tense Affirmative/Negative/Quest
ion
Simple Present A: He speaks.  action in the present taking place once, never or
N: He does not speak.
Q: Does he speak?  facts
Present A: He is speaking.
Progressive N: He is not speaking.
Q: Is he speaking?
Simple Past A: He spoke.
N: He did not speak.
Q: Did he speak?
Past A: He was speaking.
Progressive N: He was not speaking.
Q: Was he speaking?
Present Perfect A: He has spoken.
Simple N: He has not spoken.
Q: Has he spoken?
Present Perfect A: He has been speaking.
Progressive N: He has not been speaking.
Q: Has he been speaking?
Past Perfect A: He had spoken.
Simple N: He had not spoken.
Q: Had he spoken?
Past Perfect A: He had been speaking.
Progressive N: He had not been speaking.
Q: Had he been speaking?
Future I Simple A: He will speak.
N: He will not speak.
Q: Will he speak?
Use Signal Words
always, every …, never, normally, often,
several times seldom, sometimes, usually
if sentences type I (If I talk, …)
 actions taking place one after another
 action set by a timetable or schedule
 action taking place in the moment of speaking at the moment, just, just now, Listen!, Look!,
 action taking place only for a limited period of time now, right now
 action arranged for the future
 action in the past taking place once, never or several yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other
times day, last Friday
 actions taking place one after another if sentence type II (If I talked, …)
 action taking place in the middle of another action
 action going on at a certain time in the past when, while, as long as
 actions taking place at the same time
 action in the past that is interrupted by another action
 putting emphasis on the result already, ever, just, never, not yet, so far, till
 action that is still going on now, up to now
 action that stopped recently
 finished action that has an influence on the present
 action that has taken place once, never or several
times before the moment of speaking
 putting emphasis on the course or duration (not the all day, for 4 years, since 1993, how long?, the
result) whole week
 action that recently stopped or is still going on
 finished action that influenced the present
 action taking place before a certain time in the past already, just, never, not yet, once, until that
 sometimes interchangeable with past perfect day
progressive if sentence type III (If I had talked, …)
 putting emphasis only on the fact(not the duration)
 action taking place before a certain time in the past for, since, the whole day, all day
 sometimes interchangeable with past perfect simple
 putting emphasis on the duration or course of an
action
 action in the future that cannot be influenced in a year, next …, tomorrow
 spontaneous decision If-Satz Type I (If you ask her, she will
 assumption with regard to the future help you.)
assumption: I think, probably, perhaps
Future I Simple A: He is going to speak.
(going to) N: He is not going to speak.
Q: Is he going to speak?
Future I A: He will be speaking.
Progressive N: He will not be speaking.
Q: Will he be speaking?
Future II A: He will have spoken.
Simple N: He will not have spoken.
Q: Will he have spoken?
Future II A: He will have been speaking.
Progressive N: He will not have been
speaking.
Q: Will he have been speaking?
Conditional I A: He would speak.
Simple N: He would not speak.
Q: Would he speak?
Conditional I A: He would be speaking.
Progressive N: He would not be speaking.
Q: Would he be speaking?
Conditional II A: He would have spoken.
Simple N: He would not have spoken.
Q: Would he have spoken?
Conditional II A: He would have been
Progressive speaking.
N: He would not have been
speaking.
Q: Would he have been
speaking?
 decision made for the future in one year, next week, tomorrow
 conclusion with regard to the future
 action that is going on at a certain time in the future in one year, next week, tomorrow
 action that is sure to happen in the near future
 action that will be finished at a certain time in the by Monday, in a week
future
 action taking place before a certain time in the future for …, the last couple of hours, all day long
 putting emphasis on the course of an action
 action that might take place if sentences type II
(If I were you, I would go home.)
 action that might take place
 putting emphasis on the course /duration of the
action
 action that might have taken place in the past if sentences type III
(If I had seen that, I would have helped.)
 action that might have taken place in the past
 puts emphasis on the course /duration of the action
Simple Tenses:

Simple tenses are used whenever we are talking about a point in time.

