Int J. Refrig. Vol. 20, No. 3, pp.

179-190, 1997
© 1997ElsevierScienceLtd and IIR
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
ELSEVIER
PII: S0140-7007(96)00075-8 0140-7007/97/$17.00 + 0.00

Entropy production analysis and experimental

confirmation of absorption systems
H. T. Chua 1, J. M . Gordon 2, K. C. N g 1 and Q. H a n 1
1 D e p a r t m e n t o f M e c h a n i c a l a n d P r o d u c t i o n Engineering,
N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y o f S i n g a p o r e , 10 K e n t Ridge Crescent,
S i n g a p o r e 119260
2Center f o r E n e r g y a n d E n v i r o n m e n t a l Physics, J a c o b Blaustein Institute
f o r D e s e r t R e s e a r c h , B e n - G u r i o n U n i v e r s i t y o f the N e g e v , Sede B o q e r
C a m p u s 84990, Israel a n d T h e P e a r l s t o n e C e n t e r f o r A e r o n a u t i c a l
E n g i n e e r i n g Studies, D e p a r t m e n t o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g ,
B e n - G u r i o n U n i v e r s i t y o f the Negev, B e e r s h e v a 84105, Israel
Received 20 M a y 1996; revised 23 September 1996; accepted 21 N o v e m b e r 1996

Absorption chillers, heat pumps and heat transformers exploit thermal power input to
satisfy a variety of refrigeration and heating applications, as well as to boost the
temperature of low-grade heat. Can one arrive at accurate predictions of system
performance with a simple analytic irreversible thermodynamic model? In capturing the
essential physics of the problem, that model would be required to provide a predictive
and diagnostic tool and to permit determination of optimal absorption system operating
conditions. We derive such a model and check its validity against experimental data and
computer simulation results from a variety of commercial absorption units. We reinforce
the observation that commercial units appear to have evolved empirically such that
maximum efficiency is realized under design conditions. The failure of a host of
previously-published endo-reversible thermodynamic models to account for funda-
mental qualitative features and accurate predictions of system behavior is documented
with computer simulation results and experimental performance data. © 1997 Elsevier
Science Ltd and IIR
(Keywords: refrigerating system; absorption;heat pump;heat transformer;performance;simulation;
calculation; thermodynamics)

Analyse entropique et confirmation exprrimentale pour

systrmes absorption
Refroidisseurs, pompes ?t chaleur et transformateurs de chalcur ~ absorption utlisent un
apport d'Onergie thermique pour satisfaire une variOtO d'applications de froid et de
chauffage, ainsi que pour Olever les niveaux de tempOratures. Peut-on parvenir ~ des
provisions prOcises de performance des systbmes par un modble simple d'analyse de
thermodynamique irrOversible? En prenant en compte les donnOes physiques essentielles du
probl~me, ce modkle fournirait un outil de provision et de diagnostic et permettrait de
dOterminer les conditions optimales de fonctionnement d'un systbme par absorption. Nous
Otablissons un tel modble et vOrifions sa validitO avec les donnOes expOrimentales et les
rOsultats de simulation par ordinateur d'apr~s une s~rie de g r o u p e ~ absorption du
commerce. Nous confirmons l'observation que les groupes du commerce semblent avoir
Ovolu~ empiriquement de sorte que le rendement maximum est bien obtenu pour les
conditions de conception. ROsultats de simulation par ordinateur et donn~es de performance
exp~rimentales permettent de montrer comment de nombreux modbles thermodynamiques
endorOversibles publiOs antOrieurement ne rOsussissent pas h rendre compte des
caractOristiques qualitatives fondamentals ni ~ donner des pr~visions prOcises de
comportement du systOme. 0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd and IIR
(Mots cl~s: systeme frigorifique; absorption; l'ompe ~i chaleur; transformateur de chaleur;
performance;simulation; calcul; thermodynamique)

