NF

24 Computer Communication Network
Unit 2: Data Communication

Notes
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Data Transmission Concepts and Terminology
2.2.1 Transmission Concepts
2.2.2 Transmission Terminology
2.3 Data Encoding Techniques
2.3.1 Digital Data to Digital Signals
2.3.2 Digital Data to Analog Signals
2.3.3 Analog Data to Digital Signal
2.3.4 Analog Data to Analog Signals
2.4 Digital Data Communication Techniques
2.4.1 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
2.4.2 Transmission Errors
2.4.3 Error Detection Techniques
2.5 Multiplexing
2.6 Summary
2.7 Check Your Progress
2.8 Questions and Exercises
2.9 Key Terms
2.10 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe the digital transmission concept and technology
 Discuss different encoding technique
 Explain digital communication technique
2.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will study the concept of data transmission. The conveyance, or
transmission, of information across a distance necessarily involves some form of
transmission medium. The selection of physical transmission media that serve to
transport the information is critical to its successful conveyance. You will study data
encoding techniques and digital data communication techniques.
The utilisation of data transmission facilities makes the process of the collection and
dissemination of information faster and allows subscribers with low-cost terminal
equipment in order to enjoy the services provided by huge computer centres.
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

Data Communication 25
2.2 Data Transmission Concepts and Terminology
In this section, you will learn about the data transmission concept and terminology. The Notes
transmission of an electrical signal requires the use of a transmission medium, which
normally takes the form of a transmission line. There are various ways to transmit the
signal. These ways can be broadly categorised into guided and unguided media. The
guided media includes all wired media, also referred to as conducted or bounded
media. The second category includes all traditional wireless media, also referred to as
radiated, or unbounded. In the transmission of signal the data is encoded to energy and
then energy is transmitted. Similarly, at the receiving end the energy is decoded back to
data. This energy can be electrical, light and radio, etc. Therefore this transmitted
energy is carried through some sort of medium, which depends upon the type of energy
being transmitted. Each form of energy has different properties and requirements for
transmission. This requires special hardware for data encoding and connection to
transmission medium. Media can be copper, glass and air, etc.
2.2.1 Transmission Concepts

Before discussing different kinds of transmission medium, it becomes necessary to
know a little about the basic concepts and terminology associated with the transmission
of a signal.
Frequency Spectrum
In the transmission of data the range of carrier frequencies depends on the nature of
the medium and the requirements of the applications supported. Therefore, frequency
spectrum may be defined as the range of frequencies being supported by a particular
transmission medium. The actual range of frequencies supporting a given
communication is known as a pass band.
Bandwidth
You must understand that in a very general way bandwidth may be defined as the
range of frequencies assigned to a channel. In other words, you may say that
bandwidth is the difference, expressed in Hertz, between the highest and the lowest
frequencies of a band. In general, the higher the bandwidth, the more will be the data
transmission rate or throughput. It should be noted that bandwidth and data
transmission rate are very closely interrelated to each other. Clearly, any transmission
system becomes more attractive if the available bandwidth is greater, introduced errors
are fewer, and the maximum distance between various network elements (amplifiers,
repeaters, and antennae) is greater.
Distances
The higher frequency signals offer greater bandwidth; they also generally suffer to a
greater extent from signal attenuation than lower frequencies. This fact results in more
errors in transmission, unless the amplifiers/repeaters are spaced more closely
together. It clearly demonstrates the close and direct relationship between bandwidth,
distance, and error performance.
Bandwidth, in this context, refers to the raw amount of bandwidth the medium
supports. Error performance refers to the number or percentage of errors, which are
introduced in the process of transmission. Distance refers to the minimum and
maximum spatial separation between devices over a link, in the context of a complete,
end-to-end circuit.
Propagation Delay
It is important for you to note that propagation delay refers to the length of time required
for a signal to travel from transmitter to receiver across a transmission system. While
electromagnetic energy travels at roughly the speed of light (30,000 km per second) in
free space. In contrast, the speed of propagation for twisted pair or coaxial cable is a

fraction of this figure. The nature of the transmission system will have considerable
impact on the level of propagation delay. In other words, the total length of the circuit
Notes directly influences the length of time it takes for the signal to reach the receiver.
Security
Security, in the context of transmission systems, addresses the protection of data from
interception as it transverses the network. Particularly in the case of data networking, it
also is important that access to a remote system and the data resident on it be limited to
authorized users.
Resistance to Environmental Conditions

Resistance to Environmental Conditions applies most especially to wired systems.
Twisted pair, coaxial, and fibre optic cables are manipulated physically as they are
deployed and reconfigured. Clearly, each has certain physical limits to the amount of
bending and twisting (flex strength) they can tolerate, as well as the amount of weight or
longitudinal stress they can support (tensile strength), without breaking (break strength).
Fibre optic cables are notoriously susceptible in this regard. Cables hung from poles
expand and contract with changes in ambient temperature; while glass fibre optic
cables expand and contract relatively little, twisted pair copper wire is more expansive.
The issue of Resistance to Environmental Conditions also applies to airwave
systems, as reflective dishes, antennae, and other devices used in microwave, satellite,
and infrared technologies must be mounted securely to deal with wind and other forces
of nature. Additionally, the towers, walls and roofs on which they are mounted must be
constructed and braced properly in order to withstand such forces.
Physical Dimensions
It will be interesting for you to know that the physical dimensions of a transmission
system must be considered as well. This is especially true, once again, in the case of
wired systems. Certainly, the sheer weight of a cable system must be considered as
one attempts to deploy it effectively. Additionally, the bulk (diameter) of the cable is of
importance, as conduit and raceway space often is at a premium. The physical
dimensions of airwave systems also must be considered, as the size and weight of the
reflective dish and mounting system (e.g., bracket and tower) may require support.
Cost and Ease of Installation

You need to know that cost issues abound in the selection of an appropriate
transmission medium. Such issues include the cost of acquisition, deployment,
operation, and maintenance (O&M), and upgrade or replacement. Without a lengthy
discussion of each cost issue, it is particularly noteworthy to compare the costs of
deployment of wired versus wireless media.
Wired transmission systems require that a right-of-way and this should be secured.
Wired transmission involves a cost component in the form infrastructure. The
infrastructure includes digging of trenches and boring of holes under streets so that
cable can be pulled and poles may be mounted. In addition, amplifiers or repeaters may
be placed. Such costs are not trivial. Unlike wired system, wireless systems require
secured right-of-way and antennae. It may be inferred that the deployment of wired
systems certainly speak to a set of cost issues that often can be more problematic.
2.2.2 Transmission Terminology

You must understand that data transmission takes place between a transmitter and
receiver through some medium. You can classify transmission media as guided or
unguided media. In each case, communication is done in the form of electromagnetic
waves.

 Guided media: Guided media is the one where you can use any path for
communication such as cables. Example: Guided media are twisted pair, coaxial
cable, and optical fibre. Notes
 Unguided/wireless media: Unguided media is also known as wireless media
where any physical path is not used for transmission. Example: Examples are
propagation through air, vacuum, and seawater.
 Direct link (guided & unguided): The term direct link refers to the path of
transmission between two devices in which signals are propagated directly from
transmitter to receiver with no intermediate devices, except repeaters or amplifiers
which are used for increasing the strength of a signal.
 Point-to-point (guided): A guided transmission medium is said to be point to point
if it offers a direct link between two devices and the medium is shared by only these
two devices.
 Multi-point: A multipoint guided configuration is the one in which more than two
devices share the same medium.
A transmission may be simplex, half duplex, or full duplex.

 Simplex: It is a communication mode in which signals are transmitted in only one
direction. One station is considered as transmitter and the other is considered as
receiver.
 Half duplex: It is a communication mode in which both stations may transmit, but
only one at a time.
 Full duplex: It is a communication mode in which both stations may transmit at the
same time, and the medium is carrying signals in both the directions
simultaneously.
2.3 Data Encoding Techniques

This section emphasises on the data encoding techniques. Both analog and digital
information can be encoded as either analog or digital signals. The particular encoding
that is chosen depends on the specific requirements to be met and the media and
communications facilities available.
2.3.1 Digital Data to Digital Signals

You may already be aware that a digital signal is defined as a sequence of discrete and
discontinuous voltage pulses. Every pulse is a signal element. Encoding scheme is
considered as a significant factor in how effectively the receiver understands the
incoming signal. The techniques used for converting digital data to digital signals are
discussed below.
Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

Non return to zero (NRZ) codes includes the property that voltage level is constant
throughout a bit interval.
High level voltage = bit 1
and
Low level voltage = bit 0
A problem takes place when a long sequence of 0s or 1s is there and the voltage
level is maintained at the same value for a long period of time. This generates a
difficulty on the receiving end because now, the clock synchronisation is lost as a result
of deficiency of any transitions. Thus, it is problematic to find out the exact number of 0s
or 1s in this sequence.

You must note that the two variations are discussed below:
Notes 1. NRZ-Level: In this level of encoding, the signal’s polarity changes only when the
incoming signal changes from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. This technique looks just like
the NRZ technique, excluding the first input one data bit. This is because NRZ-L
considers the first data bit to be a polarity change. Where NRZ does not.
2. NRZ-Inverted (NRZ-I): Transition that takes place at the beginning of bit interval is
equal to bit 1 and when no transition takes place at beginning of bit interval is equal
to bit 0 or vice-versa. This technique is called differential encoding.
NRZ-I has a benefit over NRZ-L. Assume a situation where two data wires are
erroneously connected in each other's position. In case of NRZ-L, every bit sequence
will get reversed. This is because voltage levels get swapped. On the other hand, as the
bits in case of NRZ-I are recognised by transition, the bits will be interpreted correctly.
In case of NRZ codes, a drawback is that a string of 0's or 1's will avoid synchronization
of transmitter clock with receiver clock and a separate clock line is required to be
provided.
Biphase Encoding
You need to keep in mind that it consists of the following characteristics:
1. As there is an expectable transition during every bit time, the receiver can perform
synchronization on that transition. That is, clock is extracted from the signal itself.
2. As a transition can take place at the beginning and in the middle of the bit interval,
the clock functions at twice the data transfer rate.
Now you will understand the different types of encoder.
Biphase-manchester: In case of Biphase-manchester, transition from high to low
in middle of interval is equal to 1 and transition from low to high in middle of interval is
equal to 0.
Differential-manchester: This technique is also known as Conditioned Diphase
encoding (CDP). In this type of encoding, data and clock signals are combined to
produce a single self-synchronizing data stream.
4B/5B Encoding: In case of Manchester encoding scheme, there is a transition
after each bit. It signifies that it is must to have clocks with double the speed in order to
send same amount of data as in NRZ encodings. Alternatively, you can say that only
50% of the data is sent. We can improve this performance factor substantially if a better
encoding scheme is used. This method may have a transition after fixed number of bits
rather than every other bit. If you have a transition after every four bits, then it signifies
that you will be sending 80% data of actual capacity. This is considered as a significant
enhancement in the performance.
This method is known as 4B/5B. In this method, we convert 4-bits to 5-bits,
assuring at least one transition in them. Here, the fundamental idea is that the 5-bit
code selected must have:
one leading 0
no more than two trailing 0s
Therefore, it is assured that more than three consecutive 0s cannot exist. Now these
5-bit codes are transmitted by means of NRZI coding. Thus problem of consecutive 1s
is solved.

The exact transformation is shown below.
Table 1.1: Transformation Information Notes
4-bit Data 5-bit code 4-bit Data 5-bit code
0000 11110 1000 10010
0001 01001 1001 10011
0010 10100 1010 10110
0011 10101 1011 10111
0100 01010 1100 11010
0101 01011 1101 11011
0110 01110 1110 11100
0111 01111 1111 11101
Out of the remaining 16 codes, 7 are unacceptable and others are utilised to send
some control information such as line dead(00000), line idle(11111), Halt(00100) etc.
Other variants for this scheme include 5B/6B, 8B/10B etc. These variants have self-
suggesting names.
8B/6T Encoding: In the schemes discussed above, we have used two/three
voltage levels for a signal. However, more than three voltage levels can be used
altogether. This allows us to send more than one bit over a single signal. If we utilise six
voltage levels and 8-bits, then the scheme is known as 8B/6T. Here, we have 729(3^6)
combinations for signal and 256(2^8) combinations for bits.
Bipolar AIM
In case of Bipolar AIM, there are three voltage levels: middle, upper, lower.
Representation 1: Middle level =0 Upper, Lower level =1 such that successive 1's
will be represented alternately on upper and lower levels.
Representation 2: Middle level =1 Upper, Lower level=0
2.3.2 Digital Data to Analog Signals

A modem (modulator-demodulator) converts digital data to analog signal. There are
three ways to modulate a digital signal on an analog carrier signal.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): is a form of modulation, which represents digital
data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. Two different amplitudes of carrier
frequency represent ‘0’, '1'.
Figure 1.1: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): In Frequency Shift Keying, the change in
frequency defines different digits. Two different frequencies near carrier frequency
Notes represent ‘0’,''1'.
Figure 1.2: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK

Phase Shift Keying (PSK): The phase of the carrier is discretely varied in relation
either to a reference phase or to the phase of the immediately preceding signal
element, in accordance with data being transmitted. Phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent ‘0’, '1'.
Figure 1.3: Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
2.3.3 Analog Data to Digital Signal

The process is called digitization. Sampling frequency must be at least twice that of
highest frequency present in the signal so that it may be fairly regenerated.
Quantisation – Max. and min. values of amplitude in the sample are noted. Depending
on number of bits (say n) we use the interval (min, max) can be divided into 2(^n)
number of levels. The amplitude is then approximated to the nearest level by 'n' bit
integer. The digital signal thus consists of blocks of n bits. On reception the process is
reversed to produce analog signal.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): Here intervals are equally spaced. 8 bit PCB uses
256 different levels of amplitude. In non-linear encoding levels may be unequally
spaced.
Delta Modulation (DM): Since successive samples do not differ very much we
send the differences between previous and present sample. It requires fewer bits than
in PCM.

