Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of domestic hot water consumption profiles for application in MARK

systems and buildings energy performance analysis
⁎
E. Fuentes , L. Arce, J. Salom
Catalonia Institute for Energy Research, IREC, Barcelona, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Domestic hot water usage (DHW) accounts for a significant share of energy consumption in different types of
Domestic hot water buildings. Achieving a detailed characterization of domestic hot water usage profiles is of great relevance, as this
User behaviour information will allow for a more reliable assessment of the energy efficiency of systems and buildings. A deeper
Energy efficiency knowledge of the features of demand profiles will allow for the design of innovative control strategies based on
consumption patterns. In this study, the authors review recent works on hot water consumption profiles in
different types of buildings and then synthesize available information for the accurate estimation of the energy
consumption resulting from DHW use. Water draw-off consumption patterns specified in national and
international technical standards are reviewed and influential parameters on water consumption are identified,
including climatic conditions, seasonality, building type and socio-economic factors. State-of-the-art modelling
tools for generating DHW usage profiles are summarised and new research lines are then proposed, taking into
account the caveats in the current characterization and modelling of DHW consumption in buildings.

1. Introduction
Hot water consumption, which results from catering and hygiene
practices in buildings, can represent a very large share of the total
building energy use, depending on climate, occupancy type and
building facilities. Domestic hot water production accounts for ap-
proximately 18% of total energy consumption in the residential sector
in the USA and 14% in the European Union [1]. Detailed characteriza-
tion of DHW streams in different type of buildings is of importance for
the efficient introduction of energy saving measures [2] and for the
appropriate design of hot water generation systems.
Diverse studies have revealed that the efficiency of energy produc-
tion equipment is influenced by the particular characteristics of DHW
consumption profiles. This is the case of solar energy systems, whose
energy performance has been found to be influenced by the magnitude
and timing of DHW extractions [3–6]. Dongellini et al. [5] conducted
simulations on the dynamic performance of solar thermal collectors in
order to analyse the influence of the solar collector design, storage
volume and DHW profiles on the solar coverage fraction. The authors
used different DHW profiles in which the consumption was evenly
distributed throughout the day, or concentrated in given periods during
the night and during the day. The results indicated that the annual and
monthly solar coverage factor was strongly influenced by the DHW
profile used, with differences up to 24% between values depending on
the tapping profile applied. Modelling of a gas-fired water storage tank
system by Wang et al. [7] showed that energy consumption was
underestimated by 8–15% depending on the water draw-off profile
adopted for the simulations. Furthermore, in an experimental work
with an air-to-water heat pump, a variation in the coefficient of
performance of 13% was found when using tapping profiles with
different timing and magnitude of draw events, while keeping a
constant daily consumption [8].
Simulation of solar systems performance has shown that realistic
energy consumption profiles are necessary for optimizing the design
and control operation of energy systems [9]. On the other hand,
realistic hot water demand patterns are needed in studies on retrofit
optimization analysis of water heaters, as the daily profile shape
influences the estimations of the energy reduction achieved by retro-
fitting [10]. Characterization of domestic hot water profiles would allow
for designing innovative control strategies for DHW systems based on
consumption patterns predictive analysis [11]. Tailored hot water
usage predictions and advanced control techniques could enable
electrical water heating devices to supply ancillary energy balancing
services by means of DHW demand side management strategies [12].
Notwithstanding the influence of the shape of DHW load profiles on
the output from energy studies, daily consumption patterns that are
adopted in many works are either based on synthetic profiles or taken
from reference technical standards. These profiles are generally

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: efuentes@irec.cat (E. Fuentes).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.229
Received 4 February 2017; Received in revised form 6 April 2017; Accepted 24 May 2017
Available online 08 June 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Fuentes et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547

Table 1
Summary of technical standards with relevant information for the design of DHW facilities, estimations of DHW energy and water demand and determination of mains water
temperature.

Technical Standard Zone Relevant information for DHW installations design

EN 806-3 [21] Europe This standard in conjunction with EN 806-1806-2806-4 and 806-5 provides guidelines for the design, installation, modification, maintenance
and operation of domestic water installation within premises. It specifies methods for the determination of pipe sizes which take into account
the available supply pressure, the elevation, the number of draw-off points and their required flow rates.
EN 15316 [22] Europe Methods for determining the domestic hot water volume requirements of a dwelling, a building or a zone of a building per day and per year. It
provides data on annual average mains water supply temperature for different European climates and locations
EN 12976-2 [23] Europe Design and dimensioning of solar thermal facilities for DHW applications. It provides a relationship for the annual estimation of the mains
water temperature following a sinusoidal function.
EN 12831-3 [37] Europe Method to calculate the power and the storage volume required for the dimensioning of domestic hot water systems (DHW). Calculation
method of the energy needs for DHW-Systems for residential and non-residential buildings or a zone of a building.
ASHRAE 90.2 [24] US Design and dimensioning of DHW systems in buildings. It provides a standard DHW draw profile for residential buildings.
EVS 835:2003 [25] Estonia Guidelines for estimation of domestic water installations design values for Estonian buildings.
DTU 60.11 [26] France Rules for calculating the facilities and conditions applicable to the design of sanitary water distribution systems.
AICVF [27] France Guidelines about dimensioning sanitary water facilities. Annual estimations of DHW energy consumption for different buildings. Equation for
cold water temperature calculation for French cities. Estimations of water consumption for different type of buildings.
DIN 1988-3 ([28]) Germany Guidelines for the dimensioning of drinking water installations. It provides design water flow rates for particular end-use apparatus.
VDI 4655 [29] Germany Guideline that supplies reference DHW load profiles as a basis and tool for the design of combined heat and power systems in residential
buildings. It covers single-family houses for up to 12 occupants and multi-family houses with up to 40 flats.
UNE 94002 [30] Spain Design and dimensioning of solar thermal facilities for DHW applications. It provides equations for the monthly estimation of the DHW energy
demand as a function of the occupancy, data of average DHW consumption per person and day for different buildings and monthly average
mains water temperature data
CTE DB HE4 [31] Spain Technical guideline for the design and installation of DHW solar thermal facilities in buildings
BS 6700 [32] UK Design, installation and maintenance of services supplying water for domestic use within buildings

