International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx

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International Journal of Mining Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmst

Micro shape of coal particle and crushing energy

Jiayuan Luo a,b,c,⇑, Gun Huang a,b, Long Zhang a,b, Fei Huang a,b, Jie Zheng a,b
a
State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
b
College of Resource and Environmental Science, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
c
Liu Panshui Administration of Work Safety of Gui Zhou Province, Liu Panshui 553001, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A large amount of energy is consumed in a coal and gas outburst since a mass of coal is pulverized and
Received 18 July 2017 ejected, accompanying a great quantity of gas emitted, resulting in a major mining hazard in under-
Received in revised form 19 September ground coal mining around the world. Understanding how potential energy stored in gassy coal seams
2017
dissipates in the process of outbursting may possibly be a key to clarify the mechanisms responsible
Accepted 1 November 2017
Available online xxxx
for coal and gas outburst. The present study was aimed to evaluate energy for crushing coal to various
size fractions in coal and gas outbursts through theoretical and experimental investigation into the shape
of fine coal particles and their equivalent diameter. Theoretical analysis indicates that the shape of a par-
Keywords:
Coal and gas outburst
ticle has a significant impact both on its equivalent diameter and hence on its outer surface area.
Coal breakage Microscopic observations demonstrate the particle fraction with diameters less than 0.075 mm, produced
New surface area from crushing coal samples, mostly takes on a spherical or ellipsoidal shape, and experimental data also
Shape of a fine particle show this part of particles consists of 30%–50% surface area newly generated from crushing operation,
Crushing energy though these fine coal accounts for only less than ten percentages by weight. Further, analysis of exper-
imental data indicates that the total surface area of this particle size fraction varies exponentially with
input crushing energy, and the specific area energy is not a constant but probably in association with
physical properties and textures of material.
Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Coal and gas outburst has long been a serious threat to the safe
operations in underground coal mining industry around the world.
Precise mechanisms responsible for this problem remain elusive
but must include the effects of ground stress, gas content and
physico-mechanical properties of the coal, though enormous
efforts have been made for the past over 100 years [1]. To under-
stand the mechanisms underlying outbursts, it is naturally a con-
ventional way to consider how potential energy is dissipated in
this process since a certain amount of coal is pulverized and force-
fully ejected, simultaneously accompanying a quantity of gas
emission.
Breakage or pulverization of a solid usually means a certain
amount of energy is consumed and a pile of smaller particles
results. It can be regarded as a process in which a solid produces
a large amount of new surface through generating a lot of smaller
parts of various sizes when a certain sort of enough energy is
⇑ Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics
and Control, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China.
E-mail address: jy.luo@cqu.edu.cn (J. Luo).
applied to it. Crushing a solid also implies some sort of energy is
transformed into other ones such as friction heat, new surface for-
mation, vibration, acoustic wave and so on. To date, a number of
mechanisms have been proposed to explain solid breakage, includ-
ing hypotheses of new surface formation, similarity and cracking,
etc. [2]. These theories, relating the particle size to work done to
the host solid, have been widely used in material processing, frac-
ture mechanics and rock breakage. Zeng applied a fractal model to
fit the crushed coal particle size distribution data, and formulated a
kinetic equation describing the particle size distribution for two
types of coal [3]. Jiang investigated the effect of impact speed on
the crushing energy and particle size distribution, and found that
the degree of fragmentation increases exponentially with the
impact speed [4]. Yan proposed a model for calculating rock crush-
ing work ratio, and subsequently put forward a methodology to
evaluate crushing efficiency [5]. Jiang experimentally investigated
the effect of the fractal features and the fractal dimensions of coal
particles on the content of fixed carbon and volatile matter of coal
[6]. In an investigation into the effect of particle shape and surface
fractal dimensions on the energy consumption in grinding, Jiao
demonstrated that formation of an irregular shape of particles will
consume more energy than that of particles with a regular shape

