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A Clinical Dissertation
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In Partial Fulfillment of
Doctor of Psychology
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August 2009
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Copyright 2009 by
Bunch, Kevin Sean
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PSILOCYBIN AND SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE
DOCTOR OF PSYCHOLOGY
Dissertation Committee:
Ed Bourg, Ph.D.
W\ VQ\
Date
ii
© Copyright by Kevin Sean Bunch, 2009
All Rights Reserved
iii
1
ABSTRACT
Numerous reports indicate that psychedelic drugs can induce spiritual states of
consciousness (De Rios & Janiger, 2003; Harner, 1973, La Barre, 1972). Early
hallucinogenic research did not account for the influences of set and setting, and research
was nearly dormant after the hallucinogen abuse that took place in the 1960's. Human
psychedelic research has recently been renewed, and experimental models have
confirmed that psilocybin mushrooms can facilitate mystical experiences that have lasting
(Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Johnson, Richards, & Griffiths, 2008;
Pahnke, 1966). Expanding on previous studies, this research explored set and setting
variables associated with these experiences. Five hundred and four participants
laboratory settings. The majority of users indicated that their psilocybin experience(s)
were among the five most spiritually significant events of their lives. Participants
claimed that psilocybin produced changes in their spirituality and increased their well-
being. Over half of the participants met the criteria for having a "complete" mystical
individuals rated their psilocybin experiences as more significant, unique, and personally
environmental factors. Individuals who sought out psilocybin as a tool for growth more
frequently reported having mystical experiences, which were associated with self-reports
This dissertation is dedicated to my loving wife Sarah. Thank you for always
being supportive and for putting your work on hold to take care of our daughter. Thank
you for motivating me and for understanding the process. I love you.
And to our daughter JoJo, your presence revitalized me, and I have loved that the
dissertation gave me an excuse to stay home and play with you. Your smile and giggles
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to thank my parents who have supported me throughout the
process of becoming a psychologist. Thank you for your thoughts, prayers, and love. I
appreciate that you held any judgments about this work, and that you have always wanted
to see me succeed. You have modeled a nurturance that I hope I can pass along to my
own family.
supporting this research and for expressing his general interest in my study. Thank you
for guiding me through the process, and helping me narrow my scope of focus. I greatly
appreciate your responsiveness and willingness to work during your personal time,
available to me throughout this process. Thank you for your timely responses to my
studies in psychology. You have been a mentor and wonderful friend to me over the
years, and without your support I could not be where I am today. Thank you for
believing in me and taking me under you wing right from the beginning. Your
psilocybin and allowed me to utilize his questionnaires in my study. I could not believe
how available you were for me, and your work gave me great motivation.
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Literature Review 3
Shamanism 25
Religious/Mystical Experiences 56
II. METHODS 75
III. RESULTS 81
IV. DISCUSSION 93
References 108
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
viii
1
CHAPTER I
Introduction
There are a number of reports that psychedelic drugs have the ability to induce
states of consciousness that are religious or spiritual in nature (De Rios & Janiger, 2003;
Harner, 1973, 1990; La Barre, 1972). La Barre (1972) even proposed that all knowledge
religious innovation. Researchers (i.e., James, 1985; Metzner, 1998; Pahnke, 1966;
Pahnke & Richards, 1969) have studied altered states of consciousness and proposed that
societies identified the use of hallucinogenic substances as a vital method for contacting
and communicating with the supernatural, and Harner (1973) argued that this
been a human ritual throughout recorded history and has been well documented as a
face to face with visions and experiences of an overwhelming nature, tending strongly to
reinforce his beliefs in the reality of the supernatural world" (p. xi). Shamans in these
which the shaman confronts the supernatural to accomplish tasks and gain spiritual
enlightenment.
banned in the mid 1960's and stayed dormant for decades, human administration research
was renewed in the early 1990's, and there are still a number of researchers and
psychedelics (De Rios & Janiger, 2003; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse,
2008). Unlike many tribal hunting-and-gathering societies where every adult male had at
least one psychedelic experience in his lifetime (De Rios & Janiger, 2003), psychedelic
experiences are not an organized and guided ritualistic aspect in our society today. Many
individuals still have psychedelic experiences; however, these experiences do not tend to
have the same amount of supervision and often lack a guide. Stuart (2004) reports that
without any supervision. The role of a guide is imperative in ancient psychedelic rituals
and is found in current institutions that utilize psychedelics within a religious context.
This study explored the relationship between psychedelic drugs and spiritual
experiences, and analyzed the perceived effects, both immediate and lasting, on these
individuals. The vast majority (about 95%) of Americans retain a belief in a spiritual
reality (Miller & Thoresen, 2003). These researchers proposed that research on
spirituality has been neglected due to the assumptions that spirituality cannot and should
3
not be studied scientifically. With such a great majority of the American population
explored the different set and setting factors associated with mystical experiences.
Literature Review
Spirituality
Throughout recorded history, and likely since the beginning of time, humankind
has assumed that our existence and reality is not restricted to the sensory and material
world (Miller & Thoresen, 2003). Spirituality and religion comprise another source of
reality that many individuals experience, and has been described as the most important
source of strength and direction in some of their lives (Miller & Thoresen, 2003).
William James (1985) wrote, "... The word 'religion' cannot stand for any single
principle or essence, but is rather a collective name" (p. 30). Religion is a vague term,
which could represent any number of meanings. This makes it impossible to give it a
standard definition on which every group can agree. The difficulty in defining religion is
The most useful definition of religion for our purposes is "the feelings, acts, and
stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine1" (James, 1985, p. 34).
Divine, in this sense, does not insist on a transcendent being as its source, nor does it
the source of a higher power or the divine; it is the total reaction of life, which is present
in every person, in which the person finds ultimate meaning. The subject's sense of
divinity does not necessarily have to correlate with God or a transcendent being; it is
even possible that this subject might deny any sort of religiosity and still be acting in a
"religious" manner. "Between transcendent and response; between Creator and creature;
between ultimately real and the individual person lies all the diversity that is religion"
(Hood, 1995, p. 569). Psychologists focus on the human response to the transcendent or
divine and how this response impacts the individual or the collective group. Personal
It is important here to note that these authors are really identifying the spiritual
aspect of religion. In understanding the difference between religion and spirituality, one
must observe the focus of each of these constructs. Religious factors often focus on
"prescribed beliefs, rituals, and practices as well as social institutional features" (Miller &
Thoresen, 2003, p. 6). Spiritual factors differ from religious factors because they focus
more on the individual's personal and subjective experience (Miller & Thoresen, 2003).
Although these subjective experiences may sometimes be shared with others, the focus is
different from religion in the sense that spirituality is a personal journey. Murray and
Footnote1 James utilized the word "men" in this quote to refer to mankind, as this was the
common terminology at the time that his book was written. This author understands this
term to include both men and women.
5
Spirituality is a quality that goes beyond religious affiliation, that strives for
inspirations, reverence, awe, meaning and purpose, even in those who do not
believe in any God. The spiritual dimension tries to be in harmony with the
universe, strives for answers about the infinite, and comes into focus when the
gender, class, and culture, and the common thread found in spirituality is that "there is a
connection with a power greater than oneself which transcends temporality and the five
religions and atheists, and different cultures view the world, nature, and spirit quite
differently (Carroll, 2001). Carroll (2001), citing Taylor et al. (1995), suggested
"religion is a narrow concept and is associated with codified beliefs about the meaning of
life and the universe and is expressed through rituals and practices" (p. 83). The notion
of spirituality, on the other hand, has a broader definition and focuses on a search for
existential meaning. Spirituality may or may not be expressed through religion and is a
force that "impels humans forward into living" (p. 83.) John Aiken (1971) suggested:
reality; the depths of our being, as distinguished from the surface manifestation;
the awareness of ourselves as Being, or Life, rather than as the body or the
motivation and experience (Thoresen, 1999). The motivation to seek meaning and
purpose may or may not involve the Sacred, and transcendent, unitive, or transpersonal
experience, and gives us a sense of connection that is beyond our individual selves
what others would regard as 'good' or 'evil'. Spiritual experience can have a
depends upon how one evaluates the meaning and values that frame it. (p. 4)
because it "includes but transcends particular religions and particular kinds of religious
communities and involves emotional and physical aspects of human experience as well as
cognitive aspects" (Jernigan, 2001, p. 417). Jernigan (2001) maintained that spirituality
continues to develop with age, and the context may change due to the variety of
experiences that people encounter in their lifetime. For example, elderly people may
experience retirement in a number of ways. They may experience more freedom while
also experiencing a number of losses and limitations that coincide with that freedom.
These individuals may identify spirituality as a way to increase quality of life as they
begin to identify meaning and values, and cope with losses. Gotterer (2001) stated that
"spirituality often implies an intuitive knowing that there is meaning and order to the
Spirituality is intangible, and can only be explored through "reaching the inner
recesses of the mind" (Carroll, 2001, p. 84). Carroll (2001) asserted that individuals
achieve spirituality through being guided by their experiences rather than by following
complex, has many dimensions, and "is not adequately defined by any single continuum
or by dichotomous classifications" (Miller & Thoresen, 2003, p. 6). These authors stated
that the term religion refers to an "organized social entity," and Smith (1994) maintained
(Pargament, 2000). Pargament (2000) maintained that spirituality is "the most central
function of religion" having to do with "however people think, feel, act, or interrelate in
their efforts to find, conserve, and if necessary, transform the sacred in their lives" (p.
12). Furthermore, he argued that spirituality is connected to the sacred and proposed that
religion.
identified common characteristics between religion and spirituality. These authors stated
that although the term spirituality has more recently become favored over the term
religion, the sense of the sacred is the central experience that both terms value. Hill et al.
(2000) reported that, "The Sacred is a person, an object, a principle, or a concept that
transcends self (p. 64). Durkheim (1965) contended that society teaches us what is
8
considered sacred and that every society has sacred objects. His teachings asserted that
spirituality and each person's definition of sacred are influenced by culture and society
Certain objects become laden with value placed on them by the group, whereas
for those outside the circle of the community they are not sacred at all. Their
holiness is relative to the community they serve. If Buddhists 'take refuge in the
Christ and His Church, Jews are at home in the Torah recorded by Moses, and
Muslims submit to the Holy Qur'an as revealed through the Prophet Muhammed.
(p. 31)
Sacredness must be able to take on divine attributes (Hill et al., 2000). In order to
elucidate this line of reasoning, these researchers gave the example of one individual's
person may not see his or her children as sacred, this person may see the role of being a
parent as a sacred obligation given by God. This example illustrated the social and
cultural influence of sacredness, and also pointed out the necessity for sacredness to take
on divine attributes.
emphasize the responsibility, even the struggle, of the individual to seek that which is
sacred" (p.67). They further declared that sacredness does not impose itself on an
identifying the sacred, articulating what one has identified as sacred, "maintaining the
9
modifying "the sacred through the search process" (p. 67). In the search for the sacred
there are three domains of human existence that are identified: emotional/feeling,
cognitive domain reflects individual thoughts about one's purpose or the nature of reality.
The behavioral domain is identified by how one "behaves in the search for the sacred"
(Hill et al., 2000, p. 68). People searching for the sacred may utilize any combination of
Marty and Appleby (1991) identified a multifaceted view of religion, which has
many commonalities with spirituality. These authors contended that religion focuses on
the ultimate concerns of people and provides personal and social identity. They argued
that religion also entails behavioral patterns and encourages the practice of specific
factor for multiple researchers (Carroll, 2001; Hill et al., 2000; Jernigan, 2001;
life around dynamic patterns of meanings, values, and relationships that are trusted to
make life worthwhile (or, at least livable) and death meaningful" (p. 418). He went on to
state that cultural and religious traditions influence the meanings and organization of
individual and collective lives. Jernigan argued that these patterns of meanings, values,
spirituality.
10
Although there are many differing definitions of religion and spirituality, there is
one consistent viewpoint that appears to have been agreed upon: religion may include
operationally defined because these aspects of spirituality transcend words, and no words
capture all aspects of this phenomenon (Jernigan, 2001). The purpose of this paper is to
look at the search for meaning found in religion or spirituality and will avoid the
controversy between terminologies by using the terms interchangeably. The focus will
and the search for existential meaning in relation to the sacred through emotions,
attitudes, and belief systems. This may or may not include rites of passages, and
and entheogens (Stafford, 1992). To better understand the function of these substances, it
what we now call psychedelic or entheogenic drugs. This term was coined in the first
decade after the discovery of LSD, when researchers had the impression that these drugs
mimicked deranged and psychotic states (Stafford, 1992). Ruck, Bigwood, Staples, Ott,
and Wasson (1980) argued that, for the most part, the researchers who had described the
11
effects of psychedelic drugs as psychotomimetic had not had personal experience with
them.
Aldous Huxley, who had experience taking mescaline in the 1950's, believed that
and researcher Humphry Osmond had a regular correspondence from which Osmond
developed the term psychedelic, which came from the Greek words psyche (soul) and
delein (to make manifest), or deloun (to show or reveal). This term was then later
adopted by the Harvard psilocybin researchers, but due to associations with the
counterculture of the 1960's and the drug abuse that occurred during this time,
researchers have been somewhat hesitant to utilize this term (Metzner, 2004; Ruck et al.,
1979).
create a psychedelic state (Stafford, 1992), however it was initially rejected by the
investigators who had experienced these substances because it was clear that they do not
produce hallucinations in the sense of illusions. Metzner (2004) argued that instead of
seeing illusions, one sees both the objects of the ordinary sense world, as well as a "range
of energies and phenomena" that are not normally seen (p. 4). Although Metzner (2004)
discussed the inconsistencies with the terminology, he asserted that the term
hallucinogenic would be appropriate because the original meaning of the Latin word
mind." Stafford (1992) stated that there is some truth to the characterization of
psychedelics as hallucinogens because, especially with eyes closed, users often see
visions. Ruck et al. (1978) stated that this term is not adequate because it is inherently
12
imposes a value judgment upon the nature of the altered perceptions, for it means 'to be
deceived or entertain false notions" (p. 145). These authors argued that this term cannot
allow us to discuss the states that numerous people believe they attain through ingestion
of these drugs.
Another term that has been proposed to refer to substances that produce
2004; Ruck et al. 1979). This term was proposed by Ruck et al. in 1979, and describes
drugs" (p. 146). Ruck et al. (1979) asseverated that the Greek word ".. .entheos means
literally 'god (theos) within,' and was used to describe the condition that follows when
one is inspired and possessed by the god that has entered one's body" (p. 146). These
authors declared that the word entheos "in combination with the Greek root gen-, which
denotes the action of 'becoming," results in the new term entheogen (p. 146).
Entheogens are "...a key to shamanism and the Mystery religions;..the use of these
entheogens goes back as far as history, linguistics, and archaeology can carry us, and we
must assume further" (Wasson, 1980, p. 224). Although the term entheogen is preferred
for this study because it evades the negative association with the drug abuse of the 1960's
and avoids being judgmental of these transcendent states, the terms psychedelic and
hallucinogenic will also be utilized interchangably, due to their presence in the literature.
