slab with two 10.0 x 10.0
the charts developed (Chapters 3 to 5): for compara- secondary beams
tive cost estimation to determine the effect of design (Scheme B2, Figure 3.1)
parameters on structural cost; for approximate struc- Flat slab without column heads 10.0 x 10.0
tural cost estimation of an overall project; for checking (Figure 4.1)
of estimates for structural works; for calculation of Waffle slab without column 10.0 x 10.0
quantity and cost index for structural schemes and heads (Figure 4.2)
systems; for budgeting of materials; and for use in Prestressed beam and 10.0 x 10.0
academic studies in building economics. RC slab with two
The application shown is merely for illustration pur- secondary beams
poses although the charts developed are capable of (Scheme B2, Figure 5.1)
generating valuable and voluminous quantity/cost Prestressed beam and RC 12.0x12.0
information about different constituents to indicate slab with two
the effect of various design parameters on structural secondary beams
cost. (Scheme B2, Figure 5.1)

137
138 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Structural scheme Grid size Table 6.1a Reinforced concrete beam and slab
(m) construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
Prestressed beam and RC 14.0 x 14.0 area).
slab with two
SALIENT FEATURES
secondary beams
Grid size (m): 6.0 x 6.0 Grid location: Interior
(Scheme B2, Figure 5.1) Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: B1
Prestressed beam and RC 14.0 x 14.0
slab with three Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost
grade
secondary beams (sq m)
(NIsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (£)
(Scheme B3, Figure 5.1)
Slab 30 0.110 4.7 0.87 22.89
Prevailing rates of materials (London, 1993): Main beams 30 0.012 4.5 0.12 5.19
Secondary
beams 30 0.009 2.5 0.13 4.32
Concrete (f/cu m) grade 30 N/sq mm Secondary beams
Slab 65.82 over columns 30 0.009 1.6 0.11 3.54
Beams 69.10 Columns 35 0.053 14.0 0.27 12.54
grade 35 N/sq mm Shear walls 35 0.080 8.3 0.45 18.96
Slab 67.22 Total 67.44
Beams 70.50 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 11.80
Columns 77.96 Total structure 79.24
Shear walls 68.32
Reinforcement (f/kg) High yield steel
Slab 0.49
Beams 0.43
Columns 0.43 Table 6.1 bRei nforced concrete beam and slab
Shear walls 0.49 construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
Prestressi ng strands (f/kg) 3.00 area).
Formwork (f/sq m)
SALIENT FEATURES
Solid slab and beam construction Grid size (m): 8.0 x 8.0 Grid location: Interior
Slab 15.34 Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: B1
Beams 20.24
Columns 19.62 Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost
grade
Shear walls 20.94 (NIsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)
Flat slab and column construction
Slab 5.34 Slab 30 0.140 6.5 0.86 22.59
Columns 19.62 Main beams 30 0.016 4.5 0.13 5.67
Secondary beams 30 0.013 3.3 0.14 5.15
Shear walls 20.94
Secondary beams
Waffle slab 25.34 over columns 30 0.012 2.3 0.12 4.25
Columns 35 0.061 18.7 0.22 16.66
The solution obtained using the appropriate charts Shear walls 35 0.079 8.0 0.45 18.74
developed in Chapters 3 to 5 is shown in Tables Total 76.06
6.1 a-j. In the solution it has been assumed that the Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 13.31
structure has five continuous spans and is meant for Total structure 89.37
an office block.
The reader should recall that the charts developed
are for office floors and for structures having five
continuous spans. In cases where it is desired to
compute constituent quantities/cost for structures
having fewer than 5 continuous spans, the quantities 6.2.2 Problem 2 - Structural Schemes
read from the charts need to be adjusted using the
appropriate multiplying factors (Tables 3.1 to 3.3). Evaluate the comparative economics of using the
Likewise, if the lower part of the structure has a few following structural schemes for a 30-storey commer-
floors for shoppi ng, mu Itiplyi ng factors (Table 3.4) cial building. A uniform column grid size of 8.0 m
need to be applied. x 8.0 m is proposed for use.
Applications 139

Table 6.1 c Reinforced concrete beam and slab Table 6.1 e Reinforced concrete flat slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area). area).
SALIENT FEATURES SALIENT FEATURES
Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior
Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: Bl Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: 2*

Element Concrete Concrete Steel Formwork Cost Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost
grade grade
(N/sq mm) (sq m) (£) (N/sq mm) (eu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)

Slab 30 0.86 28.79 Slab 30 0.317 16.3 1.00 39.99


Main beams 30 0.12 6.75 Columns 35 0.074 24.1 0.17 19.47
Secondary beams 30 0.13 5.63 Shear walls 35 0.068 8.0 0.46 18.05
Secondary beams
Total 81.87
over columns 30 0.11 4.57
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 14.33
Columns 35 0.18 16.97
Shear walls 35 0.40 16.87 Total structure 96.20
Total 79.58
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 13.93 * 1 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using high
yield steel rei nforcement in slab.
Total structure 93.51
2 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using
high yield steel reinforcement in slab.
3 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using mild
steel reinforcement in slab.
4 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using
mild steel reinforcement in slab.
(Refer to Figure 4.1.)
Table 6.1d Reinforced concrete beam and slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area).

SALIENT FEATURES
Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior Table 6.lf Reinforced concrete waffle slab
Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: B2 construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area).
Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost
grade SALIENT FEATURES
(N/sq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)
Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior
Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: 2*
Slab 30 0.120 5.3 0.83 23.23
Main beams 30 0.022 6.3 0.14 7.06
Element Concrete Concrete Steel Formwork Cost
Secondary beams 30 0.035 5.4 0.29 10.61
grade
Secondary beams (cu m) (kg)
(N/sq mm) (sq m) (£)
over columns 30 0.016 2.0 0.13 4.60
Columns 35 0.060 17.7 0.18 15.82 Slab 30 0.282 12.3 0.98 48.04
Shear walls 35 0.072 7.3 0.40 16.87 Columns 35 0.067 22.4 0.16 18.00
Total 78.19 Shear walls 35 0.068 7.5 0.46 17.95
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 13.68 Total 83.99
Total structure 91.87 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 14.70
Total structure 98.69

* 1 indicates waffle slab construction with column heads.


2 indicates waffle slab construction without column heads.
Flat slab construction without column heads using (Refer to Figure 4.2.)
high yield steel reinforcement
Flat slab construction without column heads using
mild steel reinforcement in slab and high yield steel Any reasonable prevailing unit rates for member
in other components constituents can be adopted.
Waffle slab construction without column heads using The solution obtained using the appropriate charts
high yield steel reinforcement developed in Chapter 4 is shown in Tables 6.2a-c.
140 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Table 6.1g Prestressed beam and RC slab Table 6.1 i Prestressed beam and RC slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area). area).

SALIENT FEATURES SALIENT FEATURES


Grid size (m): 10.0 x 10.0 Grid location: Interior Grid size (m): 14.0 x 14.0 Grid Location: Interior
Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: 62 Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: 62

Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost
grade grade
(Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£) (Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£)

Slab 3S 0.120 5.0 0.83 23.25 Slab 35 0.160 8.6 0.83 27.70
Main beams 35 0.016 5.4 0.7 0.11 7.78 Main beams 35 0.023 7.4 1.2 0.11 10.60
Secondary Secondary
beams 35 0.027 5.0 0.9 0.24 11.61 beams 35 0.040 8.1 1.7 0.24 16.26
Secondary Secondary
beams beams
over over
columns 35 0.012 1.8 0.3 0.10 4.54 columns 35 0.018 3.0 0.6 0.11 6.59
Columns 35 0.054 14.7 0.17 13.87 Columns 35 0.064 19.1 0.14 15.95
Shear walls 35 0.062 7.0 0.36 15.20 Shear walls 35 0.042 5.0 0.24 10.35

Total 76.25 Total 87.48


Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 13.34 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 15.31

Total structure 89.59 Total structure 102.79

Table 6.1 h Prestressed beam and RC slab Table 6.1j Prestressed beam and RC slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area). area).

SALIENT FEATURES SALIENT FEATURES


Grid size (m): 12.0 x 12.0 Grid location: Interior Grid size (m): 14.0 x 14.0 Grid location: Interior
Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: 62 Number of storeys: 40 Scheme: 63

Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost
grade grade
(Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£) (Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£)

Slab 35 0.150 7.6 0.84 26.69 Slab 35 0.130 6.8 0.79 24.19
Main beams 35 0.019 6.4 1.0 0.11 9.32 Main beams 35 0.025 8.4 1.3 0.1211.71
Secondary Secondary
beams 35 0.032 6.5 1.3 0.24 13.80 beams 35 0.064 6.3 1.0 0.37 20.71
Secondary Secondary
beams beams
over over
columns 35 0.014 2.4 0.5 0.11 5.75 columns 35 0.019 1.7 0.5 0.11 5.80
Columns 35 0.058 17.8 0.15 15.12 Columns 35 0.063 18.8 0.14 15.74
Shear walls 35 0.050 5.8 0.30 12.54 Shear walls 35 0.042 5.0 0.24 10.35
Total 83.22 Total 88.50
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 14.56 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 15.49
Total structure 97.78 Total structure 103.99
Applications 141

Table 6.2a Reinforced concrete flat slab Table 6.2b Reinforced concrete flat slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor
area). area).
SALIENT FEATURES SALIENT FEATURES
Grid size (m): 8.0 x 8.0 Grid location: Interior Grid size (m): 8.0 x 8.0 Grid location: Interior
Number of storeys: 30 Scheme: 2* Number of storeys: 30 Scheme: 4*

Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost Element Concrete Concrete Steel Formwork Cost
grade grade
(N/sq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)1 (N/sq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£l

Slab 30 0.252 12.5 1.01 36.97 Slab 30 0.222 22.5 1.01 50.14
Columns 30 0.057 16.5 0.19 15.07 Columns 30 0.055 14.5 0.19 14.06
Shear walls 30 0.053 6.0 0.39 14.65 Shear walls 30 0.053 6.0 0.39 14.65
Total 66.69 Total 74.85
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 11.67 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 13.10
Total structure 78.36 Total structure 87.95

*1 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using high * 1 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using high
yield steel rei nforcement in slab. yield steel reinforcement in slab.
2 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using 2 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using
high yield steel reinforcement in slab. high yield steel reinforcement in slab.
3 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using mild 3 indicates flat slab construction with column heads using mild
steel reinforcement in slab. steel reinforcement in slab.
4 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using 4 indicates flat slab construction without column heads using
mild steel reinforcement in slab. mild steel reinforcement in slab.
(Refer to Figure 4.1.) (Refer to Figure 4.1.)
t Unit rates for constituents (1992): t Unit rates for constituents (1992):
Element Concrete Steel Form work Element Concrete Steel Formwork
(£/cu m) (£/kg) (£/sq m) (£/cu m) (£/kg) (£/sq m)
Slab 60.91 0.49 25.34 Slab 60.91 0.49 25.34
Columns 74.56 0.43 19.62 Columns 74.56 0.43 19.62
Shear walls 66.92 0.49 20.94 Shear walls 66.92 0.49 20.94

6.3 Approximate Structural Cost Estimation (i) Details of grid sizes, grid locations and their numbers
of an Overall Project Grid size Grid location No. of grids
12.7 x 12.0 Corner 4 x 25
Given the salient design features of a commercial 12.7 x 12.0 Exterior 8 x 25
bu i Idi ng project, the charts developed in Chapters 3 12.0 x 11.5 Exterior 6 x 25
to 5 can be used to compute the approximate struc- 12.0x11.5 Fi rst interior 8 x 25
tural cost for an overall project. It is pointed out 12.0x11.5 Interior 4 x 25
that interpolation between the quantities of constitu-
ents of different grid sizes can be made to obtain
(ii) Shear core areas 553.92 m 2/f1oor
constituent quantities for any other given size. This
Concrete grade of 35 N/sq mm to be
is illustrated in the next problem.
used in all components
Structural scheme with 2 secondary beams
6.3.1 Problem 3 - Total Structural Cost
at right angle to main beams is to be
used
Determine the total structural cost for a 25-storey
commercial building project (Figure 9.1) using pre-
stressed beams and an RC slab construction given (iii) Unit rates of different constituents: same as in
the following design features: Problem 1.
142 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Table 6.2c Reinforced concrete waffle slab Table 6.3 Prestressed beam and RC slab
construction (quantities/cost per sq m of floor construction (quantities/cost for the overall
area). structure).

SALIENT FEATURES SALIENT FEATURES


Grid size (m): 8.0 x 8.0 Grid location: Interior Floor area (sq m): 107820.00
Number of storeys: 30 Scheme: 2' Shear core area (sq m): 13 848.00

Grid size Grid location** Numbers


Element Concrete Concrete Steel Form work Cost (m)
grade
(£)t 12.7 x 12.0 4 100
(N/sq mm) (cu m) (kg) (sq m)
12.7 x 12.0 3 200
12.0 x 1l.5 3 150
Slab 30 0.219 8.7 0.98 42.44
12.0 x 1l.5 2 200
Columns 30 0.055 16.0 0.19 14.71
12.0 x 1l.5 100
Shear Walls 30 0.053 5.3 0.39 14.31
Number of storeys: 25 Scheme: 2*
Total 71.46
Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 12.51 Element Concrete Concrete Steel Strands Formwork Cost'
grade (x 70') (x 70')
Total structure 83.97 (Nlsq mm) (cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) (£ M)

Slab 35 15 704.5 823.01 90980 2.85


'1 indicates waffle slab construction with column heads. Main beams 35 2 158.0 698.68 120.33 12 525 l.07
2 indicates waffle slab construction without column heads. Secondary
(Refer to Figure 4.2.) beams 35 3475.2 726.11 156.22 25208 l.54
Secondary
t Unit rates for constituents (1992): beams
Element Concrete Steel Formwork over
columns 35 1622.0 272.91 59.94 12 525 0.67
(£lcu m) (£/kg) (£/sq m)
Columns 35 3998.0 112l.35 13546 l.06
Slab 60.91 0.49 25.34 Shear walls 35 3040.7 308.49 23549 0.85
Columns 74.56 0.43 19.62 Total 8.04
Shear walls 66.92 0.49 20.94 Add 17.5 per cent for preliminaries and oncosts 1.41

Total structure 9.45

The solution obtained using the appropriate charts * 1 indicates scheme A2. ** 1 indicates interior grid.
2 indicates scheme B2. 2 indicates first interior grid.
developed in Chapter 5 is shown in Table 6.3. 3 indicates scheme A3. 3 indicates exterior grid.
4 indicates scheme B3. 4 indicates corner grid.
(Refer to Figure 5.1.)