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.03.001
2095-2686/Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article in press as: Luo J et al. Micro shape of coal particle and crushing energy. Int J Min Sci Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijmst.2018.03.001
2 J. Luo et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx

pffiffiffi
[7]. A number of studies also discussed relationships between d ¼ 2a.
crushing energy and particle size distribution by means of numer- In the same way, particles with a shape of tetrahedron will gen-
ical modeling and hammer dropping test on rock, concrete and coal erate a total superficial area of S, which can be calculated by:
[8–12]. Magnus Bengtsson considered the shape of a particle is a pffiffi pffiffiffi
function of the size of a particle after exploring the shape parame- V  4  2a  23a 18 2V
S¼ p ffiffi p ffiffi ¼ ð3Þ
ter of concrete particles generated by impacting [13,14]. Guo and 1
 2a  23a  36a d
3
Cai experimentally studied energy for crushing coal and rock pffiffiffi
[15–17]. Research, carried out by Wang et al., inspires us to adopt where the equivalent diameter d ¼ 3a; and a is the side length of
the micro optics method to observe coal particles in the present the tetrahedron particle.
study [18–20]. When the particle is flake-shaped, the specific surface varies
Total energy consumption for an outburst to occur and the way with the ratio of length (width: height). For instance, for a cuboid
that energy is dissipated in outbursts possibly could be two key particle with the ratio of length (width: height, being a: a: 0.5a),
factors to understand mechanisms to trigger coal and gas out- the resulting total superficial area S can be computed as follows:
bursts. When coal and gas outbursts occur, pulverized coal, which
 pffiffiffi
is also the major factor for coal dust explosion, is ejected com- V  2a2 þ 4  2a  a 4 5V
S¼ 1 3
¼ ð4Þ
monly mixed with gas. These fine coal particles, i.e., coal dust, only 2
a d
consist of a small portion of total particles resulting from coal pffiffi
breaking, but they form a large amount of new surface, conse- where the equivalent diameter d ¼ 25 a.
quently consuming an enormous amount of energy. Indeed, as While for a ratio of a: a: 0.1a, the total superficial area S
yet, little work has been done on energy consumption in coal becomes:
and gas outbursts in terms of the outer shape of fine coal particles,
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V  2a2 þ 4  10
a
a 12 101V
their equivalent diameter, the total surface area of fine coal parti- S¼ 1 3
¼ ð5Þ
cles formed from crushing coal. Therefore, to differentiate geomet- 10
a 5d
rical characteristics of fine coal particles between outburst prone pffiffiffiffiffiffi
where the equivalent diameter d ¼ 10 101
a.
and non outburst-prone coal and to evaluate energy dissipated
Fig. 1 shows that for above particles with spherical, cubic, tetra-
for crushing coal during coal and gas outburst, hammer dropping
hedron and cuboid shapes, respectively, generated from an unit
tests and instantaneous gas relief experiments were carried out.
volume solid, the total newly formed surface decreases rapidly
After the resulting fragmented coal was sieved, the microscope
with the increasing diameter or equivalent diameter; and for the
was subsequently used to identify the shape of fine particles with
equal diameter or equivalent diameter, particles of various outer
equivalent diameters below 0.075 mm. In addition, the relation-
shapes generate different superficial areas. From Fig. 1, it can be
ship between the surface area of fine coal particles and input
seen that particles with a spherical shape result in the smallest sur-
crushing energy was tentatively established.
face area than particles with other outer shapes when the other
conditions are the same, implying a particle with a more irregular
2. Effect of the shape of a particle on its equivalent diameter outer shape would possess a larger outer surface.
and surface area
3. Sample preparation and experimental
In view of the complexity of the outer shape of various particles,
two assumptions are made in the present study for purpose of sim- 3.1. Sample preparation
plified calculation and comparison:
It is generally held that coal contained in tectonically altered
(1) Each coal sample is broken into a group of uniform smaller zones is more prone to outbursts than coal within normal zones
particles with the same shape and size,
due to changes in texture or fabric caused by tectonic activities;
(2) If a group of particles exactly pass through a screen with a hence the former is called as the outburst-prone coal, the latter
sieve diameter of d, then d is referred to as the equivalent
called as the non outburst-prone coal [21–24].
diameter of this group of particles. Two kinds of anthracite rank coal samples were used in labora-
tory. One is not liable to outbursts, taken from the Triassic coal
Four types of particles with various shapes, i.e., spherical, cubic, seam of Binlang Coal Mine in Sichuan province, Southwest China,
tetrahedron and cuboid with different ratios of length (width:
while the other is outburst prone, collected from the Permian coal
height), have been compared to examine the effect of their shape
on their surface area.
When a solid with a volume of V is broken into uniform spher-
oidal particles with a diameter of d, by means of a simple mathe-
matical derivation, the total newly formed surface S can be
expressed as:

2
V  4p 2d 6V
S¼
d 3 ¼ ð1Þ
4
p3 2
d

Similarly, if particles produced from the same solid as above are

cubic with a side length of a, the total superficial area of all parti-
cles can be obtained using Eq. (2).
pffiffiffi
V  6a2 6 2V
S¼ ¼ ð2Þ
a3 d
where d is the equivalent diameter of particles, expressed as Fig. 1. Variation of the surface area of a particle with its equivalent diameter.