2.3.4 Analog Data to Analog Signals
Analog data are modulated by a carrier frequency to generate an analogue signal in a Notes
different frequency band, which can be used on an analogue transmission system. The
basic techniques are:
Amplitude modulation: Two different voltage levels are used to represent 0 and 1,
respectively.
Frequency modulation: Two (or more) different tones are used.
Phase modulation: The carrier wave is systematically shifted certain degrees at
uniformly spaced intervals.
2.4 Digital Data Communication Techniques

In this section, you must note the digital data communication techniques. The
transmission of a stream of bits from one device to another across a transmission link
includes a high amount of co-operation and agreement among the two sides. One of the
most significant requirements is synchronization. It is must for the receiver to know the
rate at which bits are being received. This can sample the line at suitable intervals in
order to determine the value of every received bit. For this purpose, two techniques are
in common use. These techniques are Asynchronous transmission and Synchronous
Transmission.
2.4.1 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

You will now understand the concept of asynchronous and synchronous transmission.
Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, small blocks of bits (usually bytes) are sent at a time
with no time relation among consecutive bytes .When no transmission takes place, a
default state is maintained corresponding to bit 1. Because of arbitrary delay between
consecutive bytes, the time incidences of the clock pulses at the receiving end need to
be synchronized for every byte. This is attained by providing two extra bits, that is, start
and stop.
 Start bit: Start bit is prefixed to each byte and equals 0. Therefore, it assures a
transition from 1 to 0 at onset of byte transmission. You can use the leading edge of
start bit as a reference for generating clock pulses at necessary sampling instants.
Therefore, every onset of a byte leads to resynchronization of receiver clock.
 Stop bit: To assure that the transition from 1 to 0 is always available at the
beginning of a byte, it is essential that default state should be 1. However, there
may be two bytes, one immediately following the other and if last bit of first byte is
0, transition from 1 to 0 will not take place. Thus, a stop bit is suffixed to each byte
equalling 1. Its duration is generally 1, 1.5, 2 bits.
Asynchronous transmission is considered as simple and inexpensive. However, it
needs an overhead of 3 bits, that is, for 7 bit code 2 (start, stop bits) + 1 parity bit
implying 30% overhead. Nevertheless, % can be reduced by sending larger blocks of
data, but then timing errors among receiver and sender cannot be tolerated beyond
[50/no. of bits in block] % (assuming sampling is done at middle of bit interval). Apart
from resulting in incorrect sampling, it also misalign bit count, that is, a data bit can be
mistaken for stop bit if the clock of receiver is faster.
Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, larger blocks of bits are transmitted in a successful
manner. Blocks of data are either considered as sequence of bits or bytes. In order to
avoid timing drift, clocks at two ends are required to be synchronised. This can
performed in two ways:

1. Offer a separate clock line between receiver and transmitter. OR

2. Embed the clocking information in data signal i.e. biphase coding for digital signals.
Notes
Still it required another level of synchronization so that receiver determines
beginning or end of data block. Thus, every block starts with a start code and ends with
a stop code. Some control characters include data within these flags. Data and control
information is known as a frame. As any arbitrary bit pattern can be transmitted, there is
no guarantee that bit pattern for flag will not appear inside the frame thus demolishing
frame level synchronization. Thus, you can use bit stuffing in order to avoid this.
Bit Stuffing: Let us assume that our flag bits are 01111110 (six 1's). So, the
transmitter will always insert an extra 0 bit after each occurrence of five 1's (except for
flags). After identifying a starting flag, the bit stream is monitored by the receiver. If
pattern of five 1's appear, the sixth is observed and if it is 0, it is deleted else if it is 1
and next is 0, then the combination is accepted as a flag. Likewise, byte stuffing is
utilised for byte oriented transmission. Here we use an escape sequence to prefix a
byte similar to flag and 2 escape sequences if byte is itself an escape sequence.
A network is connection of independent computers to communicate with one
another over a shared network medium. The physical layer deals with transmission
medium to transport information in the form of bits between different computers on the
network. The Physical layer is responsible for communicating 0’s and 1’s across a
medium by varying some sort of physical property such as voltage or current. This layer
also ensures the reliable delivery of bits. It means that when sending side sends a 1 bit,
it is received by the receiving side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Hence, it defines the
electrical and mechanical aspects of interfacing to a physical medium for transmitting
data, as well as setting up, maintaining, and disconnecting physical links. It is primarily
concerned with moving bits from one node to next over the physical link. The issues
concerning with the physical layer involve amplitude of the pulses to define 1 and 0
level, width of the pulse in microseconds, types and mode of communications,
establishment and breaking of connections at the time of communications, types of
connectors, etc.
It accepts data from the Data Link layer in bit streams for the subsequent
transmission over the physical medium. At this layer, the mechanical (connector type),
electrical (voltage levels), functional (ping assignments), and procedural (handshake)
characteristics are defined. RS-232C/D is an example of a physical layer definition. The
bit stream is represented as a function of time and can be analyzed mathematically.
Analysis is required to know the physical characteristics of a signal as it travels across
some physical media. Even, if there are some changes in the properties of the signal,
how it can be reproduced in its original form so that the receiver receives it as sent by
sender.
Factors Determining the Rate of Data Transmission
Baud Rate
The baud rate determines how fast the signal changes value or its amplitude. The baud
rate is computed as the number of times per second the signal switches as it’s
transmitting a string of alternating 0’s and 1’s. A higher data rate can be achieved by
switching the amplitude of the signal faster. The amplitude may be voltage. In digital
notation, +5 Volt signifies 1 and – 5 Volt signifies 0. Baud rate is different from data rate.
Channel characteristics are the major factors determining the rate of data transmission.
A channel may be defined as a path between transmitter and receiver. This path may
be logical or physical in nature. It may also be hard wired or wireless. The path provides
a passage for the information or data from transmitter to receiver with certain amount of
loss of information or data, which may be reproduced with other techniques. In some
cases, the information may not be reproduced or the information may not reach at
receiver at all. Such kinds of phenomenon may be very well understood from the
following channel characteristic issues:

Channel Noise
It is a small amount of background interference presents on the channel or unwanted Notes
electrical or electromagnetic energy that carries no data or information but interferes
with the information or data. Hence, noise degrades the quality of information and data
by affecting files and communications of all types, including text, programs, images,
audio, and telemetry. Here, information and data may be treated as signal in either
electrical or electromagnetic form. If it is more than a threshold value, the data or
information may not be reproduced at the receiver end. Therefore, this may be
considered as the main source for transmission errors.
The noise may be classified as external or internal noise based upon the sources.
External noise is generally picked up from electrical appliances in the vicinity, from
electrical transformers, from the atmosphere, and even from outer space. Normally, this
noise does not hamper the performance very seriously. However, if there are a number
of electrical appliances are in use or heavy current machines, external noise can affect
communications. It also makes impact on communication during severe thunderstorms.
A remarkably good external noise slows down the data transfer rate. In a voice
telephone conversation, noise rarely sounds like anything other than a faint hissing or
rushing.
The external noise is generally in inverse proportional to the frequency and in direct
proportional to the wavelength and therefore has a remarkable impact in wireless
systems than in hard-wired systems. The noise generated because of electricity or
atmospheric disturbances is of the order of 300 kHz that is quite lower than the high
frequency range of 300 MHz and therefore may have more interference with the signal
or information.
Noise generated inside channel or receivers, known as internal noise. Internal noise
is less dependent on frequency but have a significant affect at higher frequency
because external noise has less effecting at these frequencies. Minimizing the signal
bandwidth may contain the internal noise but this will limit the maximum speed of the
data that can be delivered. Internal noise is fairly low in case of digital signal
processing, fiber optics technology.
Noise is measured in terms of the signal to noise ratio S/N or SNR with decibels
(dB) as unit. Hence a low ratio implies that it is not worth paying attention to the medium
in question. The signal to noise ratio is calculated as follows:
SNR = 20 log 10 (Signal/Noise) dB
Channel Bandwidth
Channel bandwidth may be defined as the size of the range of frequencies that can be
transmitted through a channel. In other words we may define it as the volume of
information per unit time that a computer, person, or transmission medium can handle.
It is measured in Hertz (Hz). Bandwidth is expressed as data speed in bits per second
(bps) in digital systems while as the difference between highest frequency to lowest
frequency in analog system. Bandwidth determines how fast data flows on a given
transmission path. It is determined as the amount of data transmitted or received per
unit time. As it has already been explained in noise that low bandwidth signal produces
less internal noise compared to high bandwidth signal therefore these are preferred.
However in this case, we have to sacrifice data transmission speed. Therefore, a trade-
off is required to be determined based on the performance requirements.
Bandwidth is affected by the type and physical characteristics of media used,
amount of noise present in transmission channel and data encoding method used.
Transmission of Bits (Bit Rate)

Channel data transmission rate is determined by the maximum number of bits that can
be transmitted per unit time through the physical medium. It is measured in bits per
second (bps). H Nyquist gave the maximum data rate of a noiseless channel in 1924.
Further, C Shannon extended the work of H Nyquist and proposed a data rate for
random noise.
Notes
Nyquist stated that if an arbitrary signal has been run through a low pass filter of
bandwidth H, the filtered signal can be reconstructed by sampling the signal twice the
frequency of the signal. Mathematically,
Maximum data rate = 2H log2W/second
where W represents the number of discrete levels in the signal
Shannon’s Theorem
The above is a case of a noiseless channel. If random (internal) noise is present the
situation deteriorates rapidly. As we have already explained that SNR is given by a
quantity 10 log10S/N dB.
Shannon’s theorem computes the maximum data rate for channels having noise. All
real channels have certain amount of noise. According to Shannon’s theorem, the
maximum data rate of a noisy channel of bandwidth H, signal-to-noise ratio of S/N is
given by:
Maximum data rate = H log2 (1 + S/N)
Channel Capacity
It is the amount of information per unit time handled by either a link or a node (system,
element). The messages transmitted may be either similar or different. It is usually
measured in bits per second.
Transmission Time
It is the time required transmitting a message through the channel. It is the size of the
message in bits divided by the data rate in bits per second (bps) of the channel over
which the transmission takes place. It is also given as the packet length divided by the
channel capacity.
Propagation Time (Channel Latency)

The amount of time needed for information to propagate from source to destination
through the channel. It is the distance divided by the signal propagation speed (usually
the speed of light). Channel latency depends on media characteristics, signal
propagation speed, and transmission distance.
Throughput
Throughput may be defined as the number of bits, characters, or blocks passing
through a data communication system over a period of time.
Throughput = Packet length in bits/Transmission time + Propagation time
Channel Utilization
Channel utilization is nothing but the fraction of the channel’s data rate actually used to
transmit data. From the throughput it is observed that the propagation time and
transmission time are two different parameters which are respectively depended upon
the path length and packet length (number of bits in a message).
Hence,
Channel Utilization = a/1+a
Where a is given as the ratio of propagation time and transmission time and is
known as bit length.

We may now consider an example to understand the above concepts. Suppose a
channel data transmission rate as 10Mbps and time taken by one bit to transmit through
-7 8
channel as 10 seconds. The signal propagation speed in the medium is 2x 10 m/s. Notes
-7 7
The transmission rate is 1bit/10 seconds that is equal to 10 bit per second (bps).
8 7
Therefore bit length will be equal to 2x 10 m/s/10 bps which is equal to 20 meters.
Framing and Errors

The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI model, above the Physical Layer,
which ensures that the error free data is transferred between the adjacent nodes in the
network. It breaks the datagrams passed down by above layers and convert them into
frames ready for transfer. This is called Framing. It provides two main functionalities
1. Reliable data transfer service between two peer network layers
2. Flow Control mechanism which regulates the flow of frames such that data
congestion is not there at slow receivers due to fast senders.
Generally two kinds of problems are associated in transmission of signals.
 Attenuation: When a signal transmits in a network then the quality of signal
degrades as the signal travels longer distances in the wire. This is called
attenuation. To improve quality of signal amplifiers are used at regular distances.
 Noise: In a communication channel many signals transmits simultaneously, certain
random signals are also present in the medium. Due to interference of these signals
our signal gets disrupted a bit.
Limitations of Real Hardware

1. Longer wire and its external interference may make signal look even worse.
2. RS-232 standard specifies how precise a waveform the transmitter must generate,
and how tolerant the receiver must be of imprecise waveform.
Significance of Data Networks

A network is connection of independent computers to communicate with one another
over a shared network medium. A network may be consisted of two or more computers.
In other words, computer networks are collections of computers, software and
hardware, which are connected to share resources together. A network connects
computers using transmission media either in the forms of cables or wireless,
specialized software and devices that manage data traffic. It enables to share files and
resources, such as printers and send messages electronically to each other. Thus, the
term computer network applies to the exchange of information among computers of
individuals, groups or institutions and helps in processing of electronic voice or data
communications.
Computer Networks have rapidly become an integral part of human life and in many
cases, computer networks are considered as the solution to every problem not only
within business but also in day-to-day life. The main purpose of computer networks is to
enable people to exchange data and information over email, LAN, Intranet or Extranet
etc. At the basic level, computer networks share resources, such as printers and
storage space.
2.4.2 Transmission Errors

In this section, you will study the concept of error control and error detection.
Error Control and Error Detection

It involves sequencing frames and sending control frames for acknowledgement. A
noisy channel may cause flipping of bits, losing bits from a frame, introducing new bits
in the frame, frames completely disappearing, etc. during communication. For reliable

communication, the destination host sends positive or negative acknowledgements

accordingly to the source host within a specified time limit. The source host has a
Notes timeout to resend the frame again if it does not receive an acknowledgement in a given
time period from destination host. Also, each outgoing frame is assigned a sequence
number to prevent the destination host data link layer from passing the same frame
more than once to the network layer. This entire affair is an integral part of data link
layer design.
You must now recognise that the bit stream transmitted by the physical layer is not
guaranteed to be error free. The data link layer is responsible for error detection and
correction. The most common error control method is to compute and append some
form of a checksum to each outgoing frame at the sender's data link layer and to
recompute the checksum and verify it with the received checksum at the receiver's side.
If both of them match, then the frame is correctly received; else it is erroneous. The
checksums may be of two types:
1. Error detecting: Receiver can only detect the error in the frame and inform the
sender about it.
2. Error detecting and correcting: The receiver can not only detect the error but also
correct it.
Probability, Mathematics and Error Detection

The error function also occurs in mathematics which is also known as Gauss error
function. It is a special kind of function having sigmoid shape that occurs in statistics,
probability, partial differential equations, etc.
Types of Error Control

You may already remember that whenever a signal flows from one place to a different,
it's subject to unpredictable interference from heat, magnetism, and different kinds of
electricity. This interference will modify the form or timing of the signal. If the signal is
carrying encoded binary information, such changes will alter the meanings of the
information. In a single-bit error, a zero is modified to a one or a one to a zero. In a
burst error, multiple bits area units are modified.
Example: A 0.01 second burst of impulse noise on a transmission with a data rate
of 1200 bps might change all or some of 12 bits of information.
The types of error are follows:
1. Single-Bit-Error: The term single-bit error means that only bit of a given data unit
(such as a byte, character, data unit, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to
1. Single-bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial data transmission. To
see why, imagine a sender sends data at 1 Mbps. This means that each bit lasts
only 1/1,000,000 second, or 1 us. For a single-bit error to occur, the noise must
have duration of only 1 us, which is very rare; noise normally lasts much longer than
this. However, a single-bit error can happen if you are sending data, using parallel
transmission. Example: If eight wires are noisy, one bit can be corrupted in each
byte. Think of parallel transmission inside a computer, between CPU and memory,
for example.
2. Burst Error: The term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit have
changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. Figure 2.17 shows the effect of a burst error on
a data unit. In this case, 0100010001000011 was sent, but 0101110101000011 was
receiver. Note that a burst error does not necessarily mean that the errors occur in
consecutive bits. The length of the burst is measured from the first corrupted bit to
the last corrupted bit. Some of them have not been corrupted. Burst error is most
likely to happen in a serial transmission. The duration of noise is normally longer
than the duration of a bit, which means that when noise affects data, it affects a set
of bits. The number of bits affected depends on the data rate and duration of noise.
Example: If you are sending data at 1 Kbps, a noise of 1/100 seconds can affect 10
bits; if you are sending data at 1 Mbps, the same noise can affect 10,000 bits.
Notes
Figure 1.4: Burst Error of Length Five
2.4.3 Error Detection Techniques

