Friedman, Susan Stanford. "Migrations, Diasporas, and Borders.

" Introduction to Scholarship in

Modern Languages and Literatures. Ed. David Nicholls. New York: MLA, 2007. 260–293 Swan Slanford Fmdman 261

discursive regimes. and systems of representa­
tion developed during the heyday of postStruc­
lUralist theory in the 19805. But its widespread
impact on mainstream Iiter::lry scholarship StartS
with the return to history and the rise of inter­
r--J Migrations, Diasporas, and Borders disciplinary cultural studies beginning in the
early 1990s.
Literary scholarship on migration, diaspora.
SUSAN STANFORD FRIEDMAN and borders has not evolved as a Single field:
each subject has its own complex history of for­
mation and institutional expression in the acad­
and inequities that accompanied the rise and fall
of numerous empires worldwide. What is differ­
ent is the particular fonn that globalization be­
g:tn to take by the end of the twentieth century:
a highly accelerated fonn of the global ecumene
in which technologies of travel. infonnation, me­
dia, exchange, and violence have intensified the
patterns. mechanisms. and degrees of intercon­
nectedncss. This contemporary phase of global­
ization is distinctive at least in part because the
new technologies of the so-called infonnation

Identity is chmlged by IIH: journey.
-Madan Sarup, �Home and Idcntityft
Living on borders ,HId in margins, keeping in/acf onc's shifting and fIlulfiple
identity and integrity. is 'illt trying CO swim in a new elemenl, an "aliel1�
element
-Gloria Anzaldlia, Borderlands / La FrOn/era
Out of Africa the human species came, dispers­ in goods, ideas, peoples, and practices (Khaza­
ing across the globe. over the cons. The trans­ nov: Weathcrford). Great transcontinental pat­
national Genome Project, involving scientists terns of travel and intercultur.ll contact have
from all over the. world, is the mark of the times. shaped every period in history and every pan of
the science of human beings constantly on the the globe. Movement, whether forced or sought
move, creating contact zones of genes and more Out, is the foundation of human evolution and
th:m gcnes-<:ulturcs; ways of being in the the history of change on a global landscape.
world; ways of creating; ways of hating; ways of Migrations, diaspor::ls, and borders are noth­
conquering and being conquered: ways of sur­ ing new; they have shaped human cultures from
viving. endUring, and resisting. The anthropol­ time immemorial. But as areas of inquiry in lit­
ogist James Clifford calls it -traveling cultures� erary studies, they arc relatively new, developing
and invites us to look not only to the culrures OUt of the past two and a half decades of inno­
of dwellings and fixed places but also to the vation in the humanities. Rooted in the depar­
cultures of mobility, of those who travel, mi­ tures from New Criticism :md from traditional
grate, and bring differences into contact with forms of literary hisLOry in the 1970s, the study
one another to make new culLUral formations of migration, diasporas, and borders gathered
based on exchange and intermingling-.m in­ momentum in the late 1980s and 1990s, emerg­
tenningling that is sometimes creatively recip­ ing preeminently from postcolonial sLUdies.
rocal, sometimes oppreSSively brutal, and often the rising interest in travel writing. and the in­
a complex mLXlUre of the two (Rouu:s 17-46). terdiSCiplinary fields centered on questiOns of
Nomads, once thought to identity-roee and ethniC
Great transcontinental pauems of
exist at the irrelevant fringe studies, gender studies, sex­
of �civiliz:l.lion,ft are being travel :md intercultural contact uality studies. This study has
emy. Moreover, each is particularized in refer­
ence to the languages, national literatures, and
particular geographies under study. But the cul­
tural theory of these distinct fields has become
increasingly interwoven and mutually constitu­
tive in literary studies. They cohere. without
having the coherence of a single school, whether
in theoretical, methodological, or institutional
terms. Vast in scope and dispar.He in design, they
pose an enonnous challenge for anyone attempt­
ing an overview, a challenge compounded by the
new mandate in literary studies for planelat)'
thinking and the decline of the nation-state
model. This essay represents a preliminary map­
ping, and although I strive to be inclusive, it no
doubt reflects my rOOts in the field of twentieth­
and twenty-first-century literary studies and cul­
tural theory, predominantly in English.
Why now-the naming of migrations, dias­
poras, and borders as a field? In l word. global­
ization, a tenn with shifting meanings that spawn
debate about its politics. its utopian possibilities.
and its dystopic realities. I For some. like Fredric
Jameson and Masao Mi)'oshi, globalization refers
solely to the contemporary period, often associ­
ated with late capitalism. For others, including
mc, globalization is not a new phenomenon, al­
though the naming of it is new, indicating
heightened awareness of what has been there all
along. The routes of ceaseless intercultural
exchange among different societies-what Philip
Cunin and others have called the global ecu­
mene-developed as a constitutive element of
human civilization, involving the dispersion of
revolution are primarily representational in na­
ture. enabling (in a way the steam engine did
not) radically new forms of knowledge produc­
tion, dissemination, sUlveillance, and commu­
nication in the vinual realities of cybcrspace.1
The anthropologist Arjun Appadurai, a
founder of the innuential journal Public Culture,
has theorized that the intensified global flow of
money, goods, people, and media in this period
of late modernity (or postmodernity, as some
tenn it) has led to a worldwide network of cul­
tural traffic and a global ethnoscape that has bro­
ken down seemingly fixed differences among na­
lional cultures. ethnicities. and races (Modernity
48: sce esp. 48-66). Massive movementS of peo­
ple as refugees and migrantS in a world filled
with ethnic and religiOUS violence, national con­
flicts, and widening divisions among rich and
poor countries have swelled the cities of the
world with peoples from many locales, setting in
motion radical juxtapositions of different lan­
guages and cultural practices. Cosmopolitanism,
once thought to be the privilege of metropolitan
eliles, lTavclers, and expatriate artistS. is newly
understood to include those who move in search
of a more secure or better life at the most basic
level of survival. even those whose migration
is only ambiguously voluntary or decidedly
involuntary.}
Blurring the boundaries between home and
elsewhere, migration increasingly involves mul­
tiple moves from place to place and continual
travel back and forth instead of journeys from
one location to another. The Internet has trans­

newly underSlOod as the im­ have sh..ped every period in history been also innuenced by the peoples, the fonnation of vast trade routes and fonned the diasporic experience of many
prcssarios of cultural traffic and every part of the g lobe . analysis of textual language, interconnecting mctropoles. and the conquest through the formation of virtual communities

260
262 Migratiolls, Diasporas, anti Borders Susan SwnJorcl Fl'iedlllan 263

connecting the far-nung with those still back Instead of focusing exclUSively on a national north-soulh and east-west axes to incorporate now widely cited, Michel Foucauh predicted,

home. Many migrants and diasporics associate literature wilhin the boundaries of a single examination of indigenous and migratory cul­ "The present epoch will perhaps be above all the

home nOt with a particular geographic lotation nation-state. literary scholarship has shifted dra­ tures from every continem as these have shaped epoch of space. We are III the epoch of simul­

but with an �imagin;!ry homcland* (Rushdic, matically toward a transnational perspective: the literatures of the United States.1I taneity: wc are in the epoch of juxtaposition, the

Imaginary Homelands 9-21). with the experience literatures written in a common language in dif­ The new globalization has also reshaped com­ epoch of the ncar and far, of the side-by-side, of

of being perpclUally in between cultures, or with ferem parts of the globe. POStcolonial studies parative literature, undermining the discipline's the dispcrsed� (22). Migr.ltions. diasporas, and

an affili:lIion based on a communal identification dominated by the literature and culture of the early emphasis on European culture capitals, ex­ borders heighten the meanings for literature of

that crosses nmiona! boundaries (e.g., religion, British Empire and the new nations that emerged tending the bases of comparison to non-Western juxtaposition, ne:u and far, side by side, and dis­

gender, queerness. indigcneity).� The writing of from its demise has transformed British and literatures. and fostering the development of persion nOt only in themes explored but also in

home has become in a variety of ways, from the Commonwealth literary studies by providing a translation studies (Apter: Bassnen: Uonnet and the forms of literary embodiment.

literal to the metaphoric, increasingly detcrrilo­ new theoretical framework for analysis; expand­ Shih; Saussy, Compa rative Ultralllre; Spivak, Geography has been rapidly acquiring a new

rialized.' Globalization has not eliminated the ing the canon to indude literatures in English Dealh). Race and ethnicity studies have moved Significance for liter:try studies and remains an

power of nalionalism as a global force. BUllrans­ throughout the anglophone world; and high­ toward the examination of transnational and in­ essential interdiscipline for migration, diaspora,

n'Hionai mass media, economies, cultural prac­ lighting the signif1cance of the colonies for the tranational diasporas: tracking the forced or vol­ and border studies. History has long been im­

tices. and peoples have reshaped nalional inSli­ formation of literature in Britain, including Brit­ untary migration of peoples across continents portant for literary studies and will surely remain

tmions and identities and made for new fomls ish literature not written in English. 1 Latin Amer­ and wlthin national boundaries, tracing the so, at the very least for the historical contextual­

of interplay (both creative and destructive) be­ ican and United States Latino/a literary and cul­ meanings of shifting borders for indigenous peo­ ization of writers and literary texts. for histOrical

tween the global and the local. tural studies has rapidly expanded in Spanish ples, and identifying the formation of new eth­ narratives of literary movemenLS and genres, and

Onc effect of this newest phase in globaliza­ depanmems, often quite separate from the study nicities over time and space.\! for identification of change and continuity over

tion has been increased atlention to tr.msnatiOn­ of Iberian Spanish literature and renecting long­ The rapid emergence of transnationalism and lime. But geography is gaining a compensatory

alism in literature and language, a change overdue allemion to the Spanish literatures of globalization as perv3sive categories in literary presence, providing concepts for thinking about

marked by a special issue of PMLA, GlobaliZing the Americas since the early days of contact studies helps explain the new Significance of the literal)' meanings of location, movement, si­

Literary Studies, edited by Giles Gunn in 200l. through the presem (Alley; Anderson and Kuhn­ migration, diaspora, and borders as a cross­ multaneity, juxtaposition, and interactions of

The articles in that issuc contrast sharply with heim; R. Johnson; McClennen: Mignolo, Darker departmental and cross-speciality f1eld of inquiry sameness and difference.

the 1992 edition of the MlJ\'s IfllrodllClion co Side and Local Histories; Pr-m). The study of Por­ in the study of modem languages. What brings The work of such geographers as Henri Le­

Scholarship, which included an overview essay on tuguese literature, typically located in depart­ together the three areas of interest in this field is febvre, Edward Soja, Unda McDowell, and Do­

border studies, as well as essays on feminist and ments that originaHy focused on the Iberian Pen­ underlying questions about identity in motion reen Massey variously establishes ways in which

gender studies, ethnic and minority studies, and insula, has now broadened to become lusophone on a transnational landscape-not only identity space is conceived not as empty or neutral-the

cultural studies (Gibaldi).t.lmplicitly framing all studies, encompassing literatures produced in as it is changed by the journey, to echo the epi­ backdrop of history-but rather as full: genera­

these earlier essays was the overriding signifi­ Portugal's former colonies in South America. Af­ gr.lph from Mad:tn Sarup, but also identity as it tive of situ::l1ion, relation, and soci:tl being;

cance of the nation-state as the emit)' within rica, and Asia in the world's sixth most common is in a continual process of (re)fonnation in re­ marked by formations of power and resistance.

which these issues pla)'cd out in literary studies. language (sce, e.g., utSopllOne Studies). The fran­ lation to changing spaces and times. The feminist Not a static essence, space in these terms is a

Greater attention {Q nationalism, national iden­ cophone world, especially in the Caribbean and critic Carole Boyce Davies terms these phenom­ location of histOrical overdctennination, a site

tity, and geopoliticS in literary studies in the past Africa, has blended with postcolonial studies to ena �migrations of the subjecl."lo As the geog­ for the production of commun:ll and individual

decade or so has paradoxicall}' led to the oppo­ become a significant new area in French literary raphers Michael Keith and Steve Pile argue, identities. In short, geography is providing

site: gre:ller understanding of the porousness of studies. even as the statuS of French as the Midentity and location [arc] insepar.lble: knowing literary studies with a new form of contexlUaH­

the cultural borders of the nation-state; how the oneself {isl :tn exercise in mapping where one zation-a speciflcJJly spatial onc that comple­
world's lingua franca has yielded to English
history of empire and (post)colonialism binds (Forsdkk and Murphy; Jack). The breakllp of standsn (26). Or, in the Widely cited words of the ments the long-standing methodologies of his­

the literatures of different partS of the world to­ the Soviet Union into many nations has neces­ feminist poet and social critic Adrienne Rich, we toricization. For migration. diaspora, and border

gether; how national liter.nures arc fonned in sitated the development of tr:tnsnalional analysis need "10 undersland how a place on the map is studies in particular, the new geography often

conjunction with the litcratures of othcr nmions; in Slavic and central Asian studies (Moore). also a pl:tce in historyM (212). The geographies provides conceptu:tl tools for thinking about the

and how interconnected and mutually constitu­ Where American studies used to focus on the of identity articulated in the f1eld renect new at­ multiple spatialities of identities in motion.

tive the cultures of the world have always been­ formation of the United States and its cultures as tention to space (and embodiment in given lo­ Anthropology has been as important for mi­

