NEED FOR MODULATION

1. To reduce antenna height

2. To translate message signal
frequency band to the passband of
channel
3. To place message signals from
different sources in seperate
frequency bands to avoid interference
among message signals
4. To reduce the effect of noise on the
transmitted signal by using certain
modulation schemes such as FM.
5.
Analog and Digital Communication System

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

EFFECTS OF OVERMODULATION

An AM signal is said to be over modulated

if the modulation index () is greater than.

From the above figure ,if the AM wave is

overmodulated , the envelope doesn’t
resemble the original message signal. Hence
the message signal can not be
extracted by an envelope detector.

NEED FOR DSB-SC

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

DSB-SC (Double side band supressed

carrier) doesn’t contain carrier component.
1. It contains only upper side band and
lower side band. Hence, the power in
DSB-SC signal is less than power in
AM signal.
2. DSB-SC is used in communication systems
which use synchronoous
demodulation for extracting mesage
signal and hence enough power can
be saved as
Carrier component is not
present.

ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF SSB

Advantages of SSB (single side band)

1. SSB requires lesser band width when

compared to AM or DSB-SC and it
equals highest frequency component
of message signal
2. SSB requires lesser power when compared
to AM or DSB-SC as SSB doesn’t have
carrier component and a side band
component

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

3. Quadrature null effect is absent in SSB

Disadvantages of SSB (single side band)

1. SSB is not useful for modulating signals

having significant low frequency
components
2. SSB needs complex reciever structure for
demodulation of message signals

EQUIVALENT NOISE
TEMEPERATURE

Let the output noise power of a noisy

system be ‘P1’. Let the output noise power of
the noiseless version of the same system to
which a noisy resistor ‘R’ is
connected at its input be ‘P2’

Equivalent noise temperature of the

system is defined as the temperature at
which the noisy resistor is to be maintained
such that P1=P2.

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

NOISE TRIANGLE

Fig.1 Represents the power spectral

density of a typical message signal such as
audio or video signal which shows that the
low frequency components of the
Message signal have more power
compared to high frequency components.

Fig.2 Represent the spectral density of

noise at the output of FM reciever which
shows that the high frequency components
of the noise contain more power
than the low frequency components. The
PSD of the output noise has a parabolic or
triangular distribution.

Hence in FM, the high frequency

components of message signal has more of
affected by noise than the low frequency
components.

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-

EMPHASIS

Pre- emphasis :-

It is the process of amplifying the high

frequency components of message signal
before modulation in the transmitter.

De- emphasis;-

It is the process of attenuating the high

frequency components of message signal
after demodulation in the reciever.

MERITS OF FM OVER AM

1. 100% modulation effeciency can be

achieving in FM at specific
modulation indices such as 2.4, 5.5,
8.6, 11.8… but in AM, a maximum
modulation
effeciency of 33% can only be
achieved.

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

2. For a high input signal to noise ratio,

performance of FM in noise is better
than that of AM.
3. In FM, the output noise power decreases
with the increase in carrier
amplitude. Thus FM has noise -
queting effect.
4. Power in FM signal is independent of
modulation index but the power of
AM, increases with increase in
modulation index.
5. In FM, band width can be traded for
improved noise performance. But this
provision is not present in AM.
6. In FM, when two or more similar FM
signals are recieved, the strongest
signal is demodulated and the other
signals are rejected. But in AM, all the
similar AM signals will be
demodulated. Hence FM has good
interference rejection.

SAMPLING

Sampning theorem :-

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

Sampling theorem states that a band

limited signal can be reconstructed without
distortion from the samples obtained by
periodically samplins the signal
at a rate greater than are equal to twice
the maximum frequency spectral component
of the signal.

Fs >2fm

ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL
COMM SYSTEMS OVER ANALOG
COMM

Advantages of digital communication

system over analog communication system :-

1. Regenerative repeaters, which can

practically eliminate the degrading effects of
channelm noise and signal distrortion can be
used in digital
communication system alone.
2. Powerful error control coding technics
can be used to make digital communication
system highly reliable.