You must note that one error detection mechanism that would satisfy these
requirements would be to send every data unit twice. The receiving device would then
be able to do a bit-for-bit comparison between the two versions of the data. Any
discrepancy would indicate an error, and an appropriate correction mechanism could be
set in place. This system would be completely accurate (the odds of errors being
introduced into exactly the same bits in both sets of data are infinitesimally small), but it
would also be insupportably slow. Not only would the transmission time double, but the
time it takes to compare every unit bit by bit must be added. The concept of including
extra information in the transmission solely for the purposes of comparison is a good
one. But instead of repeating the entire data stream, a shorter group of bits may be
appended to the end of each unit. This technique is called redundancy because the
extra bits are redundant to the information: they are discarded as soon as the accuracy
of the transmission has been determined.
Four types of redundancy checks are used in data communication: Vertical
Redundancy Check (VRC) (also called parity check), Longitudinal Redundancy Check
(LRC), Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC), and checksum. The first three, VRC, LRC
and CRC are normally implemented in the physical layer for use in the data link layer.
The fourth, checksum, is used primarily by upper layers. These are the various error
detection techniques which are describe in subsequent sections.
Figure 1.5: Detection Methods
Vertical Redundancy Check

The most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection is the Vertical
Redundancy Check (VCR), often called a parity check. In this technique, a redundant
bit, called a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so that the total number of bit is in
the unit (including the parity bit) becomes even. Suppose you want to transmit the
binary data unit 1100001. Adding together the number of 1s gives us 3, an odd number.
Before transmitting, you pass the data unit through a parity generator. The parity
generator counts the 1st and appends the parity bit (a 1 in this case) to the end. The
total number of is now four, an even number. The section now transmits the entire
expended unit across the network link.
You must recognise that when it reaches its destination, the receiver puts all the
eight bits through an even-parity checking function. If the receiver sees 11100001, it
counts for 1st, an even number, and the data unit passes. But what if the data unit has
been damaged in transit? What if, instead of 11100001, the receiver sees 11100101?
The receiver known that an error has been introduced into the data somewhere and
therefore rejects the whole unit. Note that for the sake of simplicity, we are discussing
here even-parity checking, where the number of 1s should be an even number. Some
system may use odd-parity checking, where the number of 1s should be odd. The
principle is the same; the calculation is different.
Notes
Figure 1.6: Original Data plus LRC
Longitudinal Redundancy Check

In Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC), a block of bits is organized in a table (rows
and columns). Example: Instead of sending a block of 32 bits, we organize them in a
table made of four rows and eight columns, as shown in figure 1.6. We then calculate
the parity bit for each column and create a new row of eight bits, which are the parity
bits for the whole block. Note that the first parity bit in the fifth row is calculated based
on all first bits. The second parity bit is calculated based on all second bits, and so on.
We then attach the eight parity bits to the send them to the receiver.
Cyclic Redundancy Check

You may already be aware that the third and most powerful of the redundancy checking
techniques is the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
An error detection technique that is used widely in computer networks is a
technique of providing a data string added to packets of information that can be used to
detect errors in the data packets. In the OSI or TCP/IP network models, CRC is added
to a packet frame at the Data Link Layer. It is a method of checking for errors in data
that has been transmitted on a communications link.
The data integrity of a received frame or packet is checked via a polynomial
algorithm based on the content of the frame, and then matched with the result that is
performed by the sender and included in a (most often 16-bit) field appended to the
frame. Hence, CRC codes are also called as polynomial codes. It uses a dividend
polynomial, which is initially present to 0, and the 1s and 0s of the data stream become
the coefficients of the dividend polynomial. The division uses subtraction modulo 2 (no
carries), and the remainder is transmitted as the error check field. The receiving station
compares the transmitted remainder with its own computed remainder, and an equal
condition indicates that no error has occurred. The polynomial value depends on the
protocol and code set being used.
While writing a data on disk or transmitting a data across a network, sometimes
very minor error of 1 bit occurs, which however may prove hazardous? In this method
an algorithm calculates the binary values in a packet or other block of data and stores
the results with the data. When the data is retrieved from memory or received at the
other end of a network, a new checksum is calculated and compared with the existing
checksum. A non-match indicates an error. However, a match does not necessarily
mean the absence of errors, but only that the simple algorithm was not able to detect
any.Example: A data stream consisting of d bits can be represented as a sequence of
k-bit integers. The k bit integers may be summed up and the result can be considered
for the error detection bits.
You must note that a destination host calculates the checksum over the received
data and checks whether it matches the checksum carried in the received frame. This

technique fails in case of reordering of the bytes, inserting or deleting zero-valued bytes
and multiple errors that cancel each other out. We therefore need more advanced
algorithm to take care of the above errors. One of these techniques is Cyclic Notes
Redundancy Check (CRC).
Unlike VRC and LRC, instead of adding bits together to achieve a desired parity, a
sequence of redundant bits, called the CRC and CRC remainder, is appended to the
end of a data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second,
predetermined binary number. At its destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the
same number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be intact
and is therefore accepted. A remainder indicated that the data unit has been damaged
in transit and therefore must be rejected.
The redundancy bits used by CRC are derived by dividing the data unit by a
predetermined divisor, the remainder is the CRC. To be valid, a CRC must have two
qualities: it must have exactly one less bit than the divisor, and appending it to the end
of the data string must make the resulting bit sequence exactly divisible by the divisor.
Both the theory and the application of CRC error detection are straightforward. The only
complexity is a deriving the CRC. In order to clarify this process, we will start with an
overview and add complexity as we go. Figure 1.7 below provides an outline of the
three basic steps.
Figure 1.7: Outline of the Three Basic Steps

First, a string of numbers is appended to the data unit. The number n is one less
than the number of bits in the predetermined divisor, which is n + 1 bit.
Second, the newly elongated data unit is divided by the divisor using a process
called binary division. The remainder resulting from this division is the CRC.
Third, the CRC of n bits derived in step 2 replaces the appended 0s at the end of
the data unit. Note that the CRC may consist of all 0s. The data unit arrives at the
receiver data first, followed by the CRC. The receiver treats the whole string as a unit
and divides it by the same divisor that was used to find the CRC remainder. If the string
arrives without error, the CRC checker yields a remainder of zero and the data unit
passes. If the string has been changed in transit, the division yields a non-zero
remainder and the data unit does not pass.
CRC Generator
It is important for you to know that a CRC generator used modulo-2 division, Figure1.8
shows the process. In the first step, the four-bit divisor is subtracted from the first four
bits of the dividend. Each bit of the divisor is subtracted from the corresponding bit of
the dividend without disturbing the next higher bit. In our example, the divisor, 1101, is
subtracted from the first four bits of the dividend, 1101 and yielding 100 (the leading 0 of
the remainder is dropped off).
The next unused bit from the dividend is then pulled down to make the number of
bits in the remainder equal to the number of bits in the divisor. The next step, therefore,
is 1000-1101, which yields 101, and so on. In this process, the divisor always begins
with a 1; the divisor is subtracted from a portion of the previous dividend/remainder that
is equal to it in length; the divisor can only be subtracted from a string of 0s, of the same
length as the divisor, replaces the divisor in that step of the process.
For string of 0s, of the same length as the divisor, replaces the divisor in that step of
the process. Example: If the divisor is four bits long, it is replaced by four 0s.
Notes
Remember, we are dealing with bit patterns, not with quantitative values; 0000 is
not the same as 0. This restriction means that, at any step, the leftmost subtraction will
be either 0 – 0 or 1 – 1, both of which equal 0. So, after subtraction, the leftmost bit of
the remainder will always be a leading zero which is dropped off, and the next unused
bit of the dividend is pulled down to fill out the remainder. Note that only the first bit of
the remainder is dropped – if the second bit is also 0. It is retained, and the
dividend/remainder for the next step will begin with 0. This process repeats units the
entire dividend has been used.
Figure 1.8: CRC Remainder
2.5 Multiplexing
When two communicating nodes are connected through a media, it generally happens
that bandwidth of media is several times greater than that of the communicating nodes.
Transfer of a single signal at a time is both slow and expensive. The whole capacity of
the link is not being utilized in this case. This link can be further exploited by sending
several signals combined into one. This combining of signals into one is called
multiplexing.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): This is possible in the case where
transmission media has a bandwidth than the required bandwidth of signals to be
transmitted. A number of signals can be transmitted at the same time. Each source is
allotted a frequency range in which it can transfer its signals, and a suitable frequency
gap is given between two adjacent signals to avoid overlapping. This is type of
multiplexing is commonly seen in the cable TV networks.
Figure 1.9: FDM Multiplexing Process

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): This is possible when data transmission rate of
the media is much higher than that of the data rate of the source. Multiple signals can
be transmitted if each signal is allowed to be transmitted for a definite amount of time. Notes
These time slots are so small that all transmissions appear to be in parallel.
Synchronous TDM: Time slots are pre assigned and are fixed. Each source is
given it's time slot at every turn due to it. This turn may be once per cycle, or several
turns per cycle, if it has a high data transfer rate, or may be once in a no. of cycles if it is
slow. This slot is given even if the source is not ready with data. So this slot is
transmitted empty.
Figure 1.10: Synchronous TDM

Asynchronous TDM: In this method, slots are not fixed. They are allotted
dynamically depending on speed of sources, and whether they are ready for
transmission.
Figure 1.11: Asynchronous TDM
2.6 Summary
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or more
digital devices. Both analog and digital information can be encoded as either analog or
digital signals. In Asynchronous Transmission, small blocks of bits (generally bytes) are
sent at a time without any time relation between consecutive bytes. In Synchronous
Transmission, larger blocks of bits are successfully transmitted.

Multiple Choice Questions
1. ……………… defined as the size of the range of frequencies that can be
transmitted through a channel
(a) Channel Bandwidth
(b) Channel Data Transmission Rate

(c) Channel noise

(d) Channel capacity
Notes
2. In other words channel bandwidth may be define it as the volume of information per
unit time that a ………………
(a) Computer
(b) Person
(c) Transmission medium can handle
(d) All of these
3. Channel Bandwidth is measured in
(a) decibels
(b) Hertz
(c) Micron
(d) bits per second
4. Bandwidth is expressed as data speed in ……………… digital systems:
(a) decibels
(b) Hertz
(c) Micron
(d) bits per second
5. In analog systems, bandwidth is expressed as the difference between the
(a) Highest frequency
(b) Lowest frequency
(c) Both a & b
(d) None of thes
6. ……………… is determined by the maximum number of bits that can be transmitted
per unit time through the physical medium:
(a) Channel Bandwidth
(b) Channel Data Transmission Rate
(c) Channel noise
(d) Channel capacity
7. Channel Data Transmission Rate is measured i
(a) decibels
(b) Hertz
(c) Micron
(d) bits per second
8. Which gave the maximum data rate of a noiseless channel
(a) H.Nyquist in 1924
(b) H.Nyquist in 1934
(c) Peter Sain in 1932
(d) None of these
9. Channel latency depends on the
(a) Signal propagation speed
(b) Media characteristics
(c) Transmission distance
(d) All of these
10. ……………… is the amount of time that is needed for the information to propagate
from the source to destination through the channel:
(a) Propagation time
Notes
(b) Channel Latency
(c) Channel Utilization
(d) Both a & b

1. What are the different types of Error Control? Discuss.
2. Discuss various concepts used in data transmission. Also, discuss the terminology
related to data transmission.
3. Describe various techniques used for data encoding.
4. Discuss different ways to modulate a digital signal on an analog carrier signal.
5. Describe the techniques used for Digital Data Communication.
6. Explain the concept of Vertical Redundancy Check and Cyclic Redundancy Check.
7. What is time division multiplexing?
8. Explain frequency division multiplexing.
2.9 Key Terms

 Bandwidth: It may be defined as the range of frequencies assigned to a channel.
 Burst Error: It means that two or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to
0 or from 0 to 1.
 Non Return to Zero (NRZ): NRZ codes share the property that voltage level is
constant during a bit interval.
 Start Bit: It is prefixed to each byte and equals 0.
 Stop Bit: A stop bit is suffixed to each byte equalling 1.
Check Your Progress: Answers

1. (a) Channel Bandwidth
2. (d) All of these
3. (b) Hertz
4. (d) bits per second
5. (c) Both a & b
6. (b) Channel Data Transmission Rate
7. (d) bits per second
8. (a) H.Nyquist in 1924
9. (d) Both a & b
10. (d) All of these

 Anurag Kumar, D. Manjunath, Joy Kuri, Communication Networking: An Analytical
Approach, Academic Press,Copyright, 2004
nd
 Prakash C. Gupta, Data Communications And Computer Networks, 2 edition, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Copyright, 2014.
 Sanjay Sharma, Communication system; analog and digital, S.K. Kataria & Sons,
2012

 Sanjay Sharma, Digital communication, S.K. Kataria & Sons, 2010

 By V.S.Bagad, I.A.Dhotre, Computer Networks – II, Technical Publications,
Notes Copyright, 2009

Transmission Media 45
Unit 3: Transmission Media

Notes
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Guided Transmission Media
3.2.1 Twisted Pair (Copper Conductors)
3.2.2 Coaxial Cable
3.2.3 Optical Fibre
3.3 Unguided or Wireless Transmission
3.3.1 Radio Transmission
3.3.2 Microwave Transmission
3.3.3 Satellite Communication
3.3.4 Infrared Transmission: Light from a Laser
3.4 Summary
3.7 Further Reading
3.8 Key Terms
Objectives
 Understand the concept guided transmission media
 Discuss the unguided transmission media.
3.1 Introduction
This unit will help you understand the concept of transmission of media. You can define
data transmission as the movement of data in the form of bits among two or more digital
devices. This transmission of data occurs through some form of transmission media.
The transmission medium, in a data transmission system, is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver. In case of guided media, the electromagnetic waves are
guided along a solid medium, like copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, and optical
fibre. In case of unguided media, wireless transmission takes place via the atmosphere,
water, etc.
The data transmission capabilities of various Medias vary differently depending
upon the various factors. These factors are:
1. Bandwidth: It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. Higher
bandwidth communication channels support higher data rates.
2. Radiation: It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to undesirable
electrical characteristics of the medium.
3. Noise Absorption: It refers to the susceptibility of the media to external electrical
noise that can cause distortion of data signal.