6.4 Checking of Estimates for Structural , Unit rates for constituents (1992):

Works Element Concrete Steel Strands Formwork


(£!cu m) (£Ikg) (£Ikg) (£Isq m)
Another important application area of the charts de- Slab 67.22 0.49 15.34
Beams 70.50 0.43 3.00 20.24
veloped is in making an overall check of the struc-
Columns 77.96 0.43 19.62
tural estimates prepared based on the details supplied Shear walls 68.32 0.49 20.94
by the Structural Engineer. The objective here is to
find out if substantial differences exist between the
initial estimates and those computed with the help
of the charts. If differences exist, there is a need to
look into the original working and reason out the mates, i.e. between the original estimate based on
differences. In so doing the errors made, whether by the structural details and that computed with the help
the Structural Engineer or the Estimator, can be lo- of the charts/statistical relationships. The extent of
cated and the necessary corrections made. the difference between the two estimates can give
It should be pointed out here that the charts de- an indication to the designer about whether the ini-
veloped use the basic design features of the project tial design and estimates are suspect and whether
as illustrated in Sections 6.2 and 6.3 and work out there is a need to re-check the design/estimate.
the quantities of different constituents strictly in ac- It should be further emphasised that generally the
cordance with BS 8110: 1985, whereas in practice estimated quantities based on the details supplied by
there is a general tendency to be comparatively lib- a structural designer are expected to be on the high
eral in the design. Hence, it can always be expected side. However, in cases where a reverse trend is found
that there will be a difference between the two esti- outside the reasonable limits, it can be taken that an
Applications 143

error has been made either in giving the structural Reinforcement (t) 1431.7
details or in taking-off. In such cases there is defi- Prestressi ng Strands (t) 272.7
nitely a need to have another look at the details Formwork (sq m) 35100.0
suppl ied/take-off. Columns
A reasonable difference between the two estimates Concrete (cu m) 3708.7
discussed in the section can be taken to be about Rei nforcement (t) 1018.1
5-1 0 per cent. Formwork (sq m) 9165.8
Shear Walls
Concrete (cu m) 2138.0
6.5 Calculation of Quantity Index for Reiforcement (t) 236.4
Structural Works Formwork (sq m) 17422.5

Past historical information of constituent quantities The solution obtained using the appropriate charts
for structural works in completed projects is of is shown in Table 6.4.
immense value for computation of approximate cost
estimates for present/future projects. However, in-
variably there are always variations between the design
features of different projects. To adjust constituent Table 6.4 Quantity estimate for a proposed
quantities arising from these variations, a quanti:y building.
index for structural works can be a useful dc'vice.
Quantities per sq m of floor area are computed separately
The charts presented in this book (Chapters 3 to
using the charts/statistical relationships developed for
5) can be utilised in computing the constituent quan- prestressed beam and RC slab construction for 25 storeys
tities, for a desired set of design features, which in (completed building) and 30 storeys (proposed building) and
turn can be utilised for establishing the quantity index. the given grid sizes. Based on the relative quantity index for
The quantity index so established can in turn be util- structural components, the quantities of completed building
are modified as under:
ised in adjusting the quantities of the past projects
so as to arrive at the quantities for the new projects. Completed Quantity Proposed
This is illustrated in the solution of the following building index building
problem. Number of storeys 25 30
Grid size (m) 10.0 x 10.2 12.0 x 11.8
Floor arealfloor 3030 4248
6.5.1 Problem 4 - Quantity Estimates
(sq m)

It is required to estimate the constituent quantities CONSTITUENT QUANTITIES

for structural works needed for a proposed 30-storey SLAB


commercial building having design features similar Concrete (cu m) 10645.4 0.1446/0.1222 21 192.5'
Reinforcement (tonne) 474.9 7.6/5.5 1 104.0
to the one recently completed within the organisa-
Formwork (sq m) 71 045.9 0.84/0.83 120964.4
tion but with the following differences:
PRESTRESSED BEAMS
Concrete (cu m) 7417.2 0.0813/0.0818 12402.1
BUILDINGS
Reinforcement (tonne) 1 431.7 18.9/18.9 2408.6
Proposed Completed Prestressi ng
Number of storeys 30 25 strands (tonne) 272.7 3.6/3.6 458.8
Grid size (m) 12.0xll.8 10.0 x 10.2 Formwork (sq m) 35 100.0 0.46/0.47 57795.0
Structural scheme Prestressed Prp~tressel; COLUMNS
beams and RC beams and Concrete (cu m) 3 708.7 0.0481/0.0408 7355.8
slab construction RC slab Rei nforcement (tonne) 1 018.1 13 .8/11.2 2 110.4
Formwork (sq m) 9 165.8 0.12/0.11 16822.2
construction
Floor area (m 2 ) 4248 3030 SHEAR WALLS
Constituent quantities Concrete (cu m) 2 138.0 0.031110.0252 4439.0
Rei nforcement (tonne) 236.4 3.412.6 520.1
Slab Formwork (sq m) 17422.5 0.21/0.20 30776.8
Concrete (cu m) 10645.4
Rei nforcement (t) 474.9
• Quantities for the proposed building are computed by multiplying
Formwork (sq m) 71045.9 the quantities for the completed building by the respective
Prestressed beams quantity index, floor index and ratio of number of storeys, namely
Concrete (cu m) 7417 1 10645.4 x (0.1446/0.1222) x (4248/3030) x (30/25) = 21192.5
144 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

6.6 Establishing Cost Index for variables is illustrated in the solutions of problems
Structural Works given in subsequent sections.

The utility of the overall building cost index is well 6.8.1 Problem 5 - Variation with Number of
established and it has further been recognised that Storeys and Structural Schemes
there is a need to determine these indices for differ-
ent types of construction based on the types of ma- Considering a grid size of 10m x 10m and the
terials used. Hence the RICS Building Cost Information following structural schemes/unit rates of constitu-
Service establishes indices for four different classes ents, generate cost per sq metre of floor area for an
of buildings, namely steel frame, concrete frame, brick interior grid in various storeys of construction rang-
and general building. Further, the use of such in- ing from 5 to 50.
dices is well recognised for bringing a tender figure
for a previous similar project up to current prices. Structural Schemes:
The cost index for structural works in a building Bl & B2 using RC beam and slab construc-
can be established using the quantities obtained from tion (Figure 3.1)
the charts, and the index so established can be used B2 using prestressed beam and RC slab
for estimating the cost of structural works in new construction (Figure 5.1)
buildings based on similar projects executed in the Flat slab and waffle slab constructions without
past. column heads

The unit rates for constituents vary with the number


of storeys, on average, at 1.0 per cent per floor. The
6.7 Budgeting of Materials
following rates for 5-storey construction can be con-
sidered for costing:
Budgets of materials are always needed for arrang-
ing the supply of materials for construction projects
Concrete (£/cu m)
in good time. In cases where the details of projects
grade 30 N/sq mm
are not available in time to place the supply orders,
slab 65.82
computations of total requirements for structural works
beams 69.10
can be calculated using the charts.
columns 74.56
shear walls 66.92
grade 35 N/sq mm
6.8 Building Economics Studies slab 67.22
beams 70.50
The structural costs of buildings are influenced by a columns 77.96
variety of factors, some of which are interrelated. It shear walls 68.32
is essential that building economists should be fully Reinforcement (£/kg)
aware of the cost consequences resulting from changes High yield steel
in shape, size, structural system, structural scheme, slab 0.49
number of storeys, grid size and grid location. The beams 0.43
charts developed can be used to compute quanti- columns 0.43
ties/cost for each of these variables. The results, once shear walls 0.49
established in terms of cost, for all of these variables Prestressing strands 3.00
will not remain constant, since the change in rates Formwork (£/sq m)
with time for different materials is not proportionate. Solid slab 15.34
From this, it is inferred that the required information Waffle slab 25.34
must be established with the prevailing market rates Beams 20.24
rather than being based on outdated information. This Columns 19.62
is made possible by using charts developed to sup- Shear walls 20.94
ply the desired information quickly.
The effects of some of the design variables were The solution obtained using the appropriate charts
illustrated in Section 6.2. The effect of some other is shown in Table 6.5.
Applications 145

Table 6.5 Effect of number of storeys and


Structural Number of Cost
structural schemes on cost per sq m of floor area
scheme storeys (£)
(grid size 10m x 10m)

Structural Number of Cost


Waffle slab construction
scheme storeys (£) without column heads
(Figure 4.1 b) 5 63.26
RC beam and slab construction
10 65.76
Scheme Bl 5 67.50 15 69.43
(Figure 3.1) 10 69.20 20 73.90
15 72.00 25 78.91
20 76.50 30 84.27
25 81.20 35 90.12
30 86.10 40 95.81
35 91.20 45 102.07
40 96.50 50 108.90
45 101. 90
50 107.80
RC beam and slab construction 6.8.2 Variation with Number of Storeys and
Scheme B2 Grid Sizes
5 66.70
(Figure 3.1) 10 68.20
15 71.00 In section 9.8.1, variation with number of storeys and
20 74.90 structural schemes has been shown for a grid size of
25 79.20 10m x 10m. The charts (Chapters 3 to 5) developed
30 84.01 are also capable of varying the grid sizes in addition to
35 88.60 the number of storeys and the structural schemes.
40 93.50
45 98.70 6.8.3 Problem 6 - Variation with Number of
50 104.20 Storeys and Use of Different Grades of
Prestressed beam and slab Concrete
construction
Determine the variation in cost with the change in
Scheme B 25 69.79 number of storeys (from 5 to 50) and use of different
(Figure 5.1) 10 70.01
grades of concrete (30/35/40 N/sq mm) in columns
15 71.92
20 74.72
for commercial buildings. For illustration, a column
25 78.42 grid size of 8.0 m x 8.0 m may be taken and computa-
30 82.19 tions be made for an interior grid using reinforced COI1-
35 86.03 crete beam and slab system, scheme B1 (Figure 3.1).
40 89.95 The unit rates for constituents vary with the number
45 94.13 of storeys, the increase on average being 1.2 per cent
50 98.90 per floor over and above 5 storeys. The following
rates for a 5-storey construction can be used for
Flat slab construction
without column heads costing:

(Figure 4.1 a) 5 62.50 Concrete (f/cu m)


10 64.03 grade 30 N/sq mm
15 67.52
Columns 74.56
20 72.04
77.04
grade 35 N/sq mm
25
30 82.29 Columns 77.96
35 87.69 grade 40 N/sq mm
40 93.35 Columns 81.36
45 99.38 Rei nforcement (f/kg)
50 105.84 Columns 0.43
146 Cost Estimation of Structures In Commercial Buildings

Formwork (£/sq m) ! Unit rates for constituents (1992):


Columns 19.62 Storeys Concrete Steel Formwork
(Elcu m) (E/kg) (E/sq m)
The solution obtained using the appropriate charts 1- 5 74.56 0.43 19.62
(Chapter 3) is shown in Tables 6.6a-c. 6-10 76.80 0.44 20.21
11-15 79.03 0.46 20.80
16-20 81.27 0.47 21.39
21-25 83.51 0.48 21.97
6.9 Structures with Continuity other
26-30 85.74 0.50 22.56
than Five 31-35 87.98 0.51 23.15
36-40 90.22 0.52 23.74
To compute constituent quantity for a structure with 41-45 92.45 0.53 24.32
continuity other than five, the quantity as read from 46-50 94.69 0.55 24.92
the appropriate chart should be modified using the
relevant multiplying factor (Tables 3.1 to 3.3). Like-
wise, if the lower floors of the structure are to be Table 6.6b Effect of number of storeys and
used for shopping, the necessary modification in the concrete grades on quantities of constituentslcost
constituent quantity can be made using the appropriate for columns in RC beam and slab construction
multiplying factor given in Table 3.4. (quantities/cost per sq m of floor area).

Structural scheme: 2* Grade of concrete: 35


Grid location: 1**

Table 6.6a Effect of number of storeys and Cost!


Grid size Number of Concrete Steel Form work
concrete grades on quantities of constituents/cost storeys (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (E)
for columns in RC beam and slab construction
(quantities/cost per sq m of floor area) 8.5 x 8.5 5 0.0209 2.2 0.12 5.79
8.5 x 8.5 10 0.0229 3.9 0.14 7.50
8.5 x 8.5 15 0.0277 6.0 0.15 9.60
Structural scheme: 2* Grade of concrete: 30
8.5 x 8.5 20 0.0341 8.3 0.16 12.01
Grid location: 1'*
8.5 x 8.5 25 0.0410 10.9 0.17 14.74
8.5 x 8.5 30 0.0479 13.5 0.19 18.01
Grid size Number of Concrete Steel Form work Cost! 8.5 x 8.5 35 0.0546 16.3 0.20 21.11
Storeys (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (E) 8.5 x 8.5 40 0.0613 19.1 0.21 24.32
8.5 x 8.5 45 0.0683 21.9 0.22 27.68
8.5 x 8.5 5 0.0212 2.5 0.13 6.12 24.7 0.24 31.91
8.5 x 8.5 50 0.0767
8.5 x 8.5 10 0.0263 4.2 0.14 7.87
8.5 x 8.5 15 0.0320 6.5 0.16 10.40
8.5 x 8.5 20 0.0382 9.2 0.17 13.00 * 1 indicates scheme A1. ** 1 indicates interior grid.
8.5 x 8.5 25 0.0451 12.0 0.18 15.84 2 indicates scheme 81. 2 indicates first interior grid.
8.5 x 8.5 30 0.0524 14.8 0.20 19.28 3 indicates scheme 82. 3 indicates exterior grid.
8.5 x 8.5 35 0.0601 17.6 0.21 22.47 4 indicates corner grid.
8.5 x 8.5 40 0.0681 20.5 0.22 25.88
8.5 x 8.5 45 0.0763 23.4 0.24 29.72 t Unit rates for constituents (1992):
8.5 x 8.5 50 0.0844 26.6 0.25 33.90 Storeys Concrete Steel Formwork
(Elcu m) (E/kg) (E/sq m)
* 1 indicates scheme A1. ** 1 indicates interior grid.
1- 5 77.96 0.43 19.62
2 indicates scheme 81. 2 indicates first interior grid.
6-10 80.30 0.44 20.21
3 indicates scheme 82. 3 indicates exterior grid.
11-15 82.64 0.46 20.80
4 indicates corner grid.
16-20 84.98 0.47 21.39
21-25 87.32 0.48 21.97
26-30 89.65 0.50 22.56
31-35 91.99 0.51 23.15
36-40 94.33 0.52 23.74
41-45 96.67 0.53 24.32
46-50 99.01 0.55 24.92
Applications 147

Table 6.6c Effect of number of storeys and t Unit rates for constituents (1992):
concrete grades on quantities of constituents/cost Storeys Concrete Steel Form work
for columns in RC beam and slab construction (£leu m) (£/kg) (£/sq m)
(quantities/cost per sq m of floor area). 1- 5 81.36 0.43 19.62
6-10 83.80 0.44 20.21
Structural scheme: 2* Grade of concrete: 40 11-15 86.24 0.46 20.80
16-20 88.68 0.47 21.39
Grid location: 1 **
21-25 91.12 0.48 21.97
26-30 93.56 0.50 22.56
Grid size Number of Concrete Steel Form work Cost t
31-35 96.00 0.51 23.15
Storeys (cu m) (kg) (sq m) (£)
36-40 98.44 0.52 23.74
41-45 100.89 0.53 24.32
8.5 x 8.5 5 0.0165 2.2 0.12 5.46
46-50 103.33 0.55 24.92
8.5 x 8.5 10 0.0215 3.3 0.13 6.91
8.5 x 8.5 15 0.0268 4.9 0.14 8.79
8.5 x 8.5 20 0.0325 7.0 0.16 11.27
8.5 x 8.5 25 0.0384 9.2 0.17 13.69
8.5 x 8.5 30 0.0447 11.5 0.18 16.44
8.5 x 8.5 35 0.0512 13.8 0.19 19.21
8.5 x 8.5 40 0.0579 16.2 0.21 22.45
8.5 x 8.5 45 0.0646 18.7 0.22 25.59
8.5 x 8.5 50 0.0711 21.5 0.23 29.26

* 1 indicates scheme A1 ** 1 indicates interior grid.


2 indicates scheme Bl 2 indicates first interior grid.
3 indicates scheme B2 3 indicates exterior grid.
4 indicates corner grid.
7 Quantities/Cost The quantity of reinforcement is directly propor-
tional to the size of the grid for a given scheme and

Observations,
number of storeys, and is maximal at 8.2 kglsq m of
floor area for Scheme B 1 of the 10m x 10m grid
compared with 4.13 kglsq m of floor area for Scheme
Trends and A 1 of the 6 m x 6 m grid, five storeys being con-
sidered in both cases (Figure 3.15). The quantity of
Variations formwork is about 83 per cent of the floor area for
schemes involving two-way slabs as compared with
about 87.5 per cent for those with one-way slabs, with
the exception of the 10m x 10m grid, Scheme B2.

The components constituting any structure can be 7. 1. 1.2 Beams


classified under two categories - namely the hori- There is a falling trend in the consumption of con-
zontal components like beams and slabs and ver- crete from 5 to 50 storeys of construction mainly
tical components such as columns and shear walls. due to the reduction necessitated in the length of
Observations, trends and variations in this chapter beams to accommodate the increased sections of
clearly indicate that with the increase in number columns in taller buildings. The decrease in quantity
of storeys from 5 to 50, the variation in the con- is however negligible, being only about 5 per cent
stituent quantities for horizontal components is for 50 storeys compared with the value for 5 sto-
minimal while that for vertical components is sub- reys. The increase in the quantity of concrete per
stantial. square metre of floor area is about 30 per cent for
the 8 m x 8 m grid and 60 per cent for the 10 m x
10m grid compared with the 6 m x 6 m grid, con-
7.1 Quantities of Constituents Sidering similar structural schemes and the same
number of storeys of construction.
Based on the numerous charts developed in Chap- The trend for the variation in the quantity of rein-
ters 3 to 5, one can arrive at a substantial number forcement is unique since it remains uniform up to
of trends and variations relating to quantities of con- a certain limit with increase in number of storeys
stituents. However, in this chapter an attempt has and then rises. The magnitude of this rise is inversely
been made to study the salient trends and variations proportional to the grid size (Figure 3.20). The rea-
in constituent quantities in different structural sys- son for the subsequent upward trend is the interac-
tems/components. For clarity, each structural system tion of the frame with the shear walls constructed to
will be discussed separately. resist the horizontal load (Section 3.2.5).
The quantity of formwork in various grids with two-
7.1.1 Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab way slabs (Scheme A 1) varies from about 0.55 square
System metre per square metre of floor area in 5-storey con-
structions to about 0.53 square metre in 50 storey
Observations on trends and variations of constituent constructions. The corresponding values in various
quantities are made component-wise as well as for grids with one-way slabs are about 0.39 square metre
the total structures described in the following sections. and 0.37 square metre with the exception of the 10
m x 10m, Scheme B2.