Please cite this article in press as: Luo J et al. Micro shape of coal particle and crushing energy. Int J Min Sci Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijmst.2018.03.001
 J. Luo et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
seam of Yutianbao Coal Mine in Chongqing, Southwest China. The
coal without outburst tendency usually is harder than that with
the outburst-prone tendency, with their Protodyakonov coeffi-
cients being 0.92 and 0.46, respectively. Four groups of samples
were prepared for each kind of coal, among which three groups
are broken, coal weighting about 200 g with their particle size
being 10, 20 and 30 mm, respectively. And the remaining groups
are cylindrical specimens of 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in
length machined according to standards set by International Society
for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering.
3.2. Experimental
Each sample is put into a steel cylinder of 76 mm internal diam-
eter and struck n times with a hammer of 2.4 kg falling through a
distance of 0.6 m. n = 8, 13 and 18 represent impact energy applied
on samples being 115.2, 187.2 and 259.2 J, respectively, assuming
that the gravitational potential energy possessed by the piston
before falling is all transformed into impact energy for breaking
samples. Coal gas outburst is a process of energy dissipation, which
is a dynamic phenomenon of coal being broken and simultaneously
ejected by a violent gas emission. Compared with other coal mine
dynamic disasters, the projected coal which usually contains a
large amount of coal fine is highly pulverized. When outbursts
happened, a large part of energy is consumed in coal crushing.
Essentially, crushing is a process in which a solid produces new
surface when enough external energy is applied to it to produce
smaller parts. Therefore, there is a positive connection between
the crushing energy and the newly formed surface, and the new
surface area is closely related to the particle size. From
S ¼ 6Vd
¼ 6m
dq
, we know that the smaller the resulting particle is, the
larger the surface area is. Fig. 2 shows microscopic images magni-
fied by a factor of 1000 of particles sieved through a 200-mesh
screen when two kinds of coal samples of various sizes were
crushed through application of preset impact energy. These micro-
scopic images reveal that most fine coal particles below 0.075 mm
diameter take on a smooth-faced spherical or ellipsoidal shape
whether coal particles are from coals liable to outbursts or come
from coals without proneness of outburst, and also regardless of
the amount of energy applied to coal samples.
Fig. 3 shows microscopic observation images, magnified 1000
times, of coal particles with diameters below 0.075 mm collected
from two kinds of coal specimens of 50 mm diameter and 100
mm length broken through symmetrical release of 9 MPa high
Fig. 2. Microscopic images of fine coal particles below 0.075 mm diameter.
Please cite this article in press as: Luo J et al. Micro shape of coal particle and crushing energy. Int J Min Sci Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijmst.2018.03.001
3
Fig. 3. Microscopic observation images of fine coal particles below 0.075 mm
diameter produced by crushing specimens through sudden release of high pressure
gas.
gas pressure. A chamber, which can withstand gas pressure up to
15 MPa and enable a sudden rapid symmetrical gas pressure
release, was designed and built to both test the crushability of coal
by high pressure gas present in coal pores and thus understand the
role that the absorbed gas plays in outbursts of coal and gas. The
test procedure is as such: first, the specimen is put in place in
the chamber; then the chamber is pressurized to a preset pressure
which is generally kept constant for a week so that the coal spec-
imen can absorb gas enough to a saturation state at the fixed pres-
sure; finally, the gas pressure in the chamber is suddenly released
by slightly increasing the gas pressure to burst a rupture disk
installed at an opening on the chamber.
The shape of these coal particles in Fig. 3 is almost the same as
that of coal particles shown in Fig. 2, i.e., mostly spherical or
ellipsoidal.
3.3. Relation between equivalent diameter and crushing energy
Usually a certain amount of energy would be consumed to frag-
ment a solid. Assuming that crushing a coal block of size D into
smaller components of size d, then we can define the reduction
ratio i as follows:
D
i¼ ð6Þ
d
Eq. (6) implies that the greater the i is, the larger the energy is
needed for crushing. The theory of new surface formation states
that fragmentation of a solid results in new surface formation,
and hence the consumed energy in solid crushing is commonly
proportional to the newly formed surface area. Additionally,
according to the theory of geometrical similarity, the volume of a
solid is proportional to the third power of its geometrical size;
whereas the surface area is in proportional to the second power
4 J. Luo et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx

of its geometrical size. Consequently, the surface area per unit vol-
ume of a solid is inversely proportional to its geometrical size.
Then, when a solid with a geometrical size D is broken into smaller
components of size d, change in surface area should be propor-
tional to ð1d  D1 Þ, and the specific crushing ratio e, representing
the energy needed to crush a unit volume of solid of size D to smal-
ler components with a size d, may be written as:
 