:md will continue to be in ever-intensified ways, distinct from Europe and other lands of immi­ cations) as a constitutive component of human gration, diaspora, and border studies as geogra­

because of the new technologies of knowledge grant origins. the field is now decidedly trans­ experience and culture. In a prescient lecture phy-not the structuralist anthropology that in­

and communication. nmion:tl in emph,lsis, reconstituting itself along given in 1967. appearing in English in 1986 :lnd fluenced Northrop FIYc's archetypal criticism in
264 Migrarions, Diasporas, and Borders
the I 950s-60s, and only partially thc theoret­
ical anthropology pervasive in the new histori­
cism in the 1980s (e,g., Cbude Levi-Strauss,
Victor Turner, Mary Douglas, etc.). Rather. the
anthropologies of cultural identity thm devel­
oped in conjunction with area studies, postco­
lonial studies. gender and sexuality stlldies, race
and ethnicity studies. and (posl)modemity stud­
ies have shaped criticism on the literatures of
writers and communities defined by movement
and intercuhural encounter. Anthropologists
such as Clifford, Appadurai, Lila Abu-Lughod,
Ruth Bchar (Bchar and Gordon), Kirin Narayan.
Renato Ros;1
i do, Michael T:lUssig, Michel-Rolph
Trouillot, Kamala Visweswanln, and Neil White­
head have served as a rich source of concepts
useful for literary studies-cuhure, hybridity,
ethnoscape, intercultural transaction, transcul­
lUration. cultural mimesis. cultural traffic, fetish,
primitivism. and so forth. In turn, literary studies
and the turn to theory (esp. postmodem or post­
structuralist theory) have influenced these
anthropolOgies, with increased auention to the
effects of the ethnographer's standpoint, sub­
jectivity, and writing on transcultural aCts of
representation.
DiffERENCES:
BACKGROUNDS AND ISSUES
Migration. diaspora. and borders as distinct in­
terest areas in literary studies initially developed
in conjunction with interdiSciplinary postco[o­
nial. gender. race, multiculturnl, and queer
studies. Like these fields, it emerged most exten­
Sively from scholars working in the modem pe­
riod, roughly from the late nineteenth century,
through the twentieth century, and into the cur­
rent century. They have gradually come la innu­
ence those working in earlier historical periods,
a process analogous to the beginnings of new
historicism in Renaissance slUdies and its even­
tual spread to other periods. A brief overvicw of
each area is instructive for the way they have
more recently come to interwe':lVe, collaborate,
and to some e:o.:tent cohere.
Migration
The movement of peoples from onc place to an­
other around the globe is a history of dislocation
and relocation, displacement and emplacement,
lOSing homes and making new homes, living in
a limbo between worlds and adapting over lime
to new ways, bcing changed by and also chang­
ing the culture of the adopted land. As a tenn,
migration encompasses a plethora of distinct mi­
grants, sometimes subLly and sometimes vastly
different from onc another in relation to Struc­
tures of power and privilege and to issues of
agency: refugees, cosmopolitans, exiles, diaspor­
ics. pilgrims, nomads, settlers, asylum seekers,
evacuees, emigres, displaced persons, strangers,
guest workers, migrant workers, travelers, tour­
ists, and so forth. Migration has been a powerful
stimulant to literary expressions of identity in
motion and the self-fashioning that new home­
lands require. To my knowledge. few scholars
have attempted to theorize the discursive field of
migration literature per se or to identify struc­
tural patterns of migration literature beyond gen­
eralizations about the literature of distinctive cul­
tural groups or comparisons among them. n But
migration has long been a staple for those who
study the national1iteratures of nation-states or
regions built predominantly through massive
waves of immigrants from different parts of the
world (e.g., the Americas, Australia, New Zea­
land, South Africa). Narratives of assimilation;
cultural clashes; hyphenated identities; genera­
lional conflict; intennarriage: and competing na­
tional, ethniC, or rcligio�ls loyalties have been ex­
plored for decades, especially in American
sludies.1l
In the past decade or so, however, the na­
tional and ethnic paradigms for studying migra­
lion literature have yielded to transnational mod­
els emphasizing the global space of ongoing
travel and mmscontinental connection. Exam­
ples arc the literary-cultural scholarship of the
PaCific Rim (e.g., Lowe; Bow; Ma), the circum­
Atlantic (e.g., Gilroy; Appiah. In My Fmher's
House and Cosmopoliranism), the North-South
axis (e.g., Gikandi. Maps ; Prau; Ramos), and cul-
SUSlln Stal1Jord Ftidman 265
turcs of the Indian Ocean (e.g., Ghosh). Another cades by fOCUSing on the experience and writ­
major shift in migration studics has come from ings of single ethnic, national. or racial groups
what many sce as a significant change in global or by initiating some comparative study across
migration patterns in the second half of the different groups. Criticism on migration narra­
twentieth century, leading to what is widely tives in the Unitcd States still predominates, with
termed the new migration. The rise to economic some postcolonial criticism of migration narra­
and military power of the United States after tives in Britain and Europe now appearing as
World War 1I and the 1965 Immigration Act. wclL Alpana. Shanna Knippling's New Immigrant
which effectively opened the Litcralltres in the United States
door that had been shut in Migration has been a powerful is an invaluable sourcebook
1924, have made the United stimulant to l itera ry presenting introductions to
States a magnet for those from e.xpressions of identity in 11I0tion the history, culture, and liter­
the Caribbean, Latin America, and the self-fashioning that ature of post-World War 11
Africa, and Asia who seek to migrants into the United States
new homelands require.
escape repression or poverty. from twenty-two countries
Economic and political asymmetries between and regions of the world-Finnish, Korean,
European nations and their fonner colonies in Arab,Armeni:m,SephardicJewish, Greek,Czech,
the postcolonial period (starting in the late and Mexican, to name a few. Critics like Paul
1940s) have led to the migration of millions from Heike in Mapping Migration, Gilbert Muller in
Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and Luin America Ne-w Slrangcrs in Paradise, Katherine Payant and
into Britain and Europe. Racism, religious differ­ Toby Rose in Th, tmmigranl Experience ill Nonh
ences, class disparities, and fears aboUl changes American Literarure, Eleanor Ty and David C.
in national idemity produced through immigra­ Goellnicht in Asian North American Identities,
tion have produced intense conflict. even vio­ Louis Mendoza and S. Shank'l.r in Crossing illra
lence, and pressure to enact restrictive citizen­ America. and C.,rine Mardor05sian in �From lit­
ship laws. Not all migration has been between erature of Exile to Migrant LiteratureH Stress a
the so-called First and Third Worlds, however. major shift in North American migration narra­
Political instability, ethniC cleansing. and eco­ lives away from the assimilationist model, which
nomic disparities have led to refugee and labor centers on the plot of Americanization in earlier
migrations from India to the Gulf States, for ex­ narratives like Mat), Antin's The Promised Lal\d or
ample: from the Philippines to the Middle East, Anzia Yezicrska's Bread Givers. Instead, they sec
Europe, and the Americas; from one part of Af­ in the post-1965 migmtion narratives more flu­
rica to another; from one fonner Soviet state to idity of identity, more heterogeneity, more resis­
another: and from rural to urban areas in China tance to assimilation, more bilingualism and hy­
and India. bridity, and It::s s \villingncss on the part of
New technologies of travel and communi­ American society in general to integrate these
Cation also contribute to the new migration. newly racialized immigrants.
The speed of migration (airplane vs. ship) and As Mauhew Frye Jacobson describes in
transcontinental contact (e-mail and telephone Whiteness DJ a Differenr C% r, man)' groups
vs. sea mail) have increased for many the fre­ coming into the United States on earlier waves
quency of circula.r migration, ongoing visits of immigration wcre not considered white at
back home, and connection with the home cul­ first-especially the Irish, Jews, italians, and
ture-all of which has made the radical rup­ Slavs. However, they gradually acquired the
ture of migration less fixed for many, especially priVileged statUS of whiteness in opposlLion to
the more afnuent. black, Native, and Asian populalions, who re­
The criticism of the new-migration literature mained racial others, perpetually marginalized,
has tended to follow the example of prior de- legally segregatcd, and not fully American.
266 Migrations, Diaspol'(ls. and Borders
Despite tensions between new immigrants to
the United States and older r3cializcd com­
munities, the new migrants have more often
joined the mnks of people of calor than those
of white America. Tensions over race, religion,
and culture are rcnected in such CDnLcmporary
migration narratives and poetry as Meena Al­
exander's The Shock DJ Arrivul, Oiana Abu­
Jabefs Arabian Jazz, r-,'Iohja Kahfs E-Mails from
Schcherazad, JunOl Dllz's Drown, Loida Maritza
Perez's Geographics DJ Home, Gish Jen's Mona in
the Promised Land, Lcila Ahmcd's Border Pas­
sage, and Pamela Mordccai's Certifiable. Cul­
lUml critics of the United Slates like Ali Behdad
in A Forgeiful Narioll and Kevin Johnson in The
Huddled Masses Mylll add important historical
"tS to this literature of the new migration,
conte..
arguing that {he American national imaginary
has celebrated the coumry as a nation of im­
migrants at the same time that it has repressed
memories of compulsory migmtions, conquest,
and nalivist movements.
Migration within the United States and Can­
ada has also become a focus of study. The Great
Migration of African Americans from the South
to the North in the twentieth century, the inter·
nal migrations of Native peoples forced from
their homelands, and the internment ofJapancse
Americans during World War II-to cite a few
prominent examples-have inspired both liter­
ature and literary studies.lJ The expressive cul­
ture of the Great Migration-literature, music,
the artS, folk culture, and so on-has been
in particular the subject of several sustained
studies. Farah Jasmine Griffin's "Who 5t:( You
Flowin'r L1wrence R. Rodgers's Cant!wI BOllnd,
and David G. Nicholls's Co/Villing lilt: Fall, vari­
ously explore the forms of e:-.:pression that record
the drive to migrate north, the shock of the ur­
b:lIl landscape for predominantly rural folk, the
fonnation of northern black urban culture, the
experiences of racial invisibility .md alienation,
and the continued presence of the South in the
arts and culture of the transplanted African
Americans in the North.
Other nations and continents have experi­
enced massive migration, of course, :md their lit-
eratures reflect itS significance, especially in fic­
tion, amobiography. and OIher forms of life
writing. Some of these migrations have involved
searches for a better life, especially in Canada,
Australia, France, and Sp:tin. But for others,
involuntary migration, political exile, ethnic
cleansing, genOcide, refugeeism, and perpetual
guest worker status meant suffering and home­
lessness. PaSt hiStory of colonial migration un­
derlies the new migration of the late twentieth
century. Settlers from the British Isles moved in
large numbers not only to the United States,
C;mada, Australia, and New Zealand but also to
India and Africa, especially southern and eastern
Africa, established as small minorities with eco­
nomic and political hegemonies based on racist
ideology-a history that Doris Lessing explores
in settler novels like T'1t� Grass Is Singing.
In turn, the poslcolonial era contains a vast
reverse migration into the once imperial metro­
poles of Britain and Europe. This migration of
largely brown or black people into the heart of
whiteness has challenged the underlying racial
basis of European national imaginaries. As Bruce
King points out in The fnlemalionaliz(Hion of
Englisll Ulerarure, the new migration from the
former colonies has internationalized English Iit­
er:llure in Britain, introdUcing narratives of mi­
gratory nostalgia and self-fashioning, back-and­
forth movement, mixed-race identities, conflict
around gender and sexuality, and tension among
the different cultural groups often homogenized
under the derogatory label blach in their new
home.
The identity of English literature and ItS writ­
ers has itself become migratory, a notion that writ­
ers like Hanif Kureishi, Buchi Emecheta, Ben
Okrt, and Salman Rushdie (Sawnic Verses) both
embody and narra(ivize. For example, Rushdie
writes as a cosmopolitan-born a Muslim in
Bombay, separmed from his family in Pakistan by
the aftermath of partition, now a British citizen
and living in the United States. Should he be
called an Indian, English, British, or American
writer? Is his oeuvre pan of English, British,
Americ:tn, Indian, or South Asian literature? Even
the term "English literature" in Britain is an am-
biguous deSignation: alternately linguistic, eth­
nic, or geopolitical at a time when literature in
Britain is increasingly micronational (e.g., Scot­
tish, Welsh, English), multicuhural, multiracial.
and even multilingual. Other European countries
face similar ambiguities. Arc the Muslim girls in
France who insist on wearing a hijab to public
school denying their Frenchncss? Or can French­
ness be separated from itS historical lies to the
universalist discourse of republican France so as
to institute a new, muhicultural understanding of
French? As Azade Seyhan poims out, the litera­
ture of Turkish guest workers in Gennany, some
of it reflecting several generations of life in Ger­
many, existS in a kind of legal and cultural in­
between, since even the children of these work­
ers born in Gennany do not have access to
Gemlan citizenship. \ ..
Although few studies attempt to theorize mi­
gration literature beyond the patterns evident in
the literatures of specific groups, migration stud­
ies in the social sciences has developed a consid­
erable theoretical body of scholarship that would
greatly benefit literary studies. As Caroline Bre­
tell andJames F. Hollifield note in Migralion The­
ory: Talhing across Ihe Disciplines, social scientists
have developed some key tenninology for mi­
gration, such as sending and receiving culwres:
push and pull fa cto rs; oUI-migralion and i'l­
migration; hosl-ncwcomcr relations; ne:tIVorlud mi­
grat ion; fIlc/m·c migration; and various tenns with
distinctive and nu.:mced meanings for cultural
change-assimilation , acculturation, encullllra­
lion, decultura:ion, lranscu/lUracion, cullUral hy­
britlilY. hyplle:nizalion, and SO forth.u They have
also developed complex typologies of migrmion,
including such categories as seasonal, temporary
nonsensonal, recurrent, continuous, permanent,
yo-yo, commuter, shuttle, return, and bright­
light (rural lO urban). Bretell warns against ty­
pology as a homogenizing practice that tends lO
erase contradictions and tensions within any
given migration, especially those produced by
gender (Bretel\ and Hollificld 109-13).1"
Modeling migration in the social sciences has
drawn on different kinds of social theory, from
modernization theory to historical-structuralist
Susan Sranford Friedman 267
theory and newer transnational paradigms. Mod­
ernization theory, Bretell suggests, tends lO be
microlevcl, focused on individual reaSons for
migration, agency and decision making, and the
attraction of modernity as an advance over
tradition (Bretell and Hollificld 102-06). The
historical-structuralist models arc macrolevel
analysis of world systems that emphasize sys­
temic forces and the lack of choice. Transna­
tional models deal with the new globalization,
theorizing the effectS of deterritorializalion, new
modes of travel and communication, and the is­
sues of national borders and citizenship.
Some social science theory on migration
makes a particular effort to bridge the gap be­
tween social lheory and Iiterary.language studies
of migrntion and is therefore of particular use to
future literary migration studies. In The Turbu­
lence of Migration, the sociologist Nikos Papas­
tergiadis links the study of the "new migration"
to modernity studies, arguing that "the dynamic
of displacement is intrinsic to migration and mo­
dernity� (12). He notes that uthe metaphor of the
journey, the figure of the stranger and �he ex­
perience of displacement have been at the centre
of many of the cultural representations of mo­
dernity,ft as in the work ofJamesJoyce (11). The
Mrestless dynamism in modem society� and the
Mmovement of people and the circulation of sym­
bols" characterize lme-twentieth-century mo­
dernity, so much so that cultural displacement
is experienced even by those who arc not mi­
grating (lS). Papastergiadis critiques the old so­
ciological models of migmion as water-pump
models. 100 mechanistic and static, whether the
neoliberal volumarist model based on push-out
or pull-up forces or Ihe Marxist world-systems
model. He positS a 1Il0dc.l of turbulence that
takes into account subjectiVity and agency and
places conccpts of cultural translation-includ­
ing lingUistic and aesthetic practices-and the
semiotics of hybridity :tt the center of analysis.
Migrancy has functioned at the level of lyri­
cal speCUlation and post modem philosophy as
well, :tt times removed from the literal mennings