identical for each day of the year, and therefore neglect the influence of
climate conditions or other influential parameters such as the day of
the week and the season [13,14]. Alternatively to using synthetic daily
profiles, some research has been done to obtain more realistic domestic
hot water profiles based on probability methods [15,16]. These
methods consist of the creation of consumption profiles from the
stochastic estimation of water extraction events' occurrence and
duration.
The latest review on hot water consumption profiles in the
residential sector was performed by Becker and Stogsdill [17] who
built a database from a series of studies conducted in Canada and the
USA from the late 1970s to the mid-1980s. However, the data from this
research may be obsolete with respect to current usage profiles due to
the introduction of more efficient apparatus that require less DHW
consumption [18] and the incentive, by regulations and technical
standards, to implement more efficient appliances since the study by
Becker and Stogsdill [17]. On the other hand, in the last decade
governments have implemented education policies programs to engage
the public and encourage users towards a more sustainable behaviour
for energy and water usage. It is therefore expected that DHW profiles
have also changed substantially in the last decades as a result of user
behaviour. Indeed, recent analysis of domestic hot water profiles by
Edwards et al. [19] has shown that daily hot water consumption in
Canadian dwellings is currently 26% lower than in the database report
by Becker and Stogsdill [17]. The main reasons for a reduction in the
domestic hot water consumption, occurring in recent decades, are
related to the installation of metering units in buildings, the increased
cost of water and heat, the extensive renovation of domestic hot water
production and distribution systems and the use of modern appliances
[20].
Within this context, there is a need for an updated review study on
the characteristics of DHW consumption patterns that are representa-
tive of current usage profiles as well as on the state-of-the-art tools and
technical information available to generate DHW profiles that can be
used in energy performance analysis. Furthermore, no previous review
studies have considered the analysis of hot water consumption in
building types other than residential. In order to fill this gap, the
present study provides a review on most recent studies characterising
hot water consumption patterns for different type of buildings. In
particular, the review performed in the present study aims at addres-
sing the following aspects: (1) providing information on the current
approaches based on international standards that are of potential use
in research studies on DHW consumption, with identification of the
limitations of these methods (2) analysing and assessing the existing
methodologies for estimating the mains water temperature and hot
delivered water in DHW systems (3) identifying the characteristics of
DHW consumption profiles, including timing and duration of water
usage events in different type of buildings (4) conducting an analysis of
the main technical and socio-economical factors affecting the shape of
DHW consumption profiles in buildings (5) evaluating and summaris-
ing the main modelling techniques existing in the literature for DHW
consumption profiles in buildings (6) identifying caveats and research
lines to improve the state-of-the-art on the research field of DHW
consumption in buildings. In order to address the above points the
present study includes a comparison of consumption patterns defined
in national and international technical standards and field studies as
well as a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the most influential
factors determining DHW usage, including climatological, seasonal,
and socio-cultural factors. State-of-the-art modelling approaches for
generating domestic hot water profiles are summarised, and recom-
mendations for research areas are given, considering the caveats found
in this research field. This is the first comprehensive review on hot
water consumption load profiles published since the previous study by
Becker and Stogsdill [17] that dates from 1990. The present paper
comprises a wide compilation of recent studies, standards and tools
regarding the characterization and modelling of DHW consumption
profiles that will be of significant value for researchers and engineers
who require a methodology to estimate, improve and optimize the
energy efficiency of buildings and related systems.
2. DHW consumption in technical standards
There are three focus areas in technical standards that are useful for
obtaining information required for the estimation of the DHW water
volume and energy consumption in buildings: 1) standards with
guidelines for DHW distribution systems' dimensioning, 2) standards
for DHW energy systems design and 3) technical standards to test the
performance of heating devices.
Technical standards with guidelines for designing DHW distribu-
tion systems usually provide information on the nominal consumption
flow rates of end-use devices, daily water consumption estimations per
person for different type of buildings and reference values for sizing