179
180 H.T. Chua et al.
Nomenclature
C Coolant specific heat (J kg -1 K -l)
COP Coefficient Of Performance = (useful
effect)/(thermal power input)
(dimensionless)
E Heat exchanger effectiveness
(dimensionless)
e refrigerant entropy change expressions
evaluated for endo-reversible models
(W K -1)
m Coolant mass flow rate (kg s -1)
Q Cycle-average heat flow (W)
ASint Total internal entropy production per
cycle (W K - 1)
Ty Refrigerant temperature at heat
reservoir j (K)
Tjin Coolant inlet temperature at heat
reservoir j (K)
UA Heat exchanger thermal conductance
(w K -~)
x Fraction of total heat rejection at the
Most cooling systems and heat pumps are driven by
electrical power, and use reciprocating or centrifugal
compressors. The efficiency of these vapor-compres-
sion units can be relatively high, in part because
efficiency is commonly defined so that the entropy
produced in generating the electrical power input is
viewed as external.
Absorption chillers (refrigeration devices) and
heat pumps offer an alternative approach, whereby
thermal power is the driving force. The heat is
usually delivered in the form of hot water or steam,
and is commonly derived from industrial waste
heat, geothermal sources, solar energy collection,
the combustion of natural gas, or other thermal
sources.
The efficiency of absorption systems is ostensibly
far lower than that of systems with reciprocating or
centrifugal compressors. This apparent inferiority,
however, stems from absorption devices processing
thermal power directly - hence incurring entropy
production in the conversion of thermal power to the
useful effect of cooling (in chillers) or heating (in heat
pumps). The key advantage of absorption technology
lies precisely in direct utilization of locally-available
thermal sources, and in reduced environmental and
pollution dangers.
Vapor-compression systems produce their cooling
or heating at an evaporator or condenser, respec-
tively. The corresponding absorption systems include
two additional heat reservoirs: a generator and
absorber. A volatile working fluid (refrigerant) is
partially separated from the carrier solution by the
heat input at the generator. The refrigerant and
solution are subsequently recombined in an exother-
condenser, in chillers and heat pumps
(dimensionless)
Y Fraction of total heat input at the
generator, in heat transformers
(dimensionless)
Subscripts
abs Absorber
cond Condenser
evap Evaporator
gen Generator
input Total heat input
int Internal
reject Total heat rejection
Superscripts
in Coolant inlet
leak Heat leak term
mic process at the absorber. The condenser, evapora-
tor and throttling device serve the same functions as
those in reciprocating and centrifugal machines.
Three useful effects can be derived from absorption
systems:
(1) cooling or refrigeration in chillers at the
evaporator;
(2) heating in heat pumps at the absorber and
condenser. In reciprocating or centrifugal heat
pumps, the heating is derived from the condenser;
(3) temperature boosting of the input thermal
power in heat transformers. Low-temperature waste
heat is fed to the evaporator and generator, and
higher-temperature heat is delivered from the absor-
ber to the heating load. In the heat transformer, the
concentrated solution flowing from the absorber to
the generator is warmer than the more concentrated
solution that emerges from the generator, whereas in
the heat pump, the more concentrated solution is the
hotter of the two. Namely, the heat transformer
delivers its useful effect (at the absorber) at a higher
temperature than that of the heat input.
Our objective here is to develop a relatively simple
thermodynamic model for absorption systems, able to
account for:
(1) accurate predictions of absorption system
efficiency as a function of the major performance
variables;
(2) diagnostics, namely, identifying and quantifying
performance degradation and the component(s)
responsible for it; and
(3) determining the operating conditions and
system configurations which maximize device effi-
ciency, and demonstrating that many commercial
 Entropy production analysis
absorption systems have evolved empirically so as to
satisfy this criterion.
The model developed here strikes a balance
between two previous generic approaches: (a)
highly-detailed, multiple-parameter, device-specific
models that can accurately reproduce performance
characteristics, but leave little flexibility in general-
izing results to other absorption devices; and (b) over-
simplified endo-reversible models that ignore internal
dissipation and thereby quantitatively exclude most
of the physics of the problem. We will demonstrate
that these endo-reversible models not only fail
markedly in quantitative estimates of system efficiency,
but also include assumptions that are clearly contra-
dicted by actual experimental data. Our approach is
in the spirit of recently-developed universal thermo-
dynamic models for a variety of chillers types
(absorption, reciprocating, centrifugal and others) 1-5.
One attempts to capture enough of the physics of the
problem to provide an accurate accounting of the
principal device performance characteristics. Yet a
sufficiently small number of system parameters are
introduced so as to emerge with simple analytic
formulae with which system diagnostics and optim-
ization are straightforward exercises.
Our irreversible thermodynamic model offers the
simplicity of an analytic formalism, and lumps
dissipation (entropy production) into three cate-
gories: (a) external losses from finite-rate heat
exchange; (b) internal losses from heat and mass
transfer in the generator and absorber, pressure drops
in the piping, throttling and imperfect regeneration;
and (c) heat leaks to or from the environment. The
resulting equations permit easy determination of
nominally optimal operating conditions and con-
figurations, as well as a predictive and diagnostic
capability. These claims will be supported by com-
parison against experimental data for all three classes
of absorption devices (chillers, heat pumps and heat
transformers). Our diagnostic analysis will illustrate
how performance bottlenecks can be readily iden-
tified, and how the potential improvements with
existing components can be quantified. This can be
an important step in device optimization for manu-
facturers and researchers.
Finally, some higher-efficiency absorption units are
designed and built with enhanced regenerative heat
exchange. They are usually referred to as double-stage
or triple-stage units, depending on the number of heat
exchangers and generators introduced 6. The regen-
erative heat exchange can also be performed in series
or in parallel. Only the high-temperature generator,
condenser, evaporator and absorber are in thermal
communication with the heat reservoirs (coolants).
As we develop our thermodynamic model in the
following section, the heat transfer irreversibilities at
these heat reservoirs will be treated as external losses.
When heat transfer dissipation occurs within the
regenerative scheme, it will be assimilated as part of
the internal losses. This categorization of irreversi-
181
bilities permits us to treat single-stage, double-stage
and triple-stage units within one unified framework of
irreversible thermodynamics 3.
System performance equations
Derivation of the thermodynamic model
Chillers, heat pumps and heat transformers are
thermodynamically similar entities. What distin-
guishes them are the temperature ranges employed,
and the useful effect derived from the unit, i.e.
cooling, heating or temperature boosting of low-
grade heat, respectively. The equations governing
internal energy and entropy balance are the same;
only the definition of the figure of merit or efficiency
convenient to each category differs. Therefore we
proceed with a general thermodynamic derivation.
Only at the end will we distinguish among different
applications with different definitions of efficiency and
different convenient control variables.
Consider a system operating cyclically and at
steady state (i.e. transients are ignored, as well as
the effects of the kinetic and potential energy of the
refrigerant). The circulation pumps in these units
drive saturated liquids through the system. Hence
their electrical power consumption is negligible
relative to the other energy flows. Experimental data
and computer simulation results reveal that heat leaks
to and from the environment are small, bordering on
(but not always) negligible 6-8. We retain the heat leak
terms, later evaluating their magnitude and confirm-
ing their small influence on system performance.
Using the fact that internal energy is a state
function, we can express the cycle-average energy
balance on the refrigerant in terms of the heat flows Q
at the four reservoirs as:
nleak ,oleak
Qcond 4- ~cond 4- Qabs 4- ~abs -- Qevap
_ Dleak
~evap - Qgen4- ()leak
~gen = 0 (1)
Similarly, exploiting the fact that entropy is also a
state function, we write the cycle-average entropy
balance on the refrigerant as:
Qcond 4-/3leak
~cond q Qabs 4- f~leak
~:~abs Qevap 4- Dleak
~evap
Tcond Tabs Tevap
_ /-)leak
Qgen ~gen __ ASin t /> 0 (2)
Tgen
where ASin t denotes the total internal entropy
production (which according to the Second Law
must be non-negative). Refrigerant temperature Tj at
reservoir j refers to a process-average value. All heat
flows are defined as positive and refer to cycle-average
values.
The last element of the model is to express these
energy and entropy balances in terms of the readily-
measurable coolant inlet temperatures (denoted
below by a superscript 'in') rather than in terms of
182 t4. L Chua et al.