Past Simple Present Simple Future Simple

Use for an action that happened at a point in Use when making a general statement of Use for an action that will happen at a point
time in the past. truth at the present point in time. in time in the future.
e.g. - I ate breakfast this morning. e.g. - I eat breakfast every day. e.g. - I will eat breakfast later.

Continuous Tenses:

Continuous tenses are used whenever we are talking about a length of time.

Past Continuous Present Continuous Future Continuous

Use for an action that was happening for a Use for an action that is happening now. Use for an action that will be happening for a
length of time in the past when another length of time in the future.
action happened in the middle of it.

e.g. - I was eating breakfast when my e.g. - Right now, I am eating breakfast. e.g. - I will be eating breakfast from 9:00 to
brother arrived. 9:30.

Perfect Tenses:
Perfect tenses are used whenever we are talking about a point in time before another point in time.

Past Perfect Present Perfect Future Perfect

Use for an action that happened in the past Use for an action that happened in the past Use for an action that will happen in the
before another action. before the present moment. future before another action.

e.g. - I had already eaten breakfast when my e.g. - I have already eaten breakfast. e.g. - I will have already eaten breakfast by
brother arrived. the time my brothers arrives.

Perfect Continuous Tenses:

Perfect continuous tenses are used whenever we are talking about a length of time up to a point in time.

Past Perfect Continuous Present Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous

Use for an action that was happening for a Use for an action that was happening for a Use for an action that will be happening in
length of time in the past up to the moment length of time up to the present moment. the future for a length of time up to the
when another action happened. moment when another action will happen.

e.g. - I had been eating breakfast for 30 e.g. - I have been eating my breakfast for 30 e.g. - I will have been eating my breakfast
minutes when my brother arrived. minutes. for 30 minutes by the time you arrive.
 PATTERNS
Verb patterns Phrase Phrase Phrase (Direct He said that I had to see a doctor.
(Subject) (Indirect object) I thought that he was being silly.
object) We can leave out the word that:
The structure of the clause depends on the He said I had to see a doctor.
the old
verb. For example: I thought he was being silly.
She gave man some money
They brought the a lot of food With some verbs we can mention the hearer as
animals the object of the verb:
 An intransitive verb has the structure: N She reminded him that it was time to go.
(=noun) + V (=verb): (John) + (smiled). He told me he was a friend of yours.
 A transitive verb has the structure: N + V + N: These verbs are called double object verbs. These verbs have the pattern;
(We) + (had been playing) + (football) When we have two noun phrases after the verb N + V + N + (that) + clause.
 A link verb has the structure: N + V + Adj : (She) the first noun phrase is the indirect object and Reporting verbs with wh- and if clauses
+ (looked) + (happy) the second noun phrase is the direct object. Some verbs introduce summaries, reports,
 A phrasal verb has the structure: N + V + p + N questions or problems:
(She) + (gave) +(back) + (the money) She explained what we had to do.
Verbs with to + infinitive
or He asked if I was ready
N + V + N + p (She) + (gave) + (the money) + I didn’t know what to do.
(back) Some verbs have the pattern N + V + These verbs have the pattern:
to+infinitive: N + V + wh- + clause:
Double object verbs They agreed to help. She wondered where she was.
We decided to go. or
Some verbs have the pattern N + V + N + N + V + if + clause:
Some verbs, like give and bring can have two to+infinitive: Ken asked if we wanted to go.
different patterns after them: She told him to go home. With some verbs we can mention the hearer as
They advised us to wait. the object of the verb:
Note: we suggest that you read She asked me if I was ready.
Noun about Verbs with -ing forms before doing
Noun He told me what I had to do.
Verb Phrase Prepositional
Phrase this activity. These verbs have the pattern:
Phrase (Direct phrase
(Subject) N + V + N + wh- + clause:
object)
Reporting verbs with that, wh- and if clauses I told them what he was doing.
some to the old or
She gave money man Reporting verbs with that clauses: N + V + N + if + clause:
They brought a lot of for the Some verbs introduce a report, an idea or a Ken asked us if we wanted to go.
food animals
summary. These verbs have the pattern: Two- and three-part verbs
>>>> <<<< N + V + (that) + clause
When we want to say what someone says or
Noun Verb Noun Noun Phrase
thinks we can use a clause with that;