7.1.1.1 Slab
For a specific grid size and structural scheme, the quan- 7.1.1.3 Columns
tities of concrete per unit of floor area remain uniform The increase in the consumption of concrete per square
(Figure 3.13). The consumption of concrete, in an in- metre of floor area is about 300 per cent for 50 sto-
terior panel, is minimal for Scheme A 1 of the 6 m x 6 reys compared with 5 storeys of construction or, in
m grid, the increase in quantity above this for the other other words, about 33 per cent of 5-storey construc-
grids ranging between 20 and 75 per cent depending tion for each increase of 5 storeys. Similarly the in-
on the number of storeys of construction, grid size and crease in the consumption of reinforcement per square
structural scheme. The maximum consumption of con- metre of floor area is about 700 per cent for 50 sto-
crete is for Scheme B1 of the 10m x 10 m grid. reys compared with 5 storeys of construction, or about

148
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 149

80 per cent of 5-storey construction for each increase 0.47

of 5 storeys. Of the three schemes for the 10m x 0.45

I
GRID 1m) SCHEME
10m grid, the least steel is con<;umed in Scheme INTERIOR GRID
0.43
82, being about 6.0 per cent less compared with
10 x 10 B1
Scheme Aland about 7.3 per cent less compared ..: 0.41

d
UJ 10 x 10 A1
a:
with Scheme 81 in a 50-storey construction. ..:
a: 0.39
The quantity of formwork is inversely related to 0
g ~v 10 x 10
8 x 8
B2
B1
u. 0.37
the grid size and on average, for any specific grid V 8 x 8 A1
~
u.

size, the increase in its consumption is about 10 per


0
0.35 ~
/J
E
cent for each increase of 5 storeys compared with a C'

~ 0.33 hV 6x6 A1

~V ~ L
6 x 6 B1
5-storey construction (Figure 3.57). ~
£ 0.31
UJ
f-
0
y
~ )f'
7.1.1.4 Shear Walls
UJ
a: 0.29

A f'
u
The quantities of concrete, reinforcement and formwork
Z
0 ......-: ~ ~
;::::: ~
u 0.27

in shear walls are inversely proportional to the grid


0.25 ~~ A~
sizes, whi Ie these vary directly with the increase in
the number of storeys. 0.23 ~~ A~
On average, the increase in the quantities of con- 0.21 ? V
.# V
crete and reinforcement is about 800 per cent for a ~v
0.19
50-storey construction compared with a 5-storey con-
struction. However, the increase in the quantity of 0.17 ~~
formwork is much less, namely about 225 per cent 0.15
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
for the same increase in the number of storeys.
NUMBER OF STOREYS

7. 1. 1. 5 Tota I Structure Figure 7.1 Quantities of concrete in total


The consumption of constituents of construction, in structure for reinforced concrete beam
an interior grid, for different number of storeys, grid and slab construction.
sizes and structural schemes is illustrated in Figures
7.1 to 7.3 for concrete, reinforcement and formwork 78

respectively. It can be seen from these figures that 74


the consumption of concrete and reinforcement is 70
GRID (m) SCHEME
«
directly proportional to grid size and number of storeys. UJ
a:
The trend of the consumption of formwork in vari- « 66
a: 10 X 10 B1
ous grids is however reversed, this being greater for 0 62

small-sized grids when considering similar structural


0
-'
u.. 58 ~ 10 X 10
10 X 10
A1
B2
schemes. u..
J ';j 8x8 B1

V)
0 54
An analysis of the total requirements of the con- E ~) 8x8 A1
/
stituents for the structure as a whole indicates that c:r
en
50

46
r ~ '/.
6x6 B1
on average the increase in consumption of concrete,
reinforcement and formwork per unit of floor area is
C,
::;. 42
V V/ /,:';/ 6x6 A1

about 59 to 89, 140 to 192 and 26 to 36 per cent


I-
z
38
V ~ / >": /
~/ ~ / "'/, /
UJ

respectively for 50 storeys compared with 5 storeys ::2:


UJ
u 34
of construction (Table 7.1). a:
0 30
V 0 ~) "/< ~
The effects of grid size, grid location and struc- u..

tural scheme on constituent quantities for the total


z
UJ 26 ./ ~~ ~ / ~ V
~V /, ~ V
a:
structure are illustrated in Tables 7.2 to 7.4 respec- 22
I-' V
tively.
18 ~~~

14 ~V
7.1.2 Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab and
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Waffle Slab Systems NUMBER OF STOREYS

Observations on trends and variations of constituent Figure 7.2 Quantities of reinforcement in total
quantities are given component-wise as well as for structure for reinforced beam and slab
the total structure in the following sections. construction.
150 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

2. GRID 1m) SCHEME Table 7.2 Effect of grid size on constituent


6x6 Al quantities of total structure using reinforced
concrete beam and slab system.
2.2
8x8 Al
No. of storeys! Constituent quantities!sq m of floor area
6x6 Bl
Grid size (m)
2.1 Concrete Reinforcement Form work
10 x 10 B2 (cu m) (kg) (sq m)
>C( 10 x 10 Al
w 8x8 Bl
II:
>C( 2.0 Scheme 81
II:
0
5-storey
6 x 6 0.1715 17.4 1.59
..........
0

10 x 10 10 x 10 0.2585 25.8 1.52


1.9 Bl
0
E Percentage change +51 +57 -5
~ 50-storey
.,.E 1.8 6 x 6 0.3239 48.0 2.16
.!! 10 x 10 0.4106 61.9 1.91
><
II: Percentage change +27 +29 -12
0
~
:I
...
II:
0
Table 7.3 Effect of grid location on constituent
quantities of total structure using reinforced
concrete beam and slab system.

No. of storeys! Constituent quantities!sq m of floor area


Grid location
Concrete Reinforcement Form work
(eu m) (kg) (sq m)
1.41(IJ5!-~1~0~1~5~2!:-0~2~5--:3!:-O--:3!:-5--:4~0~4~5~50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
Grid size (m) 6 x 6
Scheme 81
5-storey
Figure 7.3 Quantities of formwork in total
Interior 0.1715 16.4 1.59
structure for reinforced concrete beam Exterior 0.1748 17.3 1.66
and slab construction. Percentage change +2 +6 +4
Interior 0.1715 16.4 1.59
Corner 0.1768 17.7 1.71
Percentage change +3 +8 +8
50-storey
Table 7.1 Interior 0.3239 48.0 2.16
Effect of number of storeys on
Exterior 0.3254 49.5 2.24
constituent quantities of total structure using Percentage change +1 +4
+3
reinforced concrete beam and slab system.
Interior 0.3239 48.0 2.16
Corner 0.3259 50.4 2.28
Grid size (m)! Constituent quantities!sq m of floor area Percentage change +1 +5 +6
No. of storeys
Concrete Reinforcement Formwork Grid size (m) 10 x 10
(cu m) (kg) (sq m) Scheme 81
5-Storey
Scheme 81 Interior 0.2585 25.8 1.52
6 x () Exterior 0.2625 27.6 1.55
5-storey 0.1715 16.4 1.59 Percentage change +2 +7 +2
50-storey 0.3239 48.0 2.16 Interior 0.2585 25.8 1.52
Percentage change +89 +192 +36 0.2650 29.2 1.57
Corner
8 x 8 Percentage change +3 +13 +3
5-storey 0.2165 20.6 1.57 50-storey
50-storey 0.3738 56.0 2.03 Interior 0.4106 61.9 1.91
Percentage change +73 +172 +30 Exterior 0.4149 64.7 1.98
lOx 10 Percentage change +1 +5 +4
5-storey 0.2585 25.8 1.52 Interior 0.4106 61.9 1.91
50-storey 0.4106 61.9 1.91 Corner 0.4192 65.6 2.02
Percentage change +59 +140 +26 Percentage change +2 +6 +6
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 151

Table 7.4 Effect of structural scheme on 7.1.2.4 Total Structure


constituent quantities of total structure using The quantities of concrete, reinforcement and form-
reinforced concrete beam and slab system. work in the total structure for reinforced concrete
flat slab construction without column heads and for
No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area different number of storeys and grid sizes are illus-
Structural
Concrete Reinforcement Form work
trated in Figures 7.4 to 7.6 respectively, while the
scheme
(cu m) (kg) (sq m) corresponding quantities for reinforced concrete waffle
slab construction are shown in Figures 7.7 to 7.9. It
Grid size (m) 10 x 10 can be seen from these figures that the quantities of
5-storey
concrete and reinforcement are directly proportional
Scheme A 1 0.2532 23.1 1.64
Scheme B1 0.2585 25.8 1.52 to the grid size and the number of storeys, while the
Percentage change +2 +12 -7 trend for formwork is different. The quantities of
Scheme A1 0.2532 23.1 1.64 formwork are directly proportional to the number of
Scheme B2 0.2258 24.1 1.66 storeys but are inversely proportional to the grid sizes.
Percentage change -11 +4 +1 The effects of the number of storeys, grid sizes
50-storey and grid locations on constituent quantities for the
Scheme A1 0.4030 58.6 2.04 total structure using the flat slab system are shown
Scheme B1 0.4106 61.9 1.91 in Tables 7.5 to 7.7 respectively, while those using
Percentage change +2 +6 -6
waffle slab system are illustrated in Tables 7.8 to
Scheme A1 0.4030 58.6 2.04 7.10 respectively.
Scheme B2 0.3708 57.8 2.04
Percentage change -8 +1

0.53
GRID(m)
0.51
10 x 10 WCH*
7.1.2.1 Slabs 0.49 /
The consumption of concrete and reinforcement is .) V
0.47
dependent on the grid size, higher consumption be- /r' 8 x8 WCH
0.45
ing for the bigger grid sizes, while the trend for
formwork is reversed (Figures 4.3 to 4.12). I1i 0.43
/~ /
Relatively, the waffle slabs consume less reinforced
II:
~ 0.41
V /
concrete constituents as compared with flat slabs, the o
9 0.39
~/ / /
6x6 WCH

decrease in consumption being about 22, 2 and 3 u.


~ 0.37
./
V /~ V
per cent in concrete, reinforcement and formwork
respectively for a grid size of 6 m x 6 m (Figures 4.3 E 0.35 V' / V
to 4.8 and 4.9 to 4.12).
C"
(/)

:::: 0.33 ./ /
E
::> 0.31
V /
7.1.2.2 Columns
In an interior grid location, using a flat slab, the
2
~ 0.29
,........ , /
/
consumption of constituents in columns is directly
LJ.J
a::
~ 0.27
r/
proportional to the number of storeys and the grid o
u 0.25
V
<"
size. Considering a grid size of 8 m x 8 m, with the 0.23
~
increase in the number of storeys from 5 to 50, the
0.21
increase is about 400 per cent in concrete, about
* Without column
750 per cent in reinforcement and about 115 per 0.19
head
cent in formwork. The corresponding values using 0.17
the waffle slabs are about 400 per cent in concrete, 0.15
about 720 per cent in reinforcement and about 110 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
per cent in formwork. NUMBER OF STOREYS

7.1.2.3 Shear Walls Figure 7.4 Quantities of concrete in total


The trends for variations in the quantities of con- structure for reinforced concrete flat
stituents for shear walls are similar to those discussed slab construction without column
in Section 7.1.1.4. heads.
152 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

74
I
70 INTERIOR GRIDJ GRID(m)

66
<I: 10 x 10
LU
a: 62
<I:
a:
0
58 ~
/ 8x8
0 )
54
V [7
...J
u..
u..
50 6x6
0
E / ) /
e-
If)
46
42 J I~ ;V
en )V VV
I- =
z
38

34
V7 V
::E
LU
V 1/ /
30
. . .V l/ /
LU
U
a:
0 26
u..
Z
W 22 V
V
V /
. /V ./
a:
18

14
V 2.6
I<'
10
2.50
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
2.4 0 INTERIOR GRID

2.30
Figure 7.5 Quantities of reinforcement in total
structure for reinforced concrete flat 2.2 0
GRID 1m)
slab construction without column 2.1 0
heads. «
w
~ 2.00 6x6
a:
9o 1.90
V
u.
~ 1.80 /'
V .L.
SxS

E
1.70 /'"
V
V ./
10 x 10

V
C"
.!!!.
E
1.60
/
V
V
/ /
C"
.!! ,/' r"'"
~ /<
/ . /Y
1.5
,/"
~::!: 1.4
;..---
~ ~
a:
o
LL 1.3
o~
1.20

1.1 0

1.0

0.9

0
O.S 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 7.6 Quantities of formwork in total


structure for reinforced concrete flat
slab construction without column
heads.
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 153

0.52
0.50 GRID(m)

0.48
10.4 x 10.4

<{
0.46
0.44
v
LJ.J
a::
<{
0.42
V 8x8
a::
0
0 0.40
V /
...J
u.. /
V /
0.38
0
u..

0.36
. . . .,v /
V
E
g 0.34 V /V /
6.4 x 6.4

0.32 k/ V V )V
E /
::J /V
2 0.30
LJ.J
0.28
../
t'
/
V
I-
LJ.J
a::
u 0.26 V
z
0
u 0.24
~
V
0.22
~'/
V
0.20 /
V
0.18
0.16
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
74
I I
70 INTERIOR GRID
Figure 7.7 Quantities of concrete in total GRID(m)
66
structure for reinforced concrete waffle <{
LJ.J
slab construction without column a:: 62
<{
heads. a:: 58 10 x 10
0
0
...J
u..
54 J 8x8
u.. 50 V--'-
/ V
0
E 46 6X6
0-
r/)
42 L L/
0;
:::0 38 J )1 /
I-
z 34
)'{ V~ '{
LJ.J
~
30
V V--l V
V V; V
LJ.J
U
a:: 26
0
u..
z 22 ./
t'" V; V
LJ.J
a::
18
~
,..,..,.
... 0 V
14
V
V
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 7.8 Quantities of reinforcement in total


structure for reinforced concrete waffle
slab construction without column
heads.
154 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

2.60 Table 7.6 Effect of grid size on constituent


25 0
quantities of total structure using reinforced
concrete flat slab system.
2.40 INTERIOR GRID

2.3 0 -~ No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area


Grid size (m)
2.2 0 Concrete Reinforcement Formwork
GRID (m) (cu m) (kg) (sq m)
2.1 0
..:
w
II: 2.00 5-storey
..: I
6.4 x 6.4 6 x 6 0.2330 13.5 1.35
II:
o 1.90 II
g
... i I
/ " 8.0 x 8.0
lOx 10
Percentage change
0.3230
+39
22.4
+66
1.28
-5
V
~ 1.8
E ! ./
V 10.4 x 10.4 50-storey
cr 1.7 0
.!!'.
E 1.6 0 I ./.
./
V .,/
V 6 x 6
lOx 10
0.4005 50.3 2.05
1.78
V./ ./"V ,/ 0.5035 63.5
i
Percentage change +26 +26 -13
1.50
~ ~V
"
II:
o
3: 1.4 0 ./
::;
II:
~ 1.3 o v:: ~y Table 7.7 Effect of grid location on constituent
1.2 0 ~
quantities of total structu re usi ng rei nforced
1.1 0 concrete flat slab system.
1
1.0 0
No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
0.90 Grid location
Concrete Reinforcement Form work
0.80 5 (cu m)
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 (kg) (sq m)
NUMBER OF STOREYS
Grid size (m) 6 x 6
5-storey
Figure 7.9 Quantities of formwork in total Interior 0.2330 13.5 1.35
structure for reinforced concrete waffle Exterior 0.2500 17.2 1.52
Percentage change +7 +27 +13
slab construction without column
heads. Interior 0.2330 13.5 1.35
Corner 0.2581 17.5 1.56
Percentage change + 11 +30 +16
50-storey
Interior 0.4005 50.3 2.05
Exterior 0.4450 64.6 2.37
Table 7.5 Effect of number of storeys on
Percentage change + 11 +28 +16
constituent quantities of total structure using
Interior 0.4005 50.3 2.05
reinforced concrete flat slab system.
Corner 0.4513 65.4 2.44
Percentage change +13 +30 +19
Grid size (m)/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
No. of storeys Grid size (m) 10x 10
Concrete Reinforcement Formwork
5-storey
(cu m) (kg) (sq m)
Interior 0.3230 22.4 1.28
Exterior 0.3730 29.1 1.39
6 x 6
Percentage change +16 +30 +9
5-storey 0.2330 13.5 1.35
50-storey 0.4005 50.3 2.05 Interior 0.3230 22.4 1.28
Percentage change +72 +274 +52 Corner 0.4208 29.5 1.41
Percentage change +30 +32 +10
8 x 8
5-storey 0.2905 17.9 1.31 50-storey
50-storey 0.4530 56.1 1.89 Interior 0.5035 63.5 1.78
Percentage change +56 +213 +44 Exterior 0.5708 84.1 2.00
Percentage change +13 +32 +12
10 x 10
5-storey 0.3230 22.4 1.28 Interior 0.5035 63.5 1.78
50-storey 0.5035 63.5 1.78 Corner 0.5813 85.0 2.05
Percentage change +56 +183 +39 Percentage change +25 +34 +15
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 155

Table 7.8 Effect of number of storeys on Table 7.10 Effect of grid location on constituent
constituent quantities of total structure using quantities of total structure using reinforced
reinforced concrete waffle slab system. concrete waffle slab system.