4. Attenuation: It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards. The amount
of energy lost depends on frequency. Radiations and physical characteristics of
Notes media contribute to attenuation.
3.2 Guided Transmission Media

It is important for you to note that guided transmission media or bounded media or
wired transmission systems employ physical media, which are tangible. Also known as
conducted systems, wired media generally employ a metallic or glass conductor which
serves to conduct, some form of electromagnetic energy.
Example: Twisted pair and coaxial cable systems conduct electrical energy,
employing a copper medium. Fibre optic systems conduct light or optical, energy,
generally using a glass conductor.
The term bounded or guided media refers to the fact that the signal is contained
within an enclosed physical path. Finally, bounded media refers to the fact that some
form of shield, cladding, and/or insulation is employed to bind the signal within the core
medium, thereby improving signal strength over a distance and enhancing the
performance of the transmission system in the process. Twisted pair (both unshielded
and shielded), coaxial and fibre optic cable systems fall into this category.
3.2.1 Twisted Pair (Copper Conductors)

As you can see in figure 1.1, a twisted pair is a pair of copper wires, with diameters of
0.4-0.8 mm, twisted together and wrapped with a plastic coating. The twisting increases
the electrical noise immunity, and reduces the error rate of the data transmission. Each
conductor is separately insulated by some low-smoke and fires retardant substance.
Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, fluoropolymer resin and Teflon® are the some
substances that are used for insulation purposes.
Figure 3.1: Two Wires Open Lines

This twisting process serves to improve the performance of the medium by
containing the electromagnetic field within the pair. Thereby, the radiation of
electromagnetic energy is reduced and the strength of the signal within the wire is
improved over a distance. Clearly, this reduction of radiated energy also serves to
minimise the impact on adjacent pairs in a multiple cable configuration. This is
especially important in high-bandwidth applications, as higher frequency signals tend to
lose power more rapidly over distance. Additionally, the radiated electromagnetic field
tends to be greater at higher frequencies, impacting adjacent pairs to a greater extent.
Generally speaking, the more twists per foot, the better the performance of the wire.
You must understand that these are popular for telephone network. The energy flow
is in guided media. Metallic wires were used almost exclusively in telecommunications
networks for the last 80 years, until the development of microwave and satellite radio
communications systems. Therefore, copper wire is now a mature technology, rugged
and inexpensive. In certain applications, copper-covered steel, copper alloy, nickel-
and/or gold-plated copper and even aluminium metallic conductors are employed.
The maximum transmission speed is limited in this case. The copper conductor that
carries analogue data can be used to carry digital data also in association with Modem.
Modem is a device to convert digital signal into analogue signal and vice versa. The
data rate in this category is limited to around 28 Kbps. The introduction of the Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN) led to the use of improved modulation and coding
schemes and data rate up to 128 Kbps. Local Area Networks (LANs) also use twisted
pairs. These networks also upgraded to support for high bit rate real time multimedia.

A recent development is Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines (ADSL) technology
which is aimed at using two wire copper loops at data rates of 1.544 Mbps in the
network to user direction and about 600 Kbps from the user to network. Notes
The twisted pair cable may be defined in two categories based upon the shielding
and without shielding. You will now understand the concept of these categories.
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP as depicted in Figure 1.2 is the copper
media, inherited from telephony, which is being used for increasingly higher data
rates, and is rapidly becoming the de facto standard for horizontal wiring. Horizontal
wiring specifies the connection between, and including, the outlet and the
termination in the communication closet. The horizontal is limited to a maximum of
90 meters. This is independent of the media type so that the communication closet
is common to all media and all applications operating over the media. In addition,
there is an allowance for 3 meters in the work area and 6 meters for cross
connecting in the closet for a total of 99 meters.
The recommended media and connectors for the horizontal are as follow:
 100-ohm unshielded twisted pair - 4 pairs, 8-pin modular connector (ISDN).
 150-ohm shielded twisted pair - 2 pairs (IBM connector or RJ45).
 50-ohm coax (thin) - IEEE 10BASE2, standard BNC connector.
 62.5/125 multi-mode fibre.
You must understand that a UTP cable contains from 2 to 4200 twisted pairs. The
advantages of UTP are the flexibility, low cost media, and can be used for either
voice or data communications. Its greatest disadvantage is the limited bandwidth,
which restricts long distance transmission with low error rates.
Figure 3.2: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Shielded Copper or STP: Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) differs from UTP in that a
metallic shield or screen surrounds the pairs, which may or may not be twisted. As
you can see in figure 1.3, the pairs can be individually shielded. A single shield can
surround a cable containing multiple pairs or both techniques can be employed in
tandem. The shield itself is made of aluminium, steel, or copper. This is in the form
of a metallic foil or woven meshes and is electrically grounded. Although less
effective, the shield sometimes is in the form of nickel and/or gold plating of the
individual conductors.
Figure 3.3: Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Configuration

Shielded copper offers the advantage of enhanced performance for reasons of
reduced emissions and reduction of electromagnetic interference. Reduction of

emissions offers the advantage of maintaining the strength of the signal through the
confinement of the electromagnetic field within the conductor. In other words, signal
Notes loss is reduced. An additional benefit of this reduction of emissions is that high-
frequency signals do not cause interference in adjacent pairs or cables. Immunity
from interference is realized through the shielding process, which reflects
electromagnetic noise from outside sources, such as electric motors, other cables
and wires, and radio systems.
Shielded twisted pair, on the other hand, has several disadvantages. First, the raw
cost of acquisition is greater as the medium is more expensive to produce. Second,
the cost of deployment is greater as the additional weight of the shield makes it
more difficult to deploy. Additionally, the electrical grounding of the shield requires
more time and effort.
You must remember that the general properties of Twisted Pair are:
1. Gauge: Gauge is a measure of the thickness of the conductor. The thicker the wire,
the less the resistance, the stronger the signal over a given distance, and the better
the performance of the medium. Thicker wires also offer the advantage of greater
break strength. The gauge numbers are retrogressive. In other words, the larger is
the number, the smaller is the conductor.
2. Configuration: In a single pair configuration, the pair of wires is enclosed in a
sheath or jacket, made of polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride or Teflon. Usually,
multiple pairs are so bundled in order to minimize deployment costs associated with
connecting multiple devices (e.g., electronic PBX or KTS telephone sets, data
terminals, and modems) at a single workstation.
3. Bandwidth: The effective capacity of twisted pair cable depends on several factors,
including the gauge of the conductor, the length of the circuit and the spacing of the
amplifiers/repeaters. One must also recognize that a high-bandwidth (high
frequency) application may cause interference with other signals on other pairs in
close proximity.
4. Error Performance: Signal quality is always important, especially relative to data
transmission. Twisted pair is especially susceptible to the impacts of outside
interference, as the lightly insulated wire act as antennae and, thereby, absorbs
such errant signals. Potential sources of Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI)
include electric motors, radio transmissions and fluorescent light boxes. As
transmission frequency increases, the error performance of copper degrades
significantly with signal attenuation increasing approximately as the square root of
frequency.
5. Distance: Twisted pair is distance limited. As distance between network elements
increases, attenuation (signal loss) increases and quality decreases at a given
frequency. As bandwidth increases, the carrier frequency increases, attenuation
becomes more of an issue, and amplifiers/repeaters must be spaced more closely.
6. Security: Twisted pair is inherently an insecure transmission medium. It is relatively
simple to place physical taps on UTP. Additionally, the radiated energy is easily
intercepted through the use of antennae or inductive coils, without the requirement
for placement of a physical tap.
7. Cost: The acquisition, deployment and rearrangement costs of UTP are very low, at
least in inside wire applications. In, high-capacity, long distance applications, such
as inter-office trunking, however, the relative cost is very high, due to the
requirements for trenching or boring, conduit placement, and splicing of large, multi-
pair cables. Additionally, there are finite limits to the capacity and other performance
characteristics of UTP, regardless of the inventiveness of technologists. Hence, the
popularity of alternatives such as microwave and fibre-optic cable.
8. Applications: UTP’s low cost including recently developed methods of improving its
performance has increased its application in short-haul distribution systems or inside
wire applications. Current and continuing applications include the local loop, inside wire

and cable, and terminal-to-LAN. Generally speaking, UTP no longer is deployed in long
haul or outside the premises transmission systems.
Notes
The additional cost of shielded copper limits its application to inside wire applications.
Specifically, it generally is limited to application in high-noise environments. It also is
deployed where high frequency signals are transmitted and there is concern about
either distance performance or interference with adjacent pairs.
Example: Examples include LANs and image transmission.
3.2.2 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables are the guided media that carries the signal of higher frequency range
as compared to twisted pair cable. Coaxial cables are also called coax. There are two
types of coaxial cables are widely used: 50 ohm cable and 75 ohm cable. 50 ohm cable
is used for digital transmission and 75 ohm cable is used for analog transmission. Due
to the shield provided, this cable has excellent noise immunity. It has a large bandwidth
and low losses. Co-axial cables are easy to install. They are often installed either in a
device to device daisy chain or a star.
A coaxial cable consists of many small cables in a protective cover. The cover
shields the cable from physical dangers as well as from electromagnetic interference.
Within the cover, the various cables are shielded from interference with one another.
Coaxial cables are used in communication networks that require many simultaneous
communication links. Each coaxial cable can provide more than 5000 links. It has a
data rate of 10 Mbps which can be increased with the increase in diameter of the inner
conductor. The specified maximum number of nodes on a thinnest segment is 30 nodes
and on a thickest it is 100 nodes.
Coaxial cable is a two-conductor cable in which one conductor forms an
electromagnetic shield around the other. The two conductors are separated by
insulation. It is a constant impedance transmission cable. This media is used in base
band and broadband transmission.
Figure 3.4: Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables do not produce external electric and magnetic fields and are not
affected by them. This makes them ideally suited, although more expensive, for
transmitting signals. This cable is suitable for point to point or point to multipoint
applications. In fact this is the most widely used medium for local area networks. These
cables are costlier than twisted pair cables but they are cheaper than the optical fiber
cables.

Types of Coaxial Cables
Notes There are two types of coaxial cables, Baseband & Broadband Coaxial Cable.
A baseband coaxial cable transmits a single signal at a time at very high speed. A
broadband coaxial cable can transmit many simultaneous signals using different
frequencies. A baseband cable is mainly used for LANs. Baseband coaxial cable
supports frequency range of a-4kHz and is used for digital signalling. Broadband
coaxIal cable supports the frequency range above 4kHz and are used for analog
signals. So it must be used with a modem. The digital signal inserted on these cables is
encoded using Manchester or Differential Manchester coding. The digital signal
consumes the entire frequency spectrum of the cable. So it is not possible to transmit
multiple channels using FDM. The transmission of digital signal on the cable is bi-
directional. Baseband coaxial cables are 50 ohm cables used for 'digital transmission'.
For 1Km cables the bandwidth is 1-2 Gbps. Longer cables can be used with low data
rates or periodic amplifiers. Broadband coaxial cables are 75 ohm cables used for
analog transmission. The baseband co-axial cable was originally used for the Ethernet
system that operates at 10 Mbps. They use standard cable television technology. To
transmit digital signals on an analog network, each interface must have converters i.e.
analog to digital for outgoing bit stream n vice versa another difference b/w baseband
and broadband is that broadband systems have developed dual cables. The maximum
length of baseband co-axial cable between two repeaters is dependent on the data
rates.
Since broadband is used for large area, it requires amplifiers which are
unidirectional. In dual band systems two identical cables run together, one used for
outgoing data, one for incoming data. Different bandwidths are given for inbound and
outbound cables. Eg: for 300MHz, 5-30MHz for inbound and 40-300MHz for outbound.
Features:
 It provides better immunity than twisted pair.
 This cable is able to transmit data at higher rates.
Limitations:
 High installation cost
 High maintenance cost.
Advantages of Coaxial Cables:

 It can be used for both analog and digital transmission.
 It offers higher bandwidth as compared to twisted pair cable and can span longer
distances.
 Because of better shielding in coaxial cable, loss of signal or attenuation is less.
 Better shielding also offers good noise immunity.
 It is relatively inexpensive as compared to optical fibres.
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables:

 It is usually more expensive than twisted pair.
General Properties of Coaxial Cable

Gauge The gauge of coaxial cable is thicker than the twisted pair. While this increases
the available bandwidth and increases the distance of transmission, it also increases
the cost. Traditional coaxial cable is quite thick, heavy and bulky of which Ethernet LAN
10Base5 is an example. Ethernet LAN 10Base2 is of much lesser dimensions but offers
less in terms of performance.
Configuration Coaxial cables consist of a single, two-conductor wire, with a centre
conductor and an outer shield (conductor), which is of solid metal. Sometimes, braided
or stranded metal is used. Twin axial cables contain two such configurations within a
single cable sheath. As the centre conductor carries the carrier signal and the outer
conductor generally is used for electrical grounding. Coaxial cable connectivity can be Notes
extended through the use of twisted pair with a BALUN (Balanced/Unbalanced)
connector serving to accomplish the interface.
 Bandwidth: The effective capacity of coaxial cable depends on several factors,
including the gauge of the centre conductor, the length of the circuit, and the
spacing of amplifiers and other intermediate devices. The available bandwidth over
coaxial cable very significant, hence it is used in high capacity applications, such as
data and image 'transmission.
 Error Performance: Coaxial cable performs exceptionally well due to the outer
shielding. As a result, it is often used in data applications.
 Security: Coaxial cable is inherently quite secure. It is relatively difficult to place
physical taps on coaxial cable. Radiation of energy is also minimal hence
interception of it 1S not easy.
 Cost: The acquisition, deployment, and rearrangement costs of coaxial cables are
very high, compared with UTP. In high capacity data applications, however, that
cost is often outweighed by its positive performance characteristics.
3.2.3 Optical Fibre

It is important to note that the geometry of coaxial cable significantly reduces the
various limiting effects, the maximum signal frequency, and hence the information rate
that can be transmitted using a solid conductor, although very high, is limited. This is
also the case for twisted lines. Optical fibre differs from both these transmission media
in that it carries the transmitted information in the form of a fluctuating beam of light in a
glass fibre rather than as an electrical signal on a wire. This type of transmission has
become strong support for digital network owing to its high capacity and other factors
favourable for digital communication.
Secondary buffer cladding Glass
Primary buffer Glass core
Figure 3.5: Fibre Optic Cables – General View

Fibre optic transmission systems are opto-electric in nature. In other words, a
combination of optical and electrical electromagnetic energy is involved. The signal
originates as an electrical signal, which is translated into an optical signal, which
subsequently is reconverted into an electrical signal at the receiving end. Thin glass
fibre as shown in Figure 1.5 is very clear and designed to reflect light internally for
efficient transmission carries light with encoded data. Plastic jacket allows fibre to bend
(some!) without breaking. Light Emitting Diode (LED) or laser injects light into fibre for
transmission. Light sensitive receiver at other end translates light back into data.
The optical fibre consists of a number of substructures as shown in Figure 1.6.In
this case, a core made of glass, which carries most of the light is surrounded by a
cladding made of glass with lower refractive index. This bends the light and confines it
to the core. The core is surrounded by a substrate layer (in some fibres) of glass, which

does not carry light, but adds to the diameter and strength of the fibre. A primary buffer
coating and a secondary buffer coating to provide mechanical protection cover all these.
Notes
Glass core
Glass cladding
Plastic covering
Figure 3.6: Glass Fibre Optic Cable, Side View, and Cross Section
The light pulse travels down the centre core of the glass fibre. Surrounding the inner
core is a layer of glass cladding, with a slightly different refractive index. The cladding
serves to reflect the light waves back into the inner core. Surrounding the cladding is a
layer of protective plastic coating that seals the cable and provides mechanical
protection. This is shown in Figure 1.6.
Typically, multiple fibres are housed in a single sheath, which may be heavily
armoured.
Example:
 Fibre-optic cables are used in the telephone system, the cable TV system or the
Internet. Fibre-optic cables are basically the strands of optically pure glass that
carry long distances digital information. Optical cables appear to be as thin as
human hair.
 Optical fibres are also used in mechanical engineering inspection and medical
inspection.
You require knowing that light propagates along the optical fibre core in one of the
following ways as given below depending on the type and width of core material used.
 Multimode Fibre: In the case of a multimode fibre, the core diameter is relatively
large compared to a wavelength of light. Core diameter range from 50 micrometres
(µm) to 1,000 µm, compared to the wavelength of light of about 1 µm. This means
that light can propagate through the fibre in many different ray paths, or modes,
hence the name multimode.
Multimode fibre is less expensive to produce and inferior in performance because of
the larger diameter of the inner core. When the light rays travel down the fibre, they
spread out due to a phenomenon known as modal dispersion. Although reflected
back into the inner core by the cladding, they travel different distances and,
therefore, arrive at different times. The received signal thus has a wider pulse width
than the input signal with a corresponding decrease in the speed of transmission.
Consequently, multimode fibre is relegated to applications involving relatively short
distances and lower speeds of transmission, for example, LANs and campus
environments.
You must keep in mind the two basic types of multimode fibres exist. The simpler and
older type is a "step index" fibre, where the index of refraction (the ability of a material
to bend light) is the same all across the core of the fibre.