Two part verbs
Some verbs consist of two words – a verb and
a particle (p). These verbs have a number of
patterns:
Peter came in. (N + V + p)
He took out his diary. (N + V + p + N)
He gave the money back. (N + V + N + p)
Phrasal verbs
Some transitive two part verbs are phrasal
verbs. They have two different patterns.
N+V+N+p
She gave the money back
He knocked the vase over
We will be leaving our friends behind
or
N+V+p+N
She gave back the money
He knocked over the vase
We will be leaving behind our friends.
When the object is a pronoun these verbs
always have the first pattern N + V +N + p:
She gave it back
He knocked it over
We will be leaving them behind
Three part verbs
Some verbs are made up of three parts –
a verb and two particles. They have the
pattern:
N + V + p + p + N:
His girlfriend walked out on him.
She soon caught up with the other
runners
Children should look up to their parents.
Sometimes the noun phrase begins with
Verb patterns - adverbials a quantifier:
A clause often has one or more adverbial
phrases: All those children go to school here.
Both of my younger brothers are married
 The children laughed happily.
(N + V + Adv) Some people spend a lot of money.
 All the girls are learning English at school in the
second year. Numbers:
(N + V + Adv + Adv) Quantifiers come before determiners,
 Last year Mary and the family were driving to but numbers come after determiners:
Madrid in an old bus. My four children go to school here. (All
(Adv + N + V + Adv + Adv) my children go to school here.)
 She put the flowers carefully in a vase. Those two suitcases are mine. (Both
(N + V + N + Adv + Adv) those suitcases are mine)
So the noun phrase is built up in this way:
Noun Phrases Noun: people; money
Often a noun phrase is just a noun or Determiner + noun: the village, a house, our
a pronoun: friends; those houses
Quantifier + noun: some people; a lot of money
People like to have money. Determiner + adjective + noun: our closest
I am tired. friends; a new house.
It is getting late. Quantifier + determiner + noun: all those
children;
or a determiner and a noun …: Quantifier + determiner + adjective +
noun: both of my younger brothers
Our friends have bought a house in the village.
Those houses are very expensive. The noun phrase can be quite complicated:
… perhaps with an adjective:
a loaf of nice fresh brown bread
the eight-year-old boy who attempted to
Our closest friends have just bought
a new house in the village. rob a sweet shop with a pistol
that attractive young woman in the blue
dress sitting over there in the corner
Content words are words that have meaning. They are words we would look up in a dictionary, such as "lamp," "computer," "drove." New content words are
constantly added to the English language; old content words constantly leave the language as they become obsolete. Therefore, we refer to content words as
an "open" class.

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are content parts of speech.

Function words are words that exist to explain or create grammatical or structural relationships into which the content words may fit. Words like "of," "the,"
"to," they have little meaning on their own. They are much fewer in number and generally do not change as English adds and omits content words. Therefore,
we refer to function words as a "closed" class.

Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, qualifiers/intensifiers, and interrogatives are some function parts of speech.

Note the differences between content and function parts of speech:

Generally, we can use one or more of five signals to help us determine a word's part of speech designation:

1. function words (the, what, and)

2. inflectional morphemes (-s, -ed)
3. derivational morphemes
4. word order in sentence patterns
5. stress patterns (subJECT/SUBject, INsert/inSERT, IMprint/imPRINT)
 2. exists with a verb of being
NOUNS
Traditional grammarians define a noun as "a person, place, thing, or idea."
Child designates a person; therefore, child is a noun.
Similarly, democracy designates an idea; therefore, democracy is a
noun. In addition, nouns can be identified by the presence of signal
words such as the.
3. Is renamed or described after a verb of being or a linking verb

Word order can also provide clues about nouns. For example, in the
following sentence, it is clear that the part of speech that will fit into slot #1
and slot #2 must be nouns:

4. Is acted upon with a passive verb

Often, suffixes will suggest that a word is a noun. For example, -tion, -
ness, -ment, or -er at the end of a word usually signify that the word is a
noun, as in suggestion,happiness, involvement, and diner.
Nouns may be made plural, usually with the suffix -s or -es, as Object of Preposition (OP) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or
in books and foxes. "what" after a preposition in a prepositional phrase.
Nouns show ownership with the addition of an apostrophe and, sometimes,
an additional -s, as in a book's pages, twenty students' essays.
Common nouns such as school, business, or person designate an entire class.
Proper nouns, on the other hand, designate a specific example of a
class: Towson University, Black and Decker Company, Joe. Proper nouns are Direct Object (DO) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what" after
capitalized. an action verb. A direct object "receives" or is the "object" of the action.
Nouns may be countable (1 fork, 2 forks, 3 forks, etc.) or non-countable
(sugar, oil).
Nouns may signify concreteness (computer, fingernail) or abstractness
(peace, friendship).
Retained Object (RO) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom" or "what"
Functions of Nouns
after a passive verb.
Subject (S) - a noun or pronoun partnered with a predicate verb.
A subject
1. Does an action with an action verb

Indirect Object (IO) - a noun or pronoun answering "to whom/what" or "for

whom/what" after an action verb.
An indirect object Appositive (App) - a noun or pronoun that renames another noun; An
 always precedes a direct object appositive is usually placed next to the noun it renames...
 never has the word “to” or “for” stated

Gourmet renames the noun Joe. Therefore, gourmet is an appositive

Subjective Complement (SC) - a noun, pronoun, or adjective that renames of Joe.
or describes (equals) the subject after a verb of being or a linking verb. When an appositive is not placed next to the noun it renames, the
appositive is called a delayed appositive.

A delayed appositive may rename the word it in some sentence

constructions.

Objective Complement (OC) - a noun, pronoun, or adjective that renames

or describes (equals) the direct object. In the above sentence, the appositive to meet you renames it. It (to
Test for OC: insert "to be" between the DO and the OC meet you) is a pleasure.
In this sentence, pleasure is the subjective complement of it.
Therefore, it = pleasure = to meet you.
VERBS
Verbs have traditionally been defined as words that show action or state of Four suffixes consistently added to a verb’s base create all forms of a verb
being. used in all tenses:
1. -s creates 3rd person singular / present tense (He talks.)
2. -ing creates the present participle / used with be (He is talking.)
3. -ed creates the simple past (He talked.)
4. -en creates the past participle / used with have (He has talked.)
Note: The -en verb ending used with a form of to have as an auxiliary is
generally written-ed, as in has talked.

Verbs can also sometimes be recognized by their position in a sentence. Unlike the derivational affixes, these inflectional suffixes are consistently
In the following two sentence frames, only a verb can be put into the empty used with all verbs, even though their form may look different from verb to
slot. verb. Because many verbs in English are irregular; as result, their –
NOUN __________ THERE ________ NOUN ed and/or –en endings may not follow any obvious pattern.
(Verb) (Verb)

Often, prefixes and suffixes (affixes) will signify that a word is a verb. For
example, the suffixes -ify, -ize, -ate, or -en usually signify that a word is a
verb, as in typify, characterize, irrigate, and sweeten. Prefixes such as be-,
de-, or en- may signify that a word is a verb, as in bestow, dethrone,
and encourage.
These affixes, often inconsistent from verb to verb, are called derivational
affixes. Added to a word, they either change the word's part of speech
Example:
or change the word's meaning
Example:
Examples:
(to write) Smith writes short stories at home. (-s ending)
Smith is writing short stories at home. (-ing ending)
Smith wrote short stories at home. (-ed ending)
Smith has written short stories at home. (-en ending)
(to buy) Jones buys a newspaper each day. (-s ending)
Jones is buying a newspaper today. (-ing ending)
Jones bought a newspaper yesterday. (-ed ending)
Jones has bought newspapers every day. (-en ending)
(to go) Students go to the library often. (-s ending)
Students are going to the library often. (-ing ending)
Students went to the library often. (-ed ending)
Students have gone to the library often. (-en ending)
The majority of verbs are regular and consistently use -ed and -en to form
their simple past tense and past participles. (e.g. talked, has talked)