Schultes and Hofmann (1979) divided psychoactive drugs into four categories: 1)
these substances modify only the mood by stimulating or calming it, but the category of
reality, even of space and time and in consciousness of self (p. 13). Schultes and
so far removed from similarity with ordinary life that it is impossible to describe
them in the language of daily living. A person under the effects of a hallucinogen
forsakes his familiar world and operates under other standards, in strange
Most entheogenic substances fall into one of nine main compound clusters in which each
of the components of the cluster is unique (Stafford, 1992). The nine clusters include: (1)
The LSD family, (2) Peyote, Mescaline, and San Pedro, (3) Marijuana and Hashish, (4)
Psilocybin Mushrooms, (5) Nutmeg and MDA, (6) DMT, DET, DPT, and other short-
acting tryptamines, (7) Ayahuasca, Yage, and Harmaline, (8) Iboga and Ibogaine, and (9)
Fly Argaric, Panther Caps, and "Soma" Although the substances in each of these
categories are exclusive, there are common effects of entheogens. Individuals initially
reach a "high plateau" shortly after the onset of action with these substances and this lasts
for the first quarter to third of a psychedelic experience. After the plateau, the intensity
of the experience builds up to the peak, which often occurs around halfway through the
experience. In the second half of the experience, effects tend to gradually diminish and
the individual continues to have mental stimulation for some time (Stafford, 1992).
detailed memory of their experience and feelings of elation are common and may
14
continue for over a day after the end of the experience (Stafford, 1992). Stafford (1992)
argued that no matter the duration of the experience, one's scope of awareness is
widened. He stated, "The environment perceived during ordinary states of mind isn't
altered, but the perception of it is" (p. 11). This perceptual transformation of the external
world is temporary, but the insights provided by it are often significant and lasting.
Stafford further remarked that during a psychedelic experience, thoughts ".. .seem to
with a more intuitive, holistic, and 'holographic' approach to understanding reality" (p.
12). He argued that this distinctive approach to understanding does not add to our
consciousness, but rather surfaces parts of our consciousness that have been dormant
entheogenic, the common ground is that these substances produce changes in the ordinary
these enlargements or new perceptions are influenced and focused by the user's 'mind
Entheogenic drugs produce different effects in individuals which have been found
to be parially due to the environment in which the drugs are taken and the mental state of
the user. Since psychedelics have been studied there has been a great variation in
individual experiences which is has been found to be partially accounted for by the
15
individual's mindset during the experience and the setting in which the individual partook
in the drug (Cortright, 1997; Oss and Oeric, 1986; McKenna & Mckenna, 1975; Metzner,
2004; Stafford, 1992). Mary Barnard (1962) reported on how the external environment
the descent of the spirit is naturally different from that produced in a laboratory or
office while a doctor sits beside his subject with a notebook, (p. 250)
differences in the pre-existing mental state of the user, as well as by features of the
three ingedients: the drug, the set, and the setting (Smith, 2003). Cortright (1997)
discussed the importance of set and setting and stated that set refers to the "psychological
expectations, hopes, fear, moods, intentions, and mind set that people approach the
experience with," while setting refers to the "physical environment, as well as the
interpersonal and emotional environment in which the drug is taken" (p. 186).
The mind set or set refers to user's "attitudes, preparations, preoccupations and
feeings toward the drug and toward other people in attendance at a psychedelic session"
(Stafford, 1992, p. 10). Setting consitutes a complex set factors in the immediate
surroundings of a session that include environmental aspects such as time of day, sounds
or music, and weather. Cortright (1997) expanded on Stafford's definition of set and
setting and maintained that the psychedelic experience grows into how the person
approaches the experience inwardly (set), and explained that the interpersonal and
emontional evironments factor into the experience (setting). Baker (2005) identified long
16
and short-term factors that condition an individual's set. He labeled the short term factor
the "immediate set" and stated that these factors include the expectations that the user
brings into the experience. Baker stated that the long-range factors include the basic
Baker (2005) discussed the role of culure in understanding the role of set and
while others are characterized as sacramentals when set and setting are considered. To
Psychedelic sacraments occur in ritual contexts that are embedded within a tradition.
Here, a person's initial psychedelic experience provides an initiation into key beliefs
and values of the society, while subsequent experiences can both recall and reinforce
those beliefs and values, (p. 185)
He argued that psychedelic sacraments are akin to Christian baptism and Eucharist in the
sense that they "promote an individual's identity within the group and affirm the core
values of the core values of a society " (p. 185). The set of the individual in these
sacraments is shaped by the cultural values and attitudes, and the setting often includes
members who possess similar values and knowledge. Baker further argued that
psychedelics produce a suggestible state which elders can exploit to convey cultural
knowledge. In contrast, Baker attested that in the contexts of modern Western societies, the
prevailing attitudes around psychedelic use tend to be negative and psychedelic experiences
often run counter to these postures. Baker proclaimed that in these cultures psychedelic
experiences were better described as sacramentals. In these societies a person's set will
often be critical of some aspects of the society including the laws that prohibit psychedelic
use. He, further, argued that the setting for these individuals will be different from those
who use psychedelics in ritual settings because they do not typically promote identification
17
with the society at large. Baker held that the psychedelic experiences in this culture will
"tend to emphasize issues related to a person's individual identity and concerns" (p. 186).
In 1963, Leary, Litwin, & Metzner attempted to understand the role of set and
environment that was free from distractions and set up similar to a comfortable living
room). Ninety-eight of those subjects were given questionnaires to assess the major
dimensions of the experience and the contribution of background and situational factors.
In this early study, individuals who reported having previous experience with
psychoactives, disclosed being more flexible, and had lower apprehension about taking
psilocybin had more pleasant experiences than those who did not. Group size, dosage,
preparation, and expectancy were important determinants of the drug response (Leary et
al., 1963). Larger group (over eight) were seen as rejecting and less supportive by the
subjects and their experiences were less pleasant. On the other hand, smaller groups (less
than six) were seen as more supportive and subjects reported having more positive
reactions to the drug. These researchers also maintained that psychedelics including
interpersonal interactions and to stimuli in the environment.." Leary et. al (1963) also
reported that dosage was related to duration of effect and to amount of learning or insight.
corroborated Leary et al.'s (1963) findings that dosage, set, and setting were instrumental
creativity. The studies utilized LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin; however Berge noted
18
that the researchers did not always take into account three factors that were of great
highlighted the German study, conducted by Richard Hartmann, where LSD was
administered to about 50 artists over a two-year period, and discussed the shortcomings
of the experiment including the researcher giving dosages that were too high, and
providing an "unfit" setting. He stated that a negative environment that was experienced
as hostile, as well as anxieties about having to perform before a camera, limited artists'
abilities to operate. He also maintained that the set, or expectations that a subject brought
into the experiment was critical in whether or not the experiment was a success or failure.
For example, some of the artists in the Hartman study were anxious about their artistic
credibility and sought to show themselves immune to the effects of the drug. This
mindset may have restricted the artists' creativity and the overall ability to explore the
In addition to dosage, set and setting, Leary et al. (1963) proposed that in a
clinical setting the expectations of the investigator may have a profound impact on the
subject, both through the kind of preparation the researcher provides and thorough the
kind of setting and interpersonal interaction he arranges for. Metzner, Litwin, and Weil
including the environment in which the drug was taken, the subjective set of the subject
both prior to ingestion and after the experience, and pre-drug moods were assessed
both the subject and the researcher can "exert a considerable influence on the nature of
19
the drug reactions" (Metzner et al., 1965, p. 4). Positive expectations in participants
produced positive and educational psilocybin experiences, while negative and anxious
experiences were produced in participants who were anxious about taking the drug or
When looking at the role of expectation of the researcher, Metzner et al. (1965)
hypothesized that some of the divergence in results around hallucinogenic drugs can be
attributed to experimenter bias, which they argue is almost impossible to eliminate from
human experiments. For example, Metzner et. al. (1965) suggested that researchers who
religious ceremony were likely to have much different results. This body of research has
experimenter bias (Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Pahnke, 1966). These
psychedelic drugs on humans. Human psychedelic drug research was outlawed in the
United States in mid 1960s, and human-based research was not resumed until the early
1990's (De Rios, & Jangier, 2003; Griffiths et al., 2006). The inactivity of human
psychedelic practices among indigenous people, and the reports of individuals who utilize
psychedelics within the context of protected religious institutions (De Rios & Janiger,
20
2003; Johnson, Richards, & Griffiths, 2008). Marlene Dobkin de Rios is a medical
cultures and maintained that plant psychedelics have played an important role throughout
human history and prehistory, while Oscar Janiger is known for his experiments that
explored the spiritual and creative process associated with LSD. De Rios and Jangier
(2003) asserted that even with effort, culture cannot be factored out of psychedelic
individual and on all aspects of human behavior. They stated that culture is
"demonstrable in the gait with which we walk, in the language we speak, in the emotions
we feel, in the food that we taste and the odors we smell, in the music we like" (p. 152).
consciousness, searching for means to reduce pain, alter moods, enhance senses, explore
feelings, escape boredom, treat mental illness, and stimulate creativity. Many of the
drugs available in contemporary life have antecedents in plants that have existed for
hundreds of millions of years (Inaba & Cohen, 2000). For centuries, shamans have been
known for their knowledge and utilization of plants to induce mystical states. This
According to Inaba & Cohen (2000), the use of psychedelics likely spans back to
the origin of man due to the fact that many are found in plants. Psychedelics have been
associated with ceremonial and religious uses found with Neanderthal men and women,
progressing through shamans, witches, healers, all the way to contemporary individuals.
These researchers reported that the use of mescaline dates back to 1300 B.C., and was
21
Ancient Greek and medieval European literature refers to psychedelic mold found in
ergot, and historians suspected that it was being used to communicate with the gods.
These researchers also noted that when Columbus arrived in the Americas, the
indigenous Mexican Indians were using peyote cactus, psilocybin mushrooms, and
ololiuqui seed for sacred ceremonies. Missionaries wrote that these North American
missionaries, and botanists hindered our knowledge about the cultural contexts in which
hallucinogens were used (De Rios, 1984). De Rios (1984) argues that early
attitudes of their own societies, and because of the ritual secrecy inherent in the
utilization of psychedelics in these cultures. She also maintains that mind-altering plants
in non-Western societies have had a greater impact than was first imagined, and these
psychedelic plants have influenced both human evolution and ethical and moral systems.
psychological change or modify mental activity either by the use of a plant or else by a
chemical synthesis" (De Rios, 1984, p. 5). The physiological effects of psychedelic
drugs are diverse and variable, and similar effects can occasionally be produced through a
variety of other substances, human activities, and physiological conditions (Grinspoon &
Bakalar, 1979). Psychedelic drugs do not have any common chemical structure, produce
22
cultural component commonly associated with these substances. Grinspoon and Bakalar
(1979) contrasted the alcohol drunk by bacchants in the rites of Dionysus in ancient
Greece and the alcohol drunk by the American sports enthusiast while watching
television. These authors suggested that the alcohol drunk by bacchants in ancient
Greece might be considered a psychedelic drug, while the alcohol used by the American
sports enthusiast is not. Grinspoon and Bakalar (1979) further suggested that although
also important to examine the drug's cultural role along with its range of
psychopharmacological effects.
impossible to avoid the negative connotations and assumptions that have been embedded
into the thought processes of the general public. Dr. Timothy Leary advocated using
psychedelic drugs in the 1960's to alter the mind, and is known for saying, "Turn on, tune
in, and drop out" Around this time different groups began to experiment with LSD,
including the psychiatric community and the Army. Currently, there has been an upsurge
in the use of psychedelics partially due to the "rave" and club culture (Inaba & Cohen,
2000; Stafford, 1992). MDMA, LSD, and psilocybin mushrooms are some of the
The fact of the matter is that the existence of any social problem, including the
use of alcohol and drugs, depends to a great extent on certain social definitions
held within a society. These definitions in turn depend on social attitudes and
behavioral norms, which are often reflected in and reinforced by law and
society concerning the appropriate use of drugs, and this conflict is manifested in
a lack of consensus about the very nature of the drug problem. (Scarpitti &
Datesman, 1980, p. 9)
Although the nature of drugs as a social problem is not the focus of this paper, it is
important to note that the social attitudes and definitions held within societies do affect
the research about and understanding of certain phenomena. Americans have been using
"alternative psychic states" (Scarpitti & Datesman, p. 10). Some individuals use drugs
for exploratory purposes. Much like rituals, the effects of a drug experience often
produce altered states that can alter one's beliefs, behaviors, opinions, and understanding.
The experiences that result from psychedelic drug use are often described through
religious or spiritual terms; however, Western societies do not readily accept drug-
induced mystical experiences. Watts (1971) argued that states of consciousness induced
and stated that our vocabulary is too vague to describe and discuss these types of
experiences, and that this has been revealed through our difficulty in describing these
kensho from the Japanese, to describe the experiences of oneness with the universe" (p.
138). According to Watts, the lack of vocabulary is due to the Western history of
Christian and Jewish theologies, which deny that an individual's inmost self can be
identical with the Godhead. Therefore, he maintained that, "The Western man who
claims consciousness of oneness with God or the universe thus clashes with his society's
concept of religion" (p. 140). On the other hand, he pronounced that in most Asian
cultures, such a man would be congratulated for having found the true meaning of life.
Watts (1971) suggested that the Western cultural tradition has a fascination with
the value and virtue of man as an individual who controls himself through conscious
effort and will without using drugs. Interestingly, the literature on shamanism noted that
the movement from the ordinary state of consciousness into an altered state of
the conscious effort required for shamans to enter altered states of consciousness may be
consciousness." This term refers to the lack of consideration of other possible forms of
consciousness and has gone as far as calling altered states of consciousness a regression
one edge can "provide access to authentic spiritual realms," and on the other edge can
potentially deceive individuals (De Rios & Janiger, 2003, pp. 154-155). De Rios and
25
Janiger (2003) stated, "In the rational world of European/American heritage there is no
spirit realm to access, so psychedelics are seen merely as tricksters of the mind" (p. 155).
In sum, psychedelic drug use has been stigmatized in Western culture, and the
anthropological reports and scientific research have been affected by our ethnocentricity.
However, the possibilities for spiritual enlightenment through the use of psychedelic
drugs and altered states of consciousness have been demonstrated in shamanistic cultures.
Present-day Oaxacan Indians attested that the sacred mushrooms were bestowed by God
because God needed to speak to them directly and they were illiterate (Stafford, 1992).
In order to more completely understand the influence that psychedelic drugs have had on
psychedelic drugs to facilitate spiritual experiences for thousands of years and connection
between shamanism and these substances will be explored in the next section.
Shamanism
The practice of shamanism has existed throughout recorded history and since the
beginning of time shamans have responded to life needs of individuals (Matthews, 1995).
McKenna and McKenna (1975) stated, "...of all the diverse religious institutions which
man has elaborated since before the beginning of recorded history, that of shamanism is
one of the most singular and is probably one of the most archaic as well (p. 8).