the far less convenient refrigerant temperatures. exchanger's thermal conductance UA:
Energy balance at the four heat exchangers requires:
Qgcn = (UA)gen(T~ - T~n) (6)
Qj = +(mCE):(T: - T)n) (3)
When heat exchange at the generator is dominated by
where subscript 'j' substitutes for generator, con- sensible heat, as in water-fired units, Equation (3) is
denser, absorber or evaporator; m = coolant mass retained.
flow rate; C = coolant specific heat; E = heat exchan- In many commercial absorption chillers and heat
ger effectiveness (dimensionless, with 0 ~< E~< 1); pumps, the absorber and condenser are cooled by a
and the + sign preserves our definition that Qj single stream of coolant that flows first through the
be positive. The product mCE is often called the absorber and then through the condenser. In this
thermal throughput or thermal inventory of the heat instance, T~nd is additionally constrained by
exchanger.
in in (1 - x) Qrej~t
Before proceeding to generating numerical results, Tcond = Tab s + (7)
we can simplify the analysis somewhat by noting the (mC)abs
relative magnitudes of certain terms used above, and However the finite capacity (mC)ab, of the coolant
by identifying practical control or optimization stream is occasionally ignored in the analysis s. To
parameters for the different types of absorption ensure a meaningful comparison between model and
systems. experiment in this case, one simply adopts an
infinitely large value for (mC)a~ in the calculation.
System efficiency is commonly defined by the
Special application to chillers and heat pumps Coefficient Of Performance (COP): the ratio of
Three observations are invoked for absorption useful effect to thermal power input. For the
chillers and heat pumps. First, for properly-operating absorption chiller
commercial units, the heat leaks at the heat rejection
branches, i.e. at the absorber and condenser, are
COPchiller ~ Qevap/Qgca (8)
negligible e-s. Hence we retain heat leak terms only at whereas for the absorption heat pump
the generator and evaporator.
COPheat pump ~- Qreject/Qgcn (9)
Consider the chiller or heat pump at the design and
assembly stage. The designer then can still modify any From Equations (4) and (5), we can express COP
or all of the four heat reservoirs, as well as the mCE analytically as:
values of each of the heat exchangers. Each possible 1
configuration will correspond to a particular division
COPc~ll0r
of total heat rejection between the absorber and the
condenser. It is in this light that we view the fraction
of total heat rejection effected at the condenser or
1
-- Tevap
1
Tabs ~ X Tabs
[1 ldlAXintL
Tc~n -1- Qe~vap ~t Qevap
absorber as a meaningful control variable. As x 1
illustrated below, among all the possible device Tabs Tgen b nd T:bs
constructions, one particular division of heat rejection (10)
will maximize system efficiency. Denote the total heat
rejection by Qreject (Qreject = Ocond + Oabs), and let x where the heat-leak contribution L (for conciseness of
be the fraction of that total rejected at the condenser. notation) is
Equations (1) and (2) can then be expressed respec-
tively as:
L : ~-evap Tevap Tabs
/)leak /-}leak : 0 (4)
Qreject - Qevap - ~evap -- Qgen q- ~gen
f) leak n,eak[T_~n 1-x x] (11)
xQreject _1 (1 -- x)Qrejec t Qevap + ~:.evap -- x~gen Tabs T~ond
Tcond Tabs revap
()leak _ (~leak- I
_ n leak
Qgen ~gcn _ ASint >I 0 (5) COPbeat pump = 1 -~- COPchille r 1 -I ~:.eva.p __ ~gen 1
rgon Qevap j

The role played by x for absorption chillers and

heat pumps, and by the analogous variable in
absorption heat transformers for the fraction of
total heat input accepted at the generator (see the
next subsection), was first investigated in Refs [9, 10]
for reversible heat-driven units.
Third, heat exchange at the generator is usually
latent, rather than sensible, so the generator energy
balance can be written in terms of the heat
(12)
Further introduction of Equations (3) and (6) into
Equations (10)-(12) yields COP as an explicit (albeit
messy) function of coolant, rather than refrigerant,
temperatures. A performance equation similar to (10)
was derived and evaluated in Ref. [11].
The endo-reversible system is a simple (but as
demonstrated below highly unrealistic) limiting case
where ASin t --* 0 (and usually :~evap/')leak~ v,f~~genl')leak---* 0)
 Entropy production analysis 183