of migration in matcrial space and time but
nonetheless evocmive and influential in literary
268 Migrations, Diasporas, and Borders
studies as a way of unmooring the subject from
illusory certainties of language. representation,
and being, In Nomadic SubjeCl.S, for example. the
feminist philosopher Rosi Braidolti dClcrritorial·
izes nomadism and adapts the term as a mcta·
phor for epistemological migrancy, which she
defines as a critical consciousness that is �lrans­
mobile," "transnational," and attuned to the
axes of differentiation such as class, race, ethnic­
ity, gender, age, :md OIhers las theyl intersectand
imcmel with each other in the constitution of sub·
jectivity. . . The notlmd s
i my own figuration of
a situ.lIed, poslmodc rn . culturally differentiated
understanding of the subject in generni and of the
feminist subject in panicular. (4)
The interdisciplinary culLUral critic lain Cham·
bers in Migrancy, Culture, Idenliry regards migra·
tion, Mlogether with the enunciation of cultural
borders and crossings," as the primary concept
underlying �the itincr:lries of much contempo·
rary reasoning� (2). Adapting a rhetoric of mo·
bility, Chambers advocates the journey as uthe
fonn of a restless interrogation,� a SOrt of per·
petua] questioning that privileges displacement
and the need
for a mode of thinking that is neither fixed nor
slable. . . . For the nomadic experie nce of lan­
guage, wandering without a fixed home, dwelling
at the crossroads of the world, bearing our sense
of being and difference, is no longer the expres­
sion of a unique tradition or history. . . . Thoughl
w:lIlders. iI mIgrates, requires tmnsltllion.
This inevitably implies another sense of 'home:
of being in the world. It means to conceive of
dwelling as a mobile h:lbu:lt. (4)
Treating migration as a lyrical significr emp-
ued of reference to the real of mobility in geo­
historic:ll space and lime carries ilS own risk, but
such slippage between the metaphorics of mi­
gration and the literary representations of mi­
gr.uing people is common in contemporary crit­
icism and can be richly suggestive.17
By definition, diaspora involves migration-bU!
specific kinds of migrmion that set in motion
particular longings for l lost homeland. Dilspora
is migration plus loss, desire, and Widely scat­
tered communities held together by memory and
a sense of history over a long period of time.
Frequently, but not always, thiS history has in­
volved oppression against a whole people and
thus an attachment to community based on a
sense of shared suffering and the richness of the
community's minority traditions. Diaspora, as
the SOCiologist Robin Cohen points Out in Global
Diasporas, is a Greek word that means the sow­
ing or dispersion of seed (speiro, is "to SOW,H dia,
s
i " over"), and it was used by the ancient Greeks
to refer to migrations of colonizing Greeks who
formed settlements throughout the Mediterra­
nean world, extending the economic, political.
and cultural power of those who remained �al
home� OX).18 But as the tenn developed in lit­
erary and cultural studies of the past decade or
so, it was associated with collectivities of the ex­
pelled, the exiled, or the forcibly removed rather
than with the colonizingseulers of imperial pow­
ers. Thus diaspora is bound up with notions of a
once-territorial homeland to which dispersed
communities remain emOtionally attached even
as their relation to it is a fonn of perpetual de­
terrilOrialization, a consciousness of collective
rather than individual exile.
Diasporas are Mimagined communities,H to
ldapt the influential term Benedict Anderson de­
veloped to describe the role of coJleClive con­
sciousness in the fonnation of the nation-state.
The continuation of diasporas is related not to
the fate of the nation-state but to a diasporiccon­
sciousness, an imagined community of the scat­
tered held together by their shared sense of a
distinct history and culture as a people and by
obstacles to full assimilation in diverse host
countries. Some diasporas arc long-standing, like
the two-thousand-year diaspora of the Jews or
the five-hundred-year African diaspora; others
arc more recent, yet insistently claimed, sllch as
the Annenian (after World War [) or the Pales­
tinian (after 1947).
In recent years diasporic consciousness has
developed around Other migrations th.1t arc less
clearly tied to compulsory loss of homeland. [m­
poverished laborers from India, for example,
fanned out to the Americas, the Caribbean, Af­
rica, and Southeast Asia in (he nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries, with many remaining
as large and sometimes prosperous communi­
ties, as in Trinidad, Fiji, and eastern and south­
ern Africa. A second wave of South Asian migra­
tion began after Indian independence and
partition, particularly to the former colonill cen­
ter in Britain, both political and economic rea­
sons fueting that demographic implosion. Yet
a third wave of South Asian migration in the
past thirty years is complexly
layered: Indians expelled from Diaspora is migration plus loss,
Uganda going to Britain and desire, and widely scattered
the United States, laborers communit'ies held together
going to the Gulf States and by memory and a sense of history
Southeast Asia for jobs, intel­
over a long period of time.
lectuals and highly trained
engineers and computer expeTlS going to the
West, and so forth. Often differing in religion,
language, caste, class, and nation(s) of origin,
these South Asians are newly constituting them­
selves as the South Asian Diaspora, claiming the
tenn, producing literatures, and engaging in
other cultural practices that reflect a newly imag·
ined community dispersed around the globe.19
Much debate in diaspora studies has been de­
voted to definitional questions, represented use­
fully in Jana Evans Braziel and Anita Mannur's
Theorizing Diaspora.lO What s
i a diaspora? What
groups and kinds of experiences can justifiably
be called diasporic? How does diaspora relate to
exile? Is it negative or positive? utopian or dys­
topian? What arc its politicS? What is the relation
of diaspora to nation, nationalism, the nation­
state, (de)territorializ3tion, transnationalism?
How does gender complicate diasporic con·
sciousness and community? In founding the
journal Diaspora: AjoumaJ o! TransnationaJ Stud­
ies in 1991, Khachig T610lyan calls for an expan­
sive understanding of the tenn and poinlS to
how discourses of diaspora and nation are thor­
oughly entangled. Diaspora's mission
s
i concerned with Ihe ways in which nations, as
re::ll yet imagined communities . . . , arc fabul:ltcd,
brought imo being, made :md unmade, in cultu re
;md polities, both on land people call their O'NT1
i exile . Abo\'c all, this journal will focus on
:lnd n
SUSGIl SlanJord Friedman 269
such processes as they shape and are shaped by
the infranalional and transnational Others of the
nation state.
- (3)
The "semantic domain� of diaspora "includes
words like immigrant, expatriate, refugee, guest­
worker, exile community, overseas community,
ethnic community. This is the vocabulary of
tr:msnationalism" (4-5).
Olher definitional approaches have been
less inclusive, especially the typolOgical ones.
William Safran's �Diasporas in Modem Socie­
liesH is a structuralist identifi-
Cation of six characteristiCS of
diasporas based on a center/
periphery model that sets in
opposition the lost point of
origin, the margins of dis­
persion, and the promise of
return. Safran uses the Je\vish diaspora as an
ideal type and recognizes that many historical
diasporas do not share all six defining elements.
Arguing against the use of any one diaspora as a
prototype, Cohen identifies five different kinds
of diaspora: victim, labor and imperial, trade,
nationalist, and culturalisl. He emphasizes that
diasporas change over time, often leading to
communities \vith great stability and creative in­
teractions with host societies.
Clifford advocates a �relational" and �lateral"
approach that focuses on tensions or contradic­
tions that an array of different diasporic fonna­
tions share (Routes 244-78). The main tension
s
i encapsulated in the homonym roots-rotl1es,
which he introduced in his 1992 essay "Travel·
ing Cultures� (Roules 1 7-46). Diasporic cultures
lre produclS of the interplay between their
MroOtSM in consciousness ofcommon community,
past, and original homeland and their "routes,M
that is, their migration(s) and relocalions into
new societies. "Diaspora cultures," he writes,
�thus mediate, in a lived tension, the experiences
of separation and entanglement, of living here
and remembering/desiring another place�
(255). Diasporas involve Ma loosely coherent,
adaptive constellation of responses to dwelling­
in-displacement," l liminal and hybrid space in
between separatist and assimilalionist move­
menlS (254). Diasporas induce 3. form of
270 Migrations, DIClSporas. and Borders
cosmopolitanism and �doublc The Jewish and African di:lsporas on multiple expulsions or rc­
consciousncss� based in both lare) entangled not only as diasporiz:nions: from Israel,
lccommod,llion to the dami· in (he Babylonian captivity
thcorctical l11odcls but
n:lot culture and an ongoing starting in 587 BCE, then with
:also as historic,,1 phenomena.
lie to a homeland elsewhere. the destruction of the second
They involve Wfeding global" in a locale that is temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE; from Spain. Por­
both home and nOl quite home (257). tugal, and their colonies in the Amencas in 1492
Like Clifford, Avtar Bmh in Cartographies DJ as pan of the Inquisition; from Eastern Europe
Ditlspora (enters her theory in the fundamental with the pogroms of the nineteemh and early
contradictions of diaspora-for example , the twentieth centuries: from Europe with the Ho­
concepts of home as Wa mythic place of desire" locaust; and from Arab lands after World War 11.
and as Uthe lived experience of a locality" ( 1 82); Scattered to every continent of the globe, the
diasporas 3S reminders of trauma and as �sites of Jews retained a sense of themselves as :1 people
hope and new beginnings" (193). "Par3doxi­ wilh shared cultural practices (if not beliefs), a
cally,� she writes, "diasporic journeys are essen­ shared history. global networks of affiliation, and
tially about settling down, about putting roolS attachment to the imagined homeland of Israel­
'elsewhere' H (182). Moreover, any given dias­ a place that for some was an actual territory and
pora embodies the contradiction of establishing for others a spiritual site for the union of a people
a "we" out of heterogeneity. "All diasp0r3s are with its god. In this type of diaspora, communal
differentiated," not only from other diasporas identity is bound up with consciousness of af­
but also by the impact of dispersion itself. As fliction and minority status, both the pain of and
people from a single diaspor:1 seule in different pride in difference, both the desire for and the
lands, they indigenize at the same time as they continual threat of assimilmion. With the estab­
hold on to :1 sense of common diasporic culture lishment of the state of Israel in 1947, the Jew­
(184). Another dimension of differentiation for ish di:lspora entered a new and more contro­
Br3h is the "intersectionality� of national identity versial phase as the reterritorialization of the
with gender, race, religion, sexuality, cl:tss, and dispersed through the law of return for Jews
so forth (10). Using diaspora as:1 conceptual tool an)"vhere involved the creation of a new dias­
for analyzing complex identities, she fore­ pora of Palestinians expelled not from their own
grounds the "multi-axial" dimensions of any nation-state but from their lands, which had
given dbspora, refUSing metanarratives of dias­ been ruled by the Ouomans and the Europeans
poric home and centers of origin (189). for generations.
Despite the widening applications of diClspora, In Jewish studies, the meanings of diaspora
especially in reference to contemporary globali­ and exile have been the subject of Widespread
zation, two panicular affliction diasporas con­ debate, bclying the idea of a fixed prototype.
tinue to play a normative role in diaspora stud­ There is disagreement about the Significance of
ies, serving as a kind of theoretical touchstone the nation-state of Israel. Howard Wettstein
for the field. These are the Jewish and African argues that the tenn exile is toO ·'hauntingly neg­
dbsporas, entangled not only as theoretical ath'e� and that the Jewish diaspora does not ex­
models but also as historical phenomena, since clusively represent angUish and forced home­
the biblical narratives and exilic experiences of lessness: it also incorporates �a positive� notion
the Jewish diaspora often functioned as symbolic of a �people of the Bookft whose fthomcland re­
analogues for people in the African dilspora en­ sides in the text" (2). This alternative view rec­
gaged in tbe fonnation of their own diaspOlic ognizes that "diasporic communities were often
consciousness. stable" and desired for the benefits of Widespread
As proLOtype, the Jewish diaspora has func­ intercultural exchange :md trade; they were often
tioned as a story of perpetual wandering based chosen destinations 0). Jonathan 130yarin, a crit-
Susan SranJord Friedman 271
ical legal scholar, and Daniel Boyarin. a specialist
Illunities, political organizalions, and expressive
in Talmudic culture, further argue that the as­
forms in the arlS provided the basis for the imag­
sociation of identity with the exclusive control
ined communities of blackness. As a continent
of terriLOry is ultimately destructive. They sug­
rather than a country, Africa functioned as a
gest that Jewish identity began with Abraham
source of spiritual rootedness and affimlative
outside Israel. not in a territorial homeland. They
identity drawn on to counter the sorrows and
insist that the creative and positive aspects of the
lamentations of a brutalizing diaspora and on­
Jewish diaspora be acknowledged as well as how
going racism.
the diaspora has empowered some at the ex­
The initial focus in biack studies on race in a
pense of others. "Evaluating diaspora," they
single nation (e.g., the United States, Britain,
write, �entails acknowledging the ways that such
France) or region (e.g., the Caribbean) has since
idemily is maintained through exclUsion and op­
the 1990s increaSingly shifted toward attention
pression of internal others (cspecia!ly women)
10 a transnational African diaspora. The Depan­
and external others,ft including other diasporas
ment of Afro-American Studies at Harvard Uni­
(7-8). They favor a comparative approach ro di­ versity, for example, became in 2002-03 the
asporas that explores the Jewish diaspora not in
Deparlment of African and African Amencan
s
i olation, not as an unchanging essencejustifying
Studies. Underlying this shift is not only the
rhe claim on biblical lands, but as phenomena in
gro\ving tf:1nsnationalism of literary and cultural
a changing landscape of history, filled with prob­
studies but also a debate over the meanings of
lems and possibitities.l l
diaspora that parallels the opposing views in
The discourse of the African diaspora, the sec­
Jewish studies. For some, like a leading voice in
ond main prototype, often self-consciously
Afrocentrism, Molefi Asnme, the African dias­
adapts the Jewish model to the specificities of
pora coheres around an essential and inherent
systemic racism, colonialism. and the affiliation
blackness that goes back to the ancient dynasties
of many scattered peoples of African descent
of Egypt and descends through the great king­
around the concepts of blackness and the lost
doms of black Africa (e.g., Asante and Fulani em­
homeland of Africa, a place without the geo­
pires in West Africa, Gre:n Zimbabwe of the
graphic specificity of biblical Israel but a gener­
Shona people. and Zululand). But for others, like
alized location of home nonetheless. Although
Paul GUroy and Smart Hall, the African diaspora
becoming current in scholarly circles in the past
is a relatively new ethnicity in the maldng, a for­
fifteen years, the notion of the black diaspora has
mation that underlines how the modernities of
deep historical roots in Lhe hiStory of slavery, the
Europe, Africa, and the Americas were mutually
Marcus Garvey and Rastafarian "b,ICk to Africa� constitutive, \vith the enslavement of millions as
movements of the 1920s and 1930s, the negri­ the initial dislocation in (hat construction. In his
tude movement and pan-African movements
influential book ne Blach Atlantic: Modernity and
from the 1930s through the I 960s, :md the civil
DOl/iJlc Consciou sness, Gilroy attacks Afrocentric
rights and black nationalist movements of the Methnic absolutism" (2) and argues dw the
1950s through the present in various countries. "black '\tlantic� connecting Europe, Africa, and
The Middle Passage-some three hundred �md the Americas has always been a hybrid space of
fifty years of the transmlanttc slave trade-is the cultural exchange and the interplay of sameness
defining moment of this diaspora, the traumatic and differentiation.21
theft from sub-Saharan Africa and the sale of New claims to the term diaspora have diffused
populmions on a massive scale to and in the the exclusive rorce of the prototypicalJe\vish and
Americas. With languages and local cultural African diasporas and amiction diasporas in gen­
groupings often lost in the face of deliberate dis­ er:ll. A sampling of books from the past decade
perSions of the enslaved. such cultural practices or so demonstrates the global range and variety
as the oral tradition, religious and spiritual com- of migralions laying claim to the word: Nicholas
272 Migrations, Diasl'0ras, and Borders Susan Sumjord Friedman 273