Notes
Figure 3.7: Multimode Step Index Fibre

 Step Index Multimode Fibre: This is shown to you in Figure 1.7. With all these
different ray paths or modes of propagation, different rays travel different
distances, and take different amounts of time to transit the length of a fibre. This
being the case, if a short pulse of light is injected into a fibre, the various rays
emanating from that pulse will arrive at the other end of the fibre at different
times, and the output pulse will be of longer duration than the input pulse. This
phenomenon is called "modal dispersion" (pulse spreading), and limits the
number of pulses per second that can be transmitted down a fibre and still be
recognisable as separate pulses at the other end. This, therefore, limits the bit
rate or bandwidth of a multimode fibre. For step index fibres, wherein no effort
is made to compensate for modal dispersion, the bandwidth is typically 20 to 30
MHz over a length of one kilometre of fibre, expressed as "MHz - km".
 Graded Index Multimode Fibre: In the case of a graded index multimode fibre,
the index of refraction across the core is gradually changed from a maximum at
the centre to a minimum near the edges, hence the name graded index. This
design takes advantage of the phenomenon that light travels faster in a low-
index-of-refraction material than a high-index material. If a short pulse of light is
launched into the graded index fibre, it may spread some during its transit of the
fibre, but much less than in the case of a step index fibre. Therefore, dispersion
can be reduced using a core material that has a variable refractive index. In
such multimode graded index fibre light is refracted by an increasing amount as
it moves away from the core as shown in Figure 1.8. This has the effect of
narrowing the pulse width of the received signal compared with stepped index
fibre, allowing a corresponding increase in the speed of transmission. They
therefore can support a much higher bit rate or bandwidth.
It will be important for you to know typical bandwidths of graded index fibres
range from 100 MHz-km to well over 1GHz-km. The actual bandwidth depends
on how well a particular fibre's index profile minimises modal dispersion, and on
the wavelength of light launched into the fibre.
Figure 3.8: Light Propagation in Multimode Graded Index Fibre

 Monomode/Single-mode fibre: This has a thinner inner core. In this case, the core
diameter of about 9 µm is much closer in size to the wavelength of light being
propagated, about 1.3 µm. This limits the light transmission to a single ray or mode
of light to propagate down the core of the fibre as shown in Figure 1.9. All the
multiple-mode or multimode effects described above are eliminated. However, one
Notes pulse-spreading mechanism remains. Just as in the multimode fibres, different
wavelengths of light travel at different speeds, causing short pulses of light injected
into the fibre to spread as they travel. This phenomenon is called "chromatic
dispersion".
Figure 3.9: Light Propagation in Single Mode Step Index Fibre

It performs better than does multimode fibre over longer distances at higher
transmission rates. Due to reduced core diameter all the emitted light propagates along
a single path. Consequently the received signal is of a comparable width to the input
signal. Although more costly, monomode fibre is used to advantage in long haul, and
especially in high bandwidth, applications.
Single-mode fibres have the very broadest bandwidth, lowest cost and lowest
attenuation of any available optical fibre. Therefore, they are universally used in long-
distance telephone and cable television applications.
You must keep in mind the advantages of Optical Fibres are:
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference and crosstalk
 No electrical ground loop or short circuit problems
 Small size and light-weight
 Large bandwidth for size and weight
 Safe in combustible areas (no arching)
 Immunity to lightning and electrical discharges
 Longer cable runs between repeaters
 Flexibility and high strength
 Potential high temperature operation
 Secure against signal leakage and interference
 No electrical hazard when cut or damaged.
It is important to note the general properties of optical fibre which are as follows:
 Configuration: Fibre optic systems consist of light sources, cables and light
detectors, as depicted in Figure 1.10. In a simple configuration, one of each is used.
In a more complex configuration over longer distances, many such sets of elements
are employed. Much as is the case in other transmission systems, long haul optical
communications involves a number of regenerative repeaters. In a fibre optic
system, repeaters are opto-electric devices. On the incoming side of the repeater, a
light detector receives the optical signal, converts it into an electrical signal, boosts
it, converts it into an optical signal, and places it onto a fibre, and so on. There may
be many such optical repeaters in a long haul transmission system, although
typically far fewer than would be required using other transmission media.

Notes
Figure 3.10: Fibre Optic System

 Bandwidth: Fibre offers by far the greatest bandwidth of any transmission system,
often in excess of 2 Gbps in long haul carrier networks. Systems with 40 Gbps have
been tested successfully on numerous occasions. The theoretical capacity of fibre
is in the terabit (Tbps) range, with current monomode fibre capacity being
expandable to that level.
 Error Performance: Fibre being a dielectric (a non-conductor of direct electric
current), it is not susceptible to Electro Magnetic Interference/Radio Frequency
Interference (EMI/RFI). This also does not emit EMI/RFI. The light signal will suffer
from attenuation, although less so than other media. Scattering of the optical signal,
bending in the fibre cable, translation of light energy to heat, and splices in the
cable system can cause such optical attenuation.
 Distance: Monomode fibre optic systems routinely are capable of transmitting
signals over distances in excess of 325 km. Therefore, relatively few optical
repeaters are required in a long-haul system. This will reduce costs, and eliminating
points of potential failure.
 Security: Fibre is intrinsically secure, as it is virtually impossible to place a physical
tap without detection because no light is radiated outside the cable. Therefore,
interception of signal is almost impossible. Additionally, the fibre system supports
such a high volume of traffic that it is difficult to intercept and distinguish a single
transmission from the tens of thousands of other transmissions that might ride the
same cable system. The digital nature of most fibres, coupled with encryption
techniques frequently are used to protect transmission from interception, make
fibres highly secure.
 Cost: While the acquisition, deployment, and rearrangement costs of fibre are
relatively high, the immense bandwidth can outweigh that cost in bandwidth-
intensive applications. At Gbps speeds, a single set of fibres can carry huge
volumes of digital transmissions over longer distances than alternative systems,
thereby lowering the transport cost per bit and cost per conversation to fractions of
a penny per minute.
 Applications: Applications for fibre optic transmission systems are bandwidth
intensive. Such applications include backbone carrier networks, international
submarine cables, backbone LANs (FDDI), interoffice trunking, computer-to-
computer distribution networks (CATV and Information Superhighway) and fibre to
the desktop (Computer Aided Design).
3.3 Unguided or Wireless Transmission

You must understand that wireless transmission systems do not make use of a physical
conductor, or guide, to bind the signal. In this case, data are transmitted using
electromagnetic waves. Therefore, they are also known as unguided or unbounded
systems. Energy travels through the air rather than copper or glass. Hence the term
radiated often is applied to wireless transmission. Finally, such systems employ
electromagnetic energy in the form of radio or light waves that are transmitted and
received across space, and are referred to as airwave systems. The transmission
systems addressed under this category include microwave, satellite and infrared. There
are different techniques to convert the data suitable for this mode of communication.
Conceptually similar to radio, TV, cellular phones, radio waves can travel through walls
Notes and through an entire building. They can travel for long distance using satellite
communication or short distance using wireless communication.
Use of this technology for delivery of real time applications like multimedia material
should be treated carefully, because radio links are susceptible to fading, interference,
random delays, etc.
Non-real time use of this technology is likely to perform as well as current Ethernet
LANs.
3.3.1 Radio Transmission

It is a method where data is transmitted exploitation radio waves and thus energy
travels through the air instead of copper or glass. Conceptually, radio, TV, cellular
phones, etc. uses radio transmission in one type or another. The radio waves will travel
through walls and thru a complete building. Relying upon the frequency, they'll travel
long distance or short distance.
Example: Satellite relay is the one example of long distance communication.
Therefore, you must keep in mind that each frequency range is divided into different
bands, which has a specific range of frequencies in the Radio Frequency (RF)
spectrum. The RF is divided in different ranges starting from Very Low Frequencies
(VLF) to Extremely High Frequencies (EHF). Figure 1.11 shows each band with a
defined upper and lower frequency limit.
Figure 3.11: Radio Frequency Range and Types of Transmission Media

You must also note that two transmitters cannot share the same frequency band
because of mutual interference and therefore band usage is regulated. International use
of the radio spectrum is regulated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
Domestic use of the radio spectrum is regulated by national agencies such as Wireless
Planning and Coordination (WPC) in India. WPC assigns each transmission source a
band of operation, a transmitter radiation pattern, and a maximum transmitter power.
Omni directional or directional antennas are used to broadcast radio waves depending
upon band. The transceiver unit, which is consisted of transmitter and receiver along
with the antenna, determines the power of RF signal. Other characteristics of radio
waves are that in vacuum all electromagnetic waves or radio waves travel at the same
8
speed i.e. at the speed of light which is equal to 3x10 meter per seconds. In any
medium this speed gets reduced and also becomes frequency dependent. In case of
copper the speed of light becomes approximately two thirds of the speed of light.

Example:
 Audio: AM radio uses amplitude modulation, i.e., AM radio is processed through
radio waves. FM radio sends music and voice with higher fidelity than AM radio.
Notes
 Telephony: Mobile phones transmit to a local cell site (transmitter/receiver) which
leads to the working of mobiles in the network area only. Its working is done through
optic fibre or microwave radio and other network elements.
 Video: Television sends the picture as AM and the sound as AM or FM
 Heating: Heating of objects is basically processed by the radio-frequency energy
generated for it. Microwave ovens use radio waves to heat food.
You must keep in mind the basic features of the radio waves are given below:
 They are easy to generate
 They have same velocity in vacuum
 They may traverse long distances
 They are Omni-directional
 They can penetrate building easily so they find extensive use in communication
both indoor and outdoor
 They are frequency dependent. At low frequency they can pass through obstacles
well but the power falls off sharply with distance from the source, as power is
inversely proportional to cube of the distance from the source. At HF they travel in
straight lines and bounce off obstacles.
3.3.2 Microwave Transmission

It is essential for you to know that microwave radio, a form of radio transmission that
uses ultra-high frequencies, developed out of experiments with radar (radio detecting
and ranging) during the period preceding World War II. There are several frequency
ranges assigned to microwave systems, all of which are in the Giga Hertz (GHz) range
and the wavelength in the millimetre range. This very short wavelength gives rise to the
term microwave. Such high frequency signals are especially susceptible to attenuation
and, therefore must be amplified or repeated after a particular distance.
In order to maximise the strength of such a high frequency signal and, therefore, to
increase the distance of transmission at acceptable levels, the radio beams are highly
focused. The transmit antenna is centred in a concave, reflective metal dish which
serves to focus the radio beam with maximum effect on the receiving antenna, as
illustrated in Figure 1.12. The receiving antenna, similarly, is centred in a concave metal
dish, which serves to collect the maximum amount of incoming signal.
Figure 3.12: Point-to-point Microwave

It is a point-to-point, rather than a broadcast, transmission system. Additionally,

each antenna must be within line of sight of the next antenna. Given the curvature of
Notes the earth, and the obvious problems of transmitting through it, microwave hops
generally are limited to 50 miles (80 km). If the frequencies are higher within the
microwave band given in Table 1.1. This impact is more than lower frequencies in the
same band.
Table 1.1: Microwave Frequency Bands
Frequency Bands Maximum Antenna Separation Analogue/Digital
4–6 GHz 32-48 Km Analogue
10-12 GHz 16-24 Km Digital
18-23 GHz 8-11 Km Digital
You must remember general properties of microwave transmission are:

 Configuration: Microwave radio consists of antennae centred within reflective
dishes that are attached to structures such as towers or buildings. Cables connect
the antennae to the actual transmit/receive equipment.
 Bandwidth: Microwave offers substantial bandwidth, often in excess of 6 Gbps.
 Error Performance: Microwave, especially digital microwave, performs well in this
regard, assuming proper design. However, such high frequency radio is particularly
susceptible to environmental interference e.g. precipitation, haze, smog, and
smoke. Generally speaking, however, microwave performs well in this regard.
 Distance: Microwave clearly is distance limited, especially at the higher
frequencies. This limitation can be mitigated through special and more complex
arrays of antennae incorporating spatial diversity in order to collect more signals.
 Security: As is the case with all radio systems, microwave is inherently not secure.
Security must be imposed through encryption (scrambling) of the signal.
 Cost: The acquisition, deployment and rearrangement costs of microwave can be
high. However, it often compares very favourably with cabled systems, which
require right-of-way, trenching, conduit, splicing, etc.
 Applications: Microwave originally was used for long haul voice and data
communications. Competing long distance carriers, microwave was found a most
attractive alternative to cabled systems, due to the speed and low cost of
deployment where feasible, however, fibre optic technology is currently used in this
regard. Contemporary applications include private networks, interconnection of
cellular radio switches, and as an alternative to cabled systems in consideration of
difficult terrain.
3.3.3 Satellite Communication

You must understand that satellite radio, quite simply, is a non-terrestrial microwave
transmission system utilising a space relay station. Satellites have proved invaluable in
extending the reach of voice, data, and video communications around the globe and
into the most remote regions of the world. Exotic applications such as the Global
Positioning System (GPS) would have been unthinkable without the benefit of satellites.
Geostationary Satellite
It is important to note that contemporary satellite communications systems involve a
satellite relay station that is launched into a geostationary, geosynchronous, or
geostatic orbit. Such satellites are called geostationary satellite. Such an orbit is
approximately 36,000 km above the equator as depicted in Figure 1.13. At that altitude
and in an equatorial orbital slot, the satellite revolves around the earth with the same
speed as of that the speed of revolution of earth and maintains its relative position over
the same spot of the earth’s surface. Consequently, transmit and receive earth stations
can be pointed reliably at the satellite for communications purposes.