so that heat input

1 COPtransf°rmer = Qgen +
Qabs
Qevap (22)
COPchiller
which, with our model equations above, is easily
Tgen{Tcond(Tabs - Tevap) + xTevap(Tcond - Tabs)}
shown to be
revap{Tcond(Tgen -- Tabs)+ XTsen(Tabs Tcond)} - -
1 1 ASint L'
(13) 1 Tcon d Tabs I- Qab'--'-~-I Qabs
and , , t l
Tco.d Tevap F y tTevap
COPheat pump = 1 + COPchille r (14)
(23)
By additionally eliminating finite-rate heat exchange where the heat-leak contribution L' is
losses, the reversible Carnot limit 9'12 is recovered:
oleak ¢31eak Ql~nk (-ileak + ,r31eak oleak
in in in L t = ~evap + ?¢~abs :~gen ~d'abs + ~evap
1 = T~n (Tabs -- revap ) (15) T'~-vap T'~bs -~ Tgen Tcond
COPchiller Tmap(Tlg~n'n
"n _ ~abs)'n
(24)
and As noted before for the chiller and heat pump, the
COPheat pump = 1 + COPchiller (16) endoreversible formula emerges in the limit of zero
internal and heat leak losses
Special application to heat transformers 1
As for chillers and heat pumps, three simplifications COPtransformer
are noted for absorption heat transformers. First, the TgenTevap( T a sb -- Tcond )
heat leak from the condenser is negligibly small Tabs{ Tgen(Tevap - Tcond ) + yTcond(Tgen - Tevap)}
because of the relatively small temperature difference
with its environment. Hence Equation (1) is approxi- (25)
mated as and the reversible Carnot limit 1°:1 is obtained when,
~leak /-)leak in addition, external losses vanish
Qcond + Qabs + ~abs -- Qevap - ~evap
1 T~ap(Ti~ - T~n.d)
-- Qgen + o leak = 0
~gen (17)
COPtransformer ~ bns ( ~ v a"np -- ~ o". d ) (26)
(and note the change in sign of (}leak~evap due to the
different mode of operation).
Second, a control variable in heat transformer
design (as opposed to heat transformer operation once Model predictions versus experimental measurements
it is built) is the fraction of the total heat input at and simulation results: absorption chillers and heat
the generator and evaporator Qinput(Qinput = Qgen+ pumps
Qevap) that is accepted at the generator. Calling that
fraction y, we can express Equation (2) as Rudiments of performance characteristics
t~leak ( 1 - y) Qinput - /-)leak
~evap The term 'useful effect' will be used to indicate cooling
-Qcond
--+ Qabs + ~abs
capacity in chillers, and heating capacity in heat
Tcond Tabs Tevap
pumps. In conventional vapor-compression systems,
_ /9 leak
_ YQinput ~gen _ ASi~t >/0 (18) a characteristic plot of 1/COP against 1/(useful effect)
Tg~n clearly illustrates a fundamental tradeoff in device
performance l'3-s. Here we examine the effect of
Third, heat exchange at the generator and eva-
varying cooling capacity at fixed heat exchanger
porator is usually latent, rather than sensible, so that
area. An analogous exercise presented in Ref. [ 13] and
the heat exchanger energy balances can be written in
not offered here is to analyse the effect of varying heat
terms of each heat exchanger's thermal conductance
exchanger area at fixed cooling capacity.
(UA):
At high values of useful effect, external heat-
Ogen = (UA)gen(I~nn - Tsen) (19) exchange losses dominate, and COP decreases rapidly
as useful effect is'raised. At low values of useful effect,
Qevap= (UA)evap
" .( Tin
evap-- Tevap) (20) internal dissipation dominates, and 1/COP increases
Qabs = (UA)abs(Tabs _ Tabs
)in (21) approximately linearly with 1/(useful effect). Not
coincidentally, it appears that manufacturers have
When heat exchange at the absorber is dominated by empirically evolved chiller and heat pump design so
sensible heat, as in glycol-cooled heat transformers s, that the point of maximum useful effect roughly
Equation (3) is retained. coincides with that of maximum COP. An intermedi-
COP for heat transformers is defined as the ratio of ate point of maximum COP is implied. The functional
useful effect (heat delivery at the absorber) to the total dependences that underlie the optimization have been
184 H.T. Chua et al.
endoreversiblemodel
0
It(usefuleffect)
Figure 1 Characteristic absorption chiller, heat pump and
heat transformer plot of 1/COP against 1/(useful effect). At
low values of useful effect, internal dissipation dominates
and the curve is linear. At high values of useful effect, heat
exchange irreversibilities dominate and COP decreases
rapidly as useful effect increases. Maximum COP occurs at
the point of optimum tradeoff. For absorption systems, there
is the additional feature of a point of maximum useful effect,
due to the heat exchange bottleneck at the generator. For the
upper part of the curve, generator heat exchange irreversi-
bilities dominate. The endo-reversible model curve is also
shown. It fails to account for the existence of maximum COP
conditions, and it falls well below the actual curve for
realistic operating conditions
Figure 1. Relation entre l / C O P et l/effet utile pour
refroidisseur, pompe it chaleur et transformateur de chaleur
h absorption caractdristiques. Aux valeurs basses, la dissipa-
tion interne domine et la courbe est lin~aire. Pour un effet utile
$lev~, les irrdversibilit~s de I~change de chaleur dominent et le
COP diminue rapidement avec l'effet utile. Le COP maximal
apparaft au point de bascule, Pour les systbmes it absorption, il
est it consid~rer en outre un point d'effet utile maximal, d~ au
goulot d~change de chaleur au g$n$rateur. Pour la partie
supdrieure de la courbe, les irr$versibiliti~s d'$change de
chaleur au gdn~rateur dominent. On donne aussi la courbe du
modble endordversible. Elle ne parvient pas it rendre compte du
COP maximal, et tombe bien au-dessous de la courbe obtenue
en conditions de fonctionnement r$elles
analysed in Ref. [5], and are inherent in Equations
(10)-(12) above.
The same observations pertain to absorption
chillers and heat pumps, but with two important
caveats. First, because absorption systems are driven
by a thermal, as opposed to an entropy-less, power
source, a point of maximum useful effect must exist.
Figure 1 is an illustrative characteristic performance
plot. It also includes the corresponding curve for the
endoreversible model (i.e. no internal dissipation).
There are two distinct points (values of COP) for each
value of useful effect. The upper branch of the
characteristic curve in Figure 1 is governed by heat-
transfer irreversibilities in the generator, so COP
decreases as useful effect is lowered. Governing
Equations (10)-(12) account for this feature too.
The absorption unit should be designed to operate on
the higher-COP branch of the curve under realistic
conditions.
Second, even for a fixed value of useful effect, COP
varies with the control variable x, i.e. the division of
total heat rejection between the condenser and the
absorber. COP can also be maximized with respect to
this division.
In our calculations below of optimal operating
configuration, we maximize COP with respect to both
nominal control variables: useful effect and the
variable x. The values of internal dissipation ASin t
are calculated from experimental measurements. It
turns out that ASint, being dominated by finite-rate
mass transfer losses, is approximately constant over
the experimentally-realizable range of control vari-
ables for each system analysed.
Experimental data and computer simulation results
The experimental measurements of Ref. [7] and the
computer simulation results of Refs [6, 8, 14] are of
sufficient detail to be of value in these analyses. They
relate to: (1) two single-stage absorption chillers; (2) a
double-stage series-cycle absorption chiller; (3) a
double-stage parallel-cycle absorption chiller; and
(4) a single-stage absorption heat pump. The principal
device characteristics and performance variables are
summarized in Tables l a - l c.
We first confirmed that system performance vari-
ables predicted by the model from component input
parameters agreed with the experimental measure-
ments and simulation results of Refs [6-8, 14]. We
then proceeded to calculate the optimal operating
points for each system. These are included in Table l b
for comparison against measured and simulated
operating characteristics.
It turns out that the optimal operating region is
broad, which means that system efficiency in that
regime is tolerant to variations in cooling capacity,
beat-exchanger allocation or design modifications. In
four of the five units analysed, the prescribed
operating configurations are close to the calculated
optimal variables (Figure 2 being an illustration). This
is consistent with earlier findings for commercial
reciprocating chillers5 that manufacturers have
empirically developed units that operate near their
theoretical maximum-COP points.
Figures 2 and 3 plot 1/COP against l/(cooling
capacity) for: (1) the actual design value of x; and (2)
the value of x at which our model predicts a globally-
maximum COP. For diagnostics, consider Figure 3,
where the measured COP of the absorption chiller is
significantly lower than the predicted maximum. The
marked difference between theoretically-optimal and
actual operating conditions stems from this single-
stage chiller being severely limited by heat-exchange
irreversibilities in the generator and condenser.
Furthermore, the relatively high-temperature steam
is more suitable thermodynamically to double and
triple-stage chillers (with their superior heat regenera-
tion) than to single-stage chillers. At the calculated
value of cooling capacity where COP is globally
maximized, the actual operating curve is dominated
 Entropy production analysis 185