Van Hear's New Diapo ras , on refugeeism; lion that embodies this new intellectual thread. nologies of enforcement, the Borders are fixed and fluid, competing state powers and
Shahnaz Kahn's Aversion alld Desire: Negolialing With its chapters organized around the catego­ controls and markers of citi­ institutional regUlation. Bor­
impermeable and porous.
Muslim Female rdentily ill LIlt: Diaspora; R. Rad­ rics of the passport-from �l..anguagc," �Photo­ zcnship, and the structures of derlands have been the sites of
They separate but also connect.
hakrishnan's Diasporic Media/ions; Amy Kamin­ graph," and �Name" to "Nationality," "Sex,� and inclusion and exclusion that hatred and murderous acts,

sky's Afte r Exile: Writing Ihe Latill Americall Di­ �[dentifying M:.uks"-this hybrid text moves arc enabled by borders as lines on a map backed akin to the grating of continemal tectonic plates

aspora: Azade Seyhan's Wrili ng ollcside the Nalion; through the geohislOrical landscapes of diaspora by armies and law. But border studies has also and their occasional violem eruptions. They can

Martin Ivhmabnsan's Global Divas: Filipi,1O Gay with its commingling of shame, abjection, hope, developed in the past fifteen years across a spec­ also be locations of utopian desire, reconcilia­

Men in IIle Ditlspora; Kandice Chuh and Karen despair, and desire as linguistic, aesthetic, and trum of divergent issues and fields in literary tion, and peace. Borderlands are a "contact

Shimakuwa's Orientations: Mapping Swelles ill (he philosophical border crossings. studies, ranging well beyond the geopolitical to zone�H where fluid differences meet. where

Asian Diaspora: Anuradha Dingwaney Need­ Universities. especially in the West. have in­ exploration of the metaphOriC dimensions of power is often structured asymmetrically but

ham's Using the Master's Tools: Resistance alld che creaSingly become transnational crossroads for borders and borderlands as tropes for regulative nonetheless circulates in complex and multidi­

Utera/tlre vf che African and South Asian Diaspo­ highly educated cosmopolitans, who often travel and transgressive patterns in the cultural and so­ rectional ways, where agency exists on both sides

ras; Rebecca Walsh's specill issue of IlIurven­ back and forth across multiple borders. feeling dal order. Underlying these spatialized modes of of the shifting and pemleable divide.

lions. Global Diasporas. In queer and genderstud­ fully at home nowhere as they move through critical thought is the basic contradiction em­ While the geographic and geopolitical basis

ics, the concept of diaspora deals with sex'Uai contact zones where race, religion, gender, class. bedded in both the material and figurative mean­ of border studies has remained compelling, bor­

exile and outcast StatuS as well as the transna­ and national origin constitute their identity dif­ ings of border. ders and borderlands have also taken on broad

(ional circuits of sexuality and cullure (Cruz­ ferently. At limes attacked for their relative priv­ Bordcrs are fi.."ed and fluid. impermeable and theoretical dimensions as spatial meLaphors for

Malave and Manalansan; Joseph; Manalansan; ilege, they also experience alienating forms of porous. They separate but also connect. demar­ the liminal space in between, the interstitial site

PaHon and Sanchez-Eppler). For Olhers, the dis­ othering. particularly racism. [n Writing Dias­ cate but also blend differences. Absolute at any of interaction, imerconncction, and exchange

course and experience of exile has blended with pora, Rey Chow turns a critical eye on "third moment in time. they are always changing over across all kinds of differences: psychological,

the concept of diasporn.. as in Edward Said's 0111 world intellectuals." including herself, insisting time. They promise safety, security, a sense of spiritual, sexual, lingUistiC, generic, disciplinary.

oJ Place and "Reflections on hi!e,� Nico Israel's that they be attuned 10 the conditions of their being at home; they also enforce exclUSions, the A [romier between differences also operates fig­

Ou1landish: Wriling between Exile and Ditlspora, own articulation. She worries Ihal diasporic in­ state of being alien, foreign, and homeless. They uratively as a conceptual space for performative

Andre Adman's Letters oJ Transit: Reflections on tellectuals can too easily hide behind or inside protect but also confine. They materialize the identities beyond the fixed essentialisms of fun­

Exile, Identity, Language, and Loss, and Michael their "victim" status in the West. not taking into law, policing separations; but as such. they are damentalist or absolutist identit)' politics. It has

Hanne's Creativity in Exile. account their own positions as elites in both old always being crossed, transgressed, subvened. functioned as a tropic space of play and inter­

The conceptual border between diaspora and new "homes" (99-1 19). Her critique not­ Borders are used to exercise power over others play. of represemational transgression and post­

and other forms of migra!ion such as travel. Withstanding, many of these migrants from Asia, but also to empower survival against others. modem experimentation, of flUidity and utopian

exile, expatrialism. immigr.Hion and emigration. Latin America. Africa. and the Caribbean em­ They regulate migration, movement . travel-the pOSSibility. Such expansive and figural work in

nomadism, and refugeeism has become ever body the paradoxes of diaspora. the simultane­ flow of people, goods, ideas. and cultural for­ border theory moves far beyond the economic,

more porous. In pan, this definitional fleXibility ous rooting and routing of situated identities in mations of 311 kinds. They undermine regubtory political. materia\. and even cultural realities of

emerges OUt of a growing awareness of the com­ different cultural terrains. Their diasporic theo­ practices by fostering intercuhural encounter lhe peoples who live on both sides of a geopo­

plexity of diaspora and the differences among rizing often effectively incorporates what Brah and the concomitant production of syncretic litical border, which arc the focus of scholars

diasporas. But it also reflects that many of the tenns "the technolOgies of autobiograph( or heterogeneities and hybridities. The)' insist on working in more cmpiricaU), based fields in bor­

pioneering theOrists of di:l.spora arc intellectuals what Meena Alexander calls "alphabelS of flesh�: purity, distinction, difference but facilitate con­ der studies. The metaphorization of borders in

living and working outside their native lands. Di­ a narrativizing and metaphorizing of individual tamination, mixing, creolization . cultural and literary theory remains a point of

asporas, everyone seems to agree, involve whole diasporic experience as communal voice.21 As Geographic borderlands arc related to but considerable tension in the field.�)

communities. not just individuals. But it remains May Joscph puts it. "Cultural citizenship is a no­ distinct from borders. Borders are imaginary Gloria Anzaldua's Borderlands I la FronlCra:

true that the most eloquent articulations of con­ madic and performative realm of self-invention" lines of sep3r.ltion with real effects, as in a geo­ The New Mestiz.a has been a touchstone text for

temporary diaspora come from diasporic intel­ (358), and diasporic intellectuals arc an avant­ political boundary between nation-states. From border studies, often cited, taught, and critiqued

lectuals and writers. from individuals whose garde of perpetual dislocation and relocation. the American Southwest to other pans of the as both literalUre and theory across the disci­

migr::mcy is often chosen or ambiguously com­ world like Alsace-LolT3ine, lhe C.1ribbean, South plines. Published in 1987, this collage of prose

pelled and whose ties to communal diaspora are Asia. the B3lkans, Iraq-Iran, China-Tibet, and and poetry. English and Spanish (six kinds of

heavily mediated by class. Amitava Kumar's Pass­ Israel-Palestine, borderlands are ambiguously Spanish, according 10 Anzaldua), history and
Borders alld Borderlands
port Pharos, to cite one example, is an ambitious demarcated areas with complicated histories, theory Starts from the biller hislOry of the geo­

critical, theoretical, autobiographical, photo­ Border studies begins with :mention to the where different peoples and cultures have in� political borderlands of the American South­

