Physics Project Work

By-Pransh Singh Kohli

Class- 12 –B
th

Roll no.-7285/9
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Pransh Singh Kohli of class 12th -B. Session: 2012-13
prepared the project entitled “fire alarm” under my general supervision for
partial fulfillment of the requirement of the 12th class project completion.

The content of this project is based on the candidate’s original research &
investigation. His attitude & interest shown in completion of his study is
highly appreciable.

Miss Nashi Jain

(P.G.T Physics)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

There is always a sense of gratitude one expresses to others for the helpful and
needy service they render during all phases of life. I have completed this project
with the help of different personalities. I wish to express my gratitude towards all
of them.

It gives me immense pleasure to express my deep regards and sincere sense of

gratitude to my physics teacher-Miss Nashi Jain for her valuable guidance
throughout the making of this project. Thank you madam for your able and worthy
guidance.

I would also like to thank my guide Mr.Pradeep for steering my confidence and
capability with the lab work.

Pransh Singh Kohli

EDDY CURRENT WORKING PRINCIPLE

Eddy current testing is used to find surface and near surface defects in conductive
materials. It is used by the aviation industry for detection of defects such as cracks,
corrosion damage, thickness verification, and for materials characterization such as
metal sorting and heat treatment verification. Applications range from fuselage and
structural inspection, engines, landing gear, and wheels. Eddy current inspection
involves initial setup and calibration procedures with known reference standards of
the same material as the part. Probes of appropriate design and frequency must be
used.

Eddy current inspection is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. An

electric coil in which an alternating current is flowing is placed adjacent to the part.
Since the method is based on induction of electromagnetic fields, electrical contact
is not required.
Figure 1. Schematic of Eddy Current absolute probe

An alternating current flowing through the coil produces a primary magnetic field
that induces eddy currents in the part. Energy is needed to generate the eddy
currents, and this energy shows up as resistance losses in the coil. Typical NDE
application are designed to measure these resistance losses. Eddy currents flow
within closed loops in the part.
Figure 2. Diagram illustrating Eddy Currents created in a port

As a result of eddy currents, a second magnetic field is generated in the material.

The magnetic fields of the core interact with those in the part and changes in the
material being inspected affect the interaction of the magnetic fields.

The interaction, in turn, affects the electrical characteristics of the coil. Resistance
and inductive reactance add up to the total impedance of the coil. Changes in the
electrical impedance of the coil are measured by commercial eddy current
instruments.

So, what does all of this have to do with nondestructive testing?

The main method used in eddy current inspection is one in which the response of
the sensor depends on conductivity and permeability of the test material and the
frequency selected.

How eddy currents are created and sensed:

- An alternating current creates a magnetic field (Oersted's Law).
- The magnetic field causes a resulting eddy current in a part, which creates an
induced magnetic field (Faraday's Law).
- The magnetic field from the coil is opposed to the induced magnetic field from
the eddy current.
- A defect (surface or near surface) modifies the eddy current and therefore the
magnetic field as well.
- This change in the magnetic field is detected by a sensor and is indicative of a
flaw.

How far do the eddy currents penetrate into a test piece?

The strength of the response from a flaw is greatest at the surface of the material
being tested, and decreases with depth into the material. The "Standard depth of
penetration" is mathematically defined as the point when the eddy current is 1/e or
37% of its surface value. The "effective depth of penetration" is defined as three
times the standard depth of penetration, where the eddy current has fallen to about
3% of its surface value. At this depth there is no effective impact on the eddy
current and a valid inspection is not feasible.
Penetration depth will:
- Decrease with an increase in conductivity
- Decrease with an increase in permeability
- Decrease with an increase in frequency

Conductivity is sensitive to cracks and material inhomogeneities

- Cracks
- Defects
- Voids
- Scattering of electrons

Magnetic permeability is much more sensitive to structural changes in magnetic

materials
- Dislocations
- Residual stress
- Second phases
- Precipitates

Frequency selection will greatly affect eddy current response. Selection of the
proper frequency is the essential test factor under the control of the test operator.
The frequency selected affects not only the strength of the response from flaws and
the effective depth of penetration, but also the phase relationship.
How do we measure eddy current response?
Eddy current response is viewed on an oscilloscope display, showing the
impedance response (Z) from the test material, which is affected by factors
depending on the specimen and experimental conditions.

Specimen conditions affecting response:

- Electrical conductivity
- Magnetic permeability (unmagnetized ferromagnetic materials can become
magnetized, resulting in large changes in impedance)
- Specimen thickness - thickness should be limited to less then three times the
standard depth of penetration

Experimental conditions affecting response

- AC frequency
- Electromagnetic coupling between the coil and the specimen - a small liftoff has
a pronounced effect
- Inspection coil size
- Number of turns within the coil itself
- Coil type

On an impedance plane diagram the signal of the resistance (R) component is

displayed on the X axis and the inductive reactance (XL) component is displayed
on the Y axis.
Figure 3. Electrical Conductivity changes for typical materials.

Thickness changes in a sample can change the impedance response on an

oscilloscope. Defects such as corrosion are found in this fashion.
Figure 4. Changes in conductivity curve due to thinning of a part

Figure 5. Changes in conductivity curve due to corrosion damage

There are two basic types of coil probes used in eddy current inspection; the
absolute probe and the differential probe.
An absolute probe consists of a single pickup coil which can be fashioned in a
variety of shapes. Absolute probes are very good for sorting metals and detection
of cracks in many situations. Absolute coils can detect both sharp changes in
impedance and gradual changes. They are however, sensitive to material
variations, temperature changes, etc.

Figure 6. Typical response for samples of different conductivity

A differential probe consists of two coils sensing different areas of the material
being tested, which are linked electrically in opposition. The circuit will become
unbalanced when one of the coils encounters a change in impedance. The response
to this change in impedance creates what is known as a Lissajous figure. In
general, the closer the element spacing the wider the "loop" in the signal.
Differential probes are relatively unaffected by lift-off as long as the elements are
balanced, and are suited for detection of small defects.
Figure 7. Diagram of response of a differential probe over a defect

The differential probe's nature allows for greater resolution of sharp

discontinuities, however it makes it less likely to distinguish gradual changes in
material.

Lift Off
Lift-off from paint, coatings, etc. can cause variations that may mask the defects of
interest.

Lift-off may also be useful in determining the thickness of nonconductive coatings

on a conductive component
Figure 8. Response of a probe due to lift off