Table la Summary of experimental data and simulated results for absorption chillers and heat pump. Figures from Ref. [7] are
experimental data. Those from Refs [6] and [8] are computer simulation results
Tableau la Rdcapitulation de donndes expdrimentales et de rdsultats simule's pour refroidisseurs et pompes ,~ chaleur iJ absorption.
Les donnies de Ref. [7] sont expdrimentales. Celles de Refs [6] et [8] rdsultent de simulations par ordinateur
Double-stage Double-stage
Single-stage Single-stage series-cycle parallel-cycle Single-stage
Variable chiller [7] chiller [6] chiller [6] chiller [6] heat pump [8]
T~,[a (°C) 117.6 170.7 170.7 170.7 149
T~nap (°C) 11.7 12.0 12.0 12.0 55
T~'~s(°C) 29.4 32.0 32.0 32.0 90
Q~g~.(kW) 0 221 0 0 0
Q~vaatp(kW) 15.3 0 131 131 0
(UA)ge. 63.4 814 460 408 282
(kWK -l)
(m CE)cona 57.4 73.5 498 509 538*
(kWK -1)
(raCE)trap 86.6 503 503 503 500*
(kWK -1)
(mCE)ahs 69.9 699 722 650 266*
(kWK -I)
(mC)abs 146 1780 1370 1300 oo
(kWK -1)
ASint 0.202 1.30 1.39 1.04 0.113
(kWK -1)
~1 (kW K -1) -0.247 - 1.94 -7.91 -7.44 -0.119
e2 (kW K-I ) -0.559 -0.811 -0.811 0.548 -0.433
* Because heat transfer is dominated by latent, rather than sensible, heat in these cases, this is actually the UA value

Table lb Absorption chillers and heat pump: comparison of measured and simulated design operating conditions against
model predictions for the maximum COP point. Figures from Ref. [7] are experimental data. Those from Refs [6] and [8] are
computer simulation results
Tableu 1b Refroidisseurs et pompes ~ chaleur ~ absorption: comparaison de conditions de fonctionnement de conception mesurdes
et simuldes avec les rdsultats due modb.le pour le COP maximal. Les chiffres de Ref [7] sont expJrimentaux. Ceux de [6] et [8]
rdsultent de simulations par ordinateur
Double-stage Double-stage
Single-stage Single-stage series-cycle parallel-cycle Single-stage
Variable chiller [7] chiller [6] chiller [6] chiller [6] heat pump [8]
Measured useful 529 4000 4000 4000 2410
effect (kW)
Calculated 449 4385 4556 4017 2417
useful effect
at maximum
COP (kW)
Measured x 0.380 0.473 0.291 0.327 0.447
Calculated x at 0.440 0.080 0.386 0.424 0.669
maximum COP
Measured COP 0.634 0.664 1.17 1.32 1.71
Calculated 0.655 1.12 1.19 1.33 1.75
maximum COP