graphic meditation on the modalities of migra- mmcrial borders among nation-states. tbe tcch- tenningled over time. often in the comcxt of west and moves on 10 psychological, spiritual.
274 Migrations, Diasporas, mId Borders
and sexual borders as figurnl representations
of regulation and transgression. As a self­
identified Chicana feminist and lesbian, An­
zaldua explores the pain and pleasures of mtsri­
zaje in the history of pre-Contacl Mesa- and
Southwest America, the Spanish conquest and
Mexican independence . the Mexican-American
war and its :lftermath, and twentieth-century
Chicanola expencnce.!b
The importance of Anzaldlla's Borderlands I La
fronrera for border studies highlights the cen­
trality of the Mexican-United Slales border cul­
ture (including Califomia), Centml America, and
Latin America in general for the formation of the
field. What Nt.Slor Garcfa Canclini calls the �hy­
bod cultures" of Lalill America and its borders
in the north have been a primary generator of
border theory. Adapting the work of GiIles De­
leuze and Felix Guauari on "minor" literature,
deterrilOrialization, and Kafka (Kajha), Emily
Hicks theorizes the significance of biculturalism
and bilingualism for the production of multidi­
mensional models of border writing .md border
crossers between self and other in L1tin Ameri­
can IiteraLUre. Criticism in lhe Borcier/'lI1ds, edited
by Hector Calder6n and Jose David Saldlvar,
calls for a new Pan-American studies that rec­
ognizes how the United St:nes conquest of Mex­
ican lands in 1848 created a borderlands culture
mixing Hispanic. Indian. white. and other
traditions. Saldlvar suggests thal this border cul­
ture breaks the patlem of linear migration. sub­
stitutes bi- or muhiculturalism for assimilation,
and highlights the intercultural and tr:msna­
tional nature of popular :lIld high cultural forms
of lingUistic and aesthetic expression (Border
Maflers). Debra Castillo and Marla Socorro Ta­
buenca C6rdoba challenge the mainstream no­
tions of border culture produced in Chicano/a
studies and explore women writers on both
sides of the Mexican-United States border in a
comparative methodology thm resists homo­
genization.n
With the spread of border theory. other bor­
der regions of the world have become subjects
of literary study. Rachcl Brenner examines the
literature of Israeli and Arab Jews in Israel to sce
how writers who dissent from the prevailing ex­
c1usionary discourses of both Israel and Palestine
create a borderland of dialogue between the vic­
tors and the vanqUished. An explosion of parti­
tion literature in South Asia in recent years. for
example, has led to studies on violence, religion,
identity, gender. and memory in the context of
the cataclysmic sectarian violence that erupted
\vith the splitting of India into Pakiswn and India
at the end of the British raj in 1947-48. The role
of fiction, life writing. testimony. and the oral
tradition has been the subject of many interdis­
ciplinary books and conferences in South Asian
studies that examine the repressions, haumings,
and attempLS to remember that accompany col­
lective trauma and iLS aftermath in the contem­
porary period (e.g .. Bhalla. Pa rt i tion Dialogues
and Stories; Butalia; Menon and Bhasin: Kaul;
and Saint and Saint). The particular suffering
and silences of women who experienced rape.
disgrace, and \vidowhood during the partition,
with the massive migrations of millions (esp.
Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs) across the new bor­
ders has been a rich area for feminist research.
As Mary Layoun poinLS out in reference to other
intensely divided border regions in Greece. Cy­
prus, and Beirut, nationalisms often resort 10
highly gendered tropes of nation to expel the
other and enforce exclusionary borders. With
woman as metaphor for nation. actual women
often experience the displacemems of national­
ism \viIh competing loyalities that reflect the in­
tersecting identities of gender, nation. class. re­
ligion, and sexuality.11l
Border as geographiC metaphor has been es­
pecially prevalent in poslcolonial studies for its
suggestive overtones of in-belweenness and lim­
inality. which arc particularly suited to charac­
tcnze subjectivities on the move between cul­
tures; p3limpseslically layered by formative
experiences in different locations; hybridically
blended out of different culLUral strands; and of­
ten caught up in the dynamics of past and pres­
ent, tradition and modernity. self and other.
Homi 6habha is the preeminent theorist of
the imerstitial. of the eX3Jllination of culture in
the "moment of transit.� and orthe "borders" and
Mborderposts" that arc crossed in the �articulation
of cuhural differences� (Location 0.111 For
Bhabha, the interstitial is a border space that ex­
ists over time but gains its most resonant mean­
ing as metaphor for postmodemity. The concept
is basic to his notion of�colonial mimicry� (120).
the imitation in the contact zone between colo­
nizer and colonized that denaturalizes the colo­
nizer's assumed superiority by highlighting lhe
constructedness of cultural practices. But the in�
terstitial also captures for Bhabha the particular
conditions of postmodemhy, with what he calls
the demography of the "new imernationalism�:
�the history of postcolonial migration, the nar­
ratives of cultural and political diaspora, the ma­
jor social displacemems of pClSant and aborigine
communities. the poetics of exile. the grim prose
of political and economic refugees.H The dis­
course of "boundary� or "border� signifies the
continual Mdisplacement and conjunction� that
characterizes the physical and psychological ex­
istence of people caught up in the new interna­
tionalism (5).
Less sanguine about the utopian possibilities
of border liminality than Bhabha. the Latin
Americanist Waiter D. Mignolo hlS developed an
alternative theory of �border thinking,H what he
calls "border gnosis.� one that takes as its frame­
work [mmanue! Wallerstcin's world-systems
theory and his emphasis on post-1500 European
imperialism as structural force of inequality that
produces border gnoseology. Akin lO Pratt's con­
cept of the contact zone as a product of the asym­
metrical power relations of colonialism, Mig­
nolo's border gnosis represents a critical Stance
toward colonialism. onc developed as a form of
subaltem resistance. It involves
absorbing and displacing hegemonic forms of
knowledge into the perspective of the subaltern.
This is not a new form of syncretism or hybridity.
but an intense battlcfield in the long history of
colonial subahemization of knowledge and legit­
imation of the colonial difference.
(Lxai HiSlOries 12)
Border thinking is inherently critical, a form of
"colonial scmiosis" that expresses the resistance
of the colonized (14).)0
Susall SlallJortl Frledmall 275
Border theory across the spectrum of identity
studies draws on the geogrnphic rooLS of the
metaphor but goes well beyond this spatial ter­
rnin. As lines that divide and join. borders func­
tion figuratively as the point of connection and
disconnection between differences. They also
trope the borderlands in between various binary
oppositions: malcJfcmale. whitcJblack, hetero­
sexuaVhomosexual. self/Other, and SO forth.)1
For Julia Krisleva. such states of IiminalilY are
sites of abjection. thereby exerting a deconstruc­
tive force on the symbolic order (Powers, esp.
207-10). The rhetOric of borders often accom­
panies the adaptations of deconstruction to
social and cultural analysis of identity in fields
such as women's studies. race and ethnicity stud­
ies, postcolonial studies, and queer studies. Con­
sequently. the language of borders pervades
works that examine the regulative and resistant
discourses that insist on identity differences as
well as discourses that suggest imitation, same­
ness, and hybridity. As Rosaldo writes:
Our everyday lives are crisscrossed by border
zones, pockets. and eruptions of all kinds. Social
borders become salient 3round such lines as sex­
ual orientation. gender. elm, mce. ethnicity, na­
tionality. :age, polillCS, dress. food or taste.
Such borderlands should be regarded not as an­
alytically empty tr.msition:al zoncs but as sites of
creative cultur.ll production that require investi­
gation. (207-OB)
COMMONALlTIES:
SHARED CONCERNS
While migr.nion. diaspora. and border studies
have de\'cloped along separate tracks, they ha\'e
also converged around severnl core issues that
underlie the location and movement of pe.ople
in space ovcr time.
Culture lInd le/entity
How do individuals and collectivitics or people
change through their intcrcultural contacts with
276 Migrations, Diasporas. and Borders
others? What arc the effects of those changes? !mages of diversity-the mosaic, stir-fry,
How do Ihey reflect structures of power? To salad, Stew, callaloo, rainbow, quilt, and so on­
think about intercultural exchange, do we need have developed as a rhetoriC of resistance to
some kind of consensus on what wc mean by mainstream groups determined to exclude the
cullure? Wh:u is the relation between culmre as foreign, racial, or otherwise othered subordinate
forms of creative expressivity and the culture of groups who do nOt want to lose their distinctive
everyday Jife? Zygmunt Baum3n notes, �The idea cultures. The "glorious mosaic" in particular sug­
of culture was itself a historical invention," one gests that the assimilation model is neither de­
that has produced endless philosophical and po­ sirable nor accurate as a descriptor for national
litical dcb:uc (Culture xiv). Two opposing no­ i the face of migration, diaspora, and
identity n
tions have been particularly signific:ml for issues border cuhures. The mosaic rhetoric of plural­
of migration. diaspora, and border in literary ism, however, tends toward an understanding of
studies: �culturc as tbe activity of the free roam­ culture as a patchwork of fixed differences, of a
ing spirit, the site of creativity, invention, self­ proliferation of unchanging minorities who re­
critique and self-mmscendcncc" and "culture as main forever marginalized from the center, from
a tool of routinization and continuity-a hand­ the cultures of privilege and power.
maiden of social order� (x"Vi.). But complicating Transculturation is a tenn used for an ap­
this binary has been the assertion that the culture proach to intercultural interaction that empha­
of creativity can also be complicit with the social sizes the reciprocal influences across borders of
order and that the culture of everyday life can all kinds. Immigrant and diasponc cultures nOt
disrupt it-all the more so in communities of only change in relation to their new loc:llions but
people on the move.lZ the cultures in which they settle also unnsform
The inter.lction of cultures on the move or as a result of the presence of the outsiders in their
existing in border areas ensures that no onc cul­ midst. As a concept developed in the new eth­
ture will exist in pure fonn: each is influenced nography, transculturation in particubr ac­
by all the others to which it is exposed. But what knowledges the agency of marginalized, subju­
is the nature of thiS influence? Terms like assim­ gated, or foreign peoples. As Pratt puts it in
ilation, acculturation , dccu/ruralion, and accom­ Impcrial Eyes, while such people Mcannot readily
mooalion suggest what Rosaldo calls a �cultural comrol what eman:ltes from the dominant cul­
stripping away," a loss of culture as minority in­ ture, they do determine la varying extents what
dividuals or communities become absorbed into they absorb into their own, and what they use i t
the mainstream (209). The United States image for" (6). She discusses transcuhuration i n the
of the melting pot for national identity originated comext of imperialism, but the concept has
with IsrJcl Z.'mgwill's 1908 play TIle Melting-POt. much wider applications in both cultural and lit­
The play was opposed to the insistence of Anglo­ erary theory.l� Taussig, for example, theorizes in
Americans like the prominent SOCiologist Henry Mimesis ami A/wily that the drive 10 imitate is as
Pran Fairchild that immigrants fully assimilate to basic to human (and animal) culture as the need
American cuhure by the abandonment of their to differentiate . As a word assocbted \vilh both
home cultures.)} But over time, the trope of the reprcscntation and imitation, mimesis fore­
melting pot morphcd into its oppOSite and has grounds the way aesthctic and cultural fomls de­
become the center of critique velop as a form of border
Instead of assumi.ng complete
as an ideological rhetoric veil­ crossing in thc praxis of cul­
cultuml erasure, transcullurati.on
ing an imposed assimilation, lure. The diasporic Caribbean
with Americanization me:ln-
posits continual circuits of
pact and critic Edouard
ing the loss of past language, cultural mixing, often in settings Glissant theorizes the "flood
culture, and identity of origin. of unequal power relations. DJ convergences" unleashed by
intercultural encounters as the dynamic, rela­
tional, and chaotic �processes of Circular nomad.
ism,� as "the immeasurable inte rmixing of cul­
tures: and as an �aesthelic of ruplUre and
connection" (45, 137, 138, 151).
Transculturation assumes the existence of
cultural hybridity or syncrctism as a defining is­
sue for analysis. Instead of assuming complete
cultural erasure, transcuituralion posits comin.
ual circuits of cultural mixing, often in settings
of unequal power relations. Also termcd creo/ice
(especially in Caribbean studies), metissagc (in
French and francophone studies), lIlelizaje (in
Spanish and Latinoia studies), and lahjien (in Ar­
abic studies), cultural hybridity is much debated
as to its me�lning and politics. At times, hybridity
means the fusion of cultural differcnces imo the
production of an emirely new cultural form: at
times, it means the interplay of differences that
retain their cultural distinctiveness; and at still
mher times, it means the mi-xing of the already
syncretic. For some, hybridity s
i endemic to cul­
ture itself, always present in an ordinary, routine
fashion as the process of cultural development:
for mhers, hybridity is inherently destabilizing,
transgressive, parodic, and crealive, a strategy
adopted to resist tyrannies of social and discur­
sive orders.
The politiCS of hybridity, fiercely debated , is
sometimes condemned as ideological. obscuring
power relations and ignoring the need for com.
munal solidarities; sometimes attacked as naively