Grid size (m)/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
No. of storeys Grid location Reinforcement Formwork
Concrete
Concrete Reinforcement Formwork (cu m) (kg) (sq m)
(cu m) (kg) (sq m)
Grid size (m) 6.4 x 6.4
6.4 x 6.4
5-storey 0.1875 13.1 1.33 5-storey
50-storey 0.3530 46.4 1.99 Interior 0.1875 13.1 1.33
Percentage change +88 +254 +50 Exterior 0.1928 13.7 1.38
8.0 x 8.0 Percentage change +3 +5 +4
5-storey 0.2550 15.1 1.28 Interior 0.1875 13.1 1.33
50-storey 0.4190 51.9 1.85 Corner 0.1985 13.9 1.40
Percentage change +64 +244 +45 Percentage change +4 +6 +5
10.4 x 10.4 50-storey
5-storey 0.3230 19.2 1.25
50-storey 0.4700 58.3 1.74 Interior 0.3530 46.4 1.99
Percentage change +46 +204 +39 Exterior 0.3550 46.8 2.07
Percentage change +1 +1 +4
Interior 0.3530 46.4 1.99
Corner 0.4065 47.2 2.13
Percentage change +15 +2 +7

Table 7.9 Effect of grid size on constituent Grid size (m) 10.4 x 10.4
quantities of total structure using reinforced 5-storey
concrete waffle slab system. Interior 0.3230 19.2 1.25
Exterior 0.3263 20.0 1.26
No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area Percentage change +1 +4 +1
Grid size (m)
Concrete Reinforcement Form work Interior 0.3230 19.2 1.25
(cu m) (kg) (sq m) Corner 0.3286 20.3 1.28
Percentage change +2 +6 +2
5-storey
50-storey
6.4 x 6.4 0.1875 13.1 1.33
10.4 x 10.4 0.3230 19.2 1.25 Interior 0.4700 57.3 1.74
Percentage change +72 +47 -6 Exterior 0.4740 58.4 1.80
Percentage change +1 +2 +4
50-storey
6.4 x 6.4 0.3530 46.4 1.99 Interior 0.4700 57.3 1.74
10.4 x 10.4 0.4700 58.3 1.74 Corner 0.4796 59.4 1.84
Percentage change +33 +26 -13 Percentage change +2 +4 +6

7.1.3 Prestressed Concrete Beam and Slab System between 14 to 52 per cent depending on the number
of storeys of construction, grid size and structural
Observations about trends and variations of constituent scheme. The maximum consumption of concrete is
quantities are now discussed component-wise. for Scheme B2 of the 14 m x 14 m grid.
The consumption of reinforcement is directly pro-
7.1.3.1 Slab portional to the size of the grid for a given scheme
As in the reinforced concrete beam and slab system and is maximal at 8.6 kg!sq m of floor area for Scheme
(Section 7.1.1.1), the quantities of concrete per unit B2 of the 14 m x 14 m grid compared with 4.8 kg!
of floor area remain uniform (Figure 5.2). The require- sq m of the floor area for Scheme A2 of the 10m x
ment of concrete, in an interior panel, is minimal 10m grid,S storeys being considered in both cases
for Scheme A2 of the 10m x 10m grid, the increase (Figure 5.3). The quantity of formwork is about 75
in quantity above this for the other grids ranging per cent for the floor area for schemes involving two-
156 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

way slabs compared with about 84 per cent for those 7.1.3.4 Shear Walls
with one-way slabs, with the exception of the 14 m As before (Sections 7.1.1.4 and 7.1.2.3), the quan-
x 14 m grid, Schemes A3 and B3. tities of constituents in shear walls are inversely pro-
portional to the grid sizes, while these vary directly
7.1.3.2 Beams with increase in the number of storeys.
In a similar way to the reinforced concrete beam On average, the increase in the quantities of con-
and slab system (Section 7.1.1.2) there is a falling crete and reinforcement is about 570 and 1000 per
trend in the consumption of concrete from 5 to 50 cent for 50-storey construction compared with 5-storey
storeys of construction. This is due to the reduction construction. However, the increase in the quantity
in the length of beams needed to accommodate the of formwork is much less, namely about 140 per cent
increased sections of columns in taller buildings (Figure for the same increase in the number of storeys.
5.7). The decrease in quantity is however quite small.
The quantity of concrete is directly proportional 7.1.3.5 Total Structure
to the grid size. The increase in the quantity of con- The quantities of constituents of construction, in an
crete per square metre of floor area is about 20 per interior grid, for different number of storeys, grid sizes
cent for the 12 m x 12 m grid and about 46 per and structural schemes are shown in Figures 7.10 to
cent for the 14 m x 14 m grid compared with the 7.13 for concrete, reinforcement, prestressing strand
10m x 10m grid, considering similar structural and formwork respectively. It can be seen from these
schemes and the same number of storeys of con- figures that the consumption of concrete and rein-
struction. forcement is directly proportional to the grid size and
The trend for the variation in the quantity of rein- the number of storeys. However, the trend for
forcement is very similar to that discussed in Section formwork quantities is different, this being greater
7.1.1.2, para 2, for the reinforced concrete beam and for small-sized grids when considering similar struc-
slab system. tural schemes.
The quantity of prestressing strand is directly pro-
portional to the grid size and is relatively greater for
schemes involving secondary beams running in two 0.47
GRID (m) SCHEME
directions at right angles to each other (Figure 5.14).
0.45
The quantity of formwork is inversely proportional 14 X 14 A3
0.43
to the grid size and varies from about 0.47 to 0.72 V
square metre per square metre of floor area in 5-storey « 0.41 ./ 14 X 14 A2

constructions to about 0.45 to 0.70 square metre in


w
«
II:
0.39 ./, / V 14 X 14 B2
50-storey constructions. The higher figures are for
g 0.37
II:
./V / ./ 12 X 12 A2
14 X 14
schemes with secondary beams running in two di- ...J
u.. 0.35
V /' ~~ 12 X 12
B3
B2
rections at right angles to each other. ,-/" V
u..
o 0.33 ......... V ~~~ 10 X 10 A2

'i /
i("" ...... 10 X 10 B2
7.1.3.3 Columns
E
...... ~ ~ ~ ./
~ ~ ~ y.:/
C" 0.31
en
In an interior grid, the increase in the consumption V
:::: 0.29
of concrete per square metre of floor area is about , / .,/'
~ ~ ~ ./ ~
~
E
0.27
....-V
300 per cent for 50 storeys compared with 5 storeys ~

of construction or, in other words, about 33 per cent ~ 0.25


~
,...........
V ./
,,/
V
of 5-storey construction for each increase of 5 sto-
w
5 0.23 ~ V
reys. Similarly, the increase in the quantity of rein- z V
8 0.21
V""
forcement per square metre of floor area is about
0.19
700 per cent for 50 storeys compared with 5 sto-
reys. In other words, the increase is about 77 per 0.17
cent of 5-storey construction for each increase of 5 0.15
storeys. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
The quantity of formwork is inversely related to
the grid size and on average, for any specific grid
size, the increase in its consumption is about 10 per Figure 7.10 Quantities of concrete in total
cent for each increase of 5 storeys compared with structure for prestressed concrete
5-storey construction (Figure 5.39). beam and RC slab construction.
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 157

82 5.5
78 I INTERIOR GRID 'PU 1484 N/sq mm

74 GRID (m) SCHEME 5.0

70 <
w
<
w 66 a: 4.5
a: 14x 14 A3 < GRID (m) SCHEME
< a:
62 ~ 0
a:
0 V) 14 x 14 B2 0
...J
u..

1/V)
0 58 14 x 14 A2 4.0
...J
u.. 12 x 12
'0 14x 14 A3
B2
54 E
--
u.. 14 x 14 B3 14x 14 B3
0
E 50
/ IL': I{t 12 x 12 A2
C"
OJ
3.5
t..- lot- - 1!!-001 ~--""' ~- ~- 14x 14 B2

/ V~~ 10 x 10 B2 C, 14x 14 A2

v..ra<I L ~
C"
~
OJ 46 10 x 10 A2 c
C, 42 / z
< 3.0
~
I- 38 V ~ ~ ./ ~ a:
l-
12 x 12 B2
~ ~ tp V': ~
I/)
zw (!J

34
z 2.5
V ~~ ~ ~ ~
~ iii
w 12x 12 A2
u
a: 30 ~ ~
I/)
w
a: 10 x 10 A2
0
u..
z 26 ~ ~ /~ V' l-
I/)
w 2.0
~~ V
w a:
a.. 10 x 10 B2
a: 22
18 ~V 1.5
IIINTERIOR GRID
14

10 1.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 7.11 Quantities of reinforcement in total Figure 7.12 Quantities of prestressi ng strands in
structure for prestressed concrete total structure for prestressed concrete
beam and RC slab construction. beam and slab construction.

The effects of number of storeys, grid sizes, grid 7.2 Cost of Structures
locations and structural schemes on constituent quan-
tities for the total structure using prestressed con- The cost of any structure has always been conten-
crete beams and reinforced concrete slab system are tious and thus debatable since, firstly, at any time
shown in Tables 7.11 to 7.14 respectively. there are always a number of rates prevailing for the
The effect of number of storeys on constituent quan- same item of work and, secondly, there are always
tities, for Scheme 82, indicates that the percentage fluctuations in rates with time. So far as the first dif-
increase in the quantity of concrete for different grid ficulty is concerned, to arrive at the cost of any struc-
sizes varies from 37 to 58 per cent when the number ture one can price the relevant quantities with
of storeys is varied from 5 to 50, the higher figure appropriate rates taken from the prevailing Standard
being for the smallest grid (Table 7.11). Similarly, Schedule of Rates; while for the latter problem there
the values vary from 96 to 136 per cent for rein- is no solution except to revise the cost from time to
forcement while the corresponding values for formwork time depending on the need. Keeping the above in
are 11 to 23 per cent. mind, the cost of different structural systems using
The effect of grid size on constituent quantities in- different schemes, grid sizes and number of storeys
dicates that, considering a similar number of storeys, were computed for typical interior grids using the
the range of variation in the quantities of concrete is relevant charts and applying the appropriate rates given
+ 16 to +34 per cent when the grid size is changed in the Architect's and Builders' Price Book, edited
from 10 m x 10 m to 14 m x 14 m (Table 7.12). by Davis, Langdon and Everest (Spon, London, 1992
The corresponding values are +29 to +56 per cent edition). Further, an allowance of 17.5 per cent was
for reinforcement and -2 to -11 per cent for formwork. added for preliminaries and oncosts. The result are
158 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

2.30
Table 7.12 Effect of grid size on constituent
quantities of total structure using prestressed beams
INTERIOR GRID
and reinforced concrete slab system.
2.20
GRID (m) SCHEME
No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
Grid size (m) Formwork
Concrete Reinforcement Strands
2.10 10 x 10 A2
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)
14 x 14 A3
«
UJ
2.00
~ V 7~ Scheme B2
~
~ V V
12 x 12 A2 5-storey
a:
o
o
(""" ~ /' V"'" 10 x 10 lOx 10 0.2057 19.8 1.9 1.56
ii 1.90
......- ~ ~ ./
82
14 x 14 0.2752 30.8 3.5 1.53
u..
/' ~ ,/' ::::.- 14 x 14 A2
~
o Percentage change +34 +56 +84 -2
E
g 1.80 / ~r ~
12 x 12 82
50-storey
~....
t/
...... 14 x 14 83
~ ,........, V ~
E
g ~ .....-'l ~ ~/, ~
~
14 x 14 82
lOx 10
14 x 14
0.3255
0.3762
46.8
60.5
1.9
3.5
1.92
1.70
;;; 1.70 ...... v . . y. v~ Percentage change +16 +29 +84 -11

W; 0~ ~ ~ ~V
a:
~ t,. .....

~ 1.60
V ~ i-"""
~~
ou..

1.50
Table 7.13 Effect of grid location on constituent
quantities of total structure usi ng prestressed
concrete beams and rei nforced concrete slab
1.40 system.
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
Grid location
Concrete Reinforcement Strands Formwork
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)
Figure 7.13 Quantities of formwork in total
structure for prestressed concrete Grid size (m) 10 x 10
beam and RC slab construction. Scheme B2

5-storey
Table 7.11 Effect of number of storeys on Interior 0.2057 19.8 1.9 1.56
constituent quantities of total structure using Exterior 0.2182 26.6 2.3 1.71
Percentage change +6 +34 +21 +10
prestressed beams and reinforced concrete slab
system. Interior 0.2057 19.0 1.9 1.56
Corner 0.2276 27.8 2.6 1.68
Grid size (m) / Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area Percentage change +11 +40 +37 +8
No. of storeys
Concrete Reinforcement Strands Formwork 50-storey
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)
Interior 0.3255 46.8 1.9 1.92
Scheme B2 Exterior 0.3325 53.4 2.3 2.07
Percentage change +3 +14 +21 +8
lOx 10
Interior 0.3255 46.8 1.9 1.92
5-storey 0.2057 19.8 1.9 1.56 Corner 0.3383 54.3 2.6 2.06
50-storey 0.3255 46.8 1.9 1.92 Percentage change +16
+4 +28 +7
Percentage change +58 +136 +23
Grid size (m) 14 x 14
12 x 12
Scheme B2
5-storey 0.2431 26.7 2.7 1.56
5-storey
50-storey 0.3515 54.7 2.7 1.82
Percentage change +45 +105 +17 Interior 0.2752 30.8 3.5 1.53
Exterior 0.2912 36.6 4.4 1.67
14 x 14
Percentage change +6 +23 +22 +9
5-storey 0.2752 30.8 3.5 1.53
Interior 0.2752 30.8 3.5 1.53
50-storey 0.3762 60.5 3.5 1.70
Corner 0.2937 38.0 5.1 1.63
Percentage change +37 +96 + 11
Percentage change +7 +23 +45 +7
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 159

beam and slab system is shown in Figure 7.14. A


No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area
Grid location
cost comparison between Schemes Aland Bl indi-
Concrete Reinforcement Strands Form work
cates that Scheme B1 is invariably economical for
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)
all grid sizes, the range of economy being about 2
50-storey to 5 per cent. However, the most economical scheme
Interior 0.3762 60.5 3.5 1.70 for a grid size of 10m x 10m is Scheme B2, the
Exterior 0.3970 65.2 4.4 1.86 savings being of the o~der of about 3 per cent com-
Percentage change +6 +8 +26 +9 pared with Scheme Aland about 7 per cent com-
Interior 0.3762 60.5 3.5 1.70 pared with Scheme Bl.
Corner 0.3907 66.1 5.1 1.83
Percentage change +4 +9 +45 +8 7.2.1.1 Effect of Number of Storeys on Cost of
Total Structure
Figure 7.14 shows the effect of number of storeys
(5-50) on cost of total structure for various grid sizes
Table 7.14 Effect of structural scheme on
and structural schemes. The percentage increase in
constituent quantities of total structure using cost/square metre of floor area varies from 56 to 75
prestressed concrete beams and reinforced concrete per cent (Table 7.15) for the structural schemes con-
slab system.
sidered, the highest value in the range being appli-
No. of storeys/ Constituent quantities/sq m of floor area cable to the smallest grid size, namely 6 m x 6 m
Structural scheme and vice versa.
Concrete Reinforcement Strands Form work
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)