1 1
e ¼ KR  ð7Þ
d D
where KR is a constant associated with properties of material and
the way in which breakage occurs; d the particle diameter after
breaking; and D the diameter of the original solid. Substituting
Eq. (6) into Eq. (7) yields:
KR
e¼ ði  1Þ
D the more energy dissipated to form it. Therefore, the calculated
Owing to a wide range of particle size distribution after break-
ing, it is necessary to obtain the mean equivalent diameter for all
particles to calculate the specific crushing energy. The mean equiv-
alent diameter, depending on both the equivalent diameter for
each size fraction and their percentage by weight, accordingly
can be expressed:
P Fig. 4 depicts the equivalent diameter for particles below 0.075
c mm decreases with applied crushing energy and for the same
dm ¼ P  i 
1
ci di
where di is the equivalent size of a group of particles; and ci the per-
centage, and this group of particles of di diameter accounts for by
weight. If the ratio of crushing is very large, the 1/D becomes neg-
ligible compared with 1/d, and Eq. (7) can be reduced to:
irrespective of original coal sample sizes. However, the generated
surface due to these new fine particles increases with energy
applied and varies little when applied energy is constant for a coal
type, almost independent of original coal sample sizes. Further-
more, test results show in Tables 1 and 2 that other conditions
being the same, the mean diameter of particles of size below
0.075 mm resulting from outburst prone coal is smaller than that
from non outburst prone coal; whereas the surface of particles of
the same size generated from outburst prone coal is 2–4 times lar-
ger than that from non outburst prone coal.
The previous microscopic observations reveal that when parti-
cle size is small, such as less than 0.075 mm, most of them take
on a spherical or ellipsoidal shape. In practical cases, however,
more than 50% broken particles possibly have equivalent diame-
ters greater than 0.075 mm. And as Section 2 indicates, the irregu-
lar the surface of a particle, the larger is its outer surface area and
ð8Þ
energy for crushing is the smallest based on preceding assump-
tions that each size fraction of particles is regarded as ideal balls
with an equivalent diameter, i.e., the lower limit of crushing energy
required. Figs. 4–6 illustrate the consumed lower limit energy var-
ies with the equivalent diameter, newly generated surface of par-
ticles below 0.075 mm for two types of coal samples of size 20 mm.
ð9Þ
energy applied. In the same condition of energy, conversion diam-
eter of outburst-prone coal is smaller than that of non outburst-
prone coal. This shows that the outburst prone coal is more easily
to be crushed than coal without outburst tendency. By using the
least square method, the equivalent diameter can be related to
the energy consumption through a power function:

KR
e¼
d where dm is the equivalent diameter, E the consumed energy, a and
Eq. (10) demonstrates that the specific crushing ratio is inver-
sely proportional to the ultimate fragmentation size when the
reduction ratio is enough large. In Eq. (10), assuming all particles
are spherical and applied energy is all used to create new surface,
then the newly formed surface area is 6/d, the total dissipated
energy is
X 1
 To understand the influence of applied energy on coal energy in
e ¼ 6W ci
di
where W is the specific surface energy. Eq. (11) indicates total
energy can easily be derived from known specific surface energy
and size distribution of particles.
Table 1 shows the superficial area and converted diameter of
broken particles less than 0.075 mm of outburst and non-
outburst coal under different energy conditions. Table 2 presents
test results of mean diameter and newly formed surface area of
particles of diameter less than 0.075 mm when an impact energy
of 187.2 J was applied to coal samples of different sizes of 10, 20,
and 30 mm.
From Tables 1 and 2, for particles with size less than 0.075 mm,
their mean diameter decreases with increasing energy applied and
varies slightly when applied energy is fixed for a coal type,
dm ¼ a  Eb ð12Þ
ð10Þ
b constants associated with material properties and mass. For coals
without outburst proneness, a = 159.8 with a standard deviation
1.04, b = 1.21 with a standard deviation 0.07, and the correlation
coefficient is 0.994. For outburst prone coals, a = 6.55 with a stan-
dard deviation 0.24, b = 0.73 with a standard deviation 0.11 and
the correlation coefficient 0.958.
ð11Þ the specific area, this study calculated the energy consumed per
unit surface area of particles diameter below 0.075 mm of crushing
coal. The variation of specific surface energy for two kinds of coal
with input energy is shown in Fig. 5, which demonstrates that sur-
face energy is not a constant even for the same kind of material, it
seemingly varies with applied energy.
Fig. 6 shows that the newly formed surface increases with
energy applied for two types of coal and an equal amount of energy
input would generate a larger new surface in coal liable to out-
bursts than in coal without outburst proneness. Using the least
square method, we can obtain the following fitting expression:
E
S ¼ a  bc ð13Þ
where S is the new surface area for particles below 0.075 mm; E the
input crushing energy; a, b and c the constants associated with