utopian; sometimes valorized as nonsectarian or
antifundamentalist; and sometimes recognized
for its potentially positivc and negative forma­
tions depending on location and period of his.
tory.l' Moreovcr, cultural hybridity is not just a
product of intcrculturalism; it is also a process
that takes on various forms of cultural translation,
transplantation, adaptation, and indigcnizalion.
Cultural traffic on a global scale, to invoke
Appadurai's discussion of the global ethnoscape
in Modernicy at Large, involves the praxis of cui.
tural formation, defonnation, and rcformation­
transformations in which aesthetic expressions
have a particularly imponant role 10 play.
Susan StanJord Friedman 277
11IlCrSCCliolla/islI1
Identities within a cultuml group are not ho­
mogeneous, however much they are imagined to
be. Generalizations about the African diaspora,
Mexican immigrants, overseas Chinese the Is­
lamic wnmah (global community), the N I (non­ �
reSident Indians), and so forth often obscure the
divisions within such groups, especially divi­
sions based on gender, sexuality, class, religion,
and caste. The imagined community of nation or
culture frequently assumes a normative or defin­
ing identity that all too easily ignores hierarchical
distributions of power within the group.
Working against these homogenizing tenden­
cies in migration, diaspora, and border studies
has been the developmcnt of intersectionalism
as the analYSis of multiple axes of power and
difference as they intersect, mediate, and artic­
ulate one another. Feminists have pioneered this
analysis, particularly in the area of nation and
gender studies.l6 Women on the move often ex­
perience competing patriarchies and internal
conflicts between loyalty to their cultural
traditions and desire to change the ones that im­
prison. Advocating change in their cultural
group often opens them to charges of betrayal
and inauthentic Westernization. As Uma Na­
rayan writes in Dislocating eU/lUres:
FeministS all over the world need 10 be suspicious
of locally prevalent pictures of "national id cmity �
and �nalionaI trnditions." bolh because they are
used to privilege Ihe views :md values of certain
pans of the hetcrogeneous ml1iOllal population,
and because they :'Irc al most invariably dl.!tnmen.
tal to the intcrests .lT
: ld polilical standing of lhose
who are relativel}' powerless within the national
community. . . . If nations arc �lmagtned com­
, �
munilies then bigoted and distoned nationalism
must be fought with feminist attempts to rtinvenc
and rcimagine the natlona! community as more
genuinely inclUSIve and democf:ltic. (35)
The need for inlerscctional analysis of mi­
grant groups is not restricted to gender. As Avtar
Brah points out, diasporic communities dis­
persed throughout thc globc are themselves
 Migrations. DIGsporas, and Borders
278
heterogeneous (esp. 10-16). South Asians in
BriLain, Fiji, Trinidad, Guyana, Soulh Africa, the
Gulf States, and the United Stales-to name a
few prominent migrant locations of the far-nung
South Asian diaspora---diffcr greatly from one
anOlher because of their varying degrees of in­
tegration into their new homelands. Moreover,
the South Asian diaspora rcnects the diversity
and hybridity of the subcontinent \0 begin with.
including sharp religiOUS, caste, lingUistic, class,
and regional or national differences. Sc..xua!ity
c:m be a flash point for conflict in diasporic, bor­
der, and migrant communities, often producing
individual exile and rebel!ion against communal
mores. Intermarriage. love m:lIchcs (as opposed
10 arranged marriages), and queer sexualities of­
ten result in gener.nional conflict, alienation, or
expulsion from the community, and an uneasy
relation with the new homeland. Given the role
of the marriage plot, famil}' conflict, and Sildung
in the history of the novel, namnives of such
intersectional issues have proliferated in dias­
poric, migrant, and border writing.
Memory and Desire
�Memory is a phenomenon of conceptual border
zones,H writes Seyhan. �lt is:m intersection and
an interdiction. It dwells at the crossroads of the
past and the presentH (31). Moreover, �it is em­
bedded in the past and wjl\ have to be retrieved
in symbolic action. Memory marks a loss. It
is always a re-presentation, making present
that which once was and no longer is� (16).
Memory-and its partner. forgetting-define
the consciousness of migration, diaspora, and
borders. The act of remembering-past lives.
past homelands, past ways o[ being-iS sym­
bolic, that is, a process of meaning making that
is dependent on n�llTative and rlguration.
Whether memories arc silelllly experienced, tOld
in oral and communal form, or written down,
they exist as a form of storytelling resonant with
metaphor. What has been [orgotlen can often re­
turn in the form of hauntings, ghostly traces of
the past, longings that don't quite dare direct ex-
pression, moumings for what once was :lOd s
i Ihat unreal. entirely illusory scnse of ourselves?
now losl. Memory :lIld forgetling. as Sigmund
Freud theorized, arc psychodynamic processes
that play out desire and the repression of desire
in a symbiotic dance of creative fomlS (Iuurpre­
wtion and �RepressionH). For the migrant, the
diasporic. and thc border crosser, memory is the
point of mmsit between old and new, past and
prescnt. there and here. I t is the funnel, the
channel, the technology of comact. Communi­
ties in transit develop a culture of collective
memory, mechanisms for passing on a heritage
through the generations. Oral ;md writlen
traditions-cspeciallyslOrytellingandlitcrature­
play a central role in articulating that collective
memory and reensuring the continued existence
of the community over time.J7
Attemion to memory in migration, diaspora,
and border studies foregrounds the function of
desire and longing in the production and comin­
uation of distinctive communities of people with
crossroads identities and bi- or multilinguislic
imaginations. Desire. especially as theorized in
psychoanalysis, represents a state of lack-once
sated, it no longer exists. Especially for migrants
and diasporics, home is often the perpetual ob­
ject of desire, a longing that is never fulfilled in
the ambigUity of existence caught between a con­
sciousness of roOtS elsewhere and the realities of
routes, of life shaped by movement through dif­
ferent locations that are never quite home. Desire
crossed by diaspol'3 oflcn produces nostalgb and
its discontents. In her study of nostalgia and im­
migrant identity, Andrcea Deciu Ritivoi discusses
noswigia as a form of homesickness (noSlos
means "rellLrn�; algla means �pain") that can both
hinder and enable individual adapt:llion to a new
homeland (l5), She writes, "nostalgia is a gen­
uine pltarmahos, bOlh medicine and poison: It
can express alienation, or it can replenish and
rebutress our sense of identity by consolidating
the ties with our hislOry" (39). Kumar, in con­
trast, stresses the illusionary constructions of
nostalgiC desire:
Why do wc so easily repbcc our m;l1crial past
with a mythic:Il one, purc and glOrious-and then
shed blood. ours and that of others. 10 p rOlccI
Mler all. the India of our paSls has historically
been a place of cultur.1I m1.l(!ng. This process has
continued in the diaspor.l, where our rootS h::lve
given way to routes. (Bombay 31)
Desire in the borderlands and diaspora can
also fuel hope, serve as the drive for change, op­
portunity, freedom, the embracc of the new­
i double­
and, of course, love of all kinds. Desire s
edged, mOlivating rigidity on Ihe one hand and
adaptability on the other. Like memory, dcsire
finds its most resonant forms in acLS of the imag­
ination. in the symbolic representations of cul­
ture. In �Reflections on Exile,H Said pOints espe­
cially to �the lyrics of loss," poems in which "the
pathos of exile is in the loss of contact with the
solidity and rhe satisfaction of earth: homecom­
ing is out of the question� (179), Rushdie nDles:
Exiles or emigrants or expatriates. ::Irc hauntcd by
some sense of loss, some urge to reclaim, to look
b::lck. , , , But if we do look back, we must also do
so in the knowledge . . . that we will not be ca­
p::lble of reclaiming precisely the thing that was
lost: that we will, in short . create fictions .
imagin::lry homelands. tndias of the mind.
(Ima},lillary Homelands lO)
Desire in the borderlands between sclf and
other oscillates between the d}'Stopic and ulOpic.
with perhaps a benign curiosity existing some­
where in the middle. Such fluctuations have in­
spired writing in all modes, from the lyric, nar­
rative, and dramatic to the ironic, tragic, and
comic, Desire for the other can involve the fas­
cination for the stranger as alien, exotic. fearful,
primitive, stigmatized, felishized, and an as­
sumed absolUlc difference, Such fascination of­
ten combines disgust and allTaction. projeCling
repressed aspcClS of the self onto the other. As
Krisleva writes in Strangers 10 Ourselves, �The for­
eigner is the other of the fnmily, the clan. the
tribeH (95). And as Sarup points OUI, this sense
of the Dlher's strangeness is insepal'3ble from the
idea of "sfrWtgcness wilhill JlIC selr (99).
For Trouillot, the other occupies the Msavagc
slot" in a symbolic field that appropriates sub­
jectivity and heterogeneity for the self and its
tribe, not for the other. He counters this total-
5usan 51anJord Friedman 279
izing n;lrratlve of "us and all of them binalY" by
insisting. MThere is no Other, but multitudes of
others," that is others who have hislOrically and
geographically spccific fonns of difference, nOI
ontological or ideological ones (39). As the �sav­
age slot." the other can be the racial or cthnic
other, bUI also the other by gender, sexuality.
religion, class. and a host of other ways in which
human beings separate themselves into distinct
communities. MigranLS, however, are often cul­
turally marked as the stranger-in legal terms,
aliens policed at geopolitical borders and paten­
tiatly harassed by thc laws of citizenship; in cul­
tural tenns, aliens whose speech, clothes, food,
festivals, religion, and so forth separate them
from the mainstre::lm into which they may or
may not want to assimilate. As Trinh T. Minh­
ha describes it in Womall, Native, Other, wit is as
if everywhere we go, we become someone's pri­
vate zoo (82).
�
But desire in (he borderlands can take utopic
fonns, the longing for mLxing \vith others in cre­
ative interplay, stimulating fusions, and the hopc
for understanding across difference, for recon­
ciliation. coexistence. or peace. The innovative
playwright and actor Anna Deveare Smith
crosses the borders of cultural difference by tra\,­
eling to and inhabiting the Olher's body in per­
fonnance. inhabiting the actual speech and man­
nerisms of different sides in the racial�ethnic
conflicts of Crown Heights, Brooklyn. in 1992
and Los Angeles after the Rodney King incident.
"The spirit of acting," she explains, "is (he Iravel
[rom the self to the olhcr� (x.wi). Contrasting her
theory of performnnce with the Stanislavsky
method of cxpressing the other by thinking
about the self, she wntes, "To me the search for
character is constantI)' in motion. h is a qUCSl
that moves back and fonh between the self and
the othcrM (xxvi-xxvii). In her attempt as writer
and performer to hCfll cultur::tI divisions, Smith's
utopian dramas embody what S. P. Mohanty ad­
vocates in his discussion of the potentially utopic
epistemology of the borderlands. To cross the
divide between �us� and Mthem,H he writes, wc
must begin with the assumption of the subjec­
tivity of the other.
'80 Migrations, Dlasporas, alld Borders
language, Mullilingualism, (mci
Cullural TronslaliotJ
Is there a mother tongue, a Single language
learned in the intimacy of the family and held
dear as the core signature of one's culture? Has
the mother tongue been forbidden, forced into
extinction or near loss? Or are there multiple
mother tongues, different languages learned
through exposures in a variety of settings, sig­
naling the multilayered and interwoven com­
plexities of community and communal identities
for people in diaspora, the borderlands, or mul­
tilingual societies? How do such language op­
tions encode the history of migrations, of colo­
nialistru past and present? As a result of the
old British Empire and the new American he­
gemony. English has supplanted French as
global language and s
i now the most common
second language around the
Bilingualism and muhilingualism
world.J8 But for many people,
Spanish, French, Portuguese, are key markers of transit; of the
Mandarin, Hindi, and Arabic refusal to assi.milate completely;
are the lingUistic entryways and of the insistence on
into economic and cultural retention of the past, other homes, Englishes and Spanishes of
literacy, no matter the attach­
and other cultural identities.
ment to mother longue(s) or
the need for English in an age of intensified glob­
alization. unguage issues are at the heart of the
larger cultural translation that movement from
one culture into another necess;lrily entails. For
migrant or nomadic writers and imelJectua\s, the
question of language is central. In what language
should they write? For which audiences? How
do the instilUlions of production, dissemination,
and reception in print cuhure affect their lin­
guistiC choices? Whatever choice they make, ge­
opolitiClI histories and realities overdetennine
their decisions, making the lingUistic act frought
with P;ISt histories ;md potentially conflicting
desires.
Bilingualism and multilingualism are key
markers of transit; of the refusal to assimilate
completely; and of [he insistence on relemion of
the past, olher homes, and other cultural iden·
tilies. Generational differences intenSify the sig­
nificance of language: first-generation migrants
both need and resist the language of the host-
land, and subsequent generations retain, lose, or
hybridically combine the old with the new. For
the Chicana writer Ana Castillo (Massacre oJ the
Dreamers), the "poetiCS of sdf-definition� begins
with language:
As mestizas, we must take a critical look at lan­
guage, all our languages and patois combin:uions.
with the understanding that language is not some·
thing we adopt and that rem.1ins apart from us.
Explicitly or implicitly, bnguage s
i the vehicle by
which we perceive ourselves in rdation 10 the
world. (qtd. in Seyhan 106)
The hybridity of Spanglish, Chinglish, and other
creole combinations embodies the blending of