Long before there were science-based health care professions, people were served
by culturally defined healers. The functions of healing were often blended with
those of spiritual leadership within the community, as in the native shaman, the
turned to the shaman to work as a doctor, priest, mystic and poet (McKenna & McKenna,
thousands of years, spread around the world, and even today remains a vital
practice in many cultures. Shamans were the first people known to devise a
The term shaman is derived from the word saman in language of the Tungus
people of Siberia, and its origin in the English language is borrowed from German
(Harner, 1990; McKenna & McKenna, 1974; Walsh, 1990; Winkelman, 2000). The
original meaning of the word saman in the Tungus language is "one who is excited,
moved, raised" (Walsh, 1990). Walsh (1990) asserts that the term may have been derived
from "an ancient Indian word meaning 'to heat oneself or practice austerities' or from a
Tungus verb meaning 'to know'" (p. 8). Walsh (1990) cited Shirokogoroff (an early
In all Tungus languages this term (saman) refers to persons of both sexes who
have mastered spirits, who at their will can introduce these spirits into themselves
and use their power over the spirits in their own interests, particularly helping
Walsh (1990) further maintains that no matter the origin, anthropologists have widely
adopted the term to refer to "specific groups of healers in diverse cultures" (p.8). This
27
"witch," "witch doctor," "sorcerer," "medicine man," and "wizard" (Harner, 1973,
1990). A shaman can be defined as "a man or woman who enters an altered state of
acquire knowledge, power, and to help other persons" (Harner, 1990, p. 20). Eliade
(1964) equated shamanism with ecstasy. He stated, "The shaman specializes in a trance
during which his soul is believed to leave his body and ascend to the sky or descend to
the underworld" (p. 5). Shamanism refers to any set of practices that involves going into
Walsh (2001) declared that there are three "key features" to shamanism. The first
is that shamans voluntarily enter into altered states of consciousness. Secondly, shamans
experience a "journey" into other realms in these altered states of consciousness. The
final key feature is that these individuals utilize the "journeys" to acquire knowledge or
power, and to help individuals in their community. Walsh also asserts that two other
spirits", and the shaman's "contact with an ordinarily hidden reality" (p. 11). Shamans
are said to utilize spirits that are at their command. They enter into a controlled altered
state of consciousness (ASC) and utilize this ASC to journey into realms that are not
Harner (1990) called this state the Shamanic State of Consciousness (SSC) and
contrasts it with the Ordinary State of Consciousness (OSC). The SSC involves both a
the SSC, shamans begin to perceive a "nonordinary reality" that is purposefully entered
to accomplish the work that they have set out to execute. Shamans enter the SSC as a
way of contacting the supernatural and as specialists they become "seers" enabling them
ability to lighten the darkness to see in that darkness what others cannot perceive" (p. 22).
Shamans may access the SSC through a variety of means: psychedelic drugs, chanting,
Although shamans operate in the SSC a minority of the time, this state of
be a light trance, which shamans can remember when they return back to the OSC.
Shamans are noted to be in control of their state of consciousness and vacillate between
the SSC and OSC (Peters & Price-Williams, 1980). They are two distinct realities to
these healers, and because shamanism is only a part-time activity and shamans only enter
the SSC to perform shamanistic tasks, they must follow the precepts of shamanism when
engaged in that work, and the precepts of ordinary reality when engaged in other
activities. The ability of shamans to operate successfully in both types of reality has been
Shamans purposefully move back and forth between each state of consciousness
depending on which is appropriate for the situation. For example, if shamans are
engaged in economic, social, or political affairs, they will stay in the OSC. When they
are called to heal a person, shamans will move into the SSC. Master shamans are aware
of which reality is appropriate for each situation, and vacillate between the two realities
29
in order to fully exercise their potential. The distinction between SSC and OSC may or
may not be discernable by an outsider, but what is definite is that some degree of
considered fantasy. When these individuals are in the SSC, they experience animals,
plants, humans and other phenomena as real within the context of nonmaterial or
nonordinary reality, whether or not these are experienced as real in the OSC (Harner,
1990). Therefore, it is possible that shamans may encounter and interact with forms in
the SSC that are not visible when they are in the OSC. Shamans may interact with
dragons or other entities in the SSC, but they view their experiences in this altered state
of consciousness as an ultimate reality for which they have deep respect. Shamans enter
the SSC with a great reverence for nature, which is seen as a facilitator of revelation that
would not have otherwise been ascertained in an OSC. Harner (1990) stated, "the learned
component of the SSC includes the ascription of full reality to the things one sees, feels,
hears, and otherwise experiences in the altered state of consciousness" (p. 53).
Eliade (1964) maintained, "Shamans are of the "elect," and as such they have
access to a region of the sacred inaccessible to other members of the community" (p. 7).
While shamans are in the SSC, their souls are believed to leave the body and travel
upward into the sky or downward into the underworld. The shamans' souls take a
journey to a place where they encounter spirits, animals, and other entities from which
they learn or with whom they battle. These healers actively participate in a deeply
religious and intense mystical experience during the SSC. It is through these trances that
shamans cure, mediate between humans and their gods, and direct their community's
seen as a function of the left hemisphere of the brain and is responsible for rational,
logical, and linear thinking. This perspective views altered states of consciousness as
pointing out the shaman's intentionality, self-awareness, and memory as features of the
rational mind.
(1975) pointed out that shamans' use of narcotic plants is commonplace and can be found
everywhere that these plants grow. These researchers argued that psychoactive
where there is a relationship between shamanism and the psychedelic mushroom, fly-
use of these hallucinogens, theoretical literature has overlooked the use of hallucinogens,
"rely upon direct confrontation with the supernatural for evidence of religious reality"
(Harner, 1973, p. xi). Harner (1973) maintained that the use of hallucinogens allows
individuals to encounter the supernatural and come face to face with overwhelming
visions and experiences. Shamans have mastered these confrontations and often utilize
Metzner (1998) identified five common features among indigenous societies that
utilize hallucinogenic plants. The first feature involved "the role of the guide" (p. 337).
First, shamans act as a guide to those who are seeking healing or training, and often shape
the experience through singing. The second feature is that "the experience can be
Shamanic healing experiences, with entheogens or other means, have three main
variations: one is the extraction of a toxin that may have been implanted by means
and the third is the experience of being dismembered or destroyed, and then
The third feature is that the "experience can provide access to hidden knowledge" (p.
337). This is where shamans become "seers" and have visions, prophesize, and their
experiences have an aspect of divination. The fourth feature is that "there is a feeling and
perception of access to metaphysical realms or worlds" (p. 337). Harner (1973, 1990)
referred to these metaphysical realms as nonordinary reality. The fifth feature entails
1998, p. 338). Shamans are known for having certain spirits in their power and battle
The experiences of the altered states of consciousness that shamans enter into "are
and truth, which surpass ordinary understanding and tend to persist long after the
experience, often providing foundational insights for religious and cultural traditions
(Winkelman, 2000, p. 4). Although they do not typically enter into altered states of
psychotherapists, and doctors are all seen as modern day versions of the shaman.
Eliade (1964) identified the shaman as a specialist in the human soul, who has the
ability to see it and know its form and destiny. In this sense, shamans can be considered
the originators of modern day psychotherapy, and Walsh (2001) reported that shamans
were pioneers in the field of consciousness studies. Jerome Frank (1961) discussed the
and the naturalistic, or scientific" (p. 3). Frank further maintained that religious healing
in both primitive and Western societies occurs in conjunction with naturalistic treatment
33
rituals in shamanistic history were usually resorted to after other more simple methods
had failed, and he asserted that Western philosophy parallels this sentiment.
In all cultures the treatment of illness has important emotional components, and
all illnesses have "overtones of anxiety, despair, and similar emotions" (Frank, 1971, p.
39). Frank likened the primitive healing methods to contemporary psychotherapy stating:
and the world of supernatural, which serves to raise the patient's expectancy of
cure, help him harmonize his inner conflicts, reintegrate him with his group and
the spirit world, supply a conceptual framework to aid this, and stir him
emotionally. In the process they combat his anxiety and strengthen his sense of
The healing power of the shamanistic procedures likely "lies in the patient's expectation
of help, based on his perception of the shaman as possessing special healing powers,
derived from his ability to communicate with the spirit world" (Frank, 1971, p. 46).
Frank's perspective indicated that primitive healing methods are similar to those of
modern therapeutic processes with the exception that in contemporary psychotherapy the
therapist does not, typically, enter into a "spirit world" to evoke change within the
patient.
that involve both the participation of the patient and members of the patient's family or
tribe. Shamans do not only conduct brief group and individual sessions, but have also
been found to have long-term patient-shaman relationships analogous to individual
From shamans who enter into altered states of consciousness to heal individuals to
the participants who experience drug-induced mystical states, it is apparent that mystical
states have been found to be healing and the spiritual experiences that have been attained
through these states may impact health in humans. The study of shamanism through
drugs and spirituality. Grof (1988) maintained that "more direct and obvious insights
into the spiritual aspects of plants are related to those specimens that have been
considered sacred and have been used ritually by different cultures and groups because of
their psychedelic or entheogenic effects" (p. 60). Entheogens have been used in
ceremonies to attain spiritual visions of the land, the dead, and for communication with
spirits for healing and knowledge (Schultes and Hofmann, 1979). Metzner (2004)
has been ongoing for hundreds and perhaps thousands of years in Mesoamerica.
Psilocybin has aided shamans throughout time to attain the ASC and SSC. These
Central American cultures for centuries and the incorporation of a divine mushroom into
religious ceremonies dates back to 1500 B.C. (United States Department of Justice,
1986). Although psilocybin mushrooms were first recorded during the coronation feast
35
stones serving as effigies of a mushroom deity have been found that date back to 1000
B.C. in Guatemala, Ecuador, and Southern Mexico (Metzner, 2004). Gordon Wasson,
who was the first known North American to participate in a psilocybin mushroom
ceremony, suggested that the accidental ingestion of some hallucinogenic plant, most
likely a mushroom, was humankind's first encounter with religion (Metzner, 2004; Oss &
Oeric, 1991; Stafford, 1992; Wasson, 1980). Terence McKenna (1991) theorized that a
mushroom religion was the "generic religion of human beings and that all later
adumbrations of religion stem from the cult of ritual ingestion of mushrooms to induce
ecstasy" (p. 153). Along the same line of reasoning, Mary Barnard wrote:
When we consider the origin of the mythologies and cults related to drug plants,
we should surely ask ourselves which, after all, was more likely to happen first:
liberated from the restrictions of time and space, experiences eternal bliss, or the
dislocate the center of consciousness, and distort time and space, making them
would seem to me more plausible than the widespread idea of a souls continued
theories are right, but we have to remember that the drug plants were there,
waiting to give men a new idea based on a new experience. The experience might
have had, I should think, an almost explosive effect on the largely dormant minds
36
of men, causing them to think of things they have never thought of before. This,
Wasson, McKenna, and Barnard all hypothesize that plant psychedelics could be the
catalyst to religion in human beings. Research also gives evidence that the aboriginal
Aztecs utilized psilocybin to communicate with God, and "Oaxacan Indians today claim
that God gave them these sacred mushrooms because thy could not read and it was
Teonanacatl (flesh or food of the gods) was the name given to psilocybin
mushrooms in the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs (Guzman, 2008; Metzner, 2004;
United States Department of Justice, 1986). Teonanacatl has been found in the earliest
written documents produced in the Spanish New World (Guzman, 2008). Prior to the
time of the Spanish Conquest, sacred mushrooms were utilized by shamans and were a
"major element in public celebrations" (Wasson, 1980, p. XVI). Wasson (1980) asserts
that the Spanish Conquest put an end to the use of psilocybin mushrooms in the public
celebrations, although the private shamanistic use of these mushrooms were continued.
Metzner (2004) maintains that the Spanish friars banned the use of the mushrooms in
religious practices partly due to the name teonanacatl, or god's flesh. Metzner stated that
the friars believed that this name made a mockery out of the Eucharistic communion in
the Catholic Church and due to this the friars equated the mushroom ceremonies to devil
worship. McKenna (1991) endorses this theory and maintains that the Franciscans
believed that they had a monopoly on theology and pushed the mushroom religion into
a need to hide the ritual use of psilocybin, which, in turn, led to the disappearance of the
sacred mushroom from literature (Guzman, 2008). In Oss and Oeric (1986), Terence
McKenna stated:
Guzman (2008) also hypothesized that due to the persecution of mushroom worship by
the Catholic Church in the Spanish Colonial period, the mushroom ceremonies only
persisted in groups that retreated to remote mountainous areas. He, further, stated that
because the mushrooms disappeared from the literature, a leading American botanist in
1915 (Saffor) incorrectly theorized that the teonanacatl was misidentified and was not a
mushroom at all. Staffer declared that the teonanacatl was actually the peyote cactus of
Mexico and the United States. In 1939, Richard Schultes, a renowned ethnobotanist, was
given information by an Austrian physician (Bias Pablo Reko) that Mazatec Indians were
It was not until the 1950's that the true identity and nature of the use of the sacred
mushrooms by the Mazatecs were finally revealed to Gordon Wasson and his wife,
Valentina Pavlovna (Guzman, 2008). Wasson was a banker, scholar, and amateur
mycologist who spent time traveling the world in search of evidence to the connection
between psychoactive mushrooms and the origins of religion (Metzner, 2004). Wasson
and his wife Valentina began their interest in mushrooms when, during a walk in the
Catskill mountains, Valentina went off of the path to gather and eat wild mushrooms.
Wasson was very concerned that Valentina would be poisoned and the two realized that
they had very different feelings on the subject of mushrooms. Stafford (1992) reported
that this incident was the catalyst to a lifelong search of how different cultures viewed
mushrooms. He explained that these two began searching museums, myths, legends,
proverbs, history, poetry and other sources for references involving mushrooms. In their
travels, Gordon Wasson and his wife Valentina found that different cultures were either
The Wassons devoted much of their leisure time over 30 years to "dissecting,
defining, and tracing this difference until it led to the thesis.. .our European ancestors had
worshiped a psychoactive mushroom, and that their descendants had divided according to
whether the facinans (fascination) or the tremendum (fear) of its holy power
predominated" (Smith, 2003, p. 54). Wasson and his wife hypothesized that there were
cultures, as far back as 6000 years ago, that worshiped mushrooms. They also found
evidence that the fly-agaric mushroom was used in Siberian shamanism, and theorized
that this mushroom might have been the renowned soma in the Vedic religion (Metzner,
2004).
asserted that Soma was a god who appears to have been the most revered in the Vedic
pantheon. Smith wrote, "His home was a plant, and in the holiest of rituals priests
ingested the god by drinking a brew that was made from this plant Somewhere along the
39
way the plant's identity was lost" (p. 45). Smith maintained that Gordon Wasson found
evidence that the plant Soma was actually a mushroom (the Amanita muscaria) or "fly
agaric." He also suggested that Soma was not just forgotten or lost, but was actually
deliberately suppressed due to multiple possibilities: 1) that the Aryans were unable to
move the Soma because it was a high-altitude mushroom, and they moved down the
Gangetic plains; 2) because the substance may have started to be abused. Quality of the
Soma hymns appeared to have declined and some border on irreverence. The Brahmins
needed to do whatever they could to prevent the abuse of the Soma, and India may have
been "on the brink of a psychedelic mess like the one America created in the 1960's" (p.
62).
Twenty-five years after their search began, the poet Robert Graves wrote to the
Wassons, gave them information about Spanish chroniclers who had written about
Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador. The Wassons contacted Richard Shultes who had
written papers pinpointing the town of Huautla de Jimenez as a place to find psychedelic
mushrooms. The Wassons took eight expeditions into the mountains of Mexico and
searched for someone who would discuss the history of the sacred mushrooms. They
were able to find people who would discuss the importance of the mushrooms to the
Oaxacan culture, but for years could not find someone who would allow them to partake
Gordon Wasson has been credited with rediscovering the ritual use of psilocybin
practice to the attention of Western science (Guzman, 2008; McKenna, 1991; Metzner,
2004; United States Department of Justice, 1986). In 1956, Wasson was invited to
Sabina came from a lineage of shamanic healers that dated back to pre-Conquest times.
Wasson was the first non-Indian to take part in a sacred mushroom rite, and was the first
According to the United States Department of Justice (1986) Gordon Wasson (1957)
The sacred mushrooms of Mexico seize hold of you with irresistible power. They
lies, heavy as lead, on the petate, or mat, and you take notes and compare
experiences with your neighbor, while your soul flies off to the ends of the world
and, indeed, to other planes of existence. The mushrooms take effect differently
with different persons. For example, some seem to experience only a divine
experienced hallucinations. What I was seeing was more clearly seen than
anything I had seen before. At last I was seeing with the eye of the soul, not
through the coarse lenses of my natural eyes. More-over, what I was seeing was
Metzner (2004) wrote, "This opened Western minds and eyes to the incredible riches of
knowledge and beauty in the ancient traditions of the sacred visionary mushroom" (p.