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

3. Powerful encryption algorithms can be

used to make digital communication system
highly secured.
4. Digital circuits used in digital
communication system are more reliable and
can be produced lower cost then analog
circuits.
5. The combining of digital signals using
TDM is simpler than the combining of
analog signals using FDM.
6. With digital communication, the
digitized analog signals ( i.e., voice, audio,
video signals) can be intigrated with digital
computer data. This is not
possible for analog communication.

DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION SYTEMS

Disadvantages of digitsl digital

communication systems over analog
communication systems :-

1. Digital communication system are more

complex than analog communication
system.

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

2. It most of the digital communication

system synchronization at phase,
symbol, frame level is often difficult
to be achieved.
3. Digital communication systems suffer
from nongraceful degradation i.e.,
when S/N ratio drops below a
threshold, the quality of service
changes from very good to
very poor.
But most of the analog communicaion
system degrade gracefully.

PAM, PWM, PPM

PAM :-

PAM is the process of varying the

amplitudes of pulses of a periodic pulse train
in accordance with the sampled values of
message signal.

PWM :-

PWM is the process of varying the

duration of pulse of periodic pulse train in

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

accordance with the sampled value of

message signal.

PPM :-

PPM is the process of varying the position

of pulses of periodic pulse train with respect
thier corresponding unmodulated items of a
occurence
in accordance with sampled value of
message signal.

SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER

Superheterodyne reciever :-

In a broadcasting system, the reciever, in

addition to demodulating the incoming
modulated signal, has to perform the
following functions.

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

1. Carrier frequency tuning- to select desired

signal (Radio or TV station).
2. Filtering - to seperate desired signal from
other modulated signals.
3. Amplification - to componsate for the loss
of signal power (incused during
transmission)

The superheterodyne reciever or superhet

perform all the above functions effectively
specifically it eliminates the difficulty of
building a tunable highly selective and
variable filter .

It consists of following components

1,2,…..

1.RF sector :-
The incoming modulated wave is picked
up by the recieving antina and amplified in
the RF sector which is to the carrier
frequency (f) of incoming wave.

2. Local oscillator :-
A constant frequency difference which is
equal to intermediate frequency ( f IF) is
maintained. Between RF stage, local

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

oscillator through capacitive tuning in which

all capacitors are ganged together and
operated simuntaneously by one control
knobe . So the frequency of LO is f LO= fs+ f
IF.

3. Mixer :-
The signal from RF section & local
oscillator are applied to mixer which
produce two signals (i) | fs +f LO| = 2fs + f
IF and (ii) | fs -f LO|= f iF.
These signals enter IF section.

4. IF section :-
IF section contains tuned circuits tuned to
F if. Hence, it selects amplifier only f IF
signals the amplified f IF signal enters the
Demodulator.

5. Demodulator :-
It extracts the message signals from the
modulated signal whose carrier frequency is
now f IF. The message signal is then applied
to an Audio amplifiers.

6. Audio amplifiers :-

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

It amplifies the meesage signal the

amplified message signal is then applied to
Power amplifier.

7. Power amplifier :-
It raises the power level of amplified
message signal to the denied level in order to

SENSITIVITY SELECTIVITY
FIDELITY

Sensitivity :- It is the ability of the reciever

to amplify weak signal.

Selectivity :- It is the ability of the reciever

to select desired signal reject unwanted ones.

Fidelity :- It is the ability of the reciever to

faithfully reproduce all the frequency
components present in the message signal.

IMAGE FREQUENCY

Image frequency :-

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

We know that in a superhet, the mixer

produces two frequencies (sine & difference
frequencies)

1. |fs + f LO| = fs + fs + f IF =2fs+ f IF

2. |fs - f LO| = |fs - fs - f IF| = f IF

The second signal ‘f IF ‘ is the amplified by

the IF amplifier which is tuned to f IF
suppose, a frequency “ fsi = fs + 2f IF ” is also
recieved by RF amplifier when it is tuned to
“fs” then the output of mixer contains the
following frequencies.

i. |fs + f LO| = fs + fs +f IF = 2fs + f IF

ii. |fs - f LO| = |fs - fs - f IF| = f IF
iii. |fsi + f LO| = | fs + 2f IF + fs + f IF| =
2fs + 3f IF
iv. |fsi - f LO| = |( fs + 2f IF) - ( fs + f IF)|
= f IF

From the above,(iii) (iv) , we can see that,

both ‘fs’ and ‘fsi’ signals have been down
converted to f IF. This results in the
interference of the message band of ‘fs’ with
the message band of fs.
This frequency ‘fs’ whose value is ‘fs + 2f
IF’ Which interference with the desired

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

signal ‘fs’ is called image frequency of ‘fs’.