Notes
Figure 3.13: Satellites in Geostationary Earth Orbit

You must understand that the popularity of satellite communications has placed
great demands on the international regulators to manage and allocate available
frequencies, as well as the limited number of orbital slots available for satellite
positioning are managed at national, regional and international levels. Generally
speaking, geostationary satellites are positioned approximately 2º apart in order to
minimize interference from adjacent satellites using overlapping frequencies.
Such high frequency signals are especially susceptible to attenuation in the
atmosphere. Therefore, in case of satellite communication two different frequencies are
used as carrier frequencies to avoid interference between incoming and outgoing
signals. These are:
 Uplink frequency: It is the frequency accustomed transmit signal from earth station
to satellite. Table 1.2 shows the upper of the two frequencies is employed for the
transmission. The uplink signal will be tailored stronger and thus better handle
atmospherical distortion. The antenna at sending side is centred during a concave,
reflective dish that serves to focus the signal, with impact result, on the receiving
satellite antenna. The receiving antenna, similarly, is centred during a concave
metal dish, that serves to gather the maximum quantity of incoming signal.
 Downlink frequency: It is the frequency used to transmit the signal from satellite to
earth station. In other words, the downlink transmission is focused on a particular
footprint, or area of coverage. The lower frequency, used for the downlink, can
better penetrate the earth’s atmosphere and electromagnetic field, which can act to
bend the incoming signal much as light bends when entering a pool of water.
Table 3.2: Example Uplink/Downlink Satellite Frequencies
Frequency Band Uplink/Downlink Frequency Range Example
C–band 6 GHz/4 GHz TV, Voice, Videoconferencing
Ku–band 14 GHz/11 GHz TV, Direct Broadcast Satellite
/DSS
Ka–band 30 GHz/20 GHz Mobile Voice
 Broadcast: The wide footprint of a satellite radio system allows a signal to be

broadcast over a wide area. Thereby any number (theoretically an infinite number)
of terrestrial antennae can receive the signal, more or less simultaneously. In this
manner, satellites can serve a point-to-multipoint network requirement through a
single uplink station and multiple downlink stations.
Recently, satellites have been developed which can serve a mesh network
requirement, whereby each terrestrial site can communicate directly with any other
site. Previously, all such communications were required to travel through a
centralised site, known as a head end. Such a mesh network, of course, imposes
an additional level of difficulty on the network in terms of management of the flow
and direction of traffic.

You must remember the general properties of satellite communication are:

 Configuration: Satellite communication systems consist of antennae and reflective
Notes dishes, much as in terrestrial microwave. The dish serves to focus the signal from a
transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna. The send/receive dishes that make up
the earth segment are of varying sizes, depending on power levels and frequency
bands. They generally are mounted on a tripod or other type of brace, which is
anchored to the earth, pad or roof, or attached to a structure such as building.
Cables connect the antennae to the actual transmit/receive equipment. The
terrestrial antennae support a single frequency band.
Example: C–band, Ku–band or Ka–band are considered as single frequency
bands.
It is important to note that the higher the frequency bands the smaller the possible
size of the dish. Therefore, while C–band TV dishes tend to be rather large, Ku–
band DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellite) TV dishes tend to be very small. The space
segment dishes are mounted on a satellite, of course. The satellite can support
multiple transmit/receive dishes, depending on the various frequencies, which it
employs to support various applications, and depending on whether it covers an
entire footprint or divides the footprint into smaller areas of coverage through the
use of more tightly focused spot beams. Satellite repeaters are in the form of
number of transponders. The transponders accept the weak incoming signals,
boost them, shift from the uplink to the downlink frequencies, and transmit the
information to the earth stations.
 Bandwidth: Satellites can support multiple transponders and, therefore, substantial
bandwidth, with each transponder generally providing increments in bandwidth.
 Error Performance: Satellite transmission is susceptible to environmental
interference, particularly at frequencies above 20 GHz. Sunspots and other types of
electromagnetic interference affect satellite and microwave transmission.
Additionally, some satellite frequency bands, for example, C–band needs careful
frequency management. As a result of these factors, satellite transmission often
requires rather extensive error detection and correction capabilities.
 Distance: Satellite is not considered to be distance limited as the signal largely
travels through the vacuum of space. Further each signal travels approximately
36,000 km in each direction.
 Propagation Delay: Geostationary satellites, by virtue of their high orbital altitude,
impose rather significant propagation delay on the signal. Hence, highly interactive
voice, data, and video applications are not effectively supported via two-way
satellite communications.
 Security: As is the case with all microwave and other radio systems, satellite
transmission is inherently not secure. Satellite transmission is especially vulnerable
to interception, as the signal is broadcast over the entire area of the footprint.
Therefore, the unauthorized user must know only the satellite and associated
frequency range being employed. Security must be imposed through encryption
(scrambling) of the signal.
 Cost: The acquisition, deployment, and rearrangement costs of the space segment
of satellite systems can be quite high in several millions dollars. However, the
satellite can be shared by a large number of users, with each user perhaps
connecting a large number of sites. Consequently, satellite networks often compare
very favourably with cabled systems or microwave systems for many point-to-
multipoint applications.
 Applications: Satellite applications are many and increasing rapidly as the
traditional voice and data services have been augmented. Traditional international
voice and data services have been supplanted to a considerable extent by
submarine fibre optic cable system.
Traditionally, you may say applications include international voice and data, remote
voice and data, television and radio broadcast, maritime navigation, videoconferencing,
inventory management and control through VSATs, disaster recovery and paging. More
recent and emerging applications include air navigation, Global Positioning Systems
(GPS), mobile voice and data because of Low Earth Orbit Satellites (LEOs), Advanced Notes
Traffic Management Systems (ATMS), Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) TV, Integrated
Digital Services Network (ISDN), interactive television, and interactive multimedia.
3.3.4 Infrared Transmission: Light from a Laser

Infrared light transmissions have existed for many years and their use having been
limited to TV remote controls and wireless slide projector remote controls. However,
they now are assuming a position of some, if still limited, importance. Infrared systems
use the infrared light spectrum to send a focused light beam to a receiver, much, as
would a microwave system, although no reflective dish is used. Rather, pair of lenses is
used, with a focused lens employed in the transmitting device and a collective lens in
the receiving device as shown in Figure 1.14. Infrared is an airwave, rather than a
conducted transmission system. Although generally used in short-haul transmission,
they do offer substantial bandwidth, but with risks of interference.
Housing Shield Housing
Lens Lens
Figure 3.14: Infrared Transmission Systems

You may already be aware of the advantages that include rapid deployment, especially
as there are no licensing requirements as typically is the case with microwave.
Additionally, infrared offers fairly substantial bandwidth at relatively low cost. However,
infrared systems require line-of- sight and suffer from environmental interference, as do
microwave systems. Error performance is also satisfactory. Additionally, infrared is
distance limited. However, infrared often is an attractive alternative to leased lines or
private cabled systems for building-to-building connectivity in a campus environment.
Infrared transmission also is used in certain wireless LAN systems and is incorporated
into some PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants).
The fibre optic communication enables us to use enhanced bandwidth. The
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) technology is used in fibre optic
communication to multiplex multiple optical carrier signals on a single optical fibre by
using different wavelengths of laser light to carry different signals.
3.4 Summary
The utilization of data transmission facilities makes the process of the collection and
dissemination of information faster and allows subscribers with low-cost terminal
equipment in order to enjoy the services provided by huge computer centers.
The conveyance, or transmission, of information across a distance necessarily
involves some form of transmission medium. The selection of physical transmission
media that serve to transport the information is critical to its successful conveyance. In
interactive communication, the medium can be critical to the message. Transmission
media can be broadly categorized into guided and unguided media. The guided media
includes all wired media, also referred to as conducted or bounded media. The

unguided media includes all traditional wireless media, also referred to as radiated, or
unbounded.
Notes
1. 3 KHz to 300 kHz is reserves for Radio wave and microwave that is actually
(a) ground propagation
(b) sky propagation
(c) line-of-sight propagation
(d) None
2. Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in
(a) one way
(b) two ways
(c) three ways
(d) four ways
3. MCQ Unguided medium is
(a) twisted-pair cable
(b) coaxial cable
(c) fiber-optic cable
(d) free space
4. Transmission media are usually categorized as ………………
(a) fixed or unfixed
(b) guided or unguided
(c) determinate or indeterminate
(d) metallic or nonmetallic
5. Transmission media lie below the ……………… layer.
(a) physical
(b) network
(c) transport
(d) application
6. ……………… cable consists of an inner copper core and a second conducting outer
sheath.
(a) Twisted-pair
(b) Coaxial
(c) Fiber-optic
(d) Shielded twisted-pair
7. In fiber optics, the signal is ……………… waves.
(a) light
(b) radio
(c) infrared
(d) very low-frequency
8. Which of the following primarily uses guided media?
(a) cellular telephone system

(b) local telephone system
(c) satellite communications
Notes
(d) radio broadcasting
9. Which of the following is not a guided medium?
(a) twisted-pair cable
(b) coaxial cable
(c) fiber-optic cable
(d) atmosphere
10. What is the major factor that makes coaxial cable less susceptible to noise than
twisted-pair cable?
(a) inner conductor
(b) diameter of cable
(c) outer conductor
(d) insulating material

1. Discuss various concepts used in data transmission. Also, discuss the terminology
related to data transmission.
2. Explain the concept of fibre optic transmission. Also, discuss the basic types of
multimode fibres.
3. What is the difference between UTP and STP?
4. What is the purpose of cladding in an optical fibre?
5. Differentiate between satellite communication and radio broadcast.
6. Discuss Infrared Transmission in brief.
7. Discuss general properties of Microwave Transmission.
8. Differentiate between uplink frequency and downlink frequency.
3.7 Key Terms

 Unguided Media: The unguided media includes all traditional wireless media, also
referred to as radiated, or unbounded.
 Guided Media: The term bounded or guided media refers to the fact that the signal
is contained within an enclosed physical path.
 Bandwidth: It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium.
 Attenuation: It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards.
 Radiation: It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to undesirable
electrical characteristics of the medium.

1. (a) Ground propagation
2. (b) Three ways
3. (d) Free space
4. (b) Guided or unguided
5. (a) Physical
6. (b) Coaxial
7. (a) Light
8. (b) local telephone system

9. (d) outer conductor

10. (c) atmosphere
Notes
3.8 Further Reading
 Kundu Sudakshina, Fundamentals of Computer Networks, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, .
(2008).
 Prakash C. Gupta, Data Communications And Computer Networks, 2nd edition,
PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Copyright, 2014.
Copyright, 2009

Protocol and Architecture 65
Unit 4: Protocol and Architecture

Notes
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Protocol
4.3 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
4.4 TCP/IP Reference Model
4.5 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
4.6 Summary
4.9 Key Terms
Objectives
 Describe the protocols
 Discuss the OSI model
 Explain TCP/IP model, and comparison between TCP/IP and OSI model
4.1 Introduction
The development in data communication and computing field led to the proliferations of
different network systems from different vendors. The basic purpose of all these
networks is to collect data from remote locations through data transmission circuits and
then outputs processing results to remote locations. Figure 4.1 provides a more broad
view of data communication networks. The data communication techniques, which are
in widespread use today, evolved gradually. They were aimed either to improve the
data communication techniques already existing or to replace the same with better
options and features. We also encounter with data communication jargons such as
baud rate, modems, routers, LAN, WAN, TCP/IP, ISDN etc during the selection of
communication systems. Hence, it becomes necessary to review and understand these
terms and gradual development of data communication methods.
Figure 4.1: A Data Communication System using Remote Locations

4.2 Protocol
Notes A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a
network. In order for two computers to talk to each other, they must be speaking the
same language. Many different types of network protocols and standards are required
to ensure that your computer (no matter which operating system, network card, or
application you are using) can communicate with another computer located on the next
desk or half-way around the world. The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference
Model defines seven layers of networking protocols. The complexity of these layers is
beyond the scope of this tutorial; however, they can be simplified into four layers to help
identify some of the protocols with which you should be familiar (see table 4.1).
Table 4.1: OSI Model Related to Common Network Protocols
OSI Layer Name Common Protocols
7 Application HTTP | FTP | SMTP | DNS | Telnet
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport TCP | SPX
3 Network IP | IPX
2 Data Link Ethernet
Table 4.1 illustrates how some of the major protocols would correlate to the OSI
model in order to communicate via the Internet. In this model, there are four layers,
including:
 Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)
 IP/IPX (Network Layer)
 TCP/SPX (Transport Layer)
 HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, and DNS(combined Session/Presentation/Application
Layers)
Assuming you want to send an e-mail message to someone in Italy, we will
examine the layers "from the bottom up" -- beginning with Ethernet (physical/data link
layers).
Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)

The physical layer of the network focuses on hardware elements, such as cables,
repeaters, and network interface cards. By far the most common protocol used at the
physical layer is Ethernet. For example, an Ethernet network (such as 10BaseT or
100BaseTX) specifies the type of cables that can be used, the optimal topology (star vs.
bus, etc.), the maximum length of cables, etc.
The data link layer of the network addresses the way that data packets are sent
from one node to another. Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer
listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. If the network is clear,
the computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the
computer will wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers
attempt to transmit at the same instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each
computer then backs off and waits a random amount of time before attempting to
retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the delay
caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not normally effect the
speed of transmission on the network.

Ethernet
The original Ethernet standard was developed in 1983 and had a maximum speed of 10 Notes
Mbps (phenomenal at the time) over coaxial cable. The Ethernet protocol allows for
bus, star, or tree topologies, depending on the type of cables used and other factors.
This heavy coaxial cabling was expensive to purchase, install, and maintain, and very
difficult to retrofit into existing facilities.
The current standards are now built around the use of twisted pair wire. Common
twisted pair standards are 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT. The number (10, 100,
1000) ands for the speed of transmission (10/100/1000 megabits per second); the
"Base" stands for "baseband" meaning it has full control of the wire on a single
frequency; and the "T" stands for "twisted pair" cable. Fiber cable can also be used at
this level in 10BaseFL.
Fast Ethernet
The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet
requires the use of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network
interface cards. In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary.
Fast Ethernet standards include:
 100BaseT - 100 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.
 100BaseFX - 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
 100BaseSX -100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 100BaseBX - 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps (1000
Mbps). It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. (see the Cabling section
for more information).
 1000BaseT - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.
 1000BaseTX - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 6 or better UTP cable.
 1000BaseFX - 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
 1000BaseSX -1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 1000BaseBX - 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps)
and 100 Gigabit Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),
Table 4.2: Ethernet Protocol Summary
Protocol Cable Speed
Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 1000 Mbps
Older Network Protocols

Several very popular network protocols, commonly used in the 90's and early 21st
century have now largely fallen into disuse. While you may hear terms from time to
time, such as "Localtalk" (Apple) or "Token Ring" (IBM), you will rarely find these
systems still in operation. Although they played an important role in the evolution of
networking, their performance and capacity limitations have relegated them to the past,
in the wake of the standardization of Ethernet driven by the success of the Internet.