Grid size (m) 14 x 14


5-storey
Scheme A2 0.3100 26.2 3.5 1.70
Scheme A3 0.3304 31.4 3.9 1.90 130
Percentage change +7 +20 +11 +12
125
Scheme A2 0.3100 26.2 3.5 1.70 I
Scheme B2
Percentage change
0.2752
-11
30.8
+18
3.5 1.53
-10
120 - -I INTERIOR GRID
J
GRID 1m) SCHEME

115
Scheme A2 0.3 100 26.2 3.5 1.70 Al
110 10 x 10
Scheme B3 0.2670 26.1 3.8 1.63 10 x 10 Bl
Percentage change -14 +9 -4 105
) 10 x 10 B2
Al
8x8

~~
8x8 Bl
50-storey 100 6x6 Al

,
~ ")
<I:
w 6x6 Bl
Scheme A2 0.4 125 56.4 3.5 1.87 a:
<I: 95
Scheme A3 0.4355 63.9 3.9 2.07
~ ~.i'
a:
a
Percentage change +3 +13 +11 + 11 a..... 90

~~
u..
Scheme A2 0.4 125 56.4 3.5 1.87 u..
a 85
Scheme B2
Percentage change
0.3762
-9
60.5
+7
3.5 1.70
-9 ~
E
c- 80 ~~ ~
Scheme A2 0.4 125 56.4 3.5 1.87
!:!
>- 75 ~~~
Scheme B3 0.3665 55.0 3.8 1.79 '"ua 70 ~~ ~~
Percentage change -13 -2 +9 -4
65 ~ ~
~A ~
60 ~ ~
V
shown in Figures 7.14 to 7.17 for different structural 55 ~
systems. 50
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
7.2.1 Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab NUMBER OF STOREYS
System
Figure 7.14 Cost/sq m of floor area for different
The cost/square metre of floor area for various grids grids and schemes using reinforced
and structural schemes using the reinforced concrete concrete beam and slab construction.
160 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

130 GRID em) SCHEME


135
125
14 x 14 A3
130
120
V
115
INTERIOR GRID GRID em) SCHEME
125 f--

120
H INTERIOR GRID

/
./
I--- t--
110
10 x 10 WCH' 115 V 1. xU A2
lOS 8x8 WCH V V
::I lij 110 ./ 14 x14 B2
a: 100 8x8 WCH
V V
~
12 x12 A2

~ VL
«
---
14.14 B3
/'
a:
g ...0:
« 105 10.10 A2

.........
!IS

J VI
« 100 V ./ ~ V 12 x12 B2

/v V
0: 10.10 B2
90

A/'.V ~~ /
0
0 0 95
E i
85 ...0 V V ~ ~ ;' l/
I!e! ~ 1/ 90

Ii;
90 E ~ v, ~ V
:::::- jt"',-
~ /
<T
85
~
-- .--,. ::....- ./V V
0 75
u

70
V/ /
"WCH Without column he.d I-
II>
0
80
"..
u
./11'/ !.I'

--
75
85
V V V
80 / 70

55
V V 65

,/ 80
50 ./
55
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
NUMBER OF STOREYS
NUMBER OF STOREYS

Figure 7.15 Costlsq m of floor area for different


grids using reinforced concrete flat Figure 7.17 Costlsq m of floor area for different
slab construction. grids and schemes using prestressed
concrete beam and RC slab
construction.

130
7.2.1.2 Effect of Grid Size on Cost of Total
125
Structure
Considering any specific structural scheme and number
I
120 GRID em) SCHEME
INTERIOR GRID
115
10.4 x 10.4 WCH' of storeys, the cost of the total structure is propor-
110 L 8.0 x 8.0 WCH
tional to the grid size (Figure 7.14). The effect of
/; 6.4 x 8.4 WCH
grid size on the cost of the total structure using dif-
...0:
« 105

« 100 '/ /j ferent structural schemes and number of storeys is


0:
0
......9 95
V, V/ shown in Table 7.16. The percentage increase ranges
from 9 to 20, the latter value being for 5-storey con-
0 90 / r~ V struction while the former is for 50-storey construc-
/ /.V
E
<T
:!: 85 tion.
!e!
/ / '/

-
I-
90

V / '/
II>
0
u 7.2.1.3 Effect of Grid Location on Cost of Total
75

70
V / / "WCH Without column held Structure
The effect of grid location on the cost of the total
85 V / structure for different grid sizes and number of storeys
80
V
V is shown in Table 7.17 for a specific structural scheme.
55 The increase in total cost ranges between 3 and 7
50
per cent, the higher value being for a corner grid
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 and the lower for an exterior grid.
NUMBER OF STOREYS

7.2.1.4 Effect of Structural Scheme on Cost of


Figure 7,16 Costlsq m of floor area for different Total Structure
grids using reinforced concrete waffle Considering any specific number of storeys and grid
slab construction. size, the percentage change in the cost of the total
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 161

Table 7.15 Effect of number of storeys on cost of Table 7.17 Effect of grid location on cost of total
total structure using reinforced concrete beam and structure using reinforced concrete beam and slab
slab system and different structural schemes. system.
Grid size(m)/ Number of Cost (£)/sq m Grid size/ Grid Cost (£)/sq m
structural scheme storeys of floor area No. of storeys location of floor area

6 x 6 Grid size (m) 6 x 6


Al 5 57.90 Scheme 81
50 98.70
5-storey
Percentage increase +71
Interior 56.30
Bl 5 56.30
58.75
Exterior
50 98.70
Percentage increase +4
Percentage increase +75
Interior 56.30
8 x 8
Corner 60.28
Al 5 62.20
Percentage increase +7
50 103.30
Percentage increase +66 50-storey
Bl 5 61.90 Interior 98.70
50 102.70 Exterior 101.17
Percentage increase +66 Percentage increase +3
10 x 10 Interior 98.70
Al 5 66.70 Corner 103.17
50 107.30 Percentage increase +5
Percentage increase +61
Grid size (m) 10 x 10
Bl 5 67.50 Scheme 81
50 107.80
5-storey
Percentage increase +60
Interior 67.50
B2 5 66.70
Exterior 69.56
50 104.20
Percentage increase +3
Percentage increase +56
Interior 67.50
Corner 70.97
Percentage increase +5
Table 7.16 Effect of grid size on cost of total
structure using reinforced concrete beam and slab 50-storey
system and different structural schemes. Interior 107.80
Exterior 109.75
No. of storeys/ Structural Cost (£)/sq m Percentage increase +2
Grid size (m) scheme of floor area
Interior 107.80
5-storey Corner 111.74
6 x 6 Al 57.90 Percentage increase +4
lOx 10 Al 66.70
Percentage increase +15
structure is minimal (Table 7.18) when compared with
6 x 6 Bl 56.30 the effects of the other parameters considered in
10 x 10 Bl 67.50 Sections 7.2.1.1 to 7.2.1.3. With the unit rates con-
Percentage increase +20 sidered for various constituents, Scheme B2 is the
50-storey most economical for a 10m x 10m grid size.
6 x 6 Al 98.70
7.2.2 Reinforced Concrete Flat and Waffle Slab
10 x 10 Al 107.30
Percentage increase +9
Systems

6 x 6 Bl 98.70 The total cost/square metre of floor area for various


10 x 10 Bl 107.80
grids using flat slab construction is shown in Figure
Percentage increase +9
7.15 and for waffle slab construction in Figure 7.16.
162 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Table 7.18 Effect of structural scheme on cost of Table 7.20 Effect of number of storeys on cost of
total structure using reinforced concrete beam and total structure using reinforced concrete waffle slab
slab system. system.

Grid size/ Structural Cost (£)/sq m Grid size (m) No. of storeys Cost (£)/sq m
No. of storeys scheme of floor area of floor area

Grid size (m) 10 x 10 6.4 x 6.4


5 59.03
5-storey
50 105.96
A1 66.70 Percentage increase +80
B1 67.50 8.0 x 8.0
Percentage change +1
5 63.26
A1 66.70
50 108.90
B2 66.70
Percentage increase +72
Percentage change 10.4 x 10.4
50-storey 5 70.18
50 113.37
A1 107.30
Percentage increase +62
B1 107.80
Percentage change +1
A1 107.30
B2 104.20 Table 7.21 Effect of grid size on cost of total
Percentage change -3 structure using reinforced concrete flat slab system.

No. of storeys Grid size (m) Cost (£)/sq m


of floor area
Table 7.19 Effect of number of storeys on cost of
total structure using reinforced concrete flat slab 5
system. 6 x 6 50.16
lOx 10 62.50
Grid size (m) No. of storeys Cost (£)/sq m Percentage increase +25
of floor area
50
6 x 6 5 50.16 6 x 6 100.91
50 100.91 lOx 10 105.84
Percentage increase + 101 Percentage increase +5

8 x 8 5 57.69
50 103.75 7.2.2.2 Effect of Grid Size on Cost of Total
Percentage increase +80 Structure
10 x 10 5 62.50 The effect of grid size on the cost of the total struc-
50 105.84 ture using flat slab construction is shown in Figure
Percentage increase +69 7.15 and that for waffle slab construction in Figure
7.16. The cost of the total structure is directly pro-
portional to the grid size, for a specific number of
In each case, a structural scheme without column storeys. The increase in cost from the 6 m x 6 m
heads has been considered. grid to the 10m x 10m grid is about 5 to 25 per
cent using the flat slab system, the lower value be-
7.2.2.1 Effect of Number of Storeys on Cost of ing for the highest storeys of construction (Table 7.21)
Total Structure while the corresponding range using the waffle slab
The cost of the total structure varies with the number system is 7 to 19 per cent (Table 7.22).
of storeys for any specific grid size (Figures 7.15 and
7.16). The percentage increase in cost from 5 to 50 7.2.2.3 Effect of Grid Location on Cost of Total
storeys varies from 69 to 101 for the flat slab system Structure
(Table 7.19) and from 62 to 80 for the waffle slab The cost of the total structure varies with the loca-
system (Table 7.20). The higher values in each range tion of the grid, a" other parameters being the same.
are for the smallest grid size. The cost of an exterior grid is always more than the
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 163

Table 7.22 Effect of grid size on cost of total Table 7.24 Effect of grid location on cost of total
structure using reinforced concrete waffle slab structure using reinforced concrete waffle slab
system. system.

No. of storeys Grid size (m) Cost (£)/sq m No. of storeys Grid location Cost (£)/sq m
of floor area of floor area

5 6.4 x 6.4 59.03 Grid size (m) 6.4 x 6.4


10.4 x 10.4 70.18 5-storey Interior 59.03
Percentage increase +19 Exterior 61.06
Percentage increase +3
50 6.4 x 6.4 105.96 Interior 59.03
10.4 x 10.4 113.37 Corner 62.13
Percentage increase +7 Percentage increase +5
50-storey Interior 105.96
Exterior 108.50
Percentage increase +2
Table 7.23 Effect of grid location on cost of total
Interior 105.96
structure using reinforced concrete flat slab system. Corner 110.77
No. of storeys Grid location Cost (£)/sq m Percentage increase +5
of floor area Grid size (m) 10.4 x 10.4
5-storey Interior 70.18
Grid size (m) 6 x 6
Exterior 72.12
5-storey Interior 50.16 Percentage increase +3
Exterior 58.63 Interior 70.18
Percentage increase +17 Corner 73.28
Percentage increase +4
Interior 50.16
50-storey Interior 113.37
Corner 60.96
Exterior 115.89
Percentage increase +22
Percentage increase +2
50-storey Interior 100.91 Interior 113.37
Exterior 117.49 Corner 118.40
Percentage increase +16 Percentage increase +4
Interior 100.91
Corner 120.29
Percentage increase +19
7.2.3 Prestressed Concrete Beam and Reinforced
Grid size (m) 10 x 10 Concrete Slab System
5-storey Interior 62.50
Exterior 73.23 The total cost/square metre of floor area for various
Percentage increase +16 grid sizes, number of storeys and structural schemes
using prestressed beams and a reinforced concrete
Interior 62.50
slab system is shown in Figure 7.17. With the unit
Corner 73.64
Percentage increase rates of constituents considered, for Schemes A2 and
+18
62 the latter is invariably the more economical.
50-storey Interior 105.84 In the case of the 14 m x 14 m grid, the most
Exterior 131.44
economical Scheme is 63 followed by 62, A2 and
Percentage increase +24
A3.
Interior 105.84 The range of variation in cost is about £70 to £132
Corner 132.69 for an interior grid of the grid sizes and number of
Percentage increase +25 storeys considered.

7.2.3.1 Effect of Number of Storeys on Cost of


cost of an interior grid. The range of variation is Total Structure
between 16 and 24 per cent for flat slab construc- Considering Scheme 62 and the grid sizes investi-
tion (Table 7.23) while the corresponding range is 2 gated, the increase in cost of the total structure varies
to 5 per cent for waffle slab construction (Table 7.24). from 25 to 42 per cent (Table 7.25) when the number
164 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Table 7.25 Effect of number of storeys on cost of Table 7.27 Effect of grid location on cost of total
total structure using prestressed beams and structure using prestressed concrete beams and
reinforced concrete slab system. reinforced concrete slab system.

Grid size (m) No. of storeys Cost (£)/sq m No. of storeys Grid location Cost (£)/sq m
of floor area of floor area

Scheme 82 Grid size (m) 10 x 10


10 x 10 5 69.79 Scheme 82
50 98.90 5-storey Interior 69.79
Percentage increase +42 Exterior 77.32
Percentage increase + 11
12 x 12 5 80.45
Interior 69.79
50 105.28
Corner 81.56
Percentage increase +31
Percentage increase +17
14 x 14 5 88.53
50 50-storey Interior 98.90
110.50
Percentage increase Exterior 107.80
+25
Percentage increase +9
Interior 98.90
Corner 114.30
Percentage increase +16

Table 7.26 Effect of grid size on cost of total Grid size (m) 14 x 14
structure Llsing prestressed beams and reinforced Scheme 82
5-storey Interior 88.53
concrete slab system.
Exterior 99.01
No. of storeys Grid size (m) Cost (£)/sq m Percentage increase +12
of floor area Interior 88.53
Scheme 82 Corner 103.69
5-storey 10 x 10 69.79 Percentage increase +17
14 x 14 88.53 50-storey Interior 110.50
Percentage increase +27 Exterior 117.50
50-storey 10 x 10 98.90 Percentage increase +6
14 x 14 110.50
Interior 110.50
Percentage increase +12 Corner 122.30
Percentage increase +11

of storey changes from 5 to 50, the higher value of 7.2.3.3 Effect of Grid Location on Cost of Total
the increase being for the lowest grid size considered, Structure
namely 10m x 10m and vice versa. As in other structural systems (Sections 7.2.1.3 and
7.2.2.3), the cost of the total structure is minimal for
interior grid locations as compared with exterior and
7.2.3.2 Effect of Grid Size on Cost of Total corner grids. Considering different grid sizes and
Sructure number of storeys, the range of increase is between
The cost of the total structure increases with increase 6 and 17 per cent (Table 7.27).
in grid size, other factors being the same (Table 7.26).
The range of increase is between 12 and 27 per cent 7.2.3.4 Effect of Structural Scheme on Cost of
when the grid size changes from 10m x 10m to 14 Total Structure
m x 14 m, the lower value of increase being for 50- Considering a grid size of 14 m x 14 m and different
storey construction and vice versa. structural schemes, the variation in cost of the total
structure is of the order of -3 to + 19 per cent (Table
7.28), the most economical being Scheme B3.
Quantities/Cost - Observations, Trends and Variations 165

Table 7.28 Effect of structural scheme on cost of 7.2.4 Relative Economics


total structure using prestressed concrete beams
and reinforced concrete slab system. A true cost comparison can only be made on a com-
mon basis. In other words, in a given situation, un-
No. of storeys Structural scheme Cost (£)/sq m
less the effect of different structural schemes on the
of floor area
foundation cost due to their differences in dead weight
Grid size (m) 14 x 14 is ascertained, a true comparison is difficult. How-
5-storey A2 88.67 ever, the trends arrived' at and discussed above can
A3 105.10 be adjusted for such differences based on one's ex-
Percentage increase +19 perience and prevailing local conditions.
A2 88.67
B2 88.53
Percentage change Nil
A2 88.67
B3 85.95
Percentage decrease -3
50-storey A2 116.14
A3 132.26
Percentage increase +14
A2 116.14
B2 110.50
Percentage decrease -5
A2 116.14
B3 107.59
Percentage decrease -7
not be familiar with computer hardware and languages.
8 Computer-Based This is an important requirement in the author's view,
since the professionals who may be interested in
Cost Model for making use of such a model, in addition to struc-
tural engineers, include architects, building econom-
Reinforced ists, quantity surveyors and cost economists.
The author developed three computer-based cost
Concrete Beam models (1, 2, 3), however only one is discussed in
this book, owing to limitations of space.

and Slab System The charts developed for the reinforced concrete
beam and slab system (Chapter 3) and the statistical
relationships subsequently established for them form
the basis for developing a computer model for com-
puting quantities and cost of any model element. This
chapter describes the model elements and considers
the design variables; flowcharts for the computer model
are developed; and an illustration is provided for usage,
An interactive cost model for the reinforced con- together with some of the sample results for differ-
crete beam and slab system was developed using ent model elements.
the results of 80 charts presented in Chapter 3.
Based on the charts developed, 390 statistical re-
lationships were established subsequently. The model 8.2 Model Elements and Design Variables
elements for which quantities and cost can be
computed by this program are solid slab, beams, The elements in this model are solid slab, beams,
columns, shear walls and total structure. The vari- columns, shear walls and total structure. Total
ous design variables for each of these model ele- structures, although not being an element of the struc-
ments have been enumerated; the flowcharts tural system, have been considered as an element of
developed to write the computer program are pre- the computer model. This was considered necessary
sented; an illustration for using the interactive com- since in practice quantities and cost are required for
puter program is given and some of the sample this, in addition to other model elements. The model
results for different model elements are shown. is capable of computing quantities and cost for each
Overall, the model developed runs to 54 normal of these elements with different sets of values for
computer printout pages and uses 10 subroutines various design variables. The design variables con-
for different model elements. sidered for different model elements are discussed
in the subsequent sections.