Table le Additional experimental information for the by heat-exchange dissipation, and COP decreases
single-stage, steam-fired, LiBr-water absorption chiller
reported in Ref. [7] rapidly as cooling rate decreases.
Before configuring an absorption machine, one has
Tableau lc Suppldment de donndes expdrimentales pour le
refroidisseur ~ absorption d bromure de lithium-eau mono- the flexibility of varying the type of working fluid (e.g.
dtagd, fonctionnant ~ la vapeur dicrit dans Ref [7] a m m o n i a - w a t e r , LiBr-water, etc.), network connec-
tion scheme (e.g. parallel or series, or generator-
Steam pressure (bar) 1.84
Steam flow rate (kgs -1) 0.378 absorber heat exchanger, dephlegmator, rectifier,
Vapor pressure in evaporator (bar) 0.00912 etc.), and internal regenerative heat transfer areas,
Vapor pressure in condenser (bar) 0.0912 among others. Once these elements are selected and
Tevap (°C) 5.6 sized, the distribution of irreversibilities will be a
Tgen (°C) 104.4 function of circulation flow rates and reservoir
Tabs (°C) 41.7
Tcond (°C) 44.4 temperatures. During the operation of a given
absorption unit, the irreversibilities influence one
186
~_. actualdesign, x = 0 A 4
model calculation for optimal design, x = 0.38
3.0
2.0 ¸
1.0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
if(useful effect) = if(cooling capacity) (kW "1)
Figure 2 1/COP plotted against if(cooling rate) for the
single-stage absorption chiller reported in Ref. [7] for: (1) the
actual design value of x = 0.44 ( ); and (2) the value of
x = 0.38 at which our model predicts a globally-maximum
COP (- - -). The control variable x is the division of total
heat rejection between condenser and absorber. Device
parameters are summarized in Table la
Figure 2 I / C O P repr$sent$ avec l/(vitesse de refroidisse-
ment) pour le refroidisseur it absorption mono-$tag$ de [7]
pour: (1) la valeur de conception r$elle x = O, 44 (trait plein ) ;
et (2) la valeur x = O, 38 pour laquelle le modble pr~voit le
COP global maximal (tirets). La variable de contr~le x est le
rapport du rejet de chaleur total entre le condenseur et
l'absorbeur. On r~capitule les paramktres due dispositif dans le
Tableau la
another. However at the design stage, prior to device
construction, the assorted irreversibilities can be
viewed as de-coupled in the sense that our simple
thermodynamic model pertains to arbitrary working
fluid, network scheme and internal regeneration.
Theory versus performance data for absorption
heat transformers
F o r absorption heat transformers, 'useful effect' will
refer to the high-temperature heat delivered from the
absorber to the load, Qabs. The same trends noted
previously and illustrated in Figure 1 for absorption
chillers and heat pumps also pertain to absorption
heat transformers. F o r heat transformers, the control
variable y denotes the division of total heat input
between the evaporator and generator. We then
maximize COP with respect to both Qabs and y.
Simulated performance data for five absorption
heat transformers were gleaned from Refs [8, 14], and
are summarized in Tables 2a and 2b. They include: (1)
two single-stage units; (2) a double-stage unit; and (3)
two triple-stage units, one of them being a special
design which compromises heat exchanger inventory
in exchange for compactness.
As with the chillers and heat pumps, we first
confirmed agreement between predicted and simu-
lated system performance variables for the heat
transformers. Next we calculated maximum-COP
H.T. Chua et al.
actual design, x = 0.473 I
.... mod.el calculation for optimal design, x = 0.08
2. ") i
I
2.0-
1.8
1.6
1.4 --
1.2-
1.0 -
0.8 -
0.6- i E i i i F i i i i
0.0000 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.0010 0.0012
0.010
l/(useful effect) = l/(cooling capacity) (kW-')
Figure 3 As in Figure 2, but computer simulation (rather
than experimental) results for the far lower-capacity single-
stage absorption chiller reported in Ref. [6]. Device
parameters are summarized in Table la. ( ) for the
simulated design with x = 0.473, (- - -) for the model
calculation with x = 0.08 at which a globally-maximum
COP is predicted
Figure 3 Comme dans la Figure 2, mai r~sultats de
simulation par ordinateur (et non exp~rimentaux) pour le
refroidisseur it absorption mono-~tag~ de capacit~ bien plus
basse rapport~ dans R e f [6]. Les parambtres du dispositif sont
r~capitul~s dans le Tableau la. Le trait plein = pour la
conception simuldc avec x = O, 73. Les tirets = pour le valcul
du modele avec x = O, 08 pour lequel on pr~voit un COP global
maximal
operating conditions, which are listed in Table 3.
Figures 4 and 5 are sample plots of 1/COP against
1/(useful effect) for heat transformers, analogous to
Figures 2 and 3 for absorption chillers.
The single- and double-stage heat transformers
appear to have been designed relatively near their
theoretically-optimal configurations. The deviation
from nominally optimal operation increases as more
stages are introduced (moving from single- to triple-
stage units). In these particular installations, the
single-stage heat transformer formed the modular
building block for the double- and triple-stage
designs. Although the single-stage units appear to be
properly optimized, the coupling between the building
blocks is not.
Single-stage units can be built with sufficiently
small internal losses that finite-rate heat exchange
becomes the COP-limiting factor. Evaluating the
role of the individual irreversibility mechanisms in
determining COP, we express this quantitatively in
Table 3, based upon the individual terms in Equation
(23).
An important difference between the two single-
stage systems is the relative heat exchanger inventory
at the condenser, which is far lower in the low-
capacity device. It is therefore not surprising that
the potential increase in COP for the condenser-
constrained heat transformer is greater. The largest
discrepancy between the theoretical optimum and the
 Entropy production analysis 187