cultures that accompanies migration and Jife in
the borderlands (on Spanglish, see Stavans),
Itineraries of multiple migrations create a lin­
the guistiC hybridity of a different kind, a son of ge·
ographic palimpsest with lingUistiC aftereffects
created over time. Meena Al­
exander, for example, grew up
with Hindi, Malayalam, En­
glish, French, and Arabic and
is now awash in the different
New York City. Her family
home is in Kerala, where
Malayalam is the mother tongue, but she first
learned Hindi because she was born in AlIaha­
bad. Growing up with North African French and
then the Arabic of Khartoum, she was later ed­
ucated in Britain and moved to the States. She
never learned to read or write in Malayalam,
although the �rhythms of the language first
came to mc, not just in lullabies or in the chat­
ter of women in lhe kitchen . . but in the mea­
sured cadences of oratory and poetry, and
nightly recitations from the Bible and the epics�
(�Alphabets" 145). For Alexander, language is
supercharged, a multiplicity of places and
identities,
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Growth areas and issues for migration, diaspor.t,
::md border studies arc diverse. I outline here a in later periods. AmitOv Ghosh's In all AllIi({uc
few of the most relevant for literary studies.
Susan SUJ/ljonl Fliedman 'SI
Genre Clnd TexlUalicy
medieval scholarship. comemporary ethnogra­
phy, :md life writing in his exploration of cul­
Literary scholarship in migration, diaspora, and
tural, economic, ;lnd religiolls traffic across Ar­
border studies has focused heavily on the nur­
abic Spain, North Africa, ;lncl into Persia and
rative genres of travel writing, autobiography,
India. Nabil Matar's Turhs, Moors, and Englisltmen
novel, and testimony. This attention to fiction
in {he Age DJ Discovery allests to the largely ig­
and life writing may reflect a foregrounding of
nored presence of Muslims in England and its
culture, identity, and politiCS and an unexam.
Significant impact on Elizabethan literature; his
ined need for modes of writing that are more
111 flle Lands oJ file Chrislians: Arabic Travel Wrif­
easily assimilated, espeCIally across cultural bor­
ing in lite Sevenlt:ench Celltury shows how Arabs
ders, and that are more convemionaUy tied to
in turn represented Europc,:ms. John Archer's
the real. Poetry translates less easily than narra­
Old Worlds: Egypt, SoutlllvCSl Asia, India, and Rus­
tive and fiction-both linguistica!ly and cultur­
sia in EClrly Modern Englisll Writing brings ques­
ally. Drama, {oo, relies heavily on culturally spe­
tions of intercultural contact imo Renaissance
cific forms and nonns for performance. Jahan
studies, as does Whitehead's edition of Waiter
Rmnazani has called for more attention to post­
Ralcigh's Discoverie of (lie LLlrgc, Rich and Bewtiful
colonial poetry; Tejumola Olaniyan writes exten­
Empyre oJ Guiana, which blends ethnohistOry,
sively on drama in the African diaspora; and crit.
analysis of travel writing, and anthropolOgical
icism on experimental diasporic writers such as
perspectives on the ecumene. Saree Makdisi ex­
Theresa Hak Kyung Cha (author of the long
amines the complicity between the rise of Ro.
poem Dicree) is now developing.)� This trend
manticism and Western imperialism. The expan­
needs to expand, in my view, with greater atten­
sion of this work \vill add vit;li histOrical depth
tion in general to issues of (extua[iz�nion and
[0 the understanding of globalization and to the
form as well as to less-studied genres and modes
literatures of mibrration, diaspora, and borders.40
of writing.
COtllparatislll, World Literature,
Hiscory
ancl InSli(ulioflal Issues
The recent compel1smory turn lo geography and
Migrauon, diaspora, and border slUdies-with
spatialized thinking has been fruitful for literary
their enhanced attention to geopolitics on a
studies in gener�l and a central feature of migra.
global landscape-have led to a new compara­
tion, diaspom, and border slUdies. However, the {ism: one less cemered on European !iter.nures
field's predominant focus on the twentieth and
and theiT diffusion or on the literatures of differ.
twenty-first centuries is too limiting and belies
em nation-states; onc more global in scope, more
the way that any spatial location contains the pa­
interested in creative agencies outSide Europe
limpscstic layers of history that overdetennine
.:lnd the United StrHes, more likely to consider
the present and help shape the future. Literary
transnational literatures in a Single language
Studies of earlier periods is now fruitfully l3king
across national boundaries, and more attuned to
up questions of migration, travel, and intercul­
traveling and transplanted cultures.
tural comact (e.g., the Arabic, Europe;ln, and Af­
This new comparatism ch;lllenges centerl
rican exchanges in the medieval world; travel
periphery and diffusionist models that privilege
writing in the age of European discoveries; co­
the !iter.nures and languages of the West and
lonialism and Romanticism). Basem Ra'ad con­
consign the Rest to marginality and pale imita­
Siders questions of the �legacies of Canuan and tion. It assumes differem nodal centers of aes.
Etruria" for the history of writing and literature thetic production and agency ;lround the globe
and eX3mines che effects of transnational comact
Land has been Widely read for its combination of zones, traveling ideas and forms, reciprocally
282 Migrations, Diasporas. Gllli Bordas
constitutive formations, and hybridic processes
of transplantltion and n
i digenization. Simon Gi­
kandi's MClps DJ Englishness, for example, exam­
ines how English identity and !iter-nure from An­
thony Trollope and Thomas Carlyle through
Graham Greene and 5alm3n Rushdie are fanned
through their interactions with colonial others.
His Writing in Limbo looks at the uneasy engage­
ments of writers in the Caribbean with modern­
ism and modernity. Rob Nixon's Homelands,
Harlem, ami Hollywood explores the travels back
and forth across the Atlantic, taking up the im­
pact of the Harlem Renaissance and Hollywood
on the Sophiatown writers in South Africa; lhe
exiles and boycotts of apartheid; and the for­
mation of the new South Africa in lhe wake of
the cold war, the fall of Communism, and the
wars in the Balkans."! These and other instances
of the new comparatism look to the interpene­
tration of the global and the local and work to
bridge the divide between global studies and area
studies. The thick description oflocal knowledge
that the anthropolOgist Clifford Geertz advo­
cated in TIlt: Interpretation of Cultures (esp. 3-30)
and Local Knowledge (esp. 4, 55-72) s
i combined
in the new comparatism \vith attention to cul­
tural theory across borders and to the impact of
cultural traffic on a global landscape at the local
level.
This trend is likely to continue, and it should
be encouraged. Surely, in the world after the cnd
of the cold w:lr, 911 1 , and the United States in­
vasion of Iraq, onc of the most important growth
areas for the new comparatism in literary studies
should :md will be the Muslim literatures and
cultures in conjunction \vith those of other reli­
gious :md cultur.ll groups �lI1d in connection
\vith the issues of migration and diaspora. Bar­
barn Fuchs's and Matar's work on the early mod­
em period, Brenner's Ine.xllica/Jly Bondcd , Ken
Seigneurie's collection Crisis alld McmOfY: Tile
Rt:presentatioll of Space in l\oloclem l.£vanline Nar­
ralive, and Amin Malak's Muslim Narralives and
Ihe DisCOIlr'lt of Eng lisll-to cite JUSt a few
examples-arc paving the way
Some scholars welcome porous
for criticism on migration,
travel, diaspom, and exile bOllndadcs among disciplincs;
across the religiOUS and cul- others resist them.
tural borders th:lt arc shaping the twenty-first
century.
Additionally, the institutional issues that this
new comparatism raises need further discussion
and thought. As fields encouraging comparative
methodologies, migration, diasp0r:l, :lnd border
studies implicitly transgress the institutional
structures that often separate literature and lan­
guage studies by nation and region. They de­
velop a comparatism that in part borrows from
the diSCipline of comparative literature and in
part fosters new forms of compar.ltive work in
all literature and language departments. Some
scholars welcome porous boundaries among dis­
ciplines; others resist them. At stake is more than
the enrichment of interdisciplinary work. Some
of the smaller departmenlS--Comparative liter­
ature and lang�lages other than English, Spanish,
and French, for example-fear being swallowed
up in the new institution:ll move toward the sup­
port of global Languages. The question of own­
ership of literature-in-translation courses at
times provokes a tug-of-war, with the issue of
institutional sUlVival in the air."2
Migration, diaspora, and border studies also
sit :It the crossroads of important debates about
the newly reconfigured field of world literature,
monolingualism versus multilingualism, and lit­
erature in translation. As Spivak argues in Death
of a Discipline, the new comparatism needs to
move beyond the privileging of European lan­
guages, resist the homogenizing tendencies of
monolingualism, and foster the study of multiple
languages in which literatures are written. At the
same time. I believe, the field needs to acknowl­
edge the power and impact on literature of trans­
national languages such as English, Spanish,
French, Portuguese, :md Mandarin, whatever
their past relations to imperialism and empire.
English literary studies is no longer the study of
literature in Britain :lnd the United States; it in­
corporates literatures in English of Africa, Asia,
and the Caribbean. Spanish litemry studies now
includes Latin America. French literature in
Africa is now regularly pan
of French departments. And
so forth. Moreover, world lit­
eralUre as a field needs greater
theoretical eX:lmination of its pammeters, its re­
lation to language and transl:ition, its connection
to notions of traveling cultures and Circulation,
its newer methods of juxt:lposition that are re­
placing older Eurocentric diffusionism. The dan­
gers of Western appropriation of non-Western
literatures also need to be examined.�l Migm­
tion, diaspora, and border studies highlight these
institutional changes because their literatures in­
volve people on the move :1cross geopolitical and
continental borders.
A retrospecti\'e and prospective look at the ex­
ploding fields of migration, diaspora, and border
studies s
i inevitably filled with omissions and
gaps. The sheer scope and interdisciplinarity of
the fields makes a mockery of any attempt a t
mastery. Rather, I have attempted t o name some
of the m:lny lines of inquiry; the pathways of
exploration; the kinds of questions people have
been pursuing; and the spectrum of concerns
from material and political to mctaphoric and
psychological, cultural, and aesthetic.
The focus has been on literary studies, in­
formed by other diSCiplines and interdisciplinary
fields. But t close with an appeal made by ge­
ographers to their fellow social scientists, to pay
attention to the literature of migration and di­
aspora. In Writillg across Worlds: Literature alld
Migration, Russell King, John ConneH. and Paul
White complain thilt social scientists seldom
capture the "ambivalence� at the core of migra­
tion experience; social science "fails to portray
nostalgia, anomie, exile, rootlessness, restlcss­
ness� (x), precisely the nuanced psychologiC:11
dimensions of migration so often explored in lit­
erature. They ask social scientists to draw more
directly on the rich literary :lrchive of migration,
from "fully-ncdged creative litcratures" in all
genres and films to morc ephemeral migration
Writing in ethnic newspapers, newsletters, mag­
azines, diaries, songs, oral narratives, and re­
portage, often in "mother tongues" (xii-xiii).
They ask, in short, for their colleagues to look at
the data that arc the main subject of our work in
the modem literatures and languages-namely,
the realms of :Iesthetic and creative production,
Susan SranJord Friedman 283
of rcpresentmion and meaning making. I have
asked in turn that wc literary scholars turn to the
social sciences for assistance in theorizing mig­
rancy. Perhaps a fitting end for this ovelView is
a blending of the humanities and the social sci­
ences evident in the geographers' characteriza­
tion of what they have learned from the rich lit­
eratures of migration, diaspora, and borders:
Migrant literature is individual, SUbjective, di­
verse: it reflects but also may exaggerate or even
inven the social experience that dnves it. . . . For
some groups, migration is not a mere interval be­
tween r,xed points of depanure and arrival, but a
mode of being in the world-"migrancy.� . . . The
migrant vOice tells us what it s
i like to feel a
stranger and yet at home, to live simultaneously
inside and outside onc's immediate sitUation, 10
be pennanemly on the run, to think of retuming
but to realize at the same time the impossibility
of doing so, since the past is nO! only another
country but also another time, out of the presem.
It tells us Wh:ll it is like to traverse borders like
the Rio Grande or "Fonress Europe: and by do­
ing so suddenly become an illegal person, an
"other"; it tens us what it is like to live on a fron­
tier that cuts through your language, your
religion, your culture. It tells of long-distance
journeys and relocalions, of losses, changes, con­
flicts, powerlessness, and of infinite sadness that
severely test the migrant'S emotional resolve. It
tells of new visions and experiences of the familiar
and unf:l mi liar. For those who come from else­
where, and ClnnOt go back, perhaps writing be­
comes a place to live.
(King, Conne1\, and White xv)
�Uving in a State of psychic unrest in a Bor­
derland,n writes Anzaldu:l, Mis whm makes poets
write and artists create. it is like a C:lctus needle
embedded in the nesh� (73). The displacements
produced by migrmion, diaspor:l, and borders
create a poetics of their own.
NOTES
For their assistance in my <lnempts 10 cross borders of
hiStOry, geography, :md langu:!ge. I :!1l1 particubrly
grateful to Aid:! Blanco. Leslie Bow. B:!hareh ull1pert.
Nellie Y. McKay, John D. Riofno, Aliko 5ongolo, Sc:m
Teuton. and SUs.lnne Wofford and 10 my tireless and
skilled assistamsJohn Bradley, Megan Massino, Krtstin
Matthews. and Eliz:lbcth Schewe. Rebccc:l WalkowilZ'S