17). Wasson (1980) stated that following his article in Life magazine, "a mob of thrill-
41
During the transformative 1960's thousands of hippies sought out these mushroom
experiences to the dismay of Wasson and other researchers, who thought that this,
After Wasson partook in the mushroom experience with Maria Sabina, he brought
back samples of the psilocybin mushrooms and gave them to the chemist Albert
Hofmann, who is known for discovering lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Hofmann
psilocybin after the Psilocybe mushroom (Metzner, 2004). In 1962, Wasson returned to
Mexico, and gave Maria Sabina the synthesized psilocybin pills. Maria Sabina confirmed
that there was no difference between the synthesized pills and the naturally occurring
psilocybin mushrooms. She was also grateful for the synthesized psilocybin because it
would allow her to conduct her healings in the seasons in which mushrooms do not
normally grow (Metzner, 2004). The exchange between the modern chemist and the
shaman Maria Sabina "constituted a respectful completion of the cycle of discovery and
mushroom ceremony is that he was able to bring samples of the mushroom back to the
United States to be studied and psilocybin and psilocin were identified as the active
Harvard Psilocybin Project, the Pahnke "Good Friday Experiment," and Griffiths et al.'s
After Wasson published his account of his experience with the sacred mushroom
ceremony, Harvard professor Timothy Leary, had his own experience with psilocybin
mushrooms in Mexico (Metzner, 2004; Stafford, 1992). Leary reported that this incident
produced the deepest religious experience of his life and prompted him to dedicate the
rest of his career and life to exploring the "potentials of these substances for the
understanding of the human mind and their implications for society" (Metzner, 2004, p.
29). In 1960, Leary contacted Sandoz Pharmaceuticals (who had patented synthetic
psilocybin and psilocin) and requested that they supply the substance to study
"creativity." Sandoz agreed to supply Leary with as much of the drug as he wanted for
research purposes. It was then that Leary began the Harvard Psilocybin Research Project
Huxley, John Spiegel, David McClelland, Frank Barron, Ralph Metzner, and Richard
p. 30). Metzner stated that due to Leary's personal experience with psilocybin
mushrooms, Leary professed that it was imperative to have a warm and supportive setting
for individuals to safely experience the "ego-shattering revelations of the mushrooms" (p.
30). The board utilized the term "consciousness-expanding''' to describe both psilocybin
43
and the experience that was facilitated by the ingestion of the drug (Metzner, 2004).
These researchers hypothesized that given a safe and supportive set and setting,
individuals would likely have experiences that would be enlightening and productive.
The team set up three noteworthy psilocybin projects to explore the psychological
impact of psilocybin (Stafford, 1992). The first study was labeled the Concord Prison
Project, in which the group began working with young convicted offenders in the
Harvard group in which the majority of the participants claimed that their psilocybin
experiences produced positive life changes, the group desired to demonstrate that
(Metzner, 2004). Leary and his associates hoped that the psilocybin experiences would
produce insight for the prisoners, which would allow for them to make the changes
necessary in their lives to avoid returning to prison. Over a two-year period 32 inmates
were administered psilocybin two to five times in small group sessions. Inmates were
administered a moderate dose in the first session, and dosage was increased to a heavy
dose in subsequent sessions (Leary, Metzner, Presnell, Weil, Schwitzgebel, & Kinne,
1965). Riedlinger and Leary (1994) reported that the short-term results of this study were
"sensational," citing that only 32% of the prisoners returned to prison in the first ten
months following their release in comparison to the average 56% who had not taken
psilocybin. They also reported that psilocybin caused inmates to "reflect upon their lives
alternatives to criminal activity" (p. 25). Unfortunately, the long-term effects were not as
powerful as the short-term, and recidivism rates for the participating inmates were found
44
not to be different from the expected base rates at a 3-year follow-up (Metzner, 2004).
Riedlinger and Leary (1994) reported that the majority of the inmates reverted to
previous behavior patterns and were reincarcerated, although the majority were
incarcerated more often for parole violations rather than new infractions.
21 of the original 32 subjects. He found flaws in the original report and asserted that the
researchers compared the recidivism rates of study inmates who had been released for an
average of 10 months, to the recidivism rates of all Concord prison inmates who had been
released for an average of 30 months. Doblin asserted that this discrepancy made the
comparison invalid. Although Leary and his colleagues reported that the majority of
prisoners returned to prison for parole violations rather than new crimes, Doblin found
that many of the prisoners who returned to prison had violated their parole by committing
new crimes. Doblin asserted that there was no treatment effect in terms of decreased
artists, religious figures, musicians, and other creative people to examine their reactions
(Stafford, 1992). Although extensive records were kept, only a few accounts were
published from this study. Individuals who reported on their experience with psilocybin
included Aldous Huxley, Alan Watts, and Stanley Krippner (Stafford, 1992). Leary et al.
(1963) disclosed the results of the first 175 subjects tested, in which 98 subjects
identified the experience as either "pleasant or ecstatic"(70%), felt that they had "learned
45
something or had insights" (88%), maintained that the experience "changed their lives for
the better" (62%), and stated that they "wished to repeat the experience" (90%) (p. 564).
Leary et al. (1963) asserted that although these findings needed to be considered
preliminary, it was apparent that in a "supportive setting, with a positive set, experiences
1992). This study will be discussed in greater detail later in the paper.
Psilocybin Chemistry
Since psilocybin mushrooms are psychoactive, they also have been classified in a number
visionary, medicinal, and entheogens (Metzner, 2004; Schultes, 1979; Stafford, 1992).
Stafford (1992) reported that there were well over two dozen species of
psychedelic mushrooms and that the number of psychedelic mushroom species was on
the rise and expected to substantially expand as more mushrooms were analyzed. In
1993, Ott maintained that there were 89 species of mushrooms containing psilocybin and
that there were also another 57 possible candidates. Psilocybin is present in hundreds of
species of fungi, including those of the genus Psilocybe, and is also reportedly isolated
from a dozen or so other genera. Psilocybin or Psilocybian mushrooms have been found
46
to occur on all continents. Guzman (2005) reported that there are around 250 species,
Mushrooms characterized as "magic" are part of the genus Psilocybe, and include
genera. Most hallucinogens found in nature are composed of the basic indole structure
Psilocybin and psilocin molecules are known to be the primary psychedelic agents
enzyme alkaline phosphatase. One of the important differences between psilocybin and
psilocin is their relative stability. Psilocybin is more stable than psilocin as psilocin is
easily oxidized and will deteriorate soon after oxidation (Stafford, 1992).
are especially interesting because the activity is highly concentrated in the visual cortex
and the hallucinations tend to be intense (Ruck et al., 1979). The tryptamine entheogens
including psilocybin mushrooms interact with the brain circuitry that employs the
neurotransmitter compound serotonin (Presti & Nichols, 2004). Psilocybin and psilocin
bear a close resemblance to chemicals found in the brain, and one of the psilocybian
analogues is a compound that bears the most similarity to the neurotransmitter serotonin
(Stafford, 1992).
altered states of consciousness due to its interaction with serotonin. The serotonin
receptor system has been found to be important in the modulation of cognitive functions
such as attention and memory. Because psilocybin and psilocin interact with the
serotonin receptor system, psilocybin as a compound may also affect attention, and can
aid in investigating the brain mechanisms that underlie attention (Hasler et al., 2004).
Schultes and Hofmann (1979) argued that the fact that plant hallucinogens such as
psilocybin have the same basic structure as serotonin is not due to mere chance,
researchers stated that this relationship may elucidate the psychotropic potency of plant-
based psychedelics. They further argued that the result of the hallucinogens acting at the
same sites in the nervous system is that "the psychophysiological functions associated
with those brain sites are altered, suppressed, stimulated, or otherwise modified" (p. 173).
localized at one receptor site that is specific from a dozen or more that are receptive for
serotonin, and neural circuits utilizing serotonin as their main neurotransmitter have been
found to underlie much of our feeling life in the limbic-mammalian brain systems
(Metzner, 2004). These emotions include fear, rage and affiliation. According to
Metzner (2004), neural circuits are also found in the part of the brain stem called the
48
reptilian brain in Paul McLean's model. Metzner stated, "These findings are suggestively
related to the sense of self-awareness, awareness of our evolutionary animal heritage, and
the shamanic sense of connectedness or identification with animal consciousness" (p. 25).
Serotonin is the main neurotransmitter for the enteric nervous system, which works
almost completely independently from the cerebral cortex and is believed to be the oldest
In his discussion of serotonin and its function in the human brain system, Metzner
theorizes that the effects of psychedelic drugs and the role of serotonin may be
(1991) argued that the psilocybin mushroom is "...the primary hallucinogen involved in
the Archaic origin of consciousness" (p. 248). McKenna (1991) also proposed that
psilocybin mushrooms may have contributed to the growth of language in early hunter
gatherers.
et al., 2004). Entheogens related to psilocybin and psilocin produce alterations in brain
and conscious awareness (Presti & Nichols, 2004). Reports of human experiences with
psilocybin often involve personal elements; however, there tend to be commonalities
between the experiences (Beach, 1996). The peak effects of psilocybin can produce
profound synaesthesia and are characterized by visual and auditory alterations (Ott,
1993). Effects include visual and auditory hallucinations, distortions in the perception of
time and space, emotional detachment from the environment, and extreme hilarity (Oss
and Oeric, 1991). Psilocybin mushrooms induce a euphoric state of mind that often does
not lose coherency or clarity of thought. The mushrooms produce colorful hallucinations
with eyes closed that are often, "hard-edged, and highly articulated, and may range from
Psilocybin and psilocin produce some obvious physiological effects that tend to
be mediated by the autonomic nervous system and are usually minimal (Presti & Nichols,
2004; Stafford, 1992; United States Department of Justice, 1986). The physiological
effects in individuals include dilated pupils, dry mouth, a slight rise in blood pressure,
heart rate, and temperature, and the inhibition of the neurotransmitter serotonin (Stafford,
1992).
Psilocybin and psilocin can have profound effects on the human mind. Research
done in 1961 by Leo Holister at the Palo Alto Veterans Hospital found that the effects of
vision, brighter colors, longer afterimages, sharp definition of objects, and visual patterns
when eyes are closed), increased acuity of hearing, slow thinking, feelings of unreality,
Research further indicates that the effects of psilocybin have been found to be
indistinguishable from LSD or mescaline of comparable dosage until several hours have
passed. The difference tends to be due to the shorter duration of psilocybin's psychedelic
effects. Although the effects tend to be indiscernible from LSD or mescaline, the
psilocybin experience tends to be more gentle than experiences with LSD or mescaline.
Stafford (1992) stated, "The psilocybin experience seems to be warmer, not as forceful
and less isolating. It tends to build connections between people, who are generally much
more in communication than when they use LSD" (p. 273). The user's mental set and
surroundings, as well as the dosage ingested, affects the quality of thoughts and feelings
Numerous researchers (i.e. Beach, 1996; McKenna, 1991; McKenna & McKenna,
1975; Munn, 1976) have noted an auditory dialogue that occurs between an individual
who is under the influence of psychedelic mushrooms, and a voice of unknown origin.
The Mazatecs say that the mushrooms speak. If you ask a shaman where his
imagery comes from, he is likely to reply: I didn't say it, the mushrooms did. No
becomes endowed with a capacity to speak. The shamans who eat them, their
function is to speak, they are the speakers who chant and sing the truth, they are
51
the oral poets of their people, the doctors of the world, they who tell what is
wrong and how to remedy it, the seers and oracles, the ones possessed by the
voice. "It is not I who speak," said Heraclitus, "it is the logos." (p. 88)
Munn's depiction of a shaman's belief that mushrooms are literally talking to him
illustrated the shaman's ability to acquire knowledge through hallucinogens that would
otherwise not be ascertainable. The mushrooms in this example are revelatory of reality
to the shaman, and the shaman enters into a communication with what he or she often
Similarly, Terence McKenna (1991) asserted that one of the predominant features
of psilocybin mushrooms is that under high dosages, individuals hear a voice of unknown
origin:
What we found with the tryptamines was that there seemed to be an unanticipated
dimension that involved contact with an alien intelligence. I call it this for want
psychedelic experience with information that seemed not to be drawn from the
personal history of the individual or even from the collective human experience.
Later, we came to feel that this effect was unique to the tryptamine hallucinogens.
In other words, not only DMT and ayahuasca and the more exotic Amazonian
substances, but also psilocybin, which is probably the most widely experienced of
these drugs. To me it was astonishing that a voice could address you in that state
Although McKenna (1991) hypothesized that this voice may be an alien intelligence, he
also asserted that the voice could be argued to be a hidden and autonomous part of an
52
individual's psyche. He further theorized that a dialogue "opens up between the ego and
these larger, more integrated parts of the psyche that are normally hidden from view" (p.
11). McKenna asserted that humans possess a large and wise organizing force that
(1975) used the term Logos, which was taken from a first century B.C.E. Jewish-
Hellenistic philosopher (Philo Judeaus). McKenna (1991) asserted that what makes the
mushroom experience amazing is that "it is animate, that there's someone talking to you"
(p. 10). The voice in his head addressed concerns that were most important to him, and
he testifies that the proof of the "otherness of the voice" was that he would not have been
able to come up with the information on his own. McKenna (1991) explained that the
mushrooms reveal information to individuals who ingest them, and these mushrooms
state that they are an extraterrestrial organism that has traveled through space, and
"require the nervous system of a mammal" (p. 47). McKenna asserted that although the
mushrooms speak to him directly, he does not necessarily believe what they tell him. He
maintained that while under the influence of psilocybin, an individual could have a
Those who eat them are men of language, illuminated with the spirit, who call
themselves the ones who speak, those who say. The shaman, chanting in a
communication with the origins of creation, the sources of the voice, and the
foundations of the world, related to reality from the heart of his existential ecstasy
ceremonies suggests that individuals may have utilized this correspondence throughout
associated with psilocybin mushrooms and the other tryptamines including DMT (a
plant-based entheogen that has also been associated with the auditory voice
dialogue.
individuals who reported hearing a voice while under the influence of psilocybin, and
those who did not hear a voice. Out of 128 participants, over one third reported hearing a
voice during psilocybin mushroom use. These individuals were found to have taken
psilocybin more times, had used higher dosages, more often grew their own mushrooms,
were hoping to hear voices, and tended to hear these voices more often in the darkness.
The most significant difference was that individuals who heard the voice were more often
alone and had heard voices with other drugs. The majority of the participants indicated
that they first heard a voice with psilocybin. Beach argued that the difference between
hearing and not hearing a voice was not due to personality differences, but to how people
took the mushrooms. His research indicated that the experience of the voice(s) was
54
regarded as insightful, positive, and useful. In over half of the episodes where
individuals heard voices, these individuals were able to communicate with the voices and
gain information. If, under high doses, individuals are communicating with voices of
unknown origin, and obtaining knowledge that was insightful and not known to the
individual prior to the experience, it is likely that the individuals may have considered the
psilocybin when taken in high or low doses, potency and dosage will be discussed in the
next section.