Many verbs are irregular, however, and follow no consistent pattern in

creating their -ed and/or -en forms. A list of the major irregular verbs is
shown below.
The base form of a verb is derived from the verb’s infinitive: to + verb
Present Past (-ed form) Past Participle (-en form)
arise arose arisen
ask asked asked
A verb phrase is defined as the main verb together with all its auxiliaries Linking verbs: appear, taste, smell, feel, look, sound, grow, seem,
(helping verbs). remain, become
Auxiliary verbs always precede the main verb.
There are two types of auxiliary verbs:
1. Inflected auxiliary verbs:
be have do
2. Modal auxiliaries (considered more fully under (auxiliary verbs)
present past no tense
will would must
shall should
can could
may might

Examples of verb phrases:
He has taken the test.
He is taking the test.
He did take the test.
He has been taking the test.
NOTE: Most linking verbs can also be used as action verbs.
(auxiliary has + main verb take.)
(auxiliary is + main verb take)
(auxiliary do + main verb take)
(auxiliaries has been + main verb take)

Verbs may be divided into three types:

A. Action verbs - show an action -- either physical or mental

Action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.

A. A transitive verb is one that is followed by a direct object.
B. Verbs of being (forms of be - is, are, was, were, has/have/had been,
Example:
will be) - show a state of existence:

C. Linking verbs - link a subject with its complement

(A subjective complement "completes" / "equals" the subject.)
B. An intransitive verb is one that is NOT followed by a direct object. Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.
Example:
A. The indicative mood states a fact, asks a question, or exclaims.

Caution: An intransitive verb may be followed by adjectives, adverbs,

and/or prepositional phrases. As long as the verb is not followed by a noun
or pronoun functioning as the direct object, the verb is intransitive.
Example: B. The imperative mood gives a command. The subject is always "you"
understood.

C. The subjunctive mood occurs in two instances:

NOTE: Some action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive. 1. The sentence indicates a situation contrary to fact.
Example: (left)

2. The sentence
 shows a wish, desire, or demand
 in a nominal clause beginning with that
 following verbs such as desire, demand,
Another example (read): request, suggest
ADJECTIVES Examples:
Traditionally, adjectives are defined as words that
describe nouns or pronouns. When they describe nouns or
pronouns, adjectives typically answer the following questions:
What kind? Which one? How many?
For example, in the phrase Comparative and superlative forms

Tall is an adjective describing the noun man. Single-syllable adjectives use -er and -est endings to designate
Tall answers the question "which man?" or "what kind of comparative
man?" and superlative forms:
Similarly, in the phrase,
Examples:
Easy is an adjective describing the noun assignment.
Easy answers the question, "what kind of assignment?"

Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they describe,

as in the examples, tall man and easy assignment, above. Adjectives of two or more syllables use more and most for
comparative and superlative forms.
Thus, one may identify an adjective by using the following word-order test:

Examples:

*Adjectives may also follow the noun they describe.

Example:

Note: Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y may also use the -er / -

Finally, adjectives may follow a verb of being or a linking verb, est endings to designate comparative and superlative.
thus completing the noun subject
Examples

Examples:
Like nouns, adjectives are often recognizable by their suffixes.
Endings such as -ous -ful -ish -able usually
designate adjectives.
 Examples:

Note: the following adjectives do not follow the regular rules for
Forming comparative and superlative forms: good, bad, little, ill.

To create negative comparative and superlative forms, use

less for –er and least for –est

ADVERBS
Adverbs are traditionally defined as words that describe verbs.
Adverbs answer any of the following questions about verbs:
how? when? where? why?
Adverbs are the most moveable of all parts of speech; therefore, it is
sometimes difficult to identify an adverb on the basis of its position in
a sentence.
For example, the adverb slowly will fit into three places in the
sentence
He climbed the ladder:

The following examples illustrate adverbs modifying verbs:

How did he lift the barbell? Most adverbs end in -ly. In fact, most adverbs are formed by adding -ly
Easily is an adverb. to adjectives:

When will we use it?

Tomorrow functions as an adverb.

Where did she hide the key?