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E. Fuentes et al.
Fig. 1. Comparison of end-use design flow rates in several national standards in Europe
and according to the EC standard EN16147 [33]. For the EN16147 case, tempered end-
use flow rates at 45 °C are calculated from the nominal untempered flow rates specified
in the standard at 60 °C and a mains temperature of 10 °C. The domestic dish washer and
washing machine are assumed to be untempered extractions.
domestic hot water distribution systems. Table 1 summarizes some of
the available national standards in Europe and USA that provide
guidelines for the dimensioning and design of DHW installations. Most
of these standards give information on end-use device flow rates and
guidelines for sizing drinking and hot water installations. Along with
national guidelines for distribution systems' dimensioning, interna-
tional bodies such the European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
provides technical standards with information of end-use devices flow
rates that can be applied for the simple dimensioning of domestic hot
water distribution systems. The standard EN 806-3 [21] from CEN, in
conjunction with EN 806-1806-2806-4 and 806-5, is applied for the
design, installation, modification, maintenance and operation of do-
mestic water installations within building premises. This standard
describes a calculation method for the dimensioning of pipes taking
into account the available supply pressure, the elevation, the number of
draw-off points, the required flow rates and the pipe routing. In
countries like Belgium, where a particular national standard is not
available, this CEN standard is applied for the dimensioning of water
distribution systems [35].
A second group of standards provide equations for the estimation of
overall values of DHW energy demand in buildings. Such is the case of
the Spanish standard UNE 94002 [30], which provides an equation for
the calculation of the DHW monthly energy demand as a function of
the number of occupants, the average consumption of hot water per
person, the number of days of the month and the hot and mains water
temperature. The standard UNE 94002, which is applied for the design
of solar thermal facilities, provides reference values of daily water
volume consumption per day per person in different type of buildings.
The standard also provides average cold water reference values for the
main cities in Spain and an equation to estimate the average cold water
temperature. According to the European standard EN 12976-2 [23] the
temperature of the mains water can be computed using an equation
based on a sinusoidal function. The function assumes a constant
amplitude value for the annual distribution of the cold temperature
and is based on the average annual mains water temperature and a
phase lag coefficient that depends on the location.
A third group of technical standards provides guidelines for testing
the performance of water heaters in laboratories. These standards give
information on typical daily profiles for domestic hot water consump-
tion. Among these, the European Commission Directive regulation
814/2013 [36] proposes several daily hot water tapping patterns for
testing and rating water heaters, hot water storage tanks and packages
of water heater and solar devices. In this EC regulation several types of
consumption patterns are presented for different total consumption
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547
values, ranging from 0.345 kWh/day (cycle 3XS) to 92.5 kWh/day
(cycle 4XL) for the lowest and highest daily consumption profiles,
respectively. For each draw a water flow rate value is assigned with
nominal value between 2 and 96 lpm, depending on the type of
extraction. A recent EU review on water heaters [34] evaluates the
requirements for energy efficiency of different water heater types,
technological alternatives of water heaters and their combinations with
tapping profiles XXL, 3XL and 4XL, along with their purchasing an
installation costs, taking into account different electricity prices and
regional differences. The standard EN 12831-3 [37] proposes a method
to calculate the power and the storage volume required in DHW
systems. The method is based on a comparison of particular curves of
energy needs for hot water and the energy supply from the DHW
system as a function of time. The calculation of the energy needs for
domestic hot water based in this standard are based on tapping
programs as those in the Directive 814/2013 ([36], defined with hourly
values of the relative hot-water demand based on volume. In the
standard the hourly values can be further corrected depending on the
building type (dwelling, students residence, elderly residence, hospi-
tal).
The standard EN 13203-2 [38] establishes a method for assessing
the energy performance of gas appliances and it defines a number of
daily tapping cycles for each domestic hot water use, kitchen, shower,
bath and a combination of them, along with corresponding test
procedures. The European standard EN16147 [33] for testing and
rating the energy efficiency of heat pumps coupled with storage tanks
adopts an analogous approach to the tapping method described in the
EC 814/2013 regulation. The EN16147 standard includes five different
tapping profiles (XS, S, M, L and XL) with nominal water flows between
4 and 10 lpm for four end-use extractions types. The profiles in this
standard are used to simulate the integration of diverse DHW energy
systems such as hybrid photovoltaic/solar thermal collectors ([39].
Fig. 1 compares the end-use design flow rates for domestic water
installations in several national standards in Europe, along with
calculated end-use flow rates according to specifications in the
EN16147 standard [33]. In general, the comparison indicates some
variability in the design water consumption values between standards,
particularly for showers, baths and kitchen sink. Although there is no
explicit indication in the national standards of the information source
used to define the design values, it is expected that technological
differences between countries will affect the design consumption levels.
Comparison of design flow rates in standards with real consumption
levels indicates that guidelines tend to overestimate design flow rate
values. This is the case in Belgium, where comparison of peak flow
rates in apartment buildings has shown that the calculated DHW
design flow rates obtained with the European standard EN 806-3 and
the German and Dutch standards guidelines are systematically higher
than measured flow rates [35]. Flow rates in such technical standards
are overestimated by a factor of at least 2, and even up to 3 with respect
to real peak values (Fig. 2).
Estimations of water consumption by standards also neglect the
influence of particular factors affecting water consumption, such as
occupancy. As an example, in Canada the daily standard of 60 liters/
day per person is found to be accurate for households of 4 or more
occupants, but significantly underestimates hot-water consumption per
capita for households with 3 or fewer occupants [40]. There are few
monitorization studies in the that collect information on hot water
usage in different buildings, therefore it is unclear whether current
technical standards are outdated or not properly defined to represent
actual consumption.
Countries like US, Canada and Japan propose standards for testing
water heaters that include test procedures and DHW tapping schedules
(Table 2). The US standard CFR-430 ([41]) proposes a tapping profile
that consist of 6 equal draw-offs of 40.6 L each at 1 h intervals and a
total daily extraction of 243.4 litres. The Japanese standard JIS C
9220:2011 [42] is to be applied for water heaters primarily in
E. Fuentes et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547