This occurs due to the poor selectivity of RF
stage.

IMRR

IMRR :- (Image frequency rejection ratio)

IMRR of a single tuned circuit of f IF stage
is defined as the ratio of the gain at the
desired signal frequency (fs) to the gain at
the image frequency (fsi).

Therefore , IMRR = G fs / G fsi

FACTORS FOR SELECTING IF

Factors to be considered for a selectig IF :-

1. Intermediate frequency should be high

enough to achieve high image
frequency rejection ratio.
2. IF should be low enough to achieve good
adjacent channel rejection .
3. A very low IF can make selectivity too
sharp, cutting off side bands.

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

4. Very low IF requires very high frequency

stability of LO.
5. A high value of IF increases tracking
difficulties.
6. IF must not fall within the tuning range
reciever because heterodyne whistles
will be heard if the reciever is tuned
to the station adjacent to intermediate
frequency.

AGC

Need for AGC:- (Automatic gain control)

(or) AVC

AGC is a mechanism by which overall

gain of superhet is varied automatically in
accordance with strength of reciever signal
to keep the output almost constant . A DC
voltage desired from the demodulator is
applied to RF, IF and mixer stage to achieve
AGC.
AGC helps in triainig to station varying
strength without significant change in the
volume of output signal. Hence the volume
control of reciever need not be readjusted
everytime the reciever is tuned from one

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

station to another. AGC also prevents

overloading of RF and IF amplifiers stages
by reducing the reciever gain in the case of
very strong signals.

ENVELOPE DETECTOR

Envelope detector :-
Envelope detector can be used to extract
message signal from AM signal without the
need of using a local carrier synchronised
with incoming AM signal.
Two conditions must be met for a
satisfactory demodulation of AM signal
using envelope detector.

1. AM wave should be narrow band i.e.,

carrier frequency should be large
comparison to message bandwidth
(fc>>w)

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

2. The modulation index of AM wave should

be less than or equal to 1 (mue< (or)
=1)

As shown above envelope detector

consists of a diode and a RC filter.

Operation :-
At time t=0, assume that the capacitor ‘C’
has zero intial voltage. When AM signal is
applied to the envelope detector at t=0, the
diode ‘D’ turns ‘ON’ because input signal
value is positive and the capacitor voltage is
zero. This enables the capacitor to charge
upto the peak value of it may be input AM
signal. When the AM signal drops below the
peak values, the diode turns ‘OFF’ for the
rest of cycle because now the capacitor
voltage is very nearly at peak voltage. The
capacitor then discharge through ‘R’ at a
slow rate with a time constant ‘RC’. During

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 Analog and Digital Communication System

the next positive cycle, the diode turns ‘ON’

when the input signal value exceeds the
capacitor voltage. The capacitor again
charges to the peak value of this new cycle
discharges slowly during cut off period. The
output voltage Vc(t) thus closely follows the
rising envelope of the input AM signal.
The capacitor discharges between positive
peaks causes a ripple signal of frequency ‘fc’
in the output. This ripple can be reduced by
choosing a larger constant ‘RC’ so that the
capacitor discharges very little between
positive peaks (RC>>1/fc).
Moreover ‘RC’ should not be so larger that
the capacitor discharges at rate slower than
the maximum frequency of meesage signal.
So ‘RC’ should be designed such that
1/fc<<RC>>1/w

Where ‘w’ is the maximum frequency

present in message signal.
The envelope detector output is Vc(t)=
Ac[1+Ka m(t)] with a ripple frequency of ‘fc’.
The DC team ‘Ac’ can be reduced by another
low pass RC filter.

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