The quality of psilobyin experiences are greatly impacted by the dosage ingested
(Beach, 1996; Grof, 1988; Oss & Oeric, 1991; Ott, 1993; Stafford, 1992).
mushrooms, and within each strain or batch, making it impossible to predict the amount
of psilocybin or psilocin that the user ingests. Variations in the subjective experience of
the user come from set and setting as well as dosage differences.
about 15 mg./gm. of the dried weight. (Stafford, 1992). In 1982, Beug and Bigwood
(1982) tested levels of psilocybin in multiple species and concluded that cultures of
psilocybin whether grown under rigidly controlled conditions or from outside sources
varied greatly. They found that on the average, Psilocybe cyanescens was the most
potent, Psilocybe semilanceata possesed the second highest amount of psilocybin, while
Psilocybe stunzii was found to be the weakest of the the commonly used psilocybin
mushrooms. Beug and Bigwood reported that psilocin was found in most specimens, but
55
was never observed without the presence of psilobyin. These researchers concluded that
the levels of psilocybin and psilocin in psilocybin mushrooms were highly variable, and
they stated that contrary to public belief the bluing of mushrooms was not correlated to
The average potency of psilocybin is about 3.0 mg./dry gram which equates to
about 0.03 percent of fresh mushrooms and leads to between 0.2 to 0.6% indolic alkaloid
content per dried mushroom (Furst, 1992; Stafford, 1992). Even though the alkaloids in
psilocyin mushrooms appear not to be water soluable, the amount of psilocybin and
psilocin is not constant in fresh and dried mushrooms. The drier the psilocybin specimen
is the less potent it is, and fresh psilocybin mushrooms tend to have the greatest potency
(McGuire, 1982). Due to the difficulty in identifying how much psilocybin or psilocin is
concentrations (Beach, 1996). Beach (1996) asserted that the entheogenic effects of
psilocybin occur between 5 and 50 milligrams, and Ott (1993) noted that the highest
reported human dose was 120 milligrams with the "maximum safe dose" being around
150 miligrams.
two dried mushrooms (Turner, 1994). Turner (1994) stated that a mild psychedelic high
is produced with two grams of dried mushrooms, and Oss and Oeric (1991) maintain that
a dose of 10-12 milligrams of psilocyin produces the full range of hallucinogenic effects
in an adult weighing 160 pounds. Erowid (2009) produced a guide to oral psilcybin
dosage which considered 2-4 mg of psilocybin or .25 grams of dried psilocybe cubensis
to be a threshold dose. They reported light, common, strong, and heavy doses to be 4-8
56
mg. or .25-1 g, 6-20mg. orl-2.5g, 20-40mg. or 2.5-5g, and 35+mg. or 5+g. respectively.
There is controversy over whether synthetic psilocybin differs in the effects from
naturally-occuring psilocybin mushrooms (Ott, 1993). Ott (1993) asserted that one
difference was that synthetic psilocybin lasted a shorter time than naturally-occuring
Terence McKenna, McKenna stated that experiences with plants are richer. When
psilocybin and psilocin (the metabolite), and therefore the effects should be very
produce a wide variety of effects in individuals, and has been reported to facilitate
experiences.
Religious/Mystical Experiences
People have long sought meaning and significance in their lives through a variety
Historically, some of these practices have included the use of certain psychoactive
57
perception and thought in a search for universal truths and enlightenment. (De
under the influence of drugs has been examined both empirically and by comparing
differing religious viewpoints (Pahnke, 1966; Griffiths et. al, 2006). The answer to this
question is dependent on how one defines religion and what constitutes a religious
the features of the mystical state of consciousness, and was compared to the
The features of the mystical state of consciousness were found to be nearly identical to
possible to have a religious experience while under the influence of drugs but does not
conclude that the experience is caused solely by the effects of the drug; there are other
Experiences described as religious are highly personal, give insight into ultimate
meaning, and are viewed as real to those who have them (James, 1985; Proudfoot, 1985).
They are identified not merely by content, but also by their noetic quality (Proudfoot,
1985). Religious experiences break down rationalistic consciousness and are only
authoritative to the individuals who encounter these events, however subjects view these
language does not need to be used to interpret or describe this experience; the subject
may not believe in religious experience but still convey a religious interpretation of this
event (Proudfoot, 1985). According to Proudfoot (1985), all experiences are interpreted
and are shaped by individuals' beliefs and concepts. He asserts that religious experiences
cannot be identified without reference to these factors. The subject must convey this
subjective reality in terms that are familiar and represent the ultimate meaning for that
person; it is possible that the interpretation of ultimate meaning may not be identified as
"religious" to that person. The degree of religious experience ranges in each case but is
church, listening to the Sunday sermon, feels a tingling sensation pass through his body
and believes that the tingling is the presence of God. Another example would be a
subject watching a sunset who sees the beauty of the world and has an internal feeling of
peace. These experiences can be conceived to be religious by the subject to which they
are occurring.
mystical and so intricate that they are ineffable. They are described as numinous, or holy
in presence (Paloutzian, 1996). Such ineffable and numinous experiences are thought to
be self-validating, and if in contrast with another philosophy, these experiences are the
illuminating truth. It is important here to note that a religious experience does not imply
59
that the experience is necessarily a revelation of a scientific truth, e.g., visions of angels.
"Mystical truth exists for the individual who has the transport, but for no one else"
(James, 1985, p. 321). The person may not actually have been given the knowledge to
understand the true meaning of life but believes unconditionally that the true meaning of
life was revealed through this vision. In order to understand mystical experiences, the
series of categories that Pahnke and Richards (1969) developed to describe common
the degree of mysticism and was used as a basis for measurement of psychedelic drug
Unity. There are two types of unity found in this category: internal and external.
Internal unity is the oneness that a person finds with "ultimate reality". Unity is found
within the experiencer and the subject becomes aware of the inner world and "ultimate
reality". External unity is found outside the experiencer. It is the sense that everything is
united or that everything is composed of the same matter or is derived from the same
source. This unity could be that the subject may be looking at a flower and recognize a
life source in that flower that he depicts as the ultimate life source from which everything
is derived.
Objectivity and reality. The subject becomes convinced that an insight about
reality and existence was gained. Through the experience the subject was bestowed
60
knowledge that could not have been learned in any other way. This enlightenment is
place outside of the limitation of time. Time appears to be infinite or eternal. The
subject also has no concept of physical orientation. This subject may feel as though he
Sense of sacredness. Here the subject believes that the experience is ultimately
sacred and holy. This sacred emotion may come from the overwhelming feeling of awe
that the person experiences when believing that the presence of a supreme being is
revealed.
spiritual feeling that the subject attains from the religious experience: the feeling of love,
joy, blessedness and peace. This positive spiritual feeling can be expressed in different
ways such as love and concern for another person or even by a sexual orgasm, which is of
Paradoxicality. The subject feels that certain areas of the experience are true
even though they tend to violate the laws of Aristotelian logic. This paradoxicality can
be shown by a subject who believes to have ceased to exist but still exists to write about
the experience.
Alleged ineffability. In this category the subject feels as though whatever was
revealed is too wonderful for words. The human language is inadequate to describe the
experience and do it justice. Whatever symbols the subject could use to describe this
Transiency. This category refers to the fact that the experience is a temporary
state from which the experiencer will return to the normal state of consciousness. The
Positive changes in attitude and/or behavior. This category refers to the way that
the experience has changed individuals' attitudes toward themselves, others, life and
mystical consciousness. Individuals are able to face undesirable traits in a fashion that
qualities as mystical experiences we must investigate the "Good Friday" experiment, and
with the ingestion of psychedelic drugs. Twenty graduate student volunteers were chosen
who were of Protestant background and had never taken any psychedelic drugs prior to
the experiment. These subjects were divided into groups of four; each had two leaders
who knew the positive and negative effects of the psychedelic experience and assisted in
preparing the subjects for the experiment. The intent of these groups was to encourage
The experiment took place on Good Friday, 1962, in a lounge beside a private
chapel in which loudspeakers would transmit the service from the main sanctuary into the
room. An hour and a half before the service, capsules identical in appearance were given
to each participant: half of each group and one leader from each group was given
62
psilocybin and the other half received a vitamin (nicotinic acid), which causes feeling of
warmth and tingling of the skin, as a control substance. This experiment was a double-
blind design in which none of the participants (leaders or subjects) were aware of the
contents of any capsule. Inside the lounge, the participants listened to a two-and-a-half
hour service, which consisted of religious music, readings, prayers, and personal
meditation.
Immediately after the service, tape recordings of both individual and group
reactions were made. As soon as the participant was ready, each wrote a detailed account
questionnaire, and had follow-up interviews and questionnaires six months later.
The results of this experiment were that the subjects who received psilocybin had
experiences apparently indistinguishable from, if not identical to, certain categories that
defined the mystical state of consciousness (Pahnke, 1966). When compared to control
score, in each of the nine categories. The combined scores from all three methods of
measurement in all categories except "deeply felt positive mood (love)" and "persisting
psilocybin and the significance level for these categories was less than .02. It was noted
that even in the last two categories, the significance level was less than .055. The
experimental group, therefore, scored higher in each of these nine categories with only a
2% chance rate for every category except deeply felt positive mood and persisting
63
positive changes where the chance rate was still under 6%. In this experiment the ideal
"most complete" mystical experience would be the incident that demonstrated the
phenomena of all of the categories to the maximal extent. Although the experimental
group did not have a "complete" mystical typology, the author concludes that the use of
psilocybin was positively correlated with the mystical nature of the experience.
subjects described their psilocybin experience as having elements of "a genuine mystical
nature and characterized it as one of the high points of their spiritual life" (Doblin, 1991,
p. 13). Doblin (1991) reported that shortcomings of the study included the failure of the
questionnaire. Doblin further asserted that despite these shortcomings, the results of the
study indicated that when psychedelic drugs are administered to religiously inclined
people in a religious setting, they can facilitate mystical experiences. He also argued that
this study cast "a considerable doubt on the assertion that mystical experiences catalyzed
by drugs are in any way inferior to non-drug mystical experiences in both their immediate
content and long-term effects" (p. 24). The results led to further research by a group at
the Johns Hopkins University utilizing a modified version of the Pahnke/Richards (1969)
To better understand the acute and persisting effects of psilocybin, Griffiths et al.
religious or spiritual activities and did not have histories of hallucinogen use or mental
illness. All participated in two or three sessions conducted in 2-month intervals. Thirty
administered the placebo in the first two sessions and an unblinded administration of
psilocybin in the third session. To assess drug effects and mystical experience,
participants completed surveys directly after each session, and two months after the
sessions.
prepared the participants with four meetings (totaling 8 hours), in which they developed
rapport, built trust, and reviewed the participants' life histories as well as discussed
current life circumstances. These monitors also expressed that the drug session could
lead to personal awareness and insight, but avoided discussing any of the criteria used to
the participant nor the monitor were aware of whether the participant was receiving the
psilocybin or the placebo (with the exception of the six subjects who were randomly
assigned to receive the placebo on the first two sessions and an unblinded administration
of psilocybin on the third session). The setting was created to have a similar feel to a
living-room environment. Two monitors were present with each participant throughout
each session, and participants were encouraged to lie on the couch with an eye mask, and
to listen to classical music through headphones. They were instructed to avoid guessing
65
whether or not they received psilocybin, and prompted to focus on their inner experiences
during the session. Results indicated that the blinding procedures were effective, where
assessed during and after the sessions. Blood pressure and heart rate were monitored
questionnaire that rated 20 dimensions in the participants' mood and behavior at the same
time that physiological measures were taken. Seven hours after receiving the capsule,
participants completed three questionnaires to assess subjective drug effects: (1) the
Hallucinogen Rating Scale, which was designed to display sensitivity to the hallucinogen
aspects of hallucinogen effects, (2) the APZ, designed to assess altered states of
consciousness that were either induced by drugs or by other non-drug manipulations, (3)
the Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI) which measures subjective effects
among different psychoactive drugs. The participants also completed two questionnaires
that assessed mystical experience: (1) the States of Consciousness Questionnaire, which
Questionnaire, and other questions that served as distracter items, and was developed to
provide scaled scores on seven domains of mystical experience, and (2) the Mysticism
Scale, which measures primary mystical experiences and is highly regarded in the field of
Participants were also given a series of questionnaires two months after the
completion of their sessions to assess for changes in their mood, personality, attitudes,
66
behavior, and spirituality. These questionnaires included: (1) the Persisting Effects
Mysticism Scale, (3) the Spiritual Transcendence Scale, which assessed the efforts of an
individual "to create a broad sense of personal meaning in his or her life" (Griffiths et al,
2006, p. 273.), (4) the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R), which assessed
personality characteristics, and had also been administered during the screening process,
(5) PANAS-X (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Expanded Form), a self-report
measure that was used to assess how the participant felt (positive or negative affect)
before and after the sessions, (6) Community Observer Ratings of Changes in
Participants' Behavior and Attitudes, which utilized friends or family members of the
participants to rate any observable changes in the participants behavior and attitudes.
The results of this study suggested that psilocybin not only produced acute
changes in perception, moods, and subjective experiences, but also increased measures of
mystical experience. Participants rated their sessions with psilocybin as having long-
lasting effects including having substantial meaning and spiritual significance, and both
participants and their community observers reported lasting changes in attitudes and
behaviors. Psilocybin was shown to have a markedly different effect than the placebo
changes and labile moods relative to the placebo. Participants also scored significantly
higher on measures of mystical experience after ingestion of psilocybin than after the
ingestion of psilocybin, while only four of these participants met the criteria after
67
ingestion of the placebo. Participants rated the personal meaningfulness and spiritual
significance of the experience to be significantly higher after psilocybin than the placebo.
The majority (67%) reported that the psilocybin experience was either the single most
meaningful experience of his or her life, or within the top five most meaningful life
social effect, and behavior than did the placebo. The lifetime assessment of mystical
experience and spirituality scores were also significantly higher in the psilocybin group
than the placebo group. The positive changes in attitudes and behavior that were
Griffiths et al. (2008) published a follow-up where they explored lasting effects of
completed the standardized measures originally given in the 2006 study. They were also
open-ended clinical interview that focused on study experiences as well as current life
situations. Findings of the 14-month follow-up indicated that effects in the original study
were enduring. In the follow-up, all participants, except for one, identified the psilocybin
session to have generated the most pronounced changes in the subjects' mental processes
when compared to the placebo. The majority of the participants rated the psilocybin
experience to be among the five most meaningful experiences (58%), and among the five
most spiritually significant experiences of their lives (67%). At follow-up, 58% of these
individuals met the criteria for having had a "complete mystical experience" and
psilocybin was shown to have had a significant effect on personal meaning and spiritual
significance. As with the 2-month follow-up in the original study, psilocybin produced
68
significant elevations in positive mood, behavior, social effects, and in well-being or life
satisfaction. Griffiths et al. (2008) also reported that participants' follow-up scores on the
Pahnke-Richards Mystical Experience Questionnaire did not differ from their immediate
post-session scores. These results indicated that psilocybin, when administered under
experiences, and that these experiences have lasting effects on life satisfaction and are
Griffiths et al's. (2006) study is highly regarded in the field of psychology for its
psilocybin (Nichols, 2006; Schuster, 2006; Snyder, 2006). According to Schuster (2006)
the Griffiths et al. (2006) study was noteworthy for its design and rigorous execution. He
remarked that this study not only shows that psilocybin can be studied safely in normal
human beings, but also that the drug produced positive lasting changes in attitude and
behaviors that were both self-reported and identified by friends and relatives. Nichols
(2006) asserted that this study demonstrated that psychedelic compounds can produce
remarkable and possibly beneficial effects, and that these compounds deserve further
study. He also maintained that the Griffiths et al. (2006) study is an important extension
to Pahnke's Good Friday Experiment, due to its more precise controls, better
experimental design, and utilization of more modern instruments. Snyder (2006) stated
that the most important factor of the Griffiths et al. (2006) study was that there was
careful preparation of the participants by the monitors which worked to diminish panic
drugs, it is important to expand on the arguments, pro and con, of whether a drug-induced
religious experience. This controversial subject has been employed by both parties to
make a case for their accurate depiction of the relationship between drugs and religion.