IP and IPX (Network Layer)
Notes The network layer is in charge of routing network messages (data) from one computer
to another. The common protocols at this layer are IP (which is paired with TCP at the
transport layer for Internet network) and IPX (which is paired with SPX at the transport
layer for some older Macintosh, Linus, UNIX, Novell and Windows networks). Because
of the growth in Internet-based networks, IP/TCP are becoming the leading protocols for
most networks.
Every network device (such as network interface cards and printers) have a
physical address called a MAC (Media Access Control) address. When you purchase a
network card, the MAC address is fixed and cannot be changed. Networks using the IP
and IPX protocols assign logical addresses (which are made up of the MAC address
and the network address) to the devices on the network, This can all become quite
complex -- suffice it to say that the network layer takes care of assigning the correct
addresses (via IP or IPX) and then uses routers to send the data packets to other
networks.
TCP and SPX (Transport Layer)

The transport layer is concerned with efficient and reliable transportation of the data
packets from one network to another. In most cases, a document, e-mail message or
other piece of information is not sent as one unit. Instead, it is broken into small data
packets, each with header information that identifies its correct sequence and
document.
When the data packets are sent over a network, they may or may not take the same
route -- it doesn't matter. At the receiving end, the data packets are re-assembled into
the proper order. After all packets are received, a message goes back to the originating
network. If a packet does not arrive, a message to "re-send" is sent back to the
originating network.
TCP, paired with IP, is by far the most popular protocol at the transport level. If the
IPX protocol is used at the network layer (on networks such as Novell or Microsoft),
then it is paired with SPX at the transport layer.
HTTP, FTP, SMTP and DNS (Session/Presentation/Application Layers)

Several protocols overlap the session, presentation, and application layers of networks.
There protocols listed below are a few of the more well-known:
 DNS - Domain Name System - translates network address (such as IP addresses)
into terms understood by humans (such as Domain Names) and vice-versa
 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - can automatically assign Internet
addresses to computers and users
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol - a protocol that is used to transfer and manipulate files
on the Internet
 HTTP - HyperText Transfer Protocol - An Internet-based protocol for sending and
receiving webpages
 IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the
Internet
 IRC - Internet Relay Chat - a protocol used for Internet chat and other
communications
 POP3 - Post Office protocol Version 3 - a protocol used by e-mail clients to retrieve
messages from remote servers
 SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the
Internet

4.3 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
The International Standardization Organization (ISO) developed the OSI model of data Notes
communications in 1984. OSI specifies a seven-layer model as shown in Figure 2.2. In
addition to forming the basis of the ongoing development of OSI's own protocols, it is
used by the industry as the frame of reference when describing protocol architectures
and functional characteristics. The OSI is the most popular packet-based structure of
layers or protocol stack that defines 7 layers. The Application Layer that is the top layer
is user interface and the users work directly with applications. The user works way
down from layer 7 to layer 1 where each successive layer adds their own header to the
packet that was handed down to it from the layer above.
The ISO, in an effort to encourage open networks, developed an open systems
interconnect reference model. The model logically groups the functions and sets rules,
called protocols, necessary to establish and conduct communication between two or
more parties. The model consists of seven functions, often referred to as layers as
shown in Figure 4.2.
Application Layer (7)
Presentation Layer (6)
Session Layer (5)
Transport Layer (4)
Network Layer (3)
Data Link Layer (2)
Physical Layer (1)
Figure 4.2: OSI Model

The last three layers are mainly concerned with the organization of terminal
software and are not directly the concern of communications engineers. The transport
layer is the one, which links the communication processes to this software oriented
protocols. The transmitting device uses the top layer, at which point the data is placed
into a packet, prepended by a header. The data and header, known collectively as a
Protocol Data Unit (PDU), are handled by each successively lower layer as the data
works its way across the network to the receiving node. At the receiving node, the data
works its way up the layered model, successively higher layers strip off the header
information.
The basic header of OSI layer is shown in Figure 4.3. PDU (Protocol Data Unit) is
the units of data passed between respective layers at sending and receiving ends.
PDU
Header Data
Figure 4.3: OSI Header

The basic philosophy of the 7-layer model is that each layer may be defined
independently of every other layer. Thus from the user point of view, interchange takes
effect across each operation passes down through the layers of the model until data
interchange is affected through the physical connection. The underlying principles and
guidelines that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are given below:
1. A layer is created at different level of abstraction.
2. Each layer is assigned to perform well-defined functions.
3. The function of each layer is based on internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries are chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.

5. The number of layers is kept large enough that distinct functions have different
layers. They are also kept small enough that the architecture does not become
Notes unwieldy.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)

This layer describes the physical media or communication channel over which the bit
stream is to be transmitted with the objective that when sending side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the receiving side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Hence, it defines the electrical
and mechanical aspects of interfacing to a physical medium for transmitting data, as
well as setting up, maintaining, and disconnecting physical links. It is primarily
concerned with moving bits from one node to next over the physical link. The issues
concerning with the physical layer involve amplitude of the pulses to define 1 and 0
level, width of the pulse in microseconds, types and mode of communications,
establishment and breaking of connections at the time of communications, types of
connectors, etc.
It accepts data from the Data Link layer in bit streams for the subsequent
transmission over the physical medium. At this layer, the mechanical (connector type),
electrical (voltage levels), functional (ping assignments), and procedural (handshake)
characteristics are defined. RS-232C/D is an example of a physical layer definition.
The following are the main functions of the physical layer:
Hardware Specification: The details of the physical cables, network interface
cards, wireless radios, etc are a part of this layer.
Coaxial Cable Hybrid Cable Wireless Card Network Card
Figure 4.4: Hardware Specification

Encoding and Signalling: How are the bits encoded in the medium is also decided
by this layer. For example, on the coppar wire medium, we can use differnet voltage
levels for a certain time interval to represent '0' and '1'. We may use +5mV for 1nsec to
represent '1' and -5mV for 1nsec to represent '0'. All the issues of modulation is dealt
with in this layer. eg, we may use Binary phase shift keying for the representation of '1'
and '0' rather than using different volatage levels if we have to transfer in RF waves.
Figure 4.4: Binary Phase Shift Keying

Data Transmission and Reception: The transfer of each bit of data is the
responsibility of this layer. This layer assures the transmissoin of each bit with a high
probability. The transmission of the bits is not completely reliable as their is no error Notes
correction in this layer.
Topology and Network Design: The network design is the integral part of the
physical layer. Which part of the network is the router going to be placed, where the
switches will be used, where we will put the hubs, how many machines is each switch
going to handle, what server is going to be placed where, and many such concerns are
to be taken care of by the physical layer. The variosu kinds of netopologies that we
decide to use may be ring, bus, star or a hybrid of these topologies depending on our
requirements.
Figure 4.5: Commonly used Network Topology
Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

It takes the bits that are received by the physical layer and detects error. This
establishes an error free communications path between network nodes over the
physical channel, frames messages for transmission, checks integrity of received
messages, manages access to and use of the channel, ensures proper sequence of
transmitted data. Hence, this layer is responsible for the reliable transfer of data across
the Physical link. Its responsibilities include such functions as data flow control,
breaking the input data, frame formatting, transmission of the frames sequentially, error
detection, and link management, etc. In order to provide a reliable service, it also offers
processing of the acknowledgement frames, retransmitting lost or damaged frames, etc.
Data link layer is further subdivided into Medium Access (MAC) sub layer to deal with
the access control over the shared channel in broadcast networks.
This layer is concerned with:
1. Framing: Breaking input data into frames (typically a few hundred bytes) and caring
about the frame boundaries and the size of each frame.
2. Acknowledgment: Sent by the receiving end to inform the source that the frame
was received without any error.
3. Sequence Numbering: To acknowledge which frame was received.
4. Error Detection: The frames may be damaged, lost or duplicated leading to errors.
Notes The error control is on link to link basis.
5. Retransmission: The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive
acknowledgment.
6. Flow Control: Necessary for a fast transmitter to keep pace with a slow receiver.
Figure 4.6: Data Link Layer
Network Layer (Layer 3)

The network layer comprises software that addresses the PDUs and transports them to
the ultimate destination, setting up the appropriate paths between the various nodes.
Therefore, the main objective of this layer is to control the operation of the subnet. It is
the layer, which provides Internet Protocol (IP) to use it. It is mainly responsible for
providing routing services from source to destination across the Internet. In doing so, it
allows internetworking among heterogeneous networks using different addressing,
length of packet, protocols, etc. The routing may be static or dynamic. Network layer
also plays important role in congestion control.
It also shields the above layers from details about the underlying network (the
network topology and road map) and the routing technology that might have been
deployed to connect different networks together. In addition to routing, this layer is
responsible for establishing and maintaining the connection. In broadcast networks, the
routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or even nonexistent.
Its basic functions are routing and congestion control.
 Routing: This deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred) from
source to destination. It can be of three types:
 Static: Routes are based on static tables that are "wired into" the network and are
rarely changed.
 Dynamic: All packets of one application can follow different routes depending upon
the topology of the network, the shortest path and the current network load.
 Semi-Dynamic: A route is chosen at the start of each conversation and then all the
packets of the application follow the same route.

Notes
Figure 4.7: Routing

The services provided by the network can be of two types:
 Connection less service: Each packet of an application is treated as an
independent entity. On each packet of the application the destination address is
provided and the packet is routed.
 Connection oriented service: Here, first a connection is established and then all
packets of the application follow the same route. To understand the above concept,
we can also draw an analogy from the real life. Connection oriented service is
modeled after the telephone system. All voice packets go on the same path after
the connection is established till the connection is hung up. It acts like a tube ; the
sender pushes the objects in at one end and the receiver takes them out in the
same order at the other end. Connection less service is modeled after the postal
system. Each letter carries the destination address and is routed independent of all
the others. Here, it is possible that the letter sent first is delayed so that the second
letter reaches the destination before the first letter.
Congestion Control: A router can be connected to 4-5 networks. If all the networks
send packet at the same time with maximum rate possible then the router may not be
able to handle all the packets and may drop some/all packets. In this context the
dropping of the packets should be minimized and the source whose packet was
dropped should be informed. The control of such congestion is also a function of the
network layer. Other issues related with this layer are transmitting time, delays, jittering.
Internetworking: Internetworks are multiple networks that are connected in such a
way that they act as one large network, connecting multiple office or department
networks. Internetworks are connected by networking hardware such as routers,
switches, and bridges. Internetworking is a solution born of three networking problems:
isolated LANs, duplication of resources, and the lack of a centralized network
management system. With connected LANs, companies no longer have to duplicate
programs or resources on each network. This in turn gives way to managing the
network from one central location instead of trying to manage each separate LAN. We
should be able to transmit any packet from one network to any other network even if
they follow different protocols or use different addressing modes.

Notes
Figure 4.8: Internetworking

Network Layer does not guarantee that the packet will reach its intended
destination. There are no reliability guarantees.
The next three layers are task oriented and have to do with the operations
performed by the user rather than with the network.
Transport Layer (Layer 4)

This layer guarantees the orderly and reliable delivery of data between end systems
after accepting data from the session layer. Data is accepted from the Session layer
and split up into smaller units, if needed. Session layer passes the data to the Network
layer and ensures that the packets arrive correctly at the receiving side.
Basically, it performs connection management based upon the throughput
conditions. In normal condition, one network connection corresponds to multiple
transport connections. In high throughput condition, one transport connections
correspond to multiple network connection. The most popular protocol suite TCP/IP
uses this layer. Transport layer also performs additional functions such as data
multiplexing and de-multiplexing. This layer divides up a transmitting message into
packets and reassembles it at the receiving end. Service offered at this layer includes
an error-free point-to-point channel to deliver messages in the order in which they were
sent. The transport layer is a true source-to-destination or end-to-end layer. Flow
control between hosts is also needed but different from between routers (similar
principles will apply to both).
Its functions are:
 Multiplexing/DE multiplexing: Normally the transport layer will create distinct
network connection for each transport connection required by the session layer.
The transport layer may either create multiple network connections (to improve
throughput) or it may multiplex several transport connections onto the same
network connection (because creating and maintaining networks may be
expensive). In the latter case, demultiplexing will be required at the receiving end. A
point to note here is that communication is always carried out between two
processes and not between two machines. This is also known as process-to-
process communication.
 Fragmentation and Re-assembly: The data accepted by the transport layer from
the session layer is split up into smaller units (fragmentation) if needed and then
passed to the network layer. Correspondingly, the data provided by the network
layer to the transport layer on the receiving side is re-assembled.

 Types of service: The transport layer also decides the type of service that should
be provided to the session layer. The service may be perfectly reliable, or may be
reliable within certain tolerances or may not be reliable at all. The message may or Notes
may not be received in the order in which it was sent. The decision regarding the
type of service to be provided is taken at the time when the connection is
established.
 Error Control: If reliable service is provided then error detection and error recovery
operations are also performed. It provides error control mechanism on end to end
basis.
 Flow Control: A fast host cannot keep pace with a slow one. Hence, this is a
mechanism to regulate the flow of information.
 Connection Establishment/Release: The transport layer also establishes and
releases the connection across the network. This requires some sort of naming
mechanism so that a process on one machine can indicate with whom it wants to
communicate.
Session Layer (Layer 5)

The session layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and arbitrating the
dialogs between communicating applications. It also provides enhanced services useful
in some applications, for example, remote login, remote file transfer, etc. It is also
responsible for the orderly recovery from failures by implementing appropriate check
pointing mechanisms.
So, It deals with the concept of Sessions i.e. when a user logins to a remote server
he should be authenticated before getting access to the files and application programs.
Another job of session layer is to establish and maintain sessions. If during the transfer
of data between two machines the session breaks down, it is the session layer which
re-establishes the connection. It also ensures that the data transfer starts from where it
breaks keeping it transparent to the end user. e.g. In case of a session with a database
server, this layer introduces check points at various places so that in case the
connection is broken and reestablished, the transition running on the database is not
lost even if the user has not committed. This activity is called Synchronization. Another
function of this layer is Dialogue Control which determines whose turn is it to speak in
a session. It is useful in video conferencing.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The presentation layer performs functions related to the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted that include formatting and displaying of received data by
terminals and printers. It is concerned with differences in the data syntax used by
communicating applications. This layer is responsible for remedying those differences
by resorting to mechanisms that transform the local syntax (specific to the platform in
question) to a common one for the purpose of data exchange. For example, it performs
encoding of data in a standard agreed upon way to facilitate information exchange
among heterogeneous systems using different codes for strings, for example,
conversion between ASCII and EBCDIC character codes. It facilitates data compression
for reducing the number of bits to be transmitted and encrypts data for privacy and
authentication, if necessary.
So, this layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with different data
representations to communicate data structures to be exchanged can be defined in
abstract way along with standard encoding. It also manages these abstract data
structures and allows higher level of data structures to be defined an exchange. It
encodes the data in standard agreed way (network format). Suppose there are two
machines A and B one follows 'Big Endian' and other 'Little Endian' for data
representation. This layer ensures that the data transmitted by one gets converted in
the form compatible to other machine. This layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information transmitted. In order to make it possible for computers with
different data representations to communicate data structures to be exchanged can be

defined in abstract way along with standard encoding. It also manages these abstract
Notes data structures and allows higher level of data structures to be defined an exchange.
Other functions include compression, encryption etc.
Application Layer (Layer 7)