8.1 Introduction 8.2.1 Solid Slabs

The availability of cheap computer power in recent The effects of the following design variables are
years has made it possible to save costly professional covered under this model element:
hours which hitherto were wasted in working out
similar details/information for any new project that • Grid size
was taken up. Efforts have therefore been made in • Structural scheme
the last few years to develop computer-based cost • Grid location
models in almost every field where repetitive use of • Number of storeys
such models can be made (Section 1.1). • Grade of concrete.
Two types of computer models, namely interac-
tive and non-interactive, can be developed for re- In order to obtain quantities and cost for any speci-
petitive use, depending upon whether or not the users fic value of a design variable, the values of other
are familiar with the computer language which has variables having an influence are to be supplied as
been used in writing the program. In developing the an input. This is made clear in section 8.4. For each
models for the construction industry it is considered of the above design variables, the model is capable
preferable to write interactive types of programs since of printing an appropriate table of quantities and costs
all users who are expected to make use of them may with essential explanatory notes for clarity.

166
Computer-Based Cost Model for Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 167

8.2.2 Beams 8.2.5 Total Structure

Beams have been classified as main beams, second- The design variables considered for this model ele-
ary beams and secondary beams over columns (Chap- ment are:
ter 3, Figure 3.1). In each category of these beams,
the design variables considered are: • Grid size
• Structural scheme
• Grid size • Grid location
• Structural scheme • Number of storeys
• Number of storeys • Grade of concrete
• Grid location • Number of continuous spans
• Size of beam • Lateral loading.
• Number of continuous spans
This model element is capable of computing the cost!
In the case of main beams, an additional design square metre of floor area as well as the total cost
variable considered is 'lateral loading', since main of a project, given its design features such as gross
beams are parts of the lateral load resisting frames, floor area, shear wall area, grid size(s), structural
and two values of lateral loads have been considered scheme, number of storeys, number of continuous
in the analysis and design of structural frames (Chapter spans, concrete grade and grid locations. The com-
3, Section 3.2). putation of quantities/cost is bu i It up element-wise
based on the model elements already discussed (Sec-
8.2.3 Columns tions 8.2.1, 8.2.2, 8.2.3 and 8.2.4).

Columns have been classified, based on their loca-


tion, as interior column, exterior column and corner 8.3 Flow Charts
column. For each of these, the design variables con-
sidered are: Skeleton and detailed flowcharts were developed
before writing the computer program for this model.
• Grid size A brief skeleton flowchart of the model is shown in
• Number of storeys Figure 8.1 and another one for the model elements
• Structural scheme in Figure 8.2. The latter indicates certain links which
• Grid location in turn are referred to in the subsequent flowcharts
• Grade of concrete for other model elements. The concept adopted for
• Number of continuous spans. all elements is substantially uniform, hence flowcharts
for only two elements, namely solid slab and total
The model is thus capable of giving quantities and structure, are presented to avoid repetition. These are
cost for any grid size, structural scheme, number of shown in Figures 8.3 and 8.4 for solid slab and total
storeys, grid location, number of continuous spans structure respectively. For each model element in the
and grade of concrete. Three grades of concrete, main program (Figures 8.3 and 8.4) certain subrou-
namely 30, 35 and 40 N/sq mm, have been con- tines are called, into which have been incorporated
sidered. The design variable 'lateral loading' was ig- the statistical relations established earl ier and the logic
nored in this model element since the two cases of using appropriate relationships. Detailed flowcharts
considered for this did not make any difference in for all such subroutines used in the program were
the quantities of their constituents. worked out for various model elements. It may
be mentioned here that the subroutine for the model
8.2.4 Shear Walls element 'total structure' utilises within itself subrou-
tines of other elements.
In this element, the design variables incorporated are:

• Grid size 8.4 Computer Model and Illustrative Usage


• Structural scheme
• Number of storeys The computer model based on the flowcharts (Sec-
• Loading tion 8.3) was developed and perfected to run on an
• Number of continuous spans. IBM 3081 mainframe computer. The program was
168 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

written in the FORTRAN language and a micro-


START
computer version of the same was also made.
For clarity in illustrating the usage of the model
developed, a problem is defined below for solution.
READ THE ELEMENT OF
Problem: Compute the cost of slab per unit STRUCTURAL SYSTEM FOR
WHICH QUANTITIES/COST
area for grid sizes (m) of 6.3 x 6.3, 8.1 x ARE NEEDED, NAMELY SOLID
SLAB, BEAMS, COLUMNS,
8.1 and 9.5 x 9.5 using the following SHEAR WALLS AND TOTAL
STRUCTURE
structural schemes, grid location, number
of storeys, concrete grade and unit rates:

• Scheme A 1 (Figure 3.1)


• Scheme B1 (Figure 3.1)
• Grid location - Interior
• Number of storeys - 27
• Concrete grade - 30 N/sq mm

Unit rates for

Concrete (£lcu m) 65.82


Reinforcement (£/kg) 0.49
Formwork (£/sq m) 15.34

The solution for the above problem is illustrated in


the steps below.

8.4.1 First Display and Input - Choice of


Element

THIS PROGRAM IS DESIGNED TO HELP THE


CONCERNED PROFESSIONALS TO ESTIMATE THE
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS ON
QUANTITIES/COST OF CONSTITUENTS OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM AND SLAB
CONSTRUCTION IN COMMERCIAL HIGH RISE
BUILDINGS

YES
PLEASE INDICATE THE ELEMENT ON THE
QUANTITIES OF WHICH THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT
PARAMETERS IS DESIRED:

1) SOLID SLAB
2) BEAMS
YES
3) COLUMNS
4) SHEAR WALLS
5) TOTAL STRUCTURE

YOUR CHOICE IS (1,2,3,4 OR 5) ?

Using the keyboard, the user is required to enter any Figure 8.1 Skeleton flowchart for the computer
digit from 1 to 5 depending upon the requirement. model - reinforced concrete beam and
The user enters 1 for the problem defined. slab construction.
Computer-Based Cost Model for Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 169

START

READ THE ELEMENT OF


THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
FOR WHICH QUANTITIESI
COST ARE NEEDED

L =1 L = 2

L= 3 L= 4
26 27

53 54

STOP

Figure 8.2 Skeleton flowchart indicating model elements of reinforced concrete beam
and slab construction.

8.4.2 Second Display and Input - Choice of Enter 1.


Primary Design Parameter
8.4.3 Third Display and Input - Design
THE EFFECTS OF FOLLOWING PARAMETERS ARE Parameters
COVERED FOR SOLID SLAB:

1) GRID SIZE YOU HAVE THE FOLLOWING CHOICES/RANGES


2) STRUCTURAL SCHEME FOR DIFFERENT PARAMETERS IN THIS MODEL:
3) LOCATION OF GRID GRID SIZE: THE RANGE COVERED VARIES
4) NUMBER OF STOREYS FROM 6 M x 6 M TO 10M x 10M
5) GRADE OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL SCHEME
YOUR CHOICE IS (1,2,3,4 OR 5) 1) SCHEME A 1: MAIN BEAMS IN TWO
DIRECTIONS SUPPORTED ON COLUMNS; TWO
170 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

CONSIUt:R LOC - 1,
CALL SUBROUTINE
SLAB AND COMPUTE
CONSTITUENT
QUANTITIES

GLOC _ 4 GLOC _ 3

GLOC s 2

CONSIDER LOC - 2,
CALL SUBROUTINE
SLAB AND COMPUTE
QUANTITIES
APPROPRIATELY

YES

2000 )4_ _ _----:Y.=E.:.S--.C

Figure 8.3 Flowchart for the model element -


solid slab.
Computer-Based Cost Model for Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 171

YES

Figure 8.4 Flowchart for the model element - total structure (cost/sq m of floor area).
172 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

SECONDARY BEAMS AT RIGHT ANGLES TO ONE The user needs to enter 6 since there are 3 grid sizes
ANOTHER SUPPORTED ON MAIN BEAMS and 2 structural schemes for each of the given grid
2) SCHEME B1: MAIN BEAMS IN ONE DIRECTION sizes, and the value of each of the other parameters
SUPPORTED ON COLUMNS AND SECONDARY is not more than 1.
BEAMSINTHEOTHERDIRECTIONATA SPACING
EQUAL TO HALF THE GRID SIZE
3) SCHEME B2: MAIN BEAMS IN ONE DIRECTION
8.4.4 Fourth Display and Input - Combinations
SUPPORTED ON COLUMNS AND SECONDARY
BEAMS IN THE OTHER DIRECTION AT A SPACING
EQUAL TO ONE-THIRD THE GRID SIZE
PLEASE INPUT THE VALUES OF 6 COMBINATIONS?
(APPLICABLE ONLY TO 10M x 10M GRID)
LOCATION OF GRID: YOU HAVE 4 CHOICES FOR
GRID LOCATIONS The user inputs the following sets of values:

1) INTERIOR GRID 6.3, 6.3, 1, 27, 1


2) FIRST INTERIOR GRID 6.3, 6.3, 2, 27, 1
3) EXTERIOR GRID 8.1,8.1,1,27,1
4) CORNER GRID 8.1,8.1,2,27,1
NUMBER OF STOREYS: THE RANGE CONSIDERED 9.5, 9.5, 1, 27, 1
FOR NUMBERS OF 9.5, 9.5, 2, 27, 1
STOREYS VARIES FROM
5 TO 50 8.4.5 Fifth Display and Input - Unit Rates
DATA ARE TO BE ENTERED LATER FOR THE
FOLLOWING VARIABLES IN THE ORDER SPECIFIED PLEASE SUPPLY THE UNIT RATES FOR CONCRETE
GRID SIZE FIRST DIMENSION, GRID SIZE SECOND (£ICU M),
REINFORCEMENT (£IKG) AND FORMWORK (£ISQ
DIMENSION,
M) IN SLAB
STRUCTURAL SCHEME, NUMBER OF STOREYS, AND
GRID LOCATION
FOR EXAMPLE 10.0, 10.0, 2, 50, 1 FORMS ONE SET Enter 65.82, 0.49, 15.34.
OF COMBINATION
8.4.6 Sixth Display - Output
FOR HOW MANY COMBINATIONS OF VARIABLES
DO YOU WISH TO COMPUTE QUANTITIES/COSTS?
The computer systems works out the required quan-
YOU ARE ALLOWED ANY NUMBER OF tities/cost for set of values and displays the results as
COMBINATIONS under:

EFFECT OF GRID SIZE AND STRUCTURAL SCHEME ON QUANTITIES OF CONSTITUENTS/COST FOR


SLAB IN REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLAB CONSTRUCTION (QUANTITIES/COST PER SQ M
OF SLAB AREA
GRID SCHEME* NUMBER OF GRID** CONCRETE STEEL FORMWORK COSP
SIZE STOREYS LOCATION (CU M) (KG) (SQ M) (£)
6.3 x 6.3 1 27 0.1030 4.2 0.83 21.57
6.3 x 6.3 2 27 0.1154 5.0 0.87 23.39
8.1 x 8.1 1 27 0.1212 4.6 0.83 22.96
8.1 x 8.1 2 27 0.1427 6.6 0.87 25.97
9.5 x 9.5 1 27 0.1387 5.2 0.83 24.41
9.5 x 9.5 2 27 0.1672 7.9 0.87 28.22
*1 INDICATES SCHEME A1 ** 1 INDICATES INTERIOR GRID
2 SCHEME B1 2 FIRST INTERIOR GRID
3 SCHEME B2 3 EXTERIOR GRID
4 CORNER GRID
Computer-Based Cost Model for Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab System 173

*UNIT RATES FOR CONSTITUENTS:


CONCRETE STEEL FORMWORK
(£/CU M) (£/KG) (£/SQ M)
65.82 0.49 15.34

8.4.7 Seventh Display and Input - 8.5 Sample Results


Additional Combinations
The model developed is capable of producing about
40 different types of tables for various model ele-
DO YOU WANT TO COMPUTE QUANTITIES/COST ments. It would occupy too much space to illustrate
FOR OTHER VALUES IN THIS ELEMENT each one. However, it can be mentioned that the
1) YES models (1, 2, 3) can be applied to all the applica-
2) NO tions covered in Chapter 6.
YOUR CHOICE IS (lOR 2)?

References
Enter 2.
1. Singh, S. Cost model for reinforced concrete beam
8.4.8 Seventh Display and Input - Other and slab structures. Journal of the Construction
Elements Division (ASCE). Accepted for publication, 1993.
2. Singh, S. Cost estimation of prestressed concrete
beam and reinforced concrete slab construction.
DO YOU WISH TO CONTINUE WITH SOME OTHER Construction Management and Economics, Vol. 9,
ELEMENT OF THIS MODEL 1991, pp. 205-215.
1) YES 3. Singh, S. Computer based cost model for reinforced
2) NO concrete flat slab and waffle slab systems. Inter-
YOUR CHOICE IS (lOR 2)? national Journal of Project Management. Accepted
for publication, 1993.

If the user wishes to continue to solve some other


problem, he needs to enter 1. However, since the
solution of the defined problem has already been
displayed it is assumed that he wants to stop and
thus has entered 2. This brings the user to the end
of the computations.
9 Case Studies for since the number of such buildings may be negligi-
ble. Further, in practice, certain structural compo-

Comparison of
nents are provided which do not form part of the
structural frame. Therefore it was decided to bear in

Results
mind the following points in selecting the projects
and also in collecting the relevant information for
comparison:

• Generally the range of grid sizes and other de-


sign parameters in a project should be within those
limits taken for investigation pertaining to a rel-
evant structural system.
• Only structural beams that take a load from slabs
Case studies of six completed projects were made and transfer it to columns are taken. Fascia beams
with the objective of comparing actual quantities and beams to support flower boxes and gutters
of constituents taken from their bills of quantities are not included.
with those obtained by using the established charts • Columns on the ground floor supporting canopy
(Chapter 3 to 5). The comparison has indicated and stiffeners in long walls are excluded, not being
that the actual quantities consumed in different an inherent part of the structural system.
projects are always more than those quantities when • Parapet walls, fascia walls and fins are excluded
computed theoretically. The difference varies from as they are not part of the structure.
project to project, the overall range being 4.8-10.3 • The total floor area is measured from the struc-
per cent. This suggests that an allowance of about tural drawings and is taken to be the area be-
5-10 per cent should be added to the quantities tween external structural grid lines.
obtained theoretically.

9.3 Salient Features of Projects


9.1 Introduction
Centre line plans for only three projects are shown,
Research investigations are of little value unless their in Figures 9.1 to 9.3. The salient features in respect
validity is checked by comparison with the actual of each project, such as number of storeys, floor area,
data from the industry. The objective of such com-
parison is twofold, namely to check the extent of
differences between the two results and to establish
guidelines for the use of analytical investigations in ...,.. -r
practice. With these objectives, the comparison was o
...:'" ----------- r----- -----
made for six completed commercial building projects
designed by different consultants in the local con-
struction industry. In this chapter is described the o

basis of comparison, salient features of the projects '"


...: ----- f-----f------ - -----

considered, theoretical results, collection of informa-


tion, comparison of results and the observations. o
--
~ t------ - - - - - - - - r- - - - -

9.2 Basis of Comparison


~.

--
----- --------- ----
Theoretically, a true comparison should always be ~ ~ ....
, --, .... .:.!.i
made on the same basis. For example, if only equal ~- ~-

,l
I I

spans have been considered in the analysis, design ,l 13.80 13.30


,l 13.30 ,l 13.30
,l
and computation of quantities for establishing the Broken lines indicate
secondary beams
models, then only those building projects satisfying All dimensions in metres

such a requirement should be considered for com-


parison. However, looking for projects satisfying such Figure 9.1 Centre line typical floor plan of
a strict requirement will yield disappointing results project A.

174
Case Studies for Comparison of Results 175

1 .
~ 7.40

4.40
,
L

I
8.70 L
1
11.50 .
10.20 L

1
~
" ""
~I
..
o
I-- - - -t-----.l...--..--- - - -- .,;

w
~
a::
~
W
W a::
Ul c( o

r------ ...":

-F.
..
.
N
a:i ------f--- --- ---- -- __
,..;

1.5

.
.:;: f------ r-------- -----
,..;

.
,..;
lil
a:i ----- ~ ----1---------

Broken lines indicate


secondary beams
All dimensions in metres

Figure 9.2 Centre line typical floor plan of All dimenlione in metre.

project B.

shear wall area, grid size range, podium and tower Figure 9.3 Centre line typical floor plan of
block details, continuity and structural system adopted, project C.
are listed in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Salient features of projects.
9.4 Theoretical Results Project Number Podium Tower Floor Shear Continuity' Structural
title of block block area core system!
storeys (sq m) (sq m) Scheme
Using the appropriate charts and multiplying factors,
if required (Chapters 3 to 5), and based on the de- A 11 11 23487 3901 4 Prestressed
beam and
sign parameters for an individual project, quantities slab, B2
for different structural elements were computed and B 20 4 20 27634 3874 3 RC beam
the results are shown in Tables 9.2 to 9.4 for projects and slab,
B1
1 to 3 respectively under the column 'Theoretical'. C 8 8 4755 571 2-3 RC beam
In computing the quantities for projects with podium and slab,
and tower blocks, computations are made separately. B1

• Number of continuous spans.


9.5 Collection of Information
tries compared with the developed ones. The author
The construction industry has always resisted giving also faced the same problem, but the position was
historical information about completed projects. Such eased when the purpose and the usefulness of the
a tendency is more severe in the developing coun- study was explained.
176 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Table 9.2 Comparison of actual and theoretical Table 9.4 Comparison of actual and theoretical
quantities of constituents in different components. quantities of constituents in different components.
Project title: A. Project title: C.
Component! Quantities Percentage Component! Quantities Percentage
Constituents difference Constituents Actual Theoretical difference
Actual Theoretical
Slab
Slab Concrete (cu m) 636.20 605.90 + 4.8
Concrete (cu m) 3252.93 3048.00 + 6.3 Rei nforcement (t) 31.11 28.26 + 9.2
Reinforcement (t) 170.72 153.89 + 9.9 Formwork (sq m) 4411.72 4162.00 + 5.7
Formwork (sq m) 21032.36 19497.00 + 7.3
Beams
Beams Concrete (cu m) 187.13 171.60 + 8.3
Concrete (cu m) 1602.39 1441.60 +10.0 Rei nforcement (t) 51.12 46.86 + 8.3
Reinforcement (t) 440.45 396.85 + 9.9 Formwork (sq m) 1982.30 1844.00 + 7.0
Strands (t) 51.89 46.97 + 9.5
Columns
Formwork (sq m) 12187.56 11176.00 + 8.3
Concrete (cu m) 114.88 103.60 + 9.8
Columns Reinforcement (t) 17.56 15.85 + 9.7
Concrete (cu m) 570.65 514.10 + 9.9 Formwork (sq m) 846.93 763.00 + 9.9
Reinforcement (t) 102.51 92.07 +10.2
Shear walls
Formwork (sq m) 2817.65 2535.00 +10.0
Concrete (cu m) 97.44 89.50 + 8.2
Shear walls Reinforcement (t) 8.82 8.15 + 7.6
Concrete (cu m) 620.91 558.20 +10.1 Formwork (sq m) 1369.76 1223.00 +10.7
Rei nforcement (t) 49.90 44.73 + 10.4
Formwork (sq m) 7953.33 7120.00 +10.5
9.6 Comparison of Results

The comparison between the theoretical results (Section


9.4) and the actual quantities used (Section 9.5) was
Table 9.3 Comparison of actual and theoretical
made and the percentage difference computed. The
quantities of constituents in different components.
results for various projects are shown in Tables 9.2
Project title: B.
to 9.4. The percentage difference was obtained by
Component! Quantities Percentage comparing actual and theoretical quantities.
Constituents - - - - - - - - difference
Actual Theoretical
9.7 Observations
Slab
Concrete (cu m) 4651.56 4190.60 + 9.9 Invariably, the percentage difference is positive, which
Rei nforcement (t) 220.60 200.19 + 9.3 indicates that the actual quantities consumed in dif-
Formwork (sq m) 26938.82 24105.00 +10.5
ferent projects is always more than those computed
Beams from the computer model. The difference varies from
Concrete (cu m) 1350.19 1231.10 + 8.8
Reinforcement (t) 371.15 340.04 + 8.4
project to project and, consideri ng all projects, the
Formwork (sq m) 11983.73 10741.00 +10.4 overall range is about 4.8-10.3 per cent.
Generally, among all the structural components,
Columns
Concrete (cu m) 1011.65 906.30 +10.4 the percentage difference is lowest for slab and, con-
Reinforcement (t) 241.79 219.50 + 9.2 sidering different constituents within this element, the
Formwork (sq m) 4849.69 4345.00 + 10.4 lowest percentage is for concrete. Among the remaining
Shear walls components, there is no regular trend.
Concrete (cu m) 1156.21 10"2.70 +10.7 The possible reasons for the above differences appear
Rei nforcement (t) 118.18 107.41 + 9.1 to be the differing analysis and design methods: for
Formwork (sq m) 10917.13 9807.00 +10.2
example, adoption of the simplified method of analysis
which does not consider interaction of frames and
shear walls; non-curtailment of reinforcement in
The actual quantities of constituents in respect of accordance with BS 8110 1985; measuring non-struc-
each project were extracted from the bills of quan- tural concrete components for architectural features
tities, consideri ng the criteria laid down (Section 9.2). under structural concrete; adoption of external brick
In order to maintain confidentiality, ficticious names walls instead of light-weight concrete block walls;
have been given to the various projects. and the use of available stocks of reinforcement.
10 Additional
Table 10.1 Quantities of constituents in overall
structure using reinforced concrete beam and slab
system (interior grid).
Data for Number Grid size (m)! Quantities of constituents/
sq m of floor area
Preliminary
of storeys Structural
scheme (refer
to Figure 3.1) Cpncrete Reinforcement Formwork

Cost Estimation 5 6 x 6 Al
(cu m)

0.18
(kg)

14.4
(sq m)

1.68
Bl 0.17 16.4 1.59
8 x 8 Al 0.22 18.8 1.68
Bl 0.22 20.6 1.57
10xl0Al 0.25 23.1 1.64
Bl 0.26 25.8 1.52
B2 0.23 24.1 1.66
10 6 x 6 Al 0.18 15.6 1.74
Bl 0.18 17.7 1.65
8 x 8 Al 0.22 19.7 1.73
10.1 Quantities of Constituents in Overall Bl 0.23 23.0 1.62
Structures 10xlOAl 0.26 24.6 1.68
Bl 0.27 28.1 1.56
B2 0.23 25.9 1.70
Experience has shown that the relative variation in
15 6 x 6 Al 0.20 17.9 1.81
the unit rates of constituents of construction with
Bl 0.19 20.2 1.71
change in time is never uniform. Because of this, a 8 x 8 Al 0.23 21.8 1.78
structural system or scheme which is economical at Bl 0.24 26.1 1.67
any given time may not always remain so. For accu- 10xl0Al 0.27 26.8 1.73
racy, it is therefore essential to consider the prevail- Bl 0.28 31.3 1.61
ing unit rates of constituents for cost estimation. With B2 0.24 28.6 1.75

this aim in mind, quantities of constituents in an 20 6 x 6 Al 0.21 20.9 1.87


interior grid of an overall structure using the rein- Bl 0.21 23.5 1.78
8 x 8 Al 0.25 25.7 1.83
forced concrete beam and slab system are shown in
Bl 0.25 29.5 1.72
Table 10.1 for different design parameters. The same 10xl0Al 0.28 30.6 1.77
information, for the reinforced concrete flat slab and Bl 0.29 35.1 1.65
waffle slab systems, is shown in Tables 10.2 and 10.3 B2 0.26 31.9 1.79
respectively, while for the prestressed concrete beam 25 6 x 6 Al 0.23 24.3 1.93
and reinforced concrete slab system it is exhibited Bl 0.22 26.9 1.84
in Table 10.4. 8 x 8 Al 0.26 29.3 1.88
It should be noticed from these tables that the con- Bl 0.27 33.8 1.78
10xl0Al 0.30 34.9 1.82
stituent quantities given are for the structure as a Bl 0.31 39.1 1.70
whole. It is therefore necessary to consider average B2 0.27 35.9 1.83
prevailing unit rates for related structural elements 30 6 x 6 Al 0.24 28.0 2.00
in any system. Bl 0.24 31.0 1.90
8 x 8 Al 0.28 33.4 1.93
Bl 0.29 38.0 1.83
10.2 Effect of Different Live Loads on 10xl0Al 0.32 39.3 1.86
Bl 0.33 43.5 1.75
Constituent Quantities B2 0.29 39.9 1.87
35 6 x 6 Al 0.26 31.4 2.06
The basic data developed in Chapters 3-5 are based Bl 0.26 34.8 1.97
on live loads for commercial buildings (Sections 3.2.1, 8 x 8 Al 0.30 37.5 1.98
4.2 and 5.3). However, the effect of increased live Bl 0.31 42.1 1.88
loads on constituent quantities has been given in 10xl0Al 0.34 43.7 1.90
Table 10.5 so that the basic data after modification Bl 0.35 47.8 1.78
B2 0.33 44.6 1.92
for any increased live load can be used for cost es-
timation of other categories of buildings such as in- continued on page 178
dustrial, educational, etc.

177
178 Cost Estimation of Structures in Commercial Buildings

Table 10.1 continued


Number of Grid size (m) Quantities of constituents/sq m
Number Grid size (m)/ Quantities of constituents/ storeys of floor area
of storeys Structural sq m of floor area
Concrete Reinforcement Formwork
scheme (refer
(cu m) (kg) (sq m)
to Figure 3.1) Concrete Reinforcement Formwork
(cu m) (kg) (sq m) 40 6 x 6 0.35 38.4 1.86
8 x 8 0.41 43.7 1.74
40 6 x 6 Al 0.28 35.2 2.13
10 x 10 0.46 50.4 1.66
Bl 0.28 38.1 2.03
8 x 8 Al 0.33 41.6 2.03 45 6 x 6 0.38 43.8 1.96
Bl 0.33 46.6 1.93 8 x 8 0.43 49.3 1.82
10xl0Al 0.36 48.7 1.95 10 x 10 0.48 57.8 1.72
Bl 0.37 52.8 1.83
50 6 x 6 0.40 50.3 2.05
B2 0.33 48.9 1.96
8 x 8 0.45 56.1 1.89
45 6 x 6 Al 0.30 39.2 2.19 10 x 10 0.50 63.5 1.78
Bl 0.30 43.2 2.09
8 x 8 Al 0.35 46.4 2.08
Bl 0.35 51.1 1.98
10xl0Al 0.38 53.5 1.99 Table 10.3 Quantities of constituents in overall
Bl 0.39 57.1 1.87 structure using reinforced concrete waffle slab
B2 0.35 53.3 2.00 system with columns without column heads
50 6 x 6 Al 0.33 43.8 2.26 (interior grid).
Bl 0.32 48.0 2.16
8 x 8 Al 0.37 51.3 2.13 Number of Grid size (m) Quantities of constituents/sq m
Bl 0.37 56.0 2.03 storeys of floor area
10xl0Al 0.40 58.6 2.04 Concrete Reinforcement Formwork
Bl 0.41 61.9 1.91 (cu m) (kg) (sq m)
B2 0.37 57.8 2.05
5 6.4 x 6.4 0.19 13.1 1.33
8 x 8 0.26 15.1 1.28
10.4 x 10.4 0.32 19.2 1.25
Table 10.2 Quantities of constituents in overall
10 6.4 x 6.4 0.20 14.5 1.38
structure using reinforced concrete flat slab system
8 x 8 0.26 16.8 1.32
with columns without column heads (interior grid). 10.4 x 10.4 0.33 21.4 1.28
Number of Grid size (m) Quantities of constituents/sq m 15 6.4 x 6.4 0.21 16.8 1.44
storeys of floor area 8 x 8 0.28 19.5 1.37
Concrete Reinforcement Formwork 10.4 x 10.4 0.34 24.2 1.33
(cu m) (kg) (sq m) 20 6.4 x 6.4 0.23 19.7 1.50
8 x 8 0.29 22.9 1.43
5 6 x 6 0.23 13.5 1.35 10.4 x 10.4 0.36 27.7 1.39
8 x 8 0.29 17.9 1.31
10 x 10 0.36 22.4 1.28 25 6.4 x 6.4 0.24 23.4 1.57
10 6 x 6 8 x 8 0.31 26.7 1.50
0.24 15.4 1.42
8 x 8 10.4 x 10.4 0.37 31.7 1.43
0.30 20.0 1.35
10 x 10 0.37 24.5 1.32 30 6.4 x 6.4 0.26 27.3 1.64
15 6 x 6 0.26 17.8 1.48 8 x 8 0.33 31.3 1.56
8 x 8 0.32 23.3 1.41 10.4 x 10.4 0.39 36.3 1.49
10 x 10 0.38 27.8 1.37 35 6.4 x 6.4 0.28 31.6 1.72
20 6 x 6 0.27 21.4 1.55 8 x 8 0.35 35.8 1.63
8 x 8 0.33 26.4 1.47 10.4 x 10.4 0.41 40.4 1.55
10 x 10 0.39 31.0 1.43 40 6.4 x 6.4 0.30 36.5 1.80
25 6 x 6 0.29 25.1 1.62 8 x 8 0.37 40.4 1.71
8 x 8 0.35 39.5 1.53 10.4 x 10.4 0.43 46.0 1.61
10 x 10 0.41 35.4 1.48
45 6.4 x 6.4 0.33 40.9 1.90
30 6 x 6 0.31 29.4 1.70 8 x 8 0.39 46.3 1.78
8 x 8 0.37 34.2 1.60 10.4 x 10.4 0.45 51.9 1.68
10 x 10 0.43 40.1 1.54
50 6.4 x 6.4 0.35 46.4 2.00
35 6 x 6 0.33 32.8 1.78 8 x 8 0.42 51.9 1.85
8 x 8 0.39 38.8 1.67 10.4 x 10.4 0.47 58.3 1.74
lOx 10 0.45 45.1 1.59
Additional Data for Preliminary Cost Estimation 179

Table 10.4 Quantities of constituents in overall


Number Grid size (m)! Quantities of constituents/sq m
structure using prestressed concrete beam and of Structural scheme of floor area
reinforced concrete slab system (interior grid). storeys (refer to Concrete Reinforcement Strands Formwork
Figure 5.7)
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m)
Number Grid size (m)/ Quantities of constituents/sq m
of Structural scheme of floor area
storeys (refer to 12 x 12 A2 0.34 41.8 2.5 1.93
Concrete Reinforcement Strands Formwork B2 0.32 46.3 2.8 1.75
Figure 5.7)
(cu m) (kg) (kg) (sq m) 14 x 14 A2 0.38 47.1 3.5 1.83
B2 0.35 48.4 3.6 1.67
5 lOx 10 A2 0.23 18.7 2.0 1.75 A3 0.41 53.7 3.9 2.04
B2 0.21 19.8 1.9 1.56 B3 0.34 45.7 3.8 1.76
12 x 12 A2 0.26 21.4 2.5 1.73
B2 0.24 26.7 2.8 1.56 45 10 x 10 A2 0.33 42.7 2.0 2.05
14x14 A2 0.31 26.2 3.5 1.70 B2 0.31 42.8 1.9 1.87
B2 0.28 30.8 3.6 1.53 12x12 A2 0.36 45.7 2.5 1.96
A3 0.33 31.4 3.9 1.90 B2 0.34 50.2 2.7 1.78
B3 0.27 26.1 3.8 1.63 14 x 14 A2 0.40 51.3 3.5 1.86
B2 0.36 54.9 3.6 1.69
10 10 x 10 A2 0.23 20.4 2.0 1.77 A3 0.42 58.2 3.9 2.06
B2 0.21 21.5 1.9 1.60 B3 0.35 50.7 3.8 1.78
12x12 A2 0.27 23.4 2.5 1.75
B2 0.25 28.3 2.8 1.58 50 10 x 10 A2 0.35 47.0 2.0 2.10
14x14 A2 0.32 28.1 3.5 1.71 B2 0.33 46.8 1.9 1.92
B2 0.28 32.3 3.6 1.55 12 x 12 A2 0.37 49.9 2.5 1.99
A3 0.34 32.3 3.9 1.92 B2 0.35 54.7 2.8 1.82
B3 0.27 28.7 3.8 1.65 14 x 14 A2 0.41 56.4 3.5 1.87
B2 0.38 60.5 3.6 1.71
15 10 x 10 A2 0.24 22.4 2.0 1.81 A3 0.44 63.9 3.9 2.08
B2 0.22 23.5 1.9 1.63 B3 0.37 55.0 3.8 1.80
12 x 12 A2 0.28 25.4 2.5 1.78
B2 0.26 30.6 2.8 1.60
14 x 14 A2 0.32 30.5 3.5 1.73
B2 0.29 34.5 3.6 1.56
A3 0.34 35.1 3.9 1.93 Table 10.5 Effect of increased I ive load on
B3 0.28 31.0 3.8 1.66
constituent quantities (taken as 1.00 for live load
20 lOx 10 A2 0.25 25.2 2.0 1.84
2.5 kN/sq m).
B2 0.24 25.9 1.9 1.66
12x12 A2 0.29 28.2 2.5 1.80
Live load Constituents
B2 0.27 33.1 2.8 1.62
14x14 A2 0.33 33.3 3.5 1.74 (kNlsq m) Concrete Reinforcement Form work
B2 0.30 35.1 3.6 1.57
A3 0.35 38.8 3.9 1.95 2.5 1.00 1.00 1.00
B3 0.29 33.6 3.8 1.67
3.0 1.02 1.06 1.02
25 10xl0 A2 0.27 28.2 2.0 1.88 4.0 1.04 1.18 1.03
B2 0.25 29.0 1.9 1.70 5.0 1.06 1.23 1.05
12x12 A2 0.30 30.8 2.5 1.83
B2 0.28 35.9 2.8 1.65
6.0 1.09 1.40 1.08
14 x 14 A2 0.35 36.1 3.5 1.76 8.0 1.14 1.55 1.13
B2 0.31 39.3 3.6 1.60 10.0 1.20 1.85 1.19
A3 0.37 41.9 3.9 1.97
B3 0.30 36.4 3.8 1.70
Source: Lee Seng Kee. Study on the effects of reinforced
30 lOx 10 A2 0.28 31.0 2.0 1.92
concrete constituents under various uniformly distributed
B2 0.26 31.7 1.9 1.74
12 x 12 A2 0.31 34.3 2.5 1.86 live loads. MSc (Building Science), School of Building
B2 0.29 39.0 2.8 1.68 and Estate Management, National University of Singapore,
14 x 14 A2 0.36 41.0 3.5 1.79 1991/92.
B2 0.33 42.3 3.6 1.62
A3 0.38 44.9 3.9 2.00
B3 0.31 39.2 3.8 1.72
35 10xl0 A2 0.30 34.8 2.0 1.96 10.3 Effect of Increased Wind Load on
B2 0.27 35.2 1.9 1.78
12x12 A2 0.32 37.7 2.5 1.89
Constituent Quantities
B2 0.30 42.4 2.8 1.71
14 x 14 A2 0.37 43.0 3.5 1.81 The constituent quantities are affected by the magni-
B2 0.34 45.9 3.6 1.65
A3 0.39 49.2 3.9 2.02
tude of wind loading, generally above about 15 sto-
B3 0.32 42.6 3.8 1.74 reys. As far as the basic data of constituent quanti-
40 10 x 10 A2 0.31 38.8 2.0 2.00 ties in this book is concerned (Chapters 3-5), a basic
B2 0.29 38.9 1.9 1.83 wind speed of 38 m/s is assumed. However, the effect
180 Cost Estimation of Structures In Commercial Buildings

of increased wind on constituent quantities is shown


in Table 10.6, which can be utilised to modify the
basic constituent quantities for regions where the
prevailing basic wind speeds are greater.

Table 10.6 Effect of increased wind load on


constituent quantities (taken as 1.00 for basic wind
speed of 38 m/s).
Structural Wind speed Constituents
element (mls) -C-o-n-c-re-te--R-e-in-fo-r-c-em-e-nt-F-o-rm-w-o-rk-

Beams 38 1.00 1.00 1.00


42 1.03 1.05 1.03
46 1.10 1.14 1.08
50 1.20 1.24 1.18
54 1.30 1.34 1.28
Columns 38 1.00 1.00 1.00
42 1.04 1.06 1.04
46 1.12 1.16 1.12
50 1.22 1.26 1.22
54 1.32 1.36 1.32
Shear walls 38 1.00 1.00 1.00
42 1.06 1.08 1.06
46 1.14 1.18 1.14
50 1.24 1.28 1.24
54 1.34 1.38 1.34

Source: Chin Moon Cheong. Effect of different wind speeds on


reinforced concrete constituent quantities. MSc (Building Science),
School of Building and Estate Management, National University
of Singapore, Singapore, 1991/92.
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Bennett, J. Cost planning and computers. In Building York, 1981.
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configuration 9, 16 RC beam and slab system 148
Index design 9
economics 4, 137
RC flat slab system 149
RC waffle slab system 149
economist 166 Construction 2, 148, 149, 156,
educational 177 166, 177
frames 12, 14 beam and slab 2, 137
industrial 177 flat slab 2,63, 137, 138, 151,
office 5 161
residential 8 prestressed beam 2, 109, 137,
si ngle-storey 8 155
steel-framed 8 slab 2
unsymmetrical 12 slip form 15
Building economics studies 144-5 waffle slab 2, 63, 137, 138,
grades of concrete 1, 5, 11, 41, 151,161
Accuracy 2, 4 63, 65, 80, 109, 128, 145, Continuity 2,11,57,134
Aesthetics 2, 15 166,167,169 Core 8, 14
Aim 1 variation in grid size 145 area 55
American 13 variation with number of Cost 1,6,8, 137, 141, 148, 157,
Analysis 8, 12-14, 63 storeys 144-5 159, 162, 166, 168, 177
elastic 12 variation with schemes 144 additional data 177
of frames 11, 63, 109 analysis 4, 6, 8
Applications 137-46 Case studies 174-6 beam and slab system 159
budgeting of materials 144 basis of comparison 174 control 1
checking of estimates for collection of information 175 estimates 1,6,137,141,177
structural works 142 comparison of results 176 flat slab system 161
comparative cost observations 176 foundation 3
esti mation 137 sal ient features of projects 1 74 historical 1
cost index 144 theoretical results 175 index 1, 5, 6
overall project 141 Ceiling 11,63,109 information 6
quantity index 143 Charts 1, 3, 8, 9, 11, 55, 60, 63, modell, 4, 166
Approach 1 134,135,137,138,141,148, optimum 2
Architect 166 157,166,174,175 planning 1
Architectural Checking of estimates 142 preliminary 177
design 137 Choice of methods 2 prestressed system 163
features 176 Coefficients 14, 15 relative economics 165
work 1, 6 Column 2, 12, 16, 57, 60, 64, structural 1, 4, 5, 6
106,110,128,148,151,156, total structural 141
Background 166,167,174 variation 1, 2, 8
Bay sizes 8 corner 41, 80, 128 waffle slab system 161
Beam 2, 16, 22, 57, 60, 63, 148, exterior 41, 65, 80, 128 Countries, developing 1, 5, 175
156,166,167,174 grid size 11,14,63, 109
depth 15 interior 41, 60, 65, 80, 128 Deflection 13, 15, 110
main 12,15,22,110,167,172 sections 15, 41 Design 1, 2, 8
prestressed 110, 113, 137 spacing 8 architectural 2
secondary 12, 15, 22, 110, Comparison of results 174, 176 economics 4
113, 156, 167, 172 Completed projects 1 forces 15, 22
secondary over columns 12, Components 2 parameters 1,9,106,109,137,
22,113,167 Computer 169,174,175,177
section 15, 22, 55 database 9 stage 1, 5
size 167 programs 11,14,15,64,110 variables 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 166
width 15 Computer-based cost model Design of members 14, 63, 64,
Bending moment 12, 109 166-73 110
coefficient 12, 110 illustrative usage 167-73 beams 15,110
Bibliography 181 RC beam and slab 166-73 columns 15, 64, 110
Bills of quantities 1 74 Concrete 1,4,5,11,14,16,19, flat slab 64
Bond 15 22,41,55,63,64,110,113, shear walls 15, 65, 110
British 128,149,151,155-7,168, solid slab 15, 110
code 11 176 waffle slab 64
standard 14-16, 19 grade 1,5,11,41,63,65,80, Developing countries 1, 5, 175
Building 1, 3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14, 109,128,166,167,169
22, 57, 156 Constituents 5, 9, 11, 148, 149, Economics 164
commercial 1, 3, 5, 11, 19, 155,177 Effect 1 77-9
109,137,141,174 overall structure 177 design variables 137
completed 8 prestressed concrete 155 increased wind load 179

183
184 Index

live load on constituent Load 109,174 177,179


quantities 1 77 axial 13 actual 2, 176
Elements, structural 8 dead 11, 12, 22, 63, 109 analysis and design 4
Engineer 2, 166 earthquake 11, 63 beams 22
Estimates 8 gravity 12, 57 columns 41, 65, 129
Estimation methods horizontal 13, 22, 148 computation 8
approximate quantities imposed 12, 22, 109 constituents 3, 4, 9, 22, 64, 80,
method 1 lateral 13, 14, 57, 64 106, 110, 134, 138, 141, 148,
floor area method 1 live 11, 16, 177 149,155,157,167,176,177,
percentage esti mate service 11, 63 179
preliminary 2 static 14 effect of number of spans 106
square metre method 1 ultimate 12 live load 177
superficial area method wind 12, 13, 63, 179 overall structure 177
Loading 2, 6, 11-13, 63, 109, prestressed beams 113
57, 106, 134,
Factors, multiplying 167 shear walls 55, 106, 134
135, 138, 175 gravity 12 solid slab 16, 110
Finishes 11, 63, 109 lateral 11, 22, 109, 167 structures 106
Fire resistance 15 superimposed 8 theoretical 2
First principles 2, 4, 8, 9 vertical 11, 12, 22, 109 total structure 55, 106, 134
Flat slab 2 wind 6 trends and variations 148-65
Flats 8 London 11, 63 variation 5
Floors wind load 179
reinforced concrete 8 Material Quantity index 137
upper 8 budgeting 6 Quantity surveyor 8, 166
Flowcharts 166, 167 rates 138
Forces 12, 15, 16, 64, 109, 110 Mean devation 2
Formwork 1,4,11,14,16,19, Method of analysis 12 References 3, 9, 62, 108, 136,
22, 41, 55, 63, 64, 11 0, 113, Model 5, 169, 173 173
128,149,151,155,156,157, elements 166, 167, 173 Regression equation 6
168 Reinforced concrete
Fortran 168 Number of beam and slab 11, 14, 109,
Foundation 1, 3 spans 57, 106, 134, 167 110,137,148,155-7,159,
Framed 1, 6 storeys 1,5, 11,55,63,64, 163, 166-73, 177
building 1,15 106,109,110,148,149,151, constituents 151
structu res 6, 11 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, design of structural
Frames 3, 8, 13 162-4, 166-9, 172 members 14, 64, 110
i nteracti ng 3, 13 flat slab 63,64, 149, 151, 161,
Observations 148, 149, 155, 174, 177
Grid 1, 9, 15, 60, 149, 155, 156, 176 grid beam 9
159, 161 Office 3, 5, 11, 138 structures 8
corner 60, 160, 164, 172 floors 60, 63, 106, 135, 138 waffle slab 63,64,149,151,
exterior 60, 160, 162, 164, 172 Output 172 161,177
fi rst interior 172 Reinforcement 1, 4, 5, 11, 14, 15,
interior 55, 106, 134, 149, 151, Panel 16, 22, 41, 55, 63, 64, 110,
156, 157, 163, 164, 168, 172 exterior 65 113,128,151,155-7,168,
location 1, 110, 149, 160, 162, interior 65, 137 176
164, 166-9, 172 Partitions 11, 63, 109 flange 19,110
p,lane 12 Past records 2, 8 high yield steel 63, 64, 139
size 1, 5, 22, 41, 57, 63, 106, Plan maximum area 15, 110
110,128,134,141,148,149, shape 1, 2, 6, 14 maximum percentage 15
151,155-7,160,162-4, size 2, 14 mild steel 63, 64
166-9,172,174 Podium blocks 109, 175 minimum area 15, 16, 110
size column 8, 11 Prestressed concrete 109, 155, spacing 15,110
157,163,177 steel 149
Handbook 9 Prestressing strands 113, 156 Research based on
Price book 157 first principles 8-9
Index quantity 137 Project manager 2 past completed projects 4-7
Information collection 175 Projects-salient features 141, 174 Review of previous work 4-10
Input 168, 169, 170, 172, 173 general 4
Interacting frames 3 Quantities 2, 3, 5, 6, 11, 14, 16, research based on first
Interpolation method 8 22, 41, 55, 57, 60, 63, 64, 65, principles 8
80, 109, 110, 113, 129, 134, research based on past
Lifts 11 138,141,148,149,151,155, projects 4-7
Links 13 157,166,167,174,175,176, Roofs 8
Index 185

Serviceability 110 relationship 8, 9, 11, 166 Sub-frame 12


Services 13 Storey height 8, 14, 63 System, structural 1, 2, 5, 6, 9,
Schedule of rates 157 Storeys 1, 22, 109 11, 63, 109
Scheme, structural 5, 9, 106 Structural 1, 2, 3, 137 prestressed concrete beam 109
Scope of study 3 components 9, 11, 14, 22, 135, RC beam and slab 1, 3, 11
Shafts 13 148, 176 RC flat slab 1, 3, 63
Shear 15 constituents 149 RC slab 109
core size 1, 14, 63 cost 2, 137, 1 41 RC waffle slab 1, 3, 63
cores 13, 141 cost estimation 137, 141 traditional 1
forces 12 design economics 4
punching 63 elements 8, 63, 175 Tenders 2
stress 63 frame 8, 167 Theoretical results 175
walls 3,8,11,13,14-16,55, location 109 Torsion 12
57, 60, 106, 110, 134, 148, material 9 reinforcement 12
149,151,156,166,167 members 2, 110 Total structural cost 141, 159,
Shopping 3, 11 scheme 1, 4, 9, 12, 15, 22, 41, 161,162, 163, 164
floors 60, 106, 135 55, 110, 128, 134, 137, 138, 55, 149, 151, 156,
Total structure
Singapore 8 148,149,155-7,159,160, 157,159,160,164,166,167
Sizes, bay 8 162-4, 166-9, 172 Tower block 175
Slab 16,60,110,148,151,155, systems 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 22, Trends 148, 149, 151, 155, 156
166,176 148,157,164,174
flat 63,64,106,137,151, Structures 8,11, 63, 109, 135, Ultimate limit state 110
161-3 138, 146, 157 Unit rate 168
minimum thickness 15 continuity 1, 146 Upper floors 8
one-way 12, 15, 148, 156 cost 157-65
overall depth 15 framed 11 Values 5
two-way 12, 15, 148 method of 12 actual 5
waffle 63, 64, 80, 106, 137, prestressed concrete beam 109 theoretical 5
151,161-3 pure shear wall 3 Variables 4, 166, 172
Spacing column 8 RC beam and slab 3, 11 design 4, 6, 166
Spans 2, 12, 57, 106 RC flat slab 3, 63 structural 4
Specifications 6 RC frame 4 Variation 1,2,148,149,151,
Stability 11, 13,63 RC waffle slab 3, 63 155, 156, 163, 164
Stairs 8 reinforced concrete slab 109
Standard shear wall 5 Walls, shear 3, 8, 13
British 3, 13, 63, 110, 176 special 3 Wilderness study group 8
Indian 9 tube 3, 5 Wind 14
Statistical tube-in-tube 3, 5 speed 11
factors 1 1, 63 Strudl 11 speed, basic 13, 22

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