On one side, supporters of the conception that drugs do correlate to religious experience
have argued that there is difficulty in identifying precise physiological and chemical
correlates of most religious experience, or mental states in general (Bakalar, 1985). The
argument of these supporters was that the source of the mystical sense of an experience is
not known and could be found in the contents of the drug, which is produced by nature.
The opposing view asserted that because we can duplicate the mysterious drug
molecules, which the law has pronounced extremely dangerous substances, the whole
concept of religion is, therefore, invalid, completely manmade, dangerous and unhealthy.
Francis Crick, who discovered the structure of DNA, came to the conclusion that
drugs may mimic a body chemical that is designed for religious purposes (Bakalar,
1985). Although Crick believed that religion, in its essence, is ignorance and error, he
proposed that the chemical produced by the drugs has the same function as religious
experience. Pahnke (1966) noted that forms of meditation and other sensory methods
alter biochemical activity and are used to facilitate religious experiences which allow
70
awareness of unconscious levels of the mind. These instances include activities such as
practices such as meditation, fasting, prayer, chanting, and solitude have been used
historically to "free oneself of the bounds of everyday perception and thought in a search
The use of such chemicals [psychedelics] does not reduce spiritual insight to a
mere matter of body chemistry. But it should be added that even when we can
describe certain events in terms of chemistry this does not mean that such events
somewhat the same use and the same limits as the chemical description of a great
painting. It is simple enough to make a chemical analysis of the paint, and for
artists and connoisseurs alike there is some point in doing so. It might also be
possible to work out a chemical description of all the processes that go on in the
meantime the same process could be described and communicated far more
effectively in some other language than the chemical. We should probably say
that a process is chemical only when chemical language is the most effective
Religious experience has personal meaning to individuals that often cannot be broken
down to chemical factors and still uphold the same significance for the individual.
71
Factors that contribute to the subjective meaning in individuals include the preparation
for the experience and the setting in which the experience takes place.
Preparation for the drug session and setting (external conditions at the time of
(Havens, 1964). The idea is that given dissimilar situations of preparation and different
atmospheres a person will undergo a different experience than if the subject was not
prepared at all or was not in an atmosphere that promoted religious emotions. Huston
verified that set and setting account for a major proportion of the variance:
The way statistics are currently running, it looks as if from one-fourth to one-third
of the general population will have religious experiences if they take certain drugs
the subject but does not interfere with the direction the experience takes. Among
subjects who have strong religious proclivities, the proportion of those who will
have religious experiences jumps to three-fourths. If such subjects take the drugs
in a religious settings, the percentage soars to nine out often, (p. 20)
religious language, and social atmosphere (Spilka, Ladd, Mcintosh, Milmoe, and Bickel,
1996). The idea that religious experience may be altered by factors such as preparation
and setting seems to suggest that drugs do not make the religious experience so much as
wrote, "... our normal waking consciousness, rational consciousness as we call it, is but
one special type of consciousness, whilst all about it, parted from it by the filmiest of
screens, there lie potential forms of consciousness entirely different" (James, 1985 pp.
307-308). With this notion, it is not implied that drugs create new types of
consciousness, but that drugs create an awareness of, and enable a subject to experience,
important to note that this obtained awareness does not necessarily constitute religious
affirming wisdom which influences the emotional life and behavior of the subject who
There are reports that psilocybin mushrooms can engender spiritual experiences
and the study of shamanism through anthropological reports has been found useful for
individuals, they do not explore the lasting effects of these substances on spirituality.
Psilocybin was chosen for this study because it is a psychedelic found in nature and has
been connected with mystical experiences (Pahnke, 1966; Griffiths et al., 2006). This
73
paper explored individual accounts of psilocybin experiences and assessed whether the
contemporary psilocybin user identified with the mutual reports of mystical experience
and the anthropological reports of the shamanistic experience. The present study
examined whether individuals reported having mystical experiences while under the
Current experimental studies have indicated that psilocybin can engender mystical
experiences in individuals; however these studies have utilized subjects who have had no
prior drug history and have an affiliation with some religious or spiritual group. This
study adds to the research because it examined the effects of psilocybin mushrooms on
spirituality in individuals who have had prior drug use histories, and may or may not have
Researchers (McKenna & McKenna, 1993; Metzner, 2004; Oss and Oeric, 1986;
Stafford, 1992) have found that set and setting have important effects on psilocybin
experiences; however there is little published on what setting factors are associated with
mystical experience. This study investigated whether set, setting, and preparation factors
affected individuals' experiences on psilocybin and analyzed the factors associated with
mystical experience.
associated with the use of psilocybin and attempted to ascertain whether individuals
to understand what, if any, role set, setting, preparation, supervision, and expectancy play
74
1991; Munn, 1976) have reported a phenomenon in which individuals who ingest high
doses of psilocybin mushroom hear a voice of unknown origin. This study explored
CHAPTER II
Methods
Participants
methods were used to obtain participants. First, The Multidisciplinary Association for
in 1986, and known for its advocacy of psychedelic research was contacted and agreed to
place a link to this study on their website, and to send out the study's announcement in
were also obtained through (a) posting in an online chat forum "The Shroomery"
psychedelic mushrooms so that people can make informed decisions about what they
ingest, (b) posting flyers at Bay Area Colleges and Universities, and (c) the "snowballing
method," where individuals were asked to pass along the link to the study to other
individuals whom they believe may have taken psilocybin mushrooms. Through this
Measures
To elicit the necessary information for this study, a 109-item questionnaire was
created (See Appendix D). Questions were designed to allow for individuals who have
and have not had spiritual experiences while under the influence of psilocybin to respond.
The questionnaire consisted of the (a) demographic questionnaire created for this study,
76
1975; and Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006), and (c) the Spirituality
Questionnaire (Griffiths et al., 2006), and (c) a demographic questionnaire, created for
Demographic Questionnaire.
psilocybin use history (such as dosage, preparation for experience, set and setting), and
whether or not an individual has ever had a spiritual experience while under the influence
of psilocybin. Participants were also asked whether or not they had ever had sensed a
items that were designed to assess mystical experiences, and were based on Walter
Stace's (1960) work on the psychology of religion and mystical experience. The
questionnaire is "rated on a six-point scale [0=none, not at all; l=so slight, cannot decide;
or expectation of this description); and S^xtreme (more than ever before in my life and
stronger than 4]" (Griffiths et al., 2006, p. 271). Although there is no preexisting
reliability or validity data for this questionnaire it has been utilized in multiple studies
(Griffiths et al., 2006), and has been accepted as a valid measure by those in academic
77
circle (Doblin, 1991). This questionnaire was used as the primary outcome measure in
experience in the Griffiths et. al (2006) study. Also, this questionnaire has been shown to
be sensitive to other hallucinogens (Griffiths et al., 2006; Richards, 1975; Turek, Soskin,
& Kurland, 1974). The scaled scores for seven domains of mystical experience (internal
unity, external unity, transcendence of time and space, ineffability and paradoxicality,
sense of sacredness, noetic quality, and deeply felt positive mood) are provided by this
questionnaire.
Spirituality Questionnaire.
provide information about changes in spirituality after the use of psilocybin, as well as
four questions that rate personal meaningfulness and spiritual significance of the
psilocybin experience. The 42 items were rated on the same six-point scale as the MEQ.
The four other questions included: (1) Indicate the degree to which the experience(s)
were spiritually significant to you (rated l=not at all, 2=slightly, 3=moderately, 4=very
much, 5=among the 5 most spiritually significant experiences of my life, 6=the single
most spiritually significant experience of my life). (2) If you answered that your
experience^) were spiritually significant to you, indicate how unusual the experience(s)
were to you (rated l^not at all unique (similar to other spiritual experiences I have had
experience/experiences been with psilocybin mushrooms (rated l=no more than routine,
meaningful experiences that occur on average once a year (without psilocybin), 5=similar
to meaningful experiences that occur on average once every 5 years (without psilocybin),
(4) How has your experience and your contemplation of that experience affected your
current sense of personal well-being or life satisfaction (rated l=increased very much,
Similarly to the MEQ, there is no previous reliability or validity data for this
scale.
Procedures
The MAPS announcement (Appendix A), the posted flyers (Appendix B), and the
internet announcement (Appendix C) all told participants that they were needed for a
"study exploring psychedelic mushrooms and spirituality," and gave participants a link to
were asked to click on a link that directed them to the Anonymous Psilocybin
directions and informed that the questionnaire was completely voluntary and anonymous.
Participants were asked not to take the questionnaire more than once, as there may have
79
been some overlap between memberships of the various organizations who participated
in the study. Furthermore, one free consultation with a licensed therapist was offered for
individuals who may have experienced distress as a result of participation in the study.
An email address was created for this purpose and to allow for individuals to request a
summary of results from the researcher. No participants requested a consultation with the
therapist. Data collection began in February 2009 and ended in March of the same year.
Statistical Analyses
between psilocybin use and mystical and spiritual experiences. First, the data set was
examined for outliers and to determine if the variables met criteria for parametric
statistical analyses.
in two different ways. First, according to the criteria set forth in Pahnke's (1969)
previous research, individual participants were classified as either having or not having a
"complete" mystical experience depending on their scores on each subscale of the MEQ.
To qualify as "complete," each of the following subscale scores needed to be at least 0.6
(calculated as a proportion of the total possible score): unity (either internal or external),
transcendence of time and space, ineffability, sense of sacredness, noetic quality, and
positive mood.
In addition to dividing participants into these two categories, a sum score was
calculated for the MEQ after evaluating scale reliability. Analyses with a sum score have
dichotomous scoring rubric, in that correlations with other use factors can address a
80
broader range of variance in the MEQ than is possible with traditional mean comparison.
The Spirituality Questionnaire (SQ) was also converted into a total score after
determining adequate reliability. The SQ was not used to divide participants into
separate groups as there was no prior score criterion for a "complete" spiritual experience
in the literature.
In order to quantify differences between men and women, and those having or not
2 (mystical category) MANOVA was conducted with several continuous or ordinal level
demographic and psilocybin use factors as dependent variables. MANOVA analysis was
chosen due to its utility in controlling Type I error inflation. Follow-up ANOVAs were
group differences. In addition, MEQ and SQ total scores were correlated with the same
relevant demographic and use variables used in the MANOVA analyses. Finally, a series
with having a mystical experience. As a result of the large number of chi-square (40
tests) and correlational (13x13 matrix) analyses conducted across a broad range of
psilocybin use factors, the criterion for statistical significance was lowered to a = .01 to
CHAPTER III
Results
Participants
this study. Of the 504 participants, the mean age was 27.56 (SD=\ 0.96). The mean
number of lifetime uses was 20.08 (SZ>=56.24). Four hundred and forty-six (88.8%) of
the participants were male, while the other 56 (11.2%) were female. The participants
ranged in level of education with 1 (0.2%) having completed only elementary school, 4
(0.8%) completed through junior high school, 239 (47.5%) completed high school, 67
(13.3%) earned an associates degree, 117 (23.3%) earned a bachelor's degree, and 73
Only 133 (26.5%) of the participants reported identifying with any particular
regards to psilocybin use, 369 (73.4%) of the participants stated that they had used
psilocybin within the last year, with 125 (24.9%) using within the last month. Three
hundred and thirty-four (66.4%) of the participants reported using psilocybin at least once
every 6 months, and the 386 (76.8%) of the participants reported using strong or heavy
doses. Also, 300 (59.6%) participants expected to have a spiritual experience, and 439
82
psilocybin.
Preliminary Analyses
The data set was examined to determine if parametric statistical analyses were
appropriate (Dunlap, Burke, & Greer, 1995). Several statistical outliers were identified,
some of which were verified as valid but highly unlikely participant responses (e.g., a
participant claimed to have used 500 grams of dry psilocybin in one "dose"), while others
were found to be errors in data entry by the participants. These relatively few statistical
outliers were eliminated from the data set to permit the use of parametric statistics.
evaluated with respect to scale reliability to determine if calculation of total scores was
warranted. An a priori criteria of Cronbach's alpha > .9 was chosen to ensure that the
scales each adequately address the relevant construct. The internal consistency for the
MEQ (a = .969) and the SQ (a = .933) each met this criterion. Thus, total scores were
calculated from the 43 items of the MEQ and the 42 items of the SQ. Sum scores were
Multivariate analysis.
In keeping with the criteria set forth by Pahnke (1969), individual participants
were coded for whether or not they had met criteria for a "complete" mystical experience,
and mean comparisons were conducted to characterize the differences between these two
83
groups. Of the 504 total participants in the sample, 85 were excluded for missing data.
Of the remaining 419 participants, 201 (48.0%) had some subscale scores falling below
the criteria, while 218 (52.0%) achieved scores placing them in the "complete" mystical
experience range.
several demographic and psilocybin use factor dependent variables differed across both
gender and the mystical experience category variable. The demographic variables used
were age and highest level of education. The variables associated with psilocybin use
addressed the number of lifetime psilocybin uses, amount of time since last use, typical
frequency of use, largest dose ever used, self-reported degree of spiritual significance and
the degree of "meaningfulness" of the experience, and if use had changed sense of well-
being. The main effect for gender was not significant, A = ..939, F(l 1, 197) =1.159, /? =
.318, indicating that men and women did not differ across the dependent variables
included in the analysis. A significant main effect for the mystical experiences
categorical variable was obtained, A = ..026, F(l 1, 197) = 681.714,/? < .0001 and the
interaction term for gender x mystical experience was not significant, A = ..954, F(l 1,
Younger individuals (M= 24.66, SD = 8.39) comprised the group that did not
have a "complete" mystical experience, compared with their older peers (M= 25.40, SD
= 9.16) in the mystical experience group, F(l,207) = 3.158,p = .032. The mystical
experience group was comprised of a group of participants who had used psilocybin more
times over the course of their lifetime (M= 30.35, SD = 66.66) than those in the non-
mystical group (M= 9.93, SD = 12.51), F(l,207) = 4.423, p = .037, and had a larger
single dose {M- 3.46, SD = .62) than the comparison group (M= 3.13, SD = .75),
mystical experience group rated their psilocybin experiences as more significant, more
unique, and more personally meaningful (on Likert-type scales) when compared to the
non-mystical group (ps < .049). The experiences were also rated as having more of a
positive, long-lasting effect on well-being after use, F( 1,207) = 6.100,/? = .014. Finally,
those in the mystical experience range stated that a higher percentage of their psilocybin
experiences were spiritually significant {M- 68.38%, SD = 25.36) when compared to the
Correlational Analysis
Total scores for the MEQ and SQ were correlated with the same use factors
summarized above in the Between Groups section. As stated previously, these Pearson
product-moment correlations were conducted in hopes of utilizing the variance lost when
MEQ scores were split into two groups. In addition, correlations allow for the analysis of
Questionnaire Items 1 10 11 12 13
1. Age — .410** .188**-.463** - .316** .055 .011 .115 .120' .026 .040 - .074 .057
2. Highest level of education 501 — - .003 .248**-.171** .003 -.066 • .046 .003 .118* .006 - .124 - .001
3. Psilocybin lifetime uses 345 345 .069 .217** .210** .141 .014 • .030 .113 .125 .227** .137
4. Time since last use 503 502 346 — .603 ** .103 .125* .125 * - .090 .155** .134' .126* .074
5. Frequency of psilocybin use 498 497 344 499 .147 .111 .093 - .068 .170** .114 .166** .118
6. Largest dose psilocybin (dry grams) 428 428 294 429 426 .208 ** .099 .039 .171** .123 .291** .182**
7. Spiritual significance of experience 495 494 340 496 491 423 .351** .535** .568** .375** .611** .561**
8. Uniqueness of spiritual experience 446 445 304 447 444 382 446 .128 .391 ** .064 .266 ** .210 **
9. Percentage of experiences that were spiritual 482 481 331 483 480 411 479 441 .294** .297** .466** .485**
10. How personally meaningful were experiences 499 498 343 500 495 426 493 446 480 — .325 ** .533 ** .505 **
11. How has experience changed well-being 497 496 343 498 494 423 491 444 479 496 — .378** .436**
12. Mystical Experiences Questionnaire score 420 419 288 421 418 356 416 379 409 419 420 — .712**
13. Spirituality Questionnaire score 389 388 273 390 387 328 388 346 379 389 388 344 —
utilized a negative coding scale ("Time since last use", "Frequency of use", and "How
has experience changed well-being"). The coding for these items was reversed to ensure
that higher scores on the scale are associated with either more psilocybin use, or
between demographic, use history, and personal experience questions associated with
psilocybin use. Particularly noteworthy is that the MEQ total score was found to
correlate with every use and experience question (rs range from . 126 to .611). Both more
psilocybin use (in terms of frequency and dose size) and self-reported positive psilocybin
experiences were associated with higher MEQ total scores. This is in partial contrast to
the SQ total score, which was found to correlate with all positive experience questions (rs
range from .210 to .561), but with only one use-related question (largest dose, r = 182).