Furthermore, this profile is representative of families of two adults

Fig. 2. Comparison of calculated DHW design flow rates according to technical
standards and peak flow rates measured in an apartment building in Brussels [35].
residential buildings. The test consist of a series of 24 h DHW draw-off
cycles with 31–51 individual extractions which are specified for two
type of dwellings, a standard house (456 litres total daily consumption
at 40 °C supply temperature) and small house (278 litres total daily
consumption at 40 °C supply temperature). The test also considers the
seasonal influence by defining a specific pattern for summer, inter-
mediate and winter conditions. The volume drawn-off is the same in
each seasonal test but the cold water supply temperatures is changed.
The standard from Australia and New Zealand comprises three types of
schedule and two cold water temperature settings for four different
climatic conditions (TC1 to TC4). The energy consumption profiles
specified in some of these standards, such as the Australian AS/NZS
4234, are recently applied in lifecycle analysis studies of domestic hot
water systems [43] that investigate the global warming potential and
primary energy demand for such systems.
In the USA, the ASHRAE standardization body defines two
residential water tapping daily profiles, one given in the ASHRAE
HVAC Applications Handbook [44] and a second one included in the
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 90.2 [24]. The validity of these profiles is
however limited, since the source data in the ASHRAE Handbook was
obtained exclusively from Canadian residences in the 80s [45].
and two children in a residence with a washing machine and a dish
washer, which may be inconsistent with current US demographic
patterns [46]. Although the source of the ASHRAE Standard 90.2
residential draw profile is not known, its profile is found to match the
average profile obtained from the largest survey study of US hot water
use data sets [17] and also to the profile obtained from monitored data
from 170 Florida homes by Bouchelle et al. [47].
The Building America Research Benchmark by the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is a defining standard for a
residential dwelling that is to be used as a reference for tracking
progress towards energy savings targets. The Building America House
Simulation Protocols document, which includes specifications to facil-
itate accurate and consistent analysis of new and existing residential
buildings provides specifications for the construction of DHW profiles
based on individual tapping profiles for single end-use activities.
Within the benchmark, normalized consumption profiles are provided
for total consumption, dish washers, clothes washers, baths, showers,
and sink events. Profiles for clothes washer and dishwasher are based
on the electrical end use measurements in different campaign pro-
grams conducted in the Pacific Northwest while the shower, bath, and
sink profiles were taken from a survey by Aquacraft for the American
Water Works Association [48].
The US Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC) provides
an hourly based domestic hot water consumption profile that is used
for testing the performance of solar thermal systems according to the
SRCC OG-300 certification program [49]. The program applies com-
puter modelling, using the software TRNSYS, to provide performance
ratings for complete solar thermal systems. The draw profile applied for
the simulations in the current OG-300 standard has been assessed and
revised by several authors to improve performance estimations with
respect to real conditions [46,50].
The TESS libraries, created for the building simulation environ-
ment TRNSYS [51], include several components to simulate the daily
domestic hot water consumption profiles with timesteps lower than an
hour based on different technical standards. These libraries include
hourly consumption profiles for a typical day based on the ASHRAE

Table 2
DHW draw-off daily schedules as defined in different international standards for testing and rating water heaters. In the Japanese standard the numbers in brackets represents the
additional events associated with a heat exchange facility to reheat bath water. TC=test conditions with specific air temperature and humidity. Three to four test conditions (TC) are
defined in JIS C 9220:2011 and AS/NZS 4234 standards. Std=standard.

Standard Schedule types Number of draws Daily load Average Cold water temp. Hot water temp.
(kWh/day) (MJ/draw) (°C) (°C)

Europe
EN 16147:2011 S 11 2.10 0.69 10 °C ± 0.20 °C 55 °C
M 23 5.85 0.92
L 24 11.66 1.75
XL 30 19.07 2.29
XXL 30 24.53 2.92

Australia and NZ
AS/NZS 4234 1 8 6.25 to 15.8 Varies with season TC1 < 10 °C Maximum
TC2 < 15 °C
TC3, TC4 < 25 °C

Canada
CSA C74503:2003 Standard 6 12.1 7.28 14.4 °C ± 1 °C 57.3 °C

Japan
JIS C 9220:2011 Std Winter 51(56) 16.276 1.149 TC1: 17 ± 2 °C ≤65 °C
Std intermediate 51(56) 12.076 0.852 TC2: 24 ± 2 °C
Std Summer 51(56) 8.401 0.593 TC3: 9 ± 2 °C
Small Winter 31(34) 9.927 1.153
Small Intermediate 31(34) 7.365 0.855
Small Summer 31(34) 5.124 0.595