Table 2a Summary of simulated performance data from Refs [8, 14] for absorption heat transformers. Figures cited are
computer simulation results with those of Ref. [8] having been compared favorably against experimental measurements
Tableau 2a Rdsum~ des donn~es de performance simuldes dc Refs [8, 14] pour transformateurs de chaleur it absorption. Les
ehiffres citds sont des rdsultats de simulations par ordinateur, ceux de Ref. [8] ayant ~t( compar~s favorablement it des mesures
exp~rimentales

Single-stage Single-stage Double-stage Triple-stage Compact triple-

Variable [8] [14] [14] [14] stage [14]
T~.n (°C) 98 105 105 105 120
T~p (°C) 105 105 105 105 120
Ta~,s (°C) 115 150 200 250 250
(UA)gen 0.380 201 436 681 517
(kWK -1)
(mCE)cond 0.111 150 313 483 645
(kWK -1)
(UA)eval? 0.600 398 442 487 1190
(kW K -l)
(mCE)al,s 0.238 200 200 200 200
(kWK -1)
ASint 0.000442 0.170 0.467 0.837 0.889
(kW K-I) l
e3 ( k W K - ) -0.00112 -0.352 -3.75 -7.23 -4.77
e4 (kWK -1) -0.00191 -0.850 -1.43 -2.00 -7.27

Table 2b Absorption heat transformers: comparison of simulated design operating conditions and model predictions for the
maximum COP point. Figures cited are computer simulation results with those of Ref. [8] having been compared favorably
against experimental measurements
Table 2b Transformateurs de chaleur it absorption: comparaison des conditions de fonctionnement it la conception simul~es el
pr~visions de modble pour le point de COP maximal. Les chiffres cites sont des rdsultats de simulation par ordinateur, ceux de Ref
[8] ayant dt~ compar~s favorablement it des mesures exp~rimentals
Single-stage Single-stage Double-stage Triple-stage Compact triple-
Variable [8] [14] [14] [14] stage [14]
Measured 3.80 1000 1000 1000 1000
useful
effect (kW)
Calculated 2.36 987 1260 1447 1441
useful effect
at maximum
COP (kW)
Measured y 0.475 0.456 0.622 0.700 0,420
Calculated y at 0.164 0.335 0.497 0.583 0.303
maximum COP
Measured 0.475 0.455 0.285 0.206 0.162
COP
Calculated 0.643 0.457 0.293 0.218 0.174
maximum COP

Table 3 Relative contribution of external losses and internal losses to l/COP for absorption heat transformers (based upon
simulation results from Refs [8, 14]). Heat leaks are negligible
Table 3 Contribution relative des pertes externes et internes au 1/COP pour transformateurs de chaleur it absorption fondde sur les
risultats de simulation de Refs [8, 14]. Les pertes thermiques sont nigligeables
Single-stage Single-stage Double-stage Triple-stage Compact triple-
Variable [8] [14] [14]* [14] stage [14]*
1/COP 2.11 2.20 3.51 4.86 6.16
Contribution 83.6% 81.7% 68.1% 58.9% 52.3 %
of external
(heat transfer)
losses
Contribution 16.4% 18.3% 31.7% 41.1% 47.5%
of internal
losses ASint
* Due to round-off error in Ref. [14], these reported energy flows do not sum exactly to 100%
188 H. 7". Chua et al.

.... actual d~i .gn,.y = 0.456. . = . i actual dealgn, y = 0.475 I

.... model calculation for optlmal c k s i ~ y =0.164
4.0-
2.5

3.0
2.0

2.0 ~ r r
0.0000 0.0020 0.0040 0.0060 0.0080 1.5 I I I I I I I I I )

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

1/(useful effect) = 1/(booeting ~ t y ) (kW ~)
I/(usefuleffect)= ll(boosangcapacity) (kW "~)