Questions associated with frequency of use, time since last use, and lifetime uses were
percentage of experiences that were spiritual, how personally meaningful were the
experiences, how has the experience changed the individual's well being, and was also
found to be intercorrelated with the MEQ and SQ (rs range from .351 to .611).
Interestingly, dosage was only correlated with spiritual significance of the experience,
personal meaningfulness of the experience, the MEQ, and the SQ (rs range from .351 to
.611).
87
Chi-square Analysis
psilocybin use. These factors were contrasted with the complete mystical experience
referencing a host of different use factors are summarized below in Tables 2 (for
Expectancy Factors
Emotional Factors
Entity Factors
Note. All dfs are 1. *p < .01, ** p < .001. f Groups defined according to Pahnke (1969).
89
As seen in Table 2, many participant use factors were found to differ across the
group more often expected to have a spiritual experience (64.4%), and reported supposed
are the chi-square findings around motivational factors, where individuals in the
"complete mystical experience" group reported motivations for use related to self-
discovery and growth. Those who were classified as having a "complete mystical
experience" were more likely to have sought out psilocybin "as part of a ritual" (80.3%),
"to cleanse themselves" (67.6%), "as a therapeutic tool" (66.3%), "as a part of a spiritual
journey" (62.5%), and "to ascertain knowledge" (60.0%), ps < .001. No group
differences were found across the motivation factors of "Entertainment", "To escape
reality", and "Peer pressure" (ps > .228). Emotional factors and the experiencing of a
non-human presence or voice during use were also found to be linked with mystical
Table 3
Chi-square: Setting Use Factors
Complete Mystical Experience^
With others, inside in private 197 (54.3%) 166 (45.7%) 5.467 .019
With others, outside in private 178 (55.6%) 142 (44.4%) 7.018 .008*
Note. All dfs are 1. * p < .01, ** p < .001. T Groups defined according to Pahnke (1969).
91
the mystical experience variable. Many social factor variables associated with either
related to having a mystical experience. Being with others (62.2%), being alone (60.4%),
being in darkness or with eyes closed (64.4%), listening to music (63.8%), being inside
(68.0%), being outside (61.7%), being in nature (61.9%), having a guide or shaman
present (83.3%), using other drugs (71.4%), and having candles lit (73.8%) were all
associated with having a mystical experience, ps < .001. Mindset, motivational, and
before ingesting (66.9%), and feelings right after ingesting (72.5%) were also found to be
individuals classified as having a complete mystical experience were also much more
likely to have felt the presence of a non-human entity (65.3%), heard a non-human voice,
origin (74.3%), ps < .001. Because previous research (Beach, 1996) indicated that
hearing a voice of unknown origin was related to dosage, a t-test was conducted to
explore whether there were differences between those who heard a voice and those who
did not. Individuals who heard a non-human voice used more times over the course of
their life, <156.946) - 2.013,/? = .046, used psilocybin more frequently, f(491) = 3.749,/?
< .001, and reported a larger single dose, /(421) = 5.525,/? < .001, than those who did not
hear a non-human voice. Similarly, those who reported communicating with a voice of
92
unknown origin had more lifetime uses, t($ 1.284) = 2.015,/? = .047, more frequent use,
/(491) = 2.822,/? = .005, and a larger single dose, *(239.269) = 5.452,/? < .001, than those
CHAPTER IV
Discussion
changes in their spirituality after use of psilocybin, and the majority (58.1%) asserted that
their psilocybin experience(s) were among the top five most spiritually significant
experiences of their lives. The bulk of the participants (90%) also proclaimed that the
psilocybin experiences) increased their well-being and asserted that the experience(s)
were personally meaningful. Of the 504 participants, 52% achieved scores on the
Pahnke-Richards Mystical Experience Questionnaire that met the criteria for having a
Psychoactive plants have been utilized for thousands of years to produce mystical
states (Guzman, 2008; Harner, 1973). The use of entheogenic drugs has been important
to the shamanistic tradition, and shamans have utilized these substances to enter into
origin and development of spiritual concepts (McKenna & McKenna, 1975; Smith, 2003;
cultural understanding has been an ancient tradition; however, in Western culture, divine
visions are often dismissed as hallucinations and the desire to have direct communication
societies that have been affected by Western civilization is often driven by a desire to
experience euphoria, and frequently influenced by peer group pressure (Merlin, 2003).
The current study found that motivations for psilocybin use were associated with whether
or not individuals met the criteria for having a "complete" mystical experience.
associated with mystical experience, whereas individuals who utilized psilocybin as part
These findings suggest that individuals who are motivated to use psilocybin as a
tool for growth are more likely to achieve mystical states, or interpret their experiences as
reported that the experiences changed their well-being for the better. The association
that it is possible that the states induced by psilocybin when individuals are motivated by
to help facilitate the psychedelic experience. Non-Western societies have often provided
an initiation rite for youth in which the participants are guided through experiences with
psychedelic drugs to signify their growth in spirituality and maturity within their culture
(De Rios & Grob, 1994; Stuart, 2004). There is a stigma around psychedelic drug use
and a bias against the value of drug-induced states in the Western culture. Although
95
many individuals have reported gaining profound insight from the use of psychedelic
drugs and studies have demonstrated that individuals report having positive lasting
supervised and guided through psychedelic experiences in the Western culture. Elders in
our society, customarily, do not guide young drug users, which increases the chance that
the drug experiences can be disorganizing and dangerous (De Rios & Grob, 1994).
The current study found that only 22.1% of the participants had been guided
through a psilocybin experience in their lifetime. This finding is not surprising due to the
stigma attached to psychedelic drugs; however this lack of supervision and guidance may
affect the outcome of any psychedelic experience. Researchers (i.e., Griffiths et al.,
2006; Leary et al., 1963; Pahnke, 1969) have noted the importance of providing a
these researchers have invested time and effort in preparing their subjects prior to any
drug administration. Preparation has been found to greatly reduce anxiety in the subjects
and when paired with a supportive environment it decreases the chances of having a
negative experience. The current study found that having a guide or shaman present was
associated with mystical experience. Although only a relatively few participants were
guided through their psilocybin experiences, the support of the leader may have impacted
the participants and facilitated mystical experience. One possible explanation for this is
that individuals who feel supported, have built trust with a leader or guide, and have
clearer expectations will likely feel less anxious about the effects and will be more open
Previous studies (Pahnke, 1969; Richards et al. 2006) have found that psilocybin
the current study support the previous findings that mystical experiences are associated
with psilocybin. All three of the studies found that individuals report having experiences
under the influence of psilocybin that are spiritually meaningful and have lasting effects.
Although the current study had similar findings to the Pahnke (1969) and Richards et al.
First, the current study utilized a self-report method while the previous studies
to the subjects in a double-blind procedure, and participants were asked to rate their
experience(s) directly after the effects had subsided. Although the experimental design in
the previous research, which maintained strict controls and methodology, provided vast
information on psilocybin and measured causal effects, the information attained was
limited to the subjects who met the criteria for safe administration of psilocybin. The
current study did not administer any drugs to subjects, permitting a wider range of
drug use or mental health histories. The present study expanded on these results by
broader range of spiritual backgrounds, and did not disqualify individuals for prior drug
usage.
Second, the relationship between the researcher and participants differed between
the current study and previous studies. Because the previous studies utilized the
experimental model, the researchers were able to build a relationship with their subjects
whereas the current study utilized participants who were anonymous. The ability to
develop a relationship with the subjects allowed the previous researchers to build rapport
and meet with these subjects on a number of occasions. In both of the prior studies,
participants were screened and had meetings with the monitors to minimize the risk of
adverse reactions to the psilocybin. Having a working relationship with the subjects also
allowed the researchers to use a number of different rating scales and personality
inventories. Because the subjects in the current study were anonymous it was important
to make the questionnaire short enough that it could be completed in a reasonable amount
of time, thus limiting the number of questions and scales that could be assessed.
One important difference was that in previous studies, the assessment was limited
to the experience(s) that were administered to the subject, while in the current study it
was impossible to identify the exact experience on which a participant is reporting. Also,
because these participants may have had experiences with other entheogenic drugs, it is
possible that their experiences may have blended together, and that they may have
inaccurately reported psilocybin effects. The use of multiple entheogens could have
affected the estimation of the importance of the psilocybin experience either positively or
negatively. It is possible that individuals who have had other profound experiences with
other substances may have decreased their estimation of the effects of psilocybin, while
others who have not had other drug experiences may have increased their assessment of
The third manner in which the current research differed from the previous studies
is that in the current study the participants were categorized into two groups based upon
whether or not they met the criteria for having a "complete" mystical experience. Both of
the previous studies compared psilocybin groups to control groups to assess differences
in mystical experience. In the Pahnke (1969) study, groups that had taken psilocybin
were compared to groups that had not taken psilocybin, while in the Griffiths et al. (2006)
study subjects were assessed after ingesting either psilocybin or the placebo. The
differing factor between the two groups in the previous research was whether or not the
subject had taken psilocybin. Although these previous studies did discuss whether or not
individuals met the criteria for having a "complete" mystical experience, their focus was
more on the differences between the placebo and psilocybin. By dividing participants
into mystical and non-mystical groups, the current study was able to identify factors
were older (p = .032), used psilocybin more times over the course of their lifetime (p =
.037), and had a larger single dose (p - .002). Although results indicated that there was a
difference in age between the groups, the age difference was less than 1 year, and it is
difficult to say whether this age difference has any particular usefulness. The finding that
older individuals tend to have more mystical experiences may have also been confounded
by variables associated with age such as the number of times someone has taken
psilocybin, possibility of increased dosage, and knowledge about mystical states. The
finding that individuals with higher lifetime uses more frequently had mystical
have had multiple experiences with psilocybin may have felt more comfortable in their
later sessions because they knew what to expect and may have been less anxious if they
had positive previous experiences. Also, individuals who had mystical experiences on
their first psilocybin use may have been more likely to have used the substance on
subsequent occasions, and likely were more willing to use higher doses. Dosage has been
linked to intensity and duration of the experience (Furst, 1992; Ott, 1993; Stafford, 1992),
and therefore it is not surprising that it is also associated with mystical experience.
Individuals who undergo profound changes in their perception may interpret the
alterations as spiritual or mystical because they do not have any other way to describe
what they have experienced. Because high doses of psilocybin produce intense effects
that are so unique from their common awareness or consciousness, individuals may have
a difficult time expressing what they have experienced. This corresponds with the
Through comparison of the two groups, the current study also identified multiple
set and setting factors associated with having a "complete" mystical experience. These
included expectancy of the individual, motivations for use, as well as emotional, social,
ranging from 55.6% to 62.2%) endorsing social setting factors may be an artifact because
those who use psilocybin more often are more likely to have experienced these different
use settings. This same effect likely influenced the results in that almost every
environmental factor was found to differ across the mystical experience grouping, as
those who use more often have likely had more chances to experience these varied
settings.
Similar to the current research, Beach's (1996) study utilized a self-report
measure to study the auditory voice phenomenon associated with psilocybin use. In his
study, he separated subjects into groups based upon whether or not they had heard a voice
of unknown origin while under the influence of psilocybin. Beach found that there are a
number of factors associated with hearing a voice including: the number of times an
mushrooms that were grown by the subject, using in darkness, and having heard a
voice(s) when using other drugs. In the current study, participants who qualified as
more frequently than those who did not (65.3%). Mystical experience was also
associated with hearing a non-human voice, or voice of unknown origin (68.2%), and
those who communicated with the voice (74.3%). This finding supports Beach's (1996)
study in which he found that individuals on high doses of psilocybin reported hearing and
communicating with a voice of unknown origin. This finding also corroborates the
hypothesis that hearing or communicating with a voice of unknown origin may increase
associated with mystical experience in the current study were also found to be correlated
with hearing a voice in Beach's (1996) research. This finding suggests that there are
Limitations
that support psychedelic research, internet forums that focus on psychedelic drugs, or
through flyers posted at universities that request participants who have used psilocybin.
Thus they represent a small sample of the general population, and may even represent a
select population within psilocybin users. That this researcher was forthcoming about the
objective of the study also may have affected the selection of the participants. It is likely
that subjects chose to participate in this study because they were already interested in
participants reported multiple experiences with psilocybin and this might have affected
their recollection. Participants with other drug-use histories may have also confused or
Because individuals who have had multiple experiences with psilocybin were
utilized in this study, it is not possible to know about which experience they are
reporting. It is likely that some participants may have had spiritual experiences during
some of their uses and not others. It would be interesting to assess individuals who have
had multiple experiences on each of their psilocybin episodes. Another limitation of this
study is that it relied upon subjects correctly identifying the dosage of psilocybin they
ingested. Dosage was quantified by measuring the dried grams ingested by the
participants, and it is likely that some individuals were not aware of the exact amount that
was consumed. Also, due to the inconsistency of psilocybin and psilocin levels in
psilocybin mushrooms, it is difficult to measure how much of the active agents were
mushrooms; only one subject commented on what species of mushrooms were ingested.
Expectancy effects and experimenter bias may have also limited the reliability of
influence the outcome of an experiment (Metzner et al., 1965). Metzner et al. (1965)
suggested that the divergence in reports about hallucinogenic drugs is likely due to this
experimenter bias, and asserted that it is almost impossible to eliminate this effect in
his "Good Friday Experiment" through the use of a double-blind procedure, subjects
easily identified whether they had received the drug (Doblin, 1991). Doblin (1991)
remarked that although there was no evidence that the experimental team in the "Good
Friday Experiment" utilized their knowledge of whether or not the subject received
psilocybin or the placebo, an unconscious bias may have occurred that could have
resulted in an "expectancy effect." Griffiths et al. (2006) reported that the expectancy
effect was reduced in their study through the use of a double-blind procedure that they
found to be effective.
There are a number of ways that experimenter bias may have influenced the
results of the current experiment. First, individuals were informed that the study was
exploring psilocybin and spirituality, and this may have impacted the manner in which
they answered the questionnaire. It is possible that the subjects may have hypothesized
what they believed this researcher was attempting to conclude, and tailored their
expectancy factors on the part of the participants. The majority (59.6%) of the
participants in the current study self-reported that they expected to have a spiritual
participants did expect to have a spiritual experience, the vast majority (87.6%) reported
that their experience with psilocybin was spiritual. The expectancy effect is difficult to
determine due to the nature of the self-report measure. Because participants were not
excluded based on prior drug histories, and many had more than one experience with
psilocybin, it is possible that some may not have known exactly how to answer this
question. For example, it could be that the first time an individual ingested psilocybin
that individual did not expect to have a spiritual experience, but the experience may have
been spiritual for that person. Due to the previous experience the participant may have
expected to have spiritual experiences on subsequent trials. This individual may have
indicated that there was an expectation to have a spiritual experience based on prior
reactions to psilocybin or other drugs that may have induced spiritual states.
Finally, because many participants may have had experiences with other
entheogenic drugs, it is possible that their experiences may have blended together, and
that they may have inaccurately reported psilocybin effects. The use of multiple
entheogens could have affected the estimation of the importance of the psilocybin
experience either positively or negatively. It is possible that individuals who have had
other profound experiences with other substances may have decreased their estimation of
the effects of psilocybin, while others who have not had other drug experiences may have
The prevalence of Caucasian males in this study is another area that restricts
psychedelics has been largely dominated by men (Beach, 1996; Stafford, 1992). The
high proportion of Caucasian males in this study, while not surprising, limits the ability to
understand how psilocybin affects females and individuals from different cultures.
Although this study indicated no gender or ethnic differences, a larger sample of diverse
religion. Upon first glance this seemed surprising because current research indicates that
the vast majority of the American population retain a belief in spiritual reality (Miller &
Thoresen, 2003). Upon closer scrutiny, it became obvious that the question posed about
whether an individual identified with any particular religion did not include individuals
who simply describe themselves as spiritual. If the question had been phrased in a way to
being spiritual.
"God" in the survey, or stated that the questionnaire presented a Western philosophy of
spirituality, and reported that they felt that this may have placed a bias into the survey.
-The "You feel more of a connection to the God of..." the term God puts a big bias
in this. If that was taken out and left intact with the rest, it would make better
pantheist or secular spirituality without deity is left out of this inquiry about
spiritual insight that is confusing and a little odd. Thanks for doing the research
though.
-too much god wordiness. Does it half (sic) to be "god" to be spiritual... don't
-I feel that I was not able to answer some of the questions fully because I do not
truly believe in any god or higher power and feel that ultimate reality is only the
Although this researcher utilized multiple terms (i.e., the God of your
wording of some of the questions may have affected some participants' responses. The
religious or spiritual belief, and a large number of the participants were classified as
questions and possibly amend them to be more inclusive of other notions of spirituality.
Because many psilocybin users indicate that they have used other drugs, it would
be pertinent to identify whether these individuals report and qualify for having mystical
experiences with these other substances. If individuals are reporting spiritual experiences
with other drugs, it would be important to determine what are the other drugs, what they
have in common, and what individual factors are correlated with having mystical
experiences.
Another area for further exploration would be to assess whether there are
facilitating mystical experiences. Because synthesized psilocybin has been utilized in the
ingestion. One participant in the current study reflected that there was no mention in the
study about the "darker or demonic aspects of the spiritual worlds." Johnson et al. (2008)
the possibility of provoking the onset of prolonged psychosis. Individuals who have had
associated with mystical and spiritual experiences, and can produce lasting positive
effects in users. Although entheogenic drugs have been utilized throughout history to
facilitate mystical experiences, Western culture tends to deny such benefits of drug-
induced states. This research indicates that with proper set and setting, individuals may
benefit from the use of psilocybin. Pre-industrial societies often utilized entheogenic
drugs to initiate their young, and elders often monitored and guided the experiences.
With its focus on Western medicine and taboos around mystical states, current
industrialized societies have limited the avenues into attaining spiritual insight. With
proper support and guidance entheogenic experiences can help individuals mature and
both the benefits and possible risks psilocybin and other entheogenic drugs can have.
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APPENDIX A
MAPS Announcement
116
Spirituality.
You are needed for a study exploring psychedelic mushrooms and spirituality. I am an
experiences with psilocybin. Participants must be over the age of 18 and have taken
psilocybin mushrooms. Your participation would consist of filling out a brief online
questionnaire that will take approximately 15-20 minutes to complete. Your answers are
anonymous, so no one can identify you. Participation is completely voluntary, and you
may stop participating at any time. Because the study is anonymous, the data cannot be
removed once you have submitted your responses, but any time prior to submission you
If you would like to participate in this study, please click on the following link:
mail address will be kept completely separate from any other information and will be
destroyed upon the completion of the study. This identifying information will only be
used for purposes of responding to your question and in no way will it be linked to any
study data.
117
APPENDIX B
Recruitment Flyer
118
Ever taken
Psychedelic
Mushrooms?
You are needed for a study exploring psychedelic
ANONYMOUS.
If interested please go to
Thank you!
119
APPENDIX C
Internet Announcement
Ever taken Psychedelic Mushrooms?
You are needed for a study exploring psychedelic mushrooms and spirituality. It
mushroomstudv(a),gmail.com.
121
APPENDIX D
If you are over the age of 18 and have ever taken psilocybin, please answer the following questionnaire. I am an
advanced graduate student in Clinical Psychology at the California School of Professional Psychology, and this
questionnaire is part of my final research project. Your participation would be greatly appreciated. This questionnaire
is completely voluntary and anonymous. I will not know the name of anyone who participates. Though I encourage
you to complete the study, you may omit answers to particular questions or not complete the study and thus not
submit it for any reason at anytime, no questions asked. Also, the organization that has distributed this for me will
not know whether you as an individual participated or not. Please do not take this questionnaire more than once.
Any participant who experiences distress as a result of their participation in this study will be entitled to one free
consultation with a licensed therapist. If there are questions, or to request a consultation, contact me at any time
(mushroomstudy@gmail.com). Should you contact me, your contact information will be kept completely separate
from any survey data and will only be used for purposes of responding to your question. Your contact information
will be destroyed upon the completion of the study. Please stop now if you are not over the age of 18 and/or have
not taken psilocybin mushrooms. If you have ever been hospitalized or sought treatment from a medical or
psychological professional due to negative effects from taking any psychedelic drug do not complete this
questionnaire. By completing this survey informed consent is assumed.
Q Female.
3. Please indicate the highest level of education that you have completed?
Cj Elementary School (K-5). Q Associates Degree.
4. Do you identify with any religion? (If so, please state what religion you identify
with?)
Os.
0 No -
Please specify the religion with which you identify.
5. What ethnicity do you identify with? If bi or multiracial, please identify each race
that you identify with,
7. How long has it been since you have taken any amount of psilocybin mushrooms?
f ) l ess than a month. ( j ?-5 years.
5 12
Q " months. Q Wore than. 1U years.
0 '-? Years.
123
10. Have you ever had someone guide you through a psilocybin mushroom
experience?
O-
11. In what ways have you prepared for your psilocybin experience(s)?
, . ..
;._ ._ 3
12. When preparing to take psilocybin mushrooms, did you expect to have a spiritual
experience?
Q»o.
13. What have been your reasons for taking psilocybin? (Please mark all that apply.)
I l.ritertainment/fun. J j To ascertain knowledge.
As a spiritual jcuriey.
15. Have you ever had a spiritual experience while under the influence of psiiocybin
mushrooms?
o°-
16. Indicate the degree to which the experience(s) were spiritually significant to
you.
Q Not at all.
(~) Moderately.
( j Very much.
17. If you answered that your experience^) were spiritually significant to you,
indicate how unusual the
experience(s) were to you.
(J) Not at all uninue (similar >o other spiritual experiences I have had without psiiocybin).
\^J Completely unique [unlike any ol my prior spiritual experie-.ces without -silocybln).
18. What percentage of your psiiocybin experiences have been spiritual? (0-100%,
with all of the experiences = 100%)
19. If you have had a spiritual experience while under the influence of psilocybin,
please indicate which factors have affected your experience. (Please check all that
apply.)
I | Being with otfiers. | I Being ins.de. | _ J Candles or incense.
I 1 Being in darkness or closing eyes. [ [ Mediating. I I Using other drugs in combination with
psilocybin.
1 Having a guide cr shaman. M Praying,
j Feelings directly prior to ingesting
I [ Listening to music. j Temperature cf surroundings. psilocybin.
Please indicate any other factors tnat have affected your spiritual experience while using psilocybin
20. Have you ever sensed the presence of a non-human entity while under the
influence of psilocybin mushrooms?
0 Yes -
0 Ng -
21. Have you ever heard a non-human voice or a voice of unknown origin while
under the influence of psilocybin?
o,.
22. Have you ever communicated with a voice of unknown origin while under the
influence of psilocybin?
[/) Similar to meaningful experiences tnat occur on average ( j Among the 1C most meaningful experiences of my life.
once or more s week (without psilocybin}. -.
f ) among the 5 most meaningful experiences or my life.
C_) Similar to meaningful experiences tnat occjr on average
The s
once a month (without psliorvbln). O "',e mosr
meaningful experience of my life.
24. How has your experience and your contemplation of that experience affected
your current sense of personal weil-ceing or life satisfaction?
f ) Increased ve-y much. f j Decreased slightly.
( ) No change.
25. Please rate the degree to which at any time while under the influence of
psilocybin mushrooms, you experienced the following phenomena.
5-Extre"~.e
i-So slight (more than
O-Not at all. cannot 2-Slight. 3-Moderate. 4-Strong. ever before
decide. in your life
and stronger
than 4)
Sense of reverence.
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 oss o' your usual sense of time.
0 0 0 0 0 0
Experience of overflowing energy.
0 0 0 0 0 0
Feelings of peace and trar.q:;i'ity.
0 0 0 0 0 0
Loss of your usual identity.
Sense of the limitations and smallness ot your
0 0 0 0 0 0
everyday personality In contrast tn ihe infinite. 0 0 0 0 0 0
Experience of the 'nsight that "All is One*.
With eyes open, seeing something in your
0 0 0 0 0 0
surroundings mere and more intensely and then 0 0 0 0 0 0
teei'ng as though you and it Become one.
feeling that you have teen "outs de o f history in a
realm wnere time does not exist. 0 0 0 0 0 0
Loss of usual aware-ess of where you were.
feeling that you could net Co justice to your
0 0 0 0 0 0
experience by describing it in words. 0 0 0 0 0 0
Expe'ience of the "usion of your personal set* into a
larger whole. 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sense that in onler to describe parts of your
experience ycu would have to use statements that 0 0 0 0 0 0
appear to be illogical, involving contradictions and
paradoxes.
Feeing that it would be difficult to communicate your
own expelence to others whe ^ave not had s mila'- 0 0 0 0 0 0
experiences.
Experience of oneness or unity with objects and/or
persons perceived in your surroundings. 0 0 0 0 0 0
Experience of amazement.
26. Please rate the degree to which at anytime after the immediate perceptual
effects of psilocybin subsided, you experienced the following phenomena.
5-Extreme (more
O-Nonc; Not at i-So slight than ever before
2 -Slight. 3-Moderare. 4-Strong.
all. cannot decide. in your life and
stronger than 4)
You feel less of a
connection to the God of 0 0 0 0 0 0
your
understanding/ultimate
reatity/a higher power.
You are less at heme in
the Present rncmenf. 0 0 0 0 0 0
You are less apprehensive
about your own death. 0 0 0 0 0 0
You place more
importance In yoor 0 0 0 0 0 0
spiritual and/or religious
understandings.
You feel less at home m
the universe.
0 0 0 0 0 0
You feel more of a
connection to the God of 0 0 0 0 0 0
your
understanding/ultimate
realiry/a higher power.
You have an increased
belief that there is a 0 o 0 0 0 0
higher plane of
consciousness or
spirituality that binds all
people.
Time spent in quiet
meditation or prayer hiis 0 0 0 0 0 0
decreased.
You now believe less in
some form of continuance
0 0 0 0 0 0
afte' death.
You hn'i less of a sense
of the preeicus-ess of
0 0 0 0 0 0
life.
Time spent n quiet
meditation nr prayer has
0 0 0 0 0 0
increased.
You have an increased
sense of reverence.
0 0 0 0 0 0
You want more distance
from the God of your 0 0 0 0 0 0
understanding/ultimate
rea.'ity/a higher power.
You have a decreased
feeling of an emotional
0 0 0 0 0 0
bond with all of humanity.
You want tc grow closer ro
the God of your
0 0 0 0 0 0
understanding/ultimate
reality/a Mgiier power.
You have an increased
sense that all of life is 0 0 o 0 0 0
interconnected.
You have a decreased
sense of reverence. 0 0 0 0 0 0
You experience profound
sacrecness more
0 0 0 0 0 0
129
frequent!'/.
Your prayers and/or
meditations prwtfe nu 0 0 0 0 0 0
with a diminished sense
of emotional support.
You now believe more in
some form of continuance 0 0 0 0 0 0
after death.
You have an increased
sense of a personal 0 0 0 0 0 0
relat'onship with the Goo
of your
understandlng/uitmate
reallty/a higher power.
You experience profound
sacredness less 0 0 0 0 0 0
frequently.
You have more of a sense
of the preciojsness of
0 0 0 0 0 0
life.
Your experience increased
emotional closeness to 0 0 0 0 0 0
someone who has died.
Spirituality has become a
more central part of your 0 0 0 0 0 0
life.
You now experience a
diminished sense of
0 0 0 0 0 0
gratitude for life.
You nave an increased
feeling of an emotional 0 0 0 0 0 0
bond with ali of humanity.
You have an he-eased
feci nn of an order to the 0 0 0 0 0 0
universe that transcends
human thinking.
You are mrrr:
apprehensive about your 0 0 0 0 0 0
own deat!\
Your experience of
sacredness i<- daily life 0 0 0 0 0 0
las decreased.
Your prayers end/or
meditations provide you 0 0 0 0 0 0
vyth a greater sense of
emotional support.
Your experience of
sacredness r da<ly li f e
has increased.
0 0 0 0 0 0
Spirituality has Decome a
less central part of your
life.
0 0 0 0 0 0
You place less importance
in your sp-ritual and/or
0 0 0 0 0 0
religious understandings.
You- appreciaticr for the
whole of creation has 0 0 0 0 0 0
decre3sec.
You a'e more at home in
the present moment.
0 0 0 0 0 0
You have a decreased
sense of personal 0 0 0 0 0 0
relationship with the God
of your
understanding/ultimate
130
27. THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING IN THIS STUDY AND THE GENEROSITY OF
YOUR TIME. SHOULD YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS PLEASE DO NOT HESISTATE TO
CONTACT ME (mushroomstudy@gmail.com). ALSO, SHOULD YOU DESIRE A
SUMMARY OF GROUP RESULTS YOU MAY CONTACT THIS RESEARCHER AND THE
SUMMARY WILL BE PROVIDED TO YOU UPON THE RESEARCHER'S COMPLETION OF
THE STUDY. (ALL CONTACT INFORMATION WILL BE USED ONLY TO RESPOND TO
ANY QUESTIONS, WILL BE KEPT SEPARATE FROM THE STUDY DATA, AND WILL BE
DESTROYED UPON COMPLETION OF THE STUDY)
I f you have any friends or acquaintances that you believe have taken psilocybin
mushrooms, I request that you copy this link and forward it to them
(www.mushroomstudy.com).