Nearby is an adverb.
Like adjectives of more than one syllable, adverbs usually become
comparative and superlative by using more and most.
Examples:
 To determine whether these words are functioning as adjectives or
adverbs, one must determine

1) what the word is describing (noun or verb)

2) what question the word is answering

The following examples illustrate the distinction.

Early as adjective:
Flat adverbs
Adjectives that do not change form (add -ly) to become adverbs
are called "flat adverbs." Early describes the noun train and answers the question "which one?"
Typical flat adverbs are early, late, hard, fast, long, high, low, deep, near.
Early as adverb:

Early describes the verb arrived and answers the question "when?"

Hard as adjective:

Hard describes the noun pass and answers the question "what kind?"

Hard as adverb:

Hard describes the verb threw and answers the question "how?"
PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns.

Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun stands).

KINDS OF PRONOUNS

A. Personal Pronouns:

SINGULAR PLURAL

subjective objective possessive subjective objective possessive

1st person I me my, mine we us our, ours

2nd person you you your, yours you you your, yours

3rd person he him his they them their, theirs

she her her, hers

it it its

Personal pronouns have the following characteristics:

1. three persons (points of view)

1st person - the one(s) speaking (I me my mine we us our ours)

2nd person - the one(s) spoken to (you your yours)
3rd person - the one(s) spoken about
(he him his she her hers it its they their theirs)

2. three genders
feminine (she her hers)
masculine (he him his)
neuter (it its they them their theirs)
3. two numbers

singular (I me my mine you your yours he him his she her hers it its)
plural (we us our ours you your yours they them their theirs)

4. three cases
Examples - objective case
subjective (I you he she it we they)
possessive (my mine your yours his her hers our ours their theirs)
objective (me you him her it us them)

Examples - subjective case

Examples - possessive case

B. Demonstrative Pronouns:
Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as determiners. Plural:
Example:
Hand me that hammer. (that describes the noun hammer)
Examples:
Both are expected at the airport at the same time.
Demonstrative pronouns can also be used as qualifiers: Several have suggested canceling the meeting.
Example:
She wanted that much money? (that describes the Singular with non-countables / Plural with countables:
adjective much)
Examples:
C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronouns Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug.
Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm.
These pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a word already Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive case.
there in the sentence. Examples:
The accident is nobody’s fault.
Reflexive / intensive pronouns CANNOT REPLACE personal pronouns. How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute?
Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners.
Examples:
I saw myself in the mirror. (Myself is a reflexive pronoun, reflecting the one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few, several, many, most
pronoun I.)
I’ll do it myself. (Myself is an intensive pronoun, intensifying the pronoun I.)
Note the differences:
Each person has a chance.
Note: The following words are substandard and should not be used: (Each is a determiner describing person.)
theirselves theirself hisself ourself Each has a chance.
(Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)
D. Indefinite Pronouns: Both lawyers pled their cases well.
Singular: (Both is a determiner describing lawyers.)
Both were in the room.
one someone anyone no one everyone (Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)
each somebody anybody nobody everybody

(n)either something anything nothing everything E. Interrogative Pronouns:

Examples:
Somebody is coming to dinner.
Neither of us believes a word Harry says. Interrogative pronouns produce information questions that require
more than a “yes” or “no” answer.
 Examples:
What do you want?
Who is there? Note:
F. Relative Pronouns: Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people.
Use that and which to refer to things.

Relative pronouns introduce relative (adjectival) clauses.

PREPOSITIONS at despite into since within

Prepositions are words which begin prepositional phrases. because down like through without
A prepositional phrase is a group of words containing a preposition, of
a noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. before during near throughout with
A preposition sits in front of (is “pre-positioned” before) its object. regard to
The following words are the most commonly used prepositions: behind except of to with
respect to
about below excepting off toward
above beneath for on under
across beside(s) from onto underneath
after between in out until
against beyond in front of outside up
along but inside over upon
among by in spite of past up to
around concerning instead of regarding with