The application layer provides support services for user and application tasks. It
determines how the user will use the data network. It allows the user to use the
network. For example, it provides network-based services to the end user. Examples of
network services are distributed databases, electronic mail, resource sharing, file
transfers, remote file access and network management. This layer defines the nature of
the task to be performed.
The communication between two nodes in OSI model takes place horizontally as
shown in Figure 4.9. Each layer in the OSI model except the physical layer is
implemented based on software program or algorithm running on that particular node’s
a computer that connects logically the corresponding layer of another node’s computer
in communication with first node and vice versa. It means to say that a software and
procedures process running at layer 4 on one computer can accomplish logical
communication with a similar process running at layer 4 on another computer. However,
the communicating nodes are considered to be physically connected at layer 1,
therefore, this indicates that a process to be run on the layer, the data from the sending
node must pass down the data through the layers between layer 4 and layer 1.
Thereafter, the data is transmitted over the physical connection to layer 1 of the
receiving node’s computer and “passed up to the layer 4 of the receiving node’s
computer. Thus layer 4 of one node connects with layer 4 of another node even though
they do not have physical connection directly. Form the Figure 4.4; it is evident that
communication between two nodes also requires vertical communication within the
same machine except at the physical layer.
So, the seventh layer contains the application protocols with which the user gains
access to the network. The choice of which specific protocols and their associated
functions are to be used at the application level is up to the indivdual user. Thus the
boundary between the presentation layer and the application layer represents a
separation of the protocols imposed by the network designers from those being
selected and implemented by the network users. For example commonly used protocols
are HTTP(for web browsing), FTP(for file transfer) etc.
7 Application Layer 7 Protocol 7 Application
Layer 6/7 Interface Layer 6/7 Interface
6 Presentation Layer 6 Protocol 6 Presentation
5 Session Layer 5 Protocol 5 Session
4 Transport Layer 4 Protocol 4 Transport
3 Network Layer 3 Protocol 3 Network
2 Data link Layer 2 Protocol 2 Data link
1 Physical Layer 1 Protocol 1 Physical
Figure 4.9: Communication between Two Computer in OSI Model

4.4 TCP/IP Reference Model
The TCP/IP model is considered the oldest protocol of all computer networks like the Notes
ARPANET and its successor Internet. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol. It was developed with the objective to specify a suite of
protocols capable of providing transparent communications interoperability services
between computers of all sizes, regardless of the hardware or operating system
platforms supporting them. Over the years, TCP/IP has become the most widespread of
today's protocols. One reason for TCP/IP's popularity is the public availability of its
protocols' specifications. In this sense, TCP/IP can justifiably be considered an open
system. Most users rely on TCP/IP for the purpose of file transfers, electronic mail (e-
mail), and remote login services.
The TCP/IP model was aimed to connect multiple networks together in a seamless
way even in case of breakdown of the subnet hardware. Not only providing seamless
communication, but also providing a flexible architecture that should support
applications with divergent requirements, ranging from transferring files to real-time
speech transmission. These objectives could be achieved because of the inclusion of
the research work on packet-switching network to the Arpanet.
TCP corresponds to the fourth layer of OSI reference model. IP corresponds to the
third layer of the same model. TCP provides a connection type service. That is, a logical
connection must be established prior to communication to continuously transmit large
amount of data with acknowledgement. IP is a connectionless type service and prior to
transmission of data, no logical connection is needed.
TCP was specifically designed to provide a reliable end to end byte stream over an
unreliable internetwork. Each machine supporting TCP has a TCP transport entity either
a user process or part of the kernel that manages TCP streams and interface to IP
layer. A TCP entity accepts user data streams from local processes breaks them up into
pieces not exceeding 64KB and sends each piece as a separate IP datagram. Client
Server mechanism is not necessary for TCP to behave properly.
The IP layer gives no guarantee that datagram will be delivered properly, so it is up
to TCP to timeout and retransmit, if needed. Duplicate, lost and out of sequence
packets are handled using the sequence number, acknowledgements, retransmission,
timers, etc to provide a reliable service. Connection is a must for this service. Bit errors
are taken care of by the CRC checksum. One difference from usual sequence
numbering is that each byte is given a number instead of each packet. This is done so
that at the time of transmission in case of loss, data of many small packets can be
combined together to get a larger packet, and hence smaller overhead.
TCP connection is a duplex connection. That means there is no difference between
two sides once the connection is established.
TCP Connection Establishment

The "three-way handshake" is the procedure used to establish a connection. This
procedure normally is initiated by one TCP and responded to by another TCP. The
procedure also works if two TCP simultaneously initiate the procedure. When
simultaneous attempt occurs, each TCP receives a "SYN" segment which carries no
acknowledgment after it has sent a "SYN". Of course, the arrival of an old duplicate
"SYN" segment can potentially make it appear, to the recipient, that a simultaneous
connection initiation is in progress. Proper use of "reset" segments can disambiguate
these cases.
The three-way handshake reduces the possibility of false connections. It is the
implementation of a trade-off between memory and messages to provide information for
this checking.
The simplest three-way handshake is shown in figure below. The figures should be
interpreted in the following way. Each line is numbered for reference purposes. Right

arrows (-->) indicate departure of a TCP segment from TCP A to TCP B, or arrival of a
segment at B from A. Left arrows (<--), indicate the reverse. Ellipsis (...) indicates a
Notes segment which is still in the network (delayed). TCP states represent the state AFTER
the departure or arrival of the segment (whose contents are shown in the center of each
line). Segment contents are shown in abbreviated form, with sequence number, control
flags, and ACK field. Other fields such as window, addresses, lengths, and text have
been left out in the interest of clarity.
TCP A TCP B
1. closed listen
2. syn-sent --> <seq=100><ctl=syn> --> syn-received
3. established <-- <seq=300><ack=101><ctl=syn,ack> <-- syn-received
4. established --> <seq=101><ack=301><ctl=ack> --> established
5. established --> <seq=101><ack=301><ctl=ack><data> --> established
In line 2 of above figure, TCP A begins by sending a SYN segment indicating that it
will use sequence numbers starting with sequence number 100. In line 3, TCP B sends
a SYN and acknowledges the SYN it received from TCP A. Note that the
acknowledgment field indicates TCP B is now expecting to hear sequence 101,
acknowledging the SYN which occupied sequence 100.
At line 4, TCP A responds with an empty segment containing an ACK for TCP B's
SYN; and in line 5, TCP A sends some data. Note that the sequence number of the
segment in line 5 is the same as in line 4 because the ACK does not occupy sequence
number space (if it did, we would wind up ACKing ACK's!).
Figure 4.10: Three Way Handshaking Protocol

Simultaneous initiation is only slightly more complex, as is shown in figure below.
Each TCP cycles from CLOSED to SYN-SENT to SYN-RECEIVED to ESTABLISHED.
TCP A TCP B
1. CLOSED LISTEN
2. SYN-SENT --> <SEQ=100><CTL=SYN>
Contd…

3. SYN-RECEIVED <-- <-- SYN-SENT
<SEQ=300><CTL=SYN>
4. ... <SEQ=100><CTL=SYN> --> SYN-RECEIVED Notes
5. SYN-RECEIVED -->
<SEQ=100><ACK=301><CTL=SYN,ACK> ...
6. ESTABLISHED <--
<SEQ=300><ACK=101><CTL=SYN,ACK> <-
- SYN-RECEIVED
7. ... <SEQ=101><ACK=301><CTL=ACK> --> ESTABLISHED
TCP/IP defines a suite of communications and applications protocols in layer

structure, with each layer handling distinct communication services. TCP/IP defines a
four-layer model as shown in Figure 4.11 consisting of the internet layer, the transport
layer, the application layer and the host-to-network layer. This architecture is based on
three sets of interdependent processes, namely, application-specific processes, host-
specific processes, and network-specific processes.
Application Layer
(Application Specific Processes)
Transport layer
(Host Specific Processes)
Internet Layer
(Routing Processes)
Host - to - Network Layer
(Network Specific Processes)
Figure 4.11: TCP/IP Communication Architecture
Internet Layer
The packet format and protocol at this layer is called Internet Protocol (IP). IP is a
connectionless type service that introduces IP packets into any network. The packets
travel independently to the destination. Prior to transmission of data, no logical
connection is needed. The TCP/IP Internet layer corresponds to the network layer of the
OSI reference model in functionality, as shown in Figure 4.12.
Transport Layer
The transport layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the transport layer of the OSI
reference model as shown in Figure 4.12. It is represented by two end-to-end protocols
namely, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol). TCP
is a reliable connection-oriented protocol and UDP is an unreliable connectionless
protocol.
Application Layer
The TCP/IP model was the first of its kind model and therefore did not contain session
or presentation layers because of its little use to most of the applications. This layer has
all the higher-level protocols, as shown in Figure 4.12.
Host-to-network Layer
The layer below the Internet layer is not defined and varies from host and network to
network. The TCP/IP model suggests that the host has to connect to the network using
some protocol so it can send IP packets over it.

Notes
UDP
Figure 4.12: Correspondence: TCP/IP Model and the OSI Model
4.4 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

Figure 4.12 shows the similarity between the TCP/IP and OSI reference model. Both
the models were developed based on the concept a stack of independent protocols with
similar functionality of the layers.
In spite of similarity between the two models they also contrast in functionalities
provided by services, interfaces and protocols. OSI reference model clearly distinguish
them while the TCP/IP model did not explicitly distinguish them. Other differences are:
 The OSI model has seven layers and the TCP/IP model has only four layers.
 The OSI model was developed before the protocols were devised. The TCP/IP
model was developed after the development of the protocols.
 The OSI model has both connection-oriented and connectionless communication in
the network layer and connection-oriented communication in the transport layer.
The TCP/IP model supports connectionless mode in the Internet layer and both
modes in the transport layer.
Table 4.3: Comparison between TCP/IP and OSI

4.6 Summary
The concept of layers is important in networking. Each layer with two layers work as the Notes
interface and protects the upper layer that each one layer can change with minimum
impact on the upper layers. In some cases, this protection is so proficient that an
application may not know that it is running on different hardware. The OSI network
model has seven layers.

1. In OSI network architecture, the dialogue control and token management are
responsibility of
(a) session layer
(b) network layer
(c) transport layer
(d) data link layer
2. In OSI network architecture, the routing is performed by
(a) network layer
(b) data link layer
(c) transport layer
(d) session layer
3. Which of the following performs modulation and demodulation?
(a) fiber optics
(b) satellite
(c) coaxial cable
(d) modem
4. The process of converting analog signals into digital signals so they can be
processed by a receiving computer is referred to as:
(a) modulation
(b) demodulation
(c) synchronizing
(d) digitizing
5. How many OSI layers are covered in the X.25 standard?
(a) Two
(b) Three
(c) Seven
(d) Six
6. Layer one of the OSI model is
(a) physical layer
(b) link layer
(c) transport layer
(d) network layer
7. The x.25 standard specifies a
(a) technique for start-stop data
(b) technique for dial access

(c) DTE/DCE interface

(d) data bit rate
Notes
8. Which of the following communication modes support two-way traffic but in only one
direction at a time?
(a) simplex
(b) half duplex
(c) three-quarters duplex
(d) all of the above
9. Which of the following might be used by a company to satisfy its growing
communications needs?
(a) front end processor
(b) multiplexer
(c) controller
(d) None of the above.
10. What is the number of separate protocol layers at the serial interface gateway
specified by the X.25 standard?
(a) 4
(b) 2
(c) 6
(d) 3

1. What is the different types OSI model layer? Discuss.
2. Discuss the difference between OSI and TCP/IP model.
3. Describe physical layer in detail.
4. What are protocols?
5. Describe the TCO/IP model in detail.
6. Explain the concept of Vertical Redundancy Check and Cyclic Redundancy Check.
7. What is Transport layer?
8. Explain application layer.
4.9 Key Terms

 DNS(Domain Name System): It translates network address (such as IP
addresses) into terms understood by humans (such as Domain Names) and vice-
versa
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): It can automatically assign
Internet addresses to computers and users
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): It is a protocol that is used to transfer and
manipulate files on the Internet
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): An Internet-based protocol for sending and
receiving webpages
 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): A protocol for e-mail messages on
the Internet

1. (a) Session layer
2. (a) Network layer.

3. (d) Modem
4. (d) Digitizing
Notes
5. (b) Three
6. (a) Physical layer
7. (c) DTE/DCE interface
8. (b) Half duplex
9. (d) None of these
10. (d) 3

 Sanjay Sharma, Communication system; analog and digital, S.K. Kataria & Sons,
2012
nd
 Prakash C. Gupta, Data Communications And Computer Networks, 2 edition, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Copyright, 2014.
Copyright, 2009

NF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

NF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

24 Computer Communication Network

Unit 2: Data Communication

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

2.2.1 Transmission Concepts

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

Resistance to Environmental Conditions

Cost and Ease of Installation

2.2.2 Transmission Terminology

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

A transmission may be simplex, half duplex, or full duplex.

2.3 Data Encoding Techniques

2.3.1 Digital Data to Digital Signals

Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

2.3.2 Digital Data to Analog Signals

Figure 1.1: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Figure 1.2: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK

Figure 1.3: Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

2.3.3 Analog Data to Digital Signal

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

2.4 Digital Data Communication Techniques

2.4.1 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

1. Offer a separate clock line between receiver and transmitter. OR

Factors Determining the Rate of Data Transmission

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

Transmission of Bits (Bit Rate)

Propagation Time (Channel Latency)

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

Framing and Errors

Limitations of Real Hardware

Significance of Data Networks

2.4.2 Transmission Errors

Error Control and Error Detection

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

communication, the destination host sends positive or negative acknowledgements

Probability, Mathematics and Error Detection

Types of Error Control

Figure 1.4: Burst Error of Length Five

2.4.3 Error Detection Techniques

Figure 1.5: Detection Methods

Vertical Redundancy Check

Figure 1.6: Original Data plus LRC

Longitudinal Redundancy Check

Cyclic Redundancy Check

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

Figure 1.7: Outline of the Three Basic Steps

Figure 1.8: CRC Remainder

Figure 1.9: FDM Multiplexing Process

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

Figure 1.10: Synchronous TDM

Figure 1.11: Asynchronous TDM

2.7 Check Your Progress

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

(c) Channel noise

2.8 Questions and Exercises

2.9 Key Terms

Check Your Progress: Answers

2.10 Further Readings

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 Sanjay Sharma, Digital communication, S.K. Kataria & Sons, 2010

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

Unit 3: Transmission Media