Table 1
Test results for outburst prone and non outburst prone coal samples of 20 mm size.

Item Non outburst-prone coal Outburst-prone coal

Energy (J) Superficial area (mm2) Equivalent diameter (mm) Superficial area (mm2) Equivalent diameter (mm)
115.2 910928.3 0.046334 3,278,001 0.032998
187.2 2,044,478 0.043717 5,401,466 0.027223
259.2 3,112,300 0.037759 6,895,655 0.018628

Please cite this article in press as: Luo J et al. Micro shape of coal particle and crushing energy. Int J Min Sci Technol (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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 J. Luo et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx 5

Table 2
Test results for outburst prone and non outburst prone coal samples of various sizes under energy of 187.2 J.

Item Non outburst-prone coal Outburst-prone coal

2
Fragment-size (mm) Superficial area (mm ) Equivalent diameter (mm) Superficial area (mm2) Equivalent diameter (mm)
10 1,808,845 0.043465 5,127,049 0.027691
20 2,044,478 0.043717 5,401,466 0.027223
30 1,222,477 0.048742 5,039,209 0.028173

S01 13:65
¼ >1 ð15Þ
S02 9:2

where S01 is the numerical value of outburst-prone coal; and S02 the
numerical value of non outburst-prone coal.
Eq. (12) indicates that for two kinds of coal, the crushing
induced new surface area of particles of diameter less than
0.075 mm varies exponentially with input crushing energy;
whereas Eq. (14) further suggests that coal with outburst prone-
ness is more fragile than coal without outburst tendency with
identical energy applied
Fig. 4. Variation of equivalent diameter of particles below 0.075 mm with crushing
energy.
3.4. Evaluation of surface area and dissipated energy

Fig. 5. Specific area energy vs. input energy.
Fine coal particles with size below 0.075 mm are mostly ellip-
soidal or spherical, irrespectively of their type and the way they
are broken. Consequently, for purpose of simplification in the pre-
sent study, each size fraction of particles is taken as identical ball
particles with a certain diameter to address the total surface area
of each size fraction, but as indicated in preceding section, the
resulting surface area is the lower limit. Hence, a lower limit
energy dissipated in a coal and gas outburst can be possibly eval-
uated by using this methodology if ejected coal particle distribu-
tion is known. In addition, since the shape of a particle is
significant and is often irregular, it is necessary to adopt fractal
theories for an accurate calculation purpose although methods
presented in this paper may be of practical use.

4. Conclusions

(1) Surface area of fine coal particles may vary greatly when the
outer shape of different particles is assumed.
(2) Fine coal particles in the present study with diameter below
0.075 mm mostly take on a spherical or ellipsoidal shape
after breaking, irrespectively of coal type, original sizes, the
amount of energy and the way energy is applied.
(3) Newly generated surface area of particles with diameter
below 0.075 mm is related to input crushing energy through
S ¼ a  0:9935E b, indicating that specific surface energy for
coals is possibly not a constant; coal liable to outbursts is
easier to break than that without outburst proneness.

Fig. 6. Newly generated surface vs. input energy.

Acknowledgments

material properties. For coal liable to outbursts, a = 11.062, This paper is financially supported by Natural Science Founda-
b = 13.65, and c = 0.9935. For coal without outburst tendency, tion (Nos. 51174241, and 51674049) of China and National Basic
a = 6.103, b = 9.203, and c = 0.9935. The correlation coefficient is Research Program of China (No. 2011CB201203).
0.9999.
Derivation of Eq. (12) yields:
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