It is useful to locate prepositional phrases in sentences since any noun or
pronoun within the prepositional phrase must be the preposition’s object
and, therefore, cannot be misidentified as a verb’s direct object.
To the store is a prepositional phrase.
Store is the object of the preposition to, not the direct object of the
verb drove.
Car is the direct object of the verb drove.
To the grocery store is a prepositional phrase.
NOTE:
A word that looks like a preposition but is actually part of a verb is called
a particle.
Held up is a verb meaning “to rob.”
Therefore, up is not a preposition, and bank is not the object of a
preposition.
Instead, bank is the direct object of the verb held up.
To avoid confusing prepositions with particles, test by moving the word (up)
and words following it to the front of the sentence:
Up the bank four armed men held.
If the resulting sentence does not make sense, then the word belongs with
the verb and is a particle, not a preposition.
Note the difference:
The resulting sentence makes sense. Therefore, up is a preposition.
The resulting sentence does not make sense. Therefore, up is a particle in
this sentence.
The following examples illustrate the difference between prepositions and
particles:
Some other examples of particles:
give in turn in pull through wore out broke up
go in for put in for bring up found out blow up

look up make up look over

CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words used as joiners.
Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of grammatical
structures.
The following are the kinds of conjunctions:

A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words, phrases, or
Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another: subordinate clauses creates a series and requires commas between the
words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses. elements.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent clauses creates

a compound sentence and requires a comma before the coordinating
Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other conjunction
conjunctions do.

B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
either. . .or
both. . . and
neither. . . nor
Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning not only. . . but also
or end.
These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures after each
one.

Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or subordinate
clauses, no comma should be placed before the conjunction.
 inasmuch as though
C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS in case (that) till
These conjunctions join independent clauses together.
Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so,
The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs: they make one clause dependent (or "subordinate") upon the other.
also incidentally nonetheless
after all in addition next
as a result indeed on the contrary
besides in fact on the other hand
consequently in other words otherwise
finally instead still
for example likewise then
furthermore meanwhile therefore
hence moreover thus
however nevertheless

Punctuation: Place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or
comma after the conjunctive adverb. between two clauses in a sentence.

D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between

These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions clauses than a coordinating conjunctions does.
Loose:
after in order (that) unless It is raining, so we have an umbrella.
although insofar as until Tight:
as in that when Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.
as far as lest whenever
as soon as no matter how where Punctuation Note:
as if now that wherever
When the dependent clause is
as though once whether
placed first in a sentence, use a
because provided (that) while comma between the two
before since why clauses. When the
even if so that independent clause is placed
even though supposing (that) first and the dependent clause;
how than second, do not separate the
if that two clauses with a comma.
DETERMINERS
Determiners signal (“determine”) that a noun will follow. Unlike adjectives, Types of determiners
which also signal that a noun will follow, determiners cannot add the 1. articles (the hat, a hat, an opera)
inflectional morphemes -er and -est. In addition, because they are function
words, determiners do not have other forms or synonyms. Their "meaning" 2. possessive nouns / pronouns (Mary’s hat, her hat)
is their function: to signal that a noun will follow. 3. numbers (five hats, eight hats, twenty hats)
The following examples illustrate the difference: 4. indefinite pronouns (each hat ,some hats, both hats)
Determiner + noun tea 5. demonstrative pronouns (that hat, those hats)

Native speakers of English learn when to use articles with nouns as they
learn to speak.
However, learning when to use articles is often difficult for non-native
speakers.
Adjective + noun tea
The difference between article use with town and city illustrates the
difficulty:

Correct: I walked to the town. (article the before town)

Note that each adjective has a distinct meaning. Correct: I walked to town. (no article before town)
In addition, each adjective may add its comparative (-er) and
superlative (-est) form Correct: I walked to the city. (article the before city)
Incorrect: I walked to city. (no article before city)
QUALIFIERS / INTENSIFIERS Interrogatives introduce questions when
Qualifiers / intensifiers are words like very, too, so, quite, rather.
Qualifiers are function parts of speech. They do not add inflectional 1. the question requires more than a yes or no answer
morphemes, and they do not have synonyms. Their sole purpose is to Examples
"qualify" or "intensify" an adjective or an adverb.
Qualifiers / intensifiers modify adjectives or adverbs, telling to what degree.

2. the verb phrase has at least one auxiliary or is a be verb

Examples

INTERROGATIVES