Figure 4 1/COP against l/(boosting capacity) for the
computer simulation results of the single-stage absorption
heat transformer reported in Ref. [14] for: (1) the actual
design value of y = 0.456 ( ); and (2) the value of
y = 0.335 at which our model predicts a globally-maximum
COP (- - -). The control variable y is the division of total
heat input between generator and evaporator. Device
parameters are summarized in Table 2a
Figure 4 I/COP et 1~(amplification de capacitd) pour les
rdsultats de simulation par ordinateur du transformateur de
chaleur il absorption mono-dtagd rapportd dans R e f [14]
pour: (I) la valeur de conception rdelle y = 0,456 (trait
plein); et (2) la valeur y = 0,335 h laquelle notre modble
prdvoit un COP globalement maximal ( tirets). La variable de
contdle y est le rapport de l'apport de chaleur total entre le
gdn&ateur et l'evaporateur. On rdcapitule les parambtres du
dispositif dans le Tableau 2a
actual operating point - and hence the maximum
room for improvement - occurs for the compact
triple-stage heat transformer. The reduction in heat
and mass transfer effectiveness necessitated by the
compact design results both in enhanced internal
dissipation and in a more severe heat-exchanger
thermal bottleneck.
The failure of endo-reversible models
Tables 1 - 3 and Figure I reveal the primary failures of
endoreversible models for absorption systems. With
no less than 17 recent journal articles 15-31 (albeit from
only five research centers) having proposed endo-
reversible models for chillers, heat pumps and heat
transformers, we deemed it important to address this
issue explicitly. By omitting consideration of internal
losses, endo-reversible schemes cannot account for
the existence of a maximum-COP point, and hence
miss the optimization capability of greatest interest to
manufacturers, practicing engineers and researchers.
The problem goes beyond qualitative trends. Internal
losses typically constitute around one-half of the total
picture for these devices. F o r realistic commercial
systems, any thermodynamic model that ignores
internal losses must automatically fail to provide
accurate accounting for system performance charac-
teristics. Similar claims were recently documented for
Figure 5 As in Figure 4, but for computer simulation
results of the single-stage absorption heat transformer
reported in Ref. [8]. Device parameters are summarized in
Table 2a. ( ) for the simulated design with y = 0.475.
(- - -) for the model calculation with y = 0.164 at which a
globally-maximum COP is predicted
Figure 5 Comme dans la Figure 4, mais pour les rdsultats de
simulation par ordinateur du transformateur de chaleur
absorption mono-dtagd rapportd clans R e f [8]. Trait
plein -- conception s~mulde avec y = O, 475. Tirets = calcul
par module avec y = O, 164 ~ laquelle on prdvoit un COP
global maximal
reciprocating chillerss. To the best of our knowledge,
this is the first systematic critique of endo-reversible
models for absorption systems.
Closer examination of the assumptions inherent in
the endoreversible models published for absorption
systems reveals a more subtle failure. F o r example, in
Refs [15, 16, 27, 29] for absorption chillers and heat
pumps, a starting point for model predictions is the
premise that the working fluid in each pair of
reservoirs is isolated, and that interaction between
the pairs of reservoirs is achieved via entropy-less
work conversion. In terms of system thermodynamic
variables, two relations that follow are
/-)leak
Qcond Qevap + .Y~evap
e 1 = Tcon d Teva p >t 0 (27)
/,) 7t- ()leak
Qcond ~gen ~gcn
E2 : Tcond Ygen >t 0 (28)
[To be as liberal as possible in evaluating endo-
reversible models, we have retained the heat leak
terms in Equations (27) and (28).] In reality, however,
the refrigerant is in thermal communication with all
four heat reservoirs.
The modeling assumptions can be checked against
the experimental measurements cited above. So we
calculated e~ and e2 from actual performance data
and have listed them in Table 1. Note that relations
(27) and (28) are far more often violated than not. No
fundamental physical law is at stake here. The only
relation that is constrained by the Second Law is our
 Entropy production analysis
Equation (2) for the non-negativity of total internal
entropy production.
For the absorption heat transformer, the corre-
• 16
sponding modeling assumptmns translate to
f=leak (~leak
5 3 =
Qabs + k~abs Qgen- ~sen t> 0 (29)
Tabs Tgen
f~leak _ nleak
C4 --
Qabs + ~abs Qevap :~evap I> 0 (30)
Tabs Tevap
The values of e3 and e4 from computer simulations TM
are included in Table 2a. Every heat transformer
considered violates these endo-reversible relations.
The combined experimental evidence would appear
to render endo-reversible models for absorption
chillers, heat pumps and heat transformers untenable,
be it in accounting for qualitative trends or in
quantitative predictions of system performance.
Summary
One need not resort to massively detailed thermo-
dynamic models in order to account for several
fundamental and practical aspects of absorption
systems. A relatively simple irreversible thermo-
dynamic model that captures the essential physics of
the problem while retaining calculational simplicity
would appear to prove adequate for the following
objectives.
(1) Accounting for the characteristic device perfor-
mance curve over the full range of realistic operating
conditions. This refers, for example, to determining
COP as a function of useful effect (be it cooling
capacity, heating capacity or the rate of boosting low-
temperature input heat to high-temperature thermal
output), and as a function of the division of total heat
rejection or total heat input between the two available
heat reservoirs. It includes predicting points of maxi-
mum COP and maximum useful effect, as well as how
rapidly COP changes with useful effect in the high and
low capacity regimes.
(2) Predicting maximum system COP and under
what operating conditions it can be attained. This also
establishes the maximum possible improvement in
device efficiency for a given technology, that is, for a
fixed quality of the individual components.
(3) Determining to what extent commercial absorp-
tion systems have evolved to optimal or near-optimal
designs. In cases where a noticeable discrepancy
exists, the model provides a diagnostic capability
toward identifying and quantifying the performance
bottlenecks.
We have presented such a model, and have
compared predictions against experimental data and
computer simulation results. The general nature of
the thermodynamic formulation permits immediate
application to three different classes of absorption
systems: chillers (refrigerators), heat pumps and heat
transformers. The only differences among these
189
classes are the reservoir at which the useful effect is
extracted, and the temperature ranges of interest. By
lumping irreversibilities into the three categories of
external heat-exchanger losses, internal dissipation
and heat leaks, enough detail can be retained to
provide accurate modeling while maintaining a clear
physical (non-empirical) picture of device operation.
Finally, careful analysis of actual performance data
reveals major fundamental errors with endo-revers-
ible models for absorption systems of all types. By
ignoring internal dissipation, endo-reversible schemes
omit literally around one-half the physics of the
problem. Basic performance trends essential to system
optimization cannot be accounted for, and there are
large quantitative discrepancies between actual and
predicted COPs.
Acknowledgement
J. M. Gordon gratefully acknowledges the generous
hospitality of the Department of Mechanical and
Production Engineering, National University of
Singapore, during part of the period of this
research.
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