USA
CFR-430 Standard 6 12.1 7.28 14.4 °C ± 1 °C 57.3 °C ± 3 °C

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E. Fuentes et al.
Standard 90.2 [24], the normalized Building America Benchmark [48],
the SCCR testing standard profile [49] and a morning weighted
consumption profile. The limitations of using a typical daily water
consumption profile as defined in technical standards is that the
consumption is considered identical for every day of the year, thus
the influence of the weather conditions on the mains water temperature
and the effects of seasonality on consumption are neglected. In the next
section, typical values for delivered and end-use hot water tempera-
tures are reviewed and approaches to account for the seasonality of the
mains water temperature are discussed.
3. Delivery, end-use hot water and mains water
temperatures
Accurate estimation of delivered and mains water temperatures is
important as their difference correlates with the water heating energy.
Two types of DHW extractions are generally considered depending on
the final end-use: tempered and untempered [50]. The untempered
draws are those that are drawn directly without mixing with cold water,
such as hot water use in dishwashers and washing machines. In
contrast, tempered draws are the result of mixing the hot water supply
with cold water to reach comfortable end-use temperature for direct
use by users (eg. draws in sinks, baths and showers). Measurements of
end-use hot water temperatures for tempered draws show that they
usually range between 40 and 45 °C [50,52]. On the other hand,
untempered delivered hot water temperatures between 55 °C and 60
°C are frequently adopted in research studies and technical standards
for the calculation of the energy consumption [33,40]. However, recent
measurements of DHW draw extractions in Canadian dwellings
indicate that delivery temperature values usually range between
50 °C and 55 °C, with a mean of 51.8 °C for electrical water heaters,
which is less than the widely assumed mean value of 55–60 °C for
DHW production [52]. Analogously, in the field study conducted on
112 residential UK buildings by Defra (UK Department for
Environment Food and Rural Affairs) [53] the untempered hot water
delivery temperature presented a mean value of 52.9 °C for boilers and
49.5 °C for combi-boilers. Because technical standards applied to rate
the performance of water heaters and estimate DHW demand in
buildings assume higher delivery temperatures [36], these standards
may overestimate the energy use for hot water production when
applied to instantaneous heaters. In the case that water storage tanks
are installed, production temperatures of 60 °C are required to control
the growth of legionella bacteria in the water supply. This is particu-
larly important for DHW facilities that consist of heat pumps and solar
collectors provided with storage tanks and recirculation systems [54].
The mains cold water temperature is greatly influenced by the
outdoor and ground temperatures; hence it will be affected by the
climate and time of the year. Due to its dependence on the ambient
conditions, the mains water temperature presents a sinusoidal shape
throughout the year, with a maximum in the summer time and a
minimum in the winter [6]. The mains water is usually at a lower
temperature than the ambient room temperature inside buildings.
Therefore, at every DHW draw the cold water inlet temperature will
drop as the colder mains water circulate through the pipes, while it will
tend to the ambient room temperature at zero flow. Due to the
preheating of the cold water in the inlet line as a result of heat transfer
with the inside environment of a building, the actual inlet temperature
at the beginning of a water draw event may be more than 2 °C above
the distribution system water temperature [52]. The temperature of the
inlet water will be affected by the volume of the indoor supply line, and
the temperature to which the water is heated depends on the extraction
duration. Abrams and Shedd [55] analysed the dependence of the
mains water temperature on factors such as the outdoor and ground
temperatures and proposed an equation to model the mains water
temperature as a function of the external ambient temperature condi-
tions, based on data for multiple locations in the US. This function has
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547
the shape of a sinusoidal curve, whose amplitude is related to the
maximum difference of the average ambient temperatures between the
coldest and the warmest month of the year and is given by the following
expression [6]:
RΔTamb, max
Tmains = Tamb, ann + ΔToffs + sin(ωt − ϕ)
2 (1)
R = a + b (Tamb, ann − c ) (2)
ϕ = c − d (Tamb, ann − e) (3)
where Tamb, ann is the annual average temperature in °F, ΔTamb, max is
maximum difference between monthly average air temperatures in
°F, ΔToffs is a constant value for the average offset between the ambient
temperature and the mains water temperature and R and ϕ are
parameters related to the geometry and depth at which pipes are
buried. These two latter parameters are calculated with Eqs. (2) and
(3), that depend on the annual ambient temperature [6,55]. The
coefficients of the linear equations for R and ϕ have been empirically
determined using measurements of mains water temperature from
nine different areas in the US [6]. Although these coefficient values are
generally adopted in other studies [16], it is unclear whether these
values are valid for locations and geometries different from the original
study by Burch and Christensen [6]. Measurements at different
locations indicate that the water mains temperature is highly variable
across the distribution system, due to significant effects of geometry
and ground interaction. Hence, the function proposed by Burch and
Christensen [6] only represents an average across the water network, as
for any individual home, the mains water temperature may differ from
the estimations by the equation by up to ± 15 °C.
The equation by Burch and Christensen [6] has been applied in the
present study for the Barcelona climate (Spain) (ambient temperature
obtained from Meteonorm database), as shown in Fig. 3, using the
parameters values from Hendron et al. [56]. In this figure the output
from the same equation has been added as obtained with the software
Trnsys [51] along with the monthly average values of mains water
temperature for Barcelona, as specified in the technical standard UNE
94002 [30]. The monthly data from the standard indicates mains water
temperatures lower than the outdoor temperatures for the whole year.
However, the mains water is closer to the outdoor air temperature in
the cold months, while the difference between the mains and the
external temperatures is significantly larger in the warm periods. The
equation by Burch and Christensen [6] overpredicts the mains water
temperature with respect to the reference values from the standard
Fig. 3. Seasonal variation of the mains cold temperature for Barcelona climate obtained
from Eqs (1) and (4) using coefficients given by Hendron et al. [56], Burch and
Christensen [6] and Wong and Mui [57]. Data on monthly average mains cold water
temperature for Barcelona from the standard UNE EN 94002 has been added to the plot.
E. Fuentes et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547

(cases Hendron et al. [56] and Burch and Christensen [6] (TRNSYS) in such as Trnsys [51], EnergyPlus [61] (both based on equation by Burch
Fig. 3). It is concluded that this is due to the fact that the parameters and Christensen [6]) and TRANSOL [62] (based on the French and
originally used by these authors are not valid for all climate conditions. Spanish EN 12976-2 standards); however, these methods should be
Fig. 3 shows the output from Burch and Christensen [6] equation, after applied with caution considering the limitations discussed above.
adaptation, by modifying the offset and the amplitude of the sinusoidal
function, to match the reference mains temperature values provided by 4. DHW consumption and profiles in different building types
the technical standard.
Analysis of monitored data recorded in a study in Hong Kong has 4.1. Residential buildings
shown that the measured mains water temperature was higher than the
outdoor air dry-bulb temperature at external temperatures ≤27 °C but Domestic hot water (DHW) accounts for about 20% of the total
was lower than the outdoor temperature for external temperatures primary energy-consumption by housing [63]. Hot water daily use in
≥28 °C [57]. Based on these monitored data a function has been residential buildings has been widely investigated and characterised in
formulated between the outdoor and the mains temperatures that is many research studies. Daily domestic hot water patterns present
given by [57]: typically two main consumption peaks that occur in the morning and
0.29 the evening, and less frequently, a peak in the afternoon [46]. This
Tmains = 10.4Tamb (4) shape results from water demand being generally more intensive in the
mornings, when people wake up, when they return home from work or
where Tmains is the mains temperature in °C and Tamb is the outdoor
school in the afternoons, and before they go to sleep in the evenings
temperature in °C. This expression is derived from measurements in
than for other times of the day.
Hong Kong and is valid for outdoor temperatures between 13 and
Domestic hot water profiles in homes typically exhibits a mixture of
28 °C. This equation (represented in Fig. 3) yields mains temperatures
random and patterned draw events, with use clustered around house-
that follow closely the outdoor temperatures and significantly deviates
hold specific times for daily activities. Most draws by number in homes
from the data of the reference standard when applied for the Barcelona
are sink draws, and events occur frequently together in time [16].
climate.
Regarding duration, the longest extractions are associated with
Similarly to the approach by Burch and Christensen [6], the
showers and baths occurring in the morning and evening, while the
standard EN 12976-2 [23] provides a sinusoidal equation to estimate
most frequent group of draw events with duration of 2–3 min can
the mains water temperature over the year. However, the comparison
comprise 30% of all extractions [53]. In the US, the average duration of
of real measurements with the output from this equation indicates that
shower events has been found to have an average duration of 8.2 min
the mains temperature predicted by the standard are about 5 °C lower
for single-family homes, with an average of 1.5–2 showers per day
than temperatures measured at points of water collective distribution
[64,16]. Monitored data in Australia indicates an influence of the
in several buildings in France [58].
weather conditions on water draw durations, with 1–1.5 min longer
Another method to determine the mains water supply temperature
showers in the winter with respect to the summer season, while
is based on the soil temperature models or measured soil temperatures
summer hot weather may increase shower frequency [65]. Regarding
at certain depths. Meyer [59] assumed the temperature of the mains
the distribution of water use with respect to appliances, almost 70% of
water to be equal to the soil temperature at 300 mm depth, however it
the total hot water volume extracted has been found to be used in baths
is unclear whether this is a valid approximation in all climate
and showers, followed by bathroom basin and kitchen sink in field
conditions. Blokker and Pieterse-Quirijns [60] developed a model for
studies in the UK [53]. According to the report by Harvey [66] in US
calculating the mains water temperatures, taking into account the
homes 51% of total hot water consumption is used for showers, 23% for
influence of the micro-meteorology on the soil temperatures at
baths, 10% for dishwashers and 16% by washing machines.
different depths. Comparison of mains water temperature measure-
Field monitored data in the US and Europe have been used to
ments over 2 months at specific locations in the Netherlands shows
determine the main characteristics of water draw events in residential
that the mains water temperature approaches the soil temperature with
buildings. Table 3, 4 summarize the characteristics of end-use water
a rate that depends on the water flow velocity and heat conductivity
extraction events as determined from data collected from several field
[60]. In this latter study in the Netherlands, the deviation found
research studies on DHW consumption patterns in Switzerland and
between prediction of soil temperatures at −1 m depth and mains
Germany [15] and from approximately 1200 households by the American
water temperature in the basement of a building was between 0.6 and
Water Works Association (AWWA) in the USA [16,64], respectively.
1.5 °C. Beyond these findings, however, it is necessary to investigate
Volumetric flow data for DHW consumption in residential and lodging
whether this close relationship between ground and mains water
buildings in European countries, (namely, Estonia, Denmark, Germany,
temperature applies in other periods of the year and climates.
Sweden, Netherlands, Austria, and Spain) are summarised in a recent study
Furthermore, comparison of mains water temperatures in locations
by Bertrand et al. [2]. According to such study the flow rates for bathroom
with similar climates indicates differences that are attributed to
sink, kitchen sink, shower and bathtub are respectively between
differing distribution system configurations and lengths [58].
0.03 − 0.1 l/s, 0.08 − 0.2 l/s, 0.13 − 0.58 l/s and 0.11 − 0.3 l/s.
Therefore, the influence of these factors is to be further investigated
The collection of water consumption measurements in field studies
in order to more accurately estimate the mains water temperature.
has allowed the creation of databases of domestic hot water usage for
A simplified approach for modelling the yearly variation of the
mains water temperature consists of using monthly average mains
Table 3
water temperature values recorded in technical standards. The Spanish Characteristics of end-use water draw events in an European household with water daily
standard UNE EN94002 [30] provides data of monthly average mains consumption of 200 l/day at 45 °C delivery temperature ([15]). Volume and flow rate are
temperature for geographical areas across Spain that can be applied for given for DHW delivered at 45 °C. Events per day for clothes and dish washer are
energy consumption calculations. However, the significance of using normalized for a water consumption of 6 L per water load.

more or less complex approaches to model the mains water tempera- Parameter Dish/cloth. wash. Shower Bath Sink
ture has not been investigated, therefore further research is needed to
assess whether simplified methods provide a sufficiently good approx- DHW vol/day(l) 72 80 20 28
imation for calculating DHW energy consumption. Flow rate (lpm) 6 8.0 14 1
Duration (min) 1 5 10 1
Some of the approaches for mains water temperature estimation
Events per day 12 2 0.14 28
described above are implemented in building simulation software tools

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Table 4
Average characteristics of end-use water draw events in a US household with total water
daily consumption (hot and cold) of 300 L/day [16]. Volume and flow rate are for total
water consumption (hot and cold). Events per day for clothes and dish washer are
normalized for a water consumption of 6 L per water load.

Parameter Cloth. Dish wash. Shower Bath Sink

Total vol./day (L) 57 19 105 26 95

Flow rate (lpm) 5.3 4.0 8.0 16.0 2.7
Duration (min) 3.1 1.53 7.8 5.7 0.6
Events per day 9.5 3.16 1.7 0.3 32.9

dwellings. Becker and Stogsdill [17] conducted a review of previous

field studies on DHW consumption and built a database of measure-
ments from five studies from late 1970s to mid-1980s, conducted in
Fig. 4. Comparison of residential average daily DHW consumption profiles in different
Canada and the USA, including field measurements from Perlman and
countries and the EC Directive tapping cycle [67].
Mills [45]. The validity of these profiles to represent typical residential
patterns in the US was evaluated in the study by Fairey and Parker
morning and evening peaks typical of households (Fig. 4). Differences
[46], which revealed that profiles derived from monitored data from
in the magnitude of the peaks across the considered countries are due
Perlman and Mills [45] from Canadian four-person households is not
to the diverse weather conditions and cultural habits. Inter-comparison
consistent with current U.S. demographic patterns [46]. According to
of normalized water consumption profiles in Fig. 4, confirms that the
such study hot water draw profiles for US households is best
morning peak usually comprises from 10% to 20% of the daily total
reproduced by the average pattern given in the ASHRAE Standard
water volume consumption in residential dwellings, while the evening
90.2 [24] and the profile obtained from the field study by Becker and
peak is frequently lower (but for the case of Finland) and includes
Stogsdill [17], which is based on a large compilation of residential
around 7.5% of the total daily water consumption. The occurrence of
building data in the USA [46]. However, because these profiles were
the morning peak is usually from 6:00 to 9:00, while the evening peak
derived from data collected several decades ago, they may no longer
is frequently detected from 18:00 to 21:00. The width of the evening
reflect current consumption patterns. Indeed, recent work by Edwards
consumption peak, however, points at a great variability across
et al. [19] has shown that the current daily consumption is 26% lower
different countries. Although field studies allow to determine average
in Canadian dwellings with respect to the study by Becker and Stogsdill
consumption profiles for households in different countries, it should be
[17]. Furthermore, in early studies the households daily profile
taken into account that cultural habits, weather conditions and the
exhibited consumption peaks either in the morning or in the evening,
particular characteristics (e.g. work patterns) of their occupants are a
while current profiles in Canada show more variability, with a quarter
significant source of variability that will eventually determine the
of residences presenting predominant morning consumption while a
features of the DHW consumption profile.
third of them exhibit a predominant evening consumption peak [19].
Inefficient use of hot water as a result of inadequate distribution
Investigation conducted in 2008 within the Annex 42 by the
systems can represent a significant energy loss in dwellings, where 20–
International Energy Agency (IEA) [67] provided information on
40% of the total DHW energy use is estimated to be wasted [68,69].
typical domestic hot water consumption patterns in residential build-
The source of these losses are wasted heat as water cools down in the
ings for different European countries, USA and Canada (Table 5).
distribution system after a draw event and the energy needed to reheat
Results of the report from this study are based on DHW dataset
water that was already heated once before in the previous draw. The
measurements from Germany, Switzerland, Finland, US, Canada,
amount of wasted hot water has been estimated to be 41.3 l per day in
Portugal, UK and Belgium that were collected with sampling frequen-
single-family residential buildings with an average daily hot water
cies from 1.5 min to 1 h ([67]). Analysis of DHW consumption for
consumption of 199 l/day [68]. Further experiments on shower events
European countries yielded an average daily usage of 100–120 l/day of
have revealed that the energy loss can represent an average of 41.1% of
hot water for a temperature lift of 45 °C in dwellings with 100 m2 area.
the energy consumed per shower [69]. Although further studies should
Average DHW water volume consumption profiles derived in Annex 42
be performed to contrast and improve the reliability of these results,
for Europe, US and Canada were found to often exhibit the typical
important energy savings would be possible if losses were minimised by
implementing more appropriate DHW distribution system designs.
Table 5 Simulations aiming at estimating the energy consumption resulting
Daily hot water consumption per household and occupant by country according to the
from DHW use in residential buildings should, in any case, account for
report from Annex 42 [67]. The daily energy consumption is calculated on the base of a
45 °C temperature rise for an average household of 2.5 occupants. these losses.

Country Daily DHW Daily DHW Daily DHW energy

consumption per consumption per usage per 4.2. Hotels and lodging buildings
household occupant household*
(l/day) (l/occupant.day) kWh/day
Hot water usage is the second largest energy consumer in hotels,
Canada 236–303 94 12.3 after space conditioning, accounting for 10–40% of the total energy
USA 202–250 40 5.22 used [70–72]. Water heating in hotels is necessary to supply hot water
Switzerland 138 55 at a 50 °C rise 7.18 to guests rooms and to the hotel laundry and catering services [73].
Finland 135 43 5.61
UK 102–117 20–39 3.85
Factors that affect DHW consumption in hotels include the number
Germany 160 64 8.36 and type of facilities (restaurant, kitchen, launderette, swimming pool,
France 1.74 per m2 (at a 69.6 9.1 gym), meal services offered, fluctuation in occupancy levels and culture
30 °C rise) and awareness of water and energy consumption among staff and
Spain 75 30 (at 60 °C) 3.92
guests.
Portugal 100 (at a 45 °C rise) 40 5.23
(apartments) Studies on European hotels have estimated a saving potential of
40–70% regarding DHW energy use [70]. Among the measures

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E. Fuentes et al.
proposed to reduce the energy consumption for producing hot water
are the improvement in the efficiency of equipment and control and the
implementation of solar thermal facilities [71]. Regional and national
programs are being implemented in different countries to enhance
energy efficiency in hotels, particularly in areas with important tourist
activity. This is the case of regional programs implemented in
Mediterranean coastal areas of Spain, which propose among potential
measures the replacement of equipment by boilers of higher energy
efficiency, the improvement in the distribution systems insulation and
the installation of renewable energy and heat recovery systems [74].
The application of some of these measures can lead to substantial
energy savings. As an example, the installation of a renewable solar
thermal facility in a hotel of 400 rooms in the Balearic Islands in Spain
can cover an average 78% of the total energy needed to produce hot
water in a year [71]. According to several studies performed in
Southern Europe, a hotel is considered energetically efficient with
respect to the production of DHW if the associated energy use is below
220 kWh/m2 per year in hotels with more than 150 rooms, below 220
kWh/m2 per year in hotels with 50–150 rooms and below 120 kWh/m2
per year in small hotels with less than 50 rooms [74,75].
The daily total and hot water volume consumption per guest or per
room in hotels is highly variable across different hotels and countries, as
summarised in Table 6. Although several studies report the total water
consumption in hotels there is limited information available on the specific
hot water usage. The reviewed studies that account for the hot water
consumption establish a hot water usage that is 25–50% of the daily total
water consumed per guest. In most cases the climate, hotel category,
number of rooms, hotel facilities and occupancy are found to be significant
factors influencing the total water usage in hotels. A higher water
consumption has been found in luxury hotels with respect to lower
categories, with a dependence on the hotel size, the occupancy and the
number of services of the restaurant [72]. Evidence of a higher consump-
tion level is found for European luxury hotels with total water consumption
of 215 and 515 l/person per day, respectively [72]. A comprehensive study
by Hamele and Eckard [80], based on 119 hotels in different countries of
the European Union points at an average daily water consumption of 231 l/
guest. A key factor determining water consumption in hotels is the presence
of a hotel laundry, since a water volume share above 40% can be used in
this facility [73], with the remaining consumption distributed between the
guests use (30%) and the kitchen (22%). On the other hand, hotels without
a laundry service have been shown to consume 55% of the total water
volume in the kitchen and 44% by the guests' rooms [73]. Because of the
increasing trend in hotels to be provided with an external laundry service,
in most cases water consumption will be mainly due to guests use and
kitchen services.
Analysis of total water end use in Spanish hotels by Cobacho et al.
[81] indicate a distribution of total water volume usage of 45% in
washbasin, 33% in showers and 22% in toilets. The greatest consump-
tion of hot water is due to washbasins (58%), followed by showers
(42%), while cold water is used in washbasins (38%), toilets (35%) and
showers (27%) [81]. The season and weekday have been found to be
Table 6
Average daily total water volume and hot water fraction in hotels according to different studies worldwide.
Reference Lodging type
Despretz [76] 2–5 stars hotels, Germany
Charara et al. [77] 21 hotels with >20 rooms, Barbados
Barbern et al. [78] 4 star retrofitted hotel, Zaragoza, Spain
Bohdanowicz and Martinac [72] 184 luxury hotels, Europe
Meade and del Monaco [79] 215 room hotel, Jamaica
Hamele and Eckard [80] 119 of 2–5 stars hotels, Europe
Cobacho et al. [81] Hotel, Spain
Murakawa et al. [82] 225 rooms city hotel, Kyoto, Japan
Urban [83] 2 mid-priced hotels, California, US
Tortella and Tirado [84] 1 to 5 stars hotel, Mallorca, Spain
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key factors determining DHW consumption in hotels in several studies.
As an example, hourly domestic hot water consumption measurements
in Norwegian hotels show a dominant consumption peak in the early
morning around 8 am during weekdays; this is delayed about an hour
at weekends [85]. Regarding the seasonal influence, Rankin and
Rousseau [86] found that the water consumption is 30–40% higher
in summer in hotels in South Africa. Similarly, water