suggestions ror reVISion were inv;]]uable.
284 Migraciolls, Diasporas, and 8ordt:rs
I. For a samphng of debate about globalization par­
ticularly innuentia! In or relevant to literary studies,
sec Appadur:ai, Modemit)' and Glob.:lH<:(.tlion; B:IU­
man, GlOOClIi:;:cuion; Breckenridgc, Pollock, Bhablu,
:md Chakr:abany; F. SucH; Frank; Friedman and
R.1nderia: Gunn; Hodgson; Hulme; JOlmeson
and Miyoslu; Mudlmbe-Bo)'i: Muller, NO\! World
RLadtr; R.1dhakrishnnn. Th�OI)'; Sanderson; Waller­
slt:m; Waters.
2. The bte twentleth century h:lS even been dubbed
"the age of nllgr.mon- (C:lstles and Miller).
3. Contemporary debates about the nature and politiCS
of cosmopoliwnisll1 ore il significilnt part of migra­
tion, diaspom. and border studies. For a sampling,
see Appiah, Cosmopolitanism; Archibugi; Bcnn:m;
Breckenridge, Pollock, Bhabha, and Chlkrab:my;
Brcnnan; Cheah and Robbins; Clifford. Routes 17-
47 and Pre(/iclIIlleltf; Dhnrwadker; Klplnn, esp.
10 1-42; Nussbaum: Vertovcc lnd Cohen. ConctiY­
mg; Wllkowit::.
.;. Imellectual diasporics and exilt$ are particubrly
likdy to artlcu13te such multibceted belongmgs
Sce for eJUmp!;:: Alexander, "Alphabets": Appiah. In
My Fathtr's HllUSe; Bammer: Blubh:!, lDcation; Brai­
dolti; Clumbers, Border Dialoguc; lnd ,Wigrancy;
Chen; Friedm:m, "Bodics"; Hlnne; Israel; Kumar.
Paupon Pholos: U. Narayan; Radlukrtshnan. Dias­
pone Media/ions; Rushdie. ImagiMry Homelands;
S:lid, "Reflections"; S3rup.
S. lntuated by Gilles Oe\eu;:e and Ftlix Gualarri in the
1970s-1980s (KnJha and Thousand Plateaus), the
concept of deterritorializatiOI1 nnd its related notion
of nom:ldism hayc gained great currency in literary
studies. WIth widely diverg�nt meanings and de­
bates centered p;lnic\lbrly on how much to link
these concepts to geohistoncnl conditions. Sce for
exnmple Br:tidotti;JanMohamed and lloyd; K:lpbn,
esp. 65-100; Uonnct and Scharfm:m.
6. Paula Gunn Alien wrote the volume's essay on bor­
der studies :lIId focUSf!d pamcubrly on women of
color as writers and cmlCS m the United States. The
border she explored was rncial more than geopolit­
ic:lI as she called for more auemlon to the int..:rscc-
110l1S of gender :md color m the wnung of women
(� 'Border' Studies"). xc the recent collectIOn of her
own border ess.1yS in OJJ Ihe RestT\'I.Uion.
7. Postcolonbl studIes on Snttsh and anglophone lit­
er:aluru :md cultures are too V3St to properly ref­
erence here. but for somc innU(nllal lexLS and use·
£ul collections, se( Said, Orienwhsm and (ullu,,;
Sph':Jk, In Otha Wur!ds; Ashcroh, Griffiths. and Tif­
�n: Chantbers and Curti; G:lIldln; Gik:Jndi, Maps
:lnd Writing: McClimock: Ol:mipn; R:ldhnkrish­
nan, Di(lSporiC MedJuliolls and Theory: R.11n:lzani;
Willi:tms and Chrism:ln.
8. There i s:J bst-growing literature on the new tr.ms­
national emphnsis in Americ:ln liter:lturc nnd cul­
tUr:J1 studies. Sce l. Budl; Dimock, "Literruure" nnd
Shades; Edwards: Gr(w;lI;Jay, "Beyond DiSCIpline?";
K:ldir; Kaplan and Pease: Madsen; Pease :md Wu::g­
man; Rowe, Nelll Americtlll Studies :md POSI-
11lltionalisl Ameri(an Studies; Snldivlr, Dia/celia;
Splllers, Comparanve Amencan ltI(nlilies: Waiters.
9. �e Gilroy; Hall. "New Ethmcuies"; M. Jacobson;
Sollors, lll\'entilm; OlaniYln: and note 13.
10. The tenns idcnlily and subjecl Olre not identical, com.
ing as they do out of different philosophical, polit­
ical. and national traditions. In uSing idenlily, I do
not align mysdf wah essenllalist identity politics;
presume a self that exists outside l:lnguage; or as­
sume an unchanging collectiye identity of groups
by r.lce. gender, nmion, and SO on. Nor do [ nccept
a view often associlted with posIstruclUrnlism that
the subject is fully detennined by preexisting dis­
cursive regimes. 1 use idcnrity In the context of a
cuiturnl COllStructivism that assumes a dialectical re­
lation between detenninism and agency as pan of
a histonc:al process existing in specific locltions. See
Friedman, Mappillgs, esp. 3-104; A1coff. Hames­
Glrcla, Mohlllty, and Moya.
1 1 . A few exceptions include Rosemary ""arangoly
George's "Tr.we1ing Ught: which identifies immi­
grant literature as a genre durncleri;:ed by narrative
repetition and echoes, met:lphors of baggage (splr·
itual and material), and a link with colonialism.
Wi\liam Q. Boclhower's "The Immigrant Noyd as
Genre" is a structur:alist l/Ulysis of immigrnnt nar­
rative patterns With examples drnwn from Untted
States literature_ Thomas Ferraro's Elhnic Passages
Similarly drnws only on the United States example.
but F(mro presentS a useful genealogy of lilerary
cmicism on migration narratiyC5 and argues agalllst
the common m:trginali;:ation of tntgration literature
from the American Clnon. He suggests that the
genre cont:llns across ethnic differences a core con­
ccm with Ihe wrner's person:!l negotiation between
being American and being alien: "An aspiring writer
from In immigrant background feels damned on
the onc side for having become too American and
damned on the other side for not being able 10 be­
come American enough" (10).
12. xc Takaki. DiJJerenl Mirror. Bodhower. TIlrough a
Glass: Sollors, Multilingua! America; Stephan. and
Simone's annotnted blbliogrnphy in Immlgranl
Expt:lience.
13. See, for example. on the Gn:at Migrnlion. Griffin;
Nicholls: Rodgcrs : on the J:lp:lnese internment, Ko­
gawOl; Y;lmada; Lowe, esp_ 'tB-S I; Wegl}TI; on NOl­
th'( American migration. Aldnma; Ehle; Hole:
Harjo; Hogln; Jahcxla; Lun:t-Firebaugh; McCall;
Rozema.
14. For mOll! discussions of migr:ltlon, culture, and lit­
er:ume in counlnes other than the United Stales.
sce Adman; Adelson; l\ppldural. Modemil)'; Bam­
mcr: Corkhill; Ghosh: Gilroy; H:mne; Hargreavcs:
Huysscn; Irebnd nnd Proulx; Kaminsky; King.
Connell, and WhIte; Pannar and Somaia-unen;
Sherman: Ty and Goellnicht.
15. Migratian Theory, edited by Bretell and Hollifield,
contnillS OV(l'Vlews of migrntion theory in history,
economics, soc\Olog)', anthropology, law. and po­
litical science. For other theories of migration in the
social sciences, sec Bretell: Fri(dmln lnd Randeria;
King, Conncll. and White; D.Jacobson; Meilaender;
Papastergiadis. -Restless Hybrids" and Turbu!enu:
Su:1re:-Orozco, Suarez-Orozco, and Qin-Hilliard.
Inlerdisdprinary PerspeCfiyes lnd New Immigratian
(Mnrcelo Sv:lrez-Orozco and Carola Su;:\rez-Orozco
are codireetors of the Hnrllard Immigrntion Project):
publicalions of the International Library of Studies
on Migration, 3 series edited by Robin Cohcn, esp.
Vertovec ll1d Cohen, Conceiving and Migration; Wil­
Us and Yeah. For gene:llogies of and debates about
the tenn assimilalion in American historiography,
see Alba and Nee; Kazal: Suarez-Orozco.
16, For feminist cnticism on gender in migration nar·
r:l\i\'es, see Ahmed, Castanedl, lnd Fonie; Alex­
ander. "Alphabets": Danquah; Davies; Friedman,
-Bodiesw: Grewal; Heike; Irving: Pannar lnd
Somala-Canen; and Zaborowska.
17 Migration has no doubt influenc(d the figuratiOns
of both Brntdo\li :md Chambers. Braidotti was born
in haiy, immtgr:lIcd to Australia, was educated m
Fr:mcc, and currently teaches in the Netherlands;
Ch:lmbers has lived in many countries and was
teaching in Naples at the lime of his book's publi­
Cluon. See ;llso Janet Wolffs theooling of women
as l\ien 5trnngers.
18. Philip Curtin's Cross-Cullural Trade in World History
implicitly evokes th( Greek rooLS of diaspora in his
globnl history of trade diasporas.
19. For the South Asian Diasporn, see Appadurai, Mo­
del'llily; Brnh; Grewal; Kumlr, Bombay. PasspaTl Pho­
IDS. and Away; U. Narayan; Needham; Radhakrish­
nnn. Diasponc Media/ions and Theory; Shukla:
T:lmbinh. The lenn diaspora is :tOO increasingly be­
ing used in relallon to Chinese outside the m:linbnd
of China, people who have been known as overseas
Chinese for centuries. Sce Anderson :md Lee;
Chow; Chult ltld Shimakawa; Lowe; Ty and Gocll­
mcht; and Cohen's discussion of the overseas Chi·
nese as 3 -trade dlaspora" (83-104).
20. Braziel and M:umur's coi1ection includes many of
tlte mOSt significant contemporary theoretical essays
on dtaspor:a. Their imroduClion and that of the an­
thropologistS l:Ivie and Swedenburg in their Dis­
placement, Diaspora, and Geographic; oJ Identity are
pllticulariy useful oyervtews.
21. For recent discussions of Jewish and Isrneli dias­
poric liter:ature, see Brenner; Shreiber: Weber.
22. For recent discussions of bbck diasporan literature,
�Im, nnd culture in the Americls, see Edwards; Fos­
ter: Gilroy: Spillers. "Introduction"; Waiters.
23. Brah 9: Alexander. "Alphabets· and Shoe/( 13-16.
SlIsan Stanfonl Fnedmlln 285
See Fri(dman. "Bodies." For other blendings of au­
tobiography and diOlsporic theory, see Bhabha,
"Frontlines" and Locatian; Chow; Dayies; Chen;
Fr:ankenbergand Mani: KUnlar. Away, Passporl Pho­
lOS, and Bombay: U. Narayan; Radlukrishnan. Dtas­
porie Medialions and Theory; Sarup: SlId. "Reflec­
tions"; Seyhan; lnd Spivlk, Post-colonial Critic.
Said's "Reflections on Exile" and Rushdie's -lmOlgi­
nary Homelands" predate the use of the t<::n n dias­
pora in culturnl theory but haye been tnfluenunl au­
tobiographical theory in diasporn studies.
24. Prntt introduced the tenn "COnt:J(t wne: which she
defines in lmperial Eyes lS "social sp�ces where dis­
parnte cultures tIltet, dash. and grapple with elch
other, often in highly asymmetncal relations of
domination and subordination-ltke colonialism,
slavery, or their a£temlatns as they arc lived out
across the globe today" (4).
25. xe Stallybrass and White on trnnsgression of high
and low borders; JlnMohamed on the specu!lr
"homelessness-as-home" of "border intellectuals";
We1chman's Rethinhing Borders, which e..'
'ttends bor­
der theory in muhimedia, interdisciplinlry, and
theoretical ways: Tnnh's �An AcousticJourney: for
the move from refugees to phIlosophiCborderlands_
For a Critique of the erasure of empiric.11 schobr­
ship in border theory and liternture, see the soci­
ologiSt Pablo Vill's Ethnography at Ihe Border. esp.
306-41 .
26. $(c "Theones Jnd Methodologies . . _�nz.:lldun:
devoted to Anzaldua's work and legac}'; Friedm_1n.
Mappings, 93-101. The poems, critical writings.
:Ind c.1mivalesque perfonnlnce an of Guillemlo
G6mez·Pet'la have also been influential in both
Mexico lnd the United St:ltes (e.g., The NfW World
Border). Sec Fregoso for discussions of Chican;ls and
"meXicanas" III the producl1on or American and
Mexic:an border culLure in film, litcrature, and pop.
ubr culture.
27. See also Polkmhom, Di-Bella. and Re)'es:Jay's over­
view of border studies, �Myth.- For acknowledg­
ment of the form:tlive influence of the American
Southwest on border theory and an insistence that
border theory moye beyond liS regIonal onglllS, see
Michaelsen and Johnson: Wekhman.
28. Geographic borders under exammntion m border
studies lre not llwlys con\1guous. Th( so-called
civilizational diVIde between East :tnd West has led
to work panicularly m comparltwe literature ex­
amining the cultural exchlnges lnd fruitful juxl3-
positions of European and ElSt Asia., liternry and
aesthetic cuhures: see for example Hayot: Saussy,
Great Walls nnd Problem; L. Zhnng; Y. l.hang.
29. See also Chambers, Border Dialugues; Trinh. �Acous­
uc Joumey.- For discussions of border issues, cul­
tural politics, lnd narratiye. S€!e Egerer; Frcgoso:
Friedman. Mappillgs 132-78; Izzo and Spandri:
Stallybrass and White.
286 Migmlions, Diasl'oras. and Borders
30. In �Thc M:my Flces of Cosfllo-polis: Mignolo links
border thinking to �crilic;\l cosmopolitanism" and
sees colonial modcmiucs as distinct from Enlight­
enment modernity. Sce also his Darl:er Side of the
Renaissallce.
) I . Bhabha uses tht: rhetoric of borders to discuss the
breakdown of minority identities based on a single
identity (megol)' and the development of intersec­
tional analysis of the mulup1e constituents of iden­
lity (�Frondincs"). For border rhewnc and fetish­
ism, scc S pyer,
32. For other innucmial discussions of cullure as con­
ecpt, see Bourdicu; Ccne:lU: Rosaldo: H:lll, "Cul­
tural Identity"; Hanner.:, esp. }-)9; M:mganaro:
Stallybrass :md White.
33. See Alba and Nee : Ka::J.l: Z:mgwill's p:lssioll:Uc de­
fense of "melting-pot" Americ:l :lS J n:ltional identity
i :lfterword to the 1914 edi­
built on divcrsity in hs
tion of The Melling-Pol: F:lirchild's :lltack of Zan­
gwill and Anglocentric rationale for assimilation in
The Mdling-Por Mistah�: the attempt to resurrect the
original m�aning of the trope in jacobis Rtinw!'nting
the Melling Pot; Schretbersdorf; :md Wllson on this
early-twentieth-century debate
3-1. The Cuban soci ologist Femando Onlz coined the
tenn trallsculturation in the 1940$ (Pr-m 228n4)_ See
Rosaldo's brolder definttion of trnnscul!u"nion as
the "crea llve processes' of "improviSo-llion" in the
borderlands (215-16)
35. For ollerviews of deb;ue about cuhurnl hybridity,
see Friedman, ;\.Jappings (82-93); Kalrn, K:lur, ;md
Hutn)'k: Paplstergiadis, "Restless H)'bnds"; Pie­
terse; Purdom; Werbner and Modood: Young
36, See, for ex;,unplc, Friedman, "Feminism," "Loca­
tiOnll Femimsm: :lnd M(IPpillgs: Grewal; Grewl!
and Kaplln: Kaplln, AlarcDn, and '...10allem; La)'­
oun; V, Naray:m; Yuval-D:wis
37. See in pani(ul:u Said, "Rene((ions"; Rushdie,lmag­
h!([ry Homc/ands; Alexlnder, "Alphaocts" ; and
Seyhan, esp. 23-64.
38. On global English, sec �k
Al1hur; for hybridic En­
glishes. sce Ch'ien. For the relation of (Urrent glob­
:llization and l:mguagc, sce especiall)' Anega.
39. See Lowe 128--53; Killl and AIJrcon : :md Friedman,
"Modemisnl.M
40. Sec also Fuchs; K;:Idir: "'Iignolo, Dmher Side and
Local !iistories; Vitkus, Piracy :ll1d Three Ttnl!
Plays; Singh: and Hulme. 5.1id's Oriemialism i s ;:In
lmpon:mt precurs<?r to this trend; sce ;Ilso Ins Cul­
ture and Impelialism. For h,stori:ms of t:lrly inter­
cultural COnla(I, sec especially J Abl1-Lughod;
forank; Sanderson.
4 1 . For critiques of Eurocemnsm in comp:lT:ltive liter­
ature, sce Lanscr; Lionnet and Shih; Spi\,:lk. Danh;
Saussy, Comparative Lircr(l/UI·e.
42. Sec esp. Saussy, CompafCltil'C Literatllrc for debates
about the new comparallsm and insti tution:l1 im­
plications, For the imp:l(t of current glob:lli13tion
on instituti onal SlnlClmeS in lhe �cadem)', sce jay,
"Beyond Discipli ne?"
43. For examples of Ihis new deb�te on world liter­
ature, see Apter; Bassncu; Casanov�; Damrosch;
Dimock, ·Uterature"; Uonnet and Shih; Moretti;
"Theorie.� ;Ind MethodologieS: Comparative litera­
ture"; 5.1USSy, Comraralive liIerature; Spivak, Death:
L Zh�ng: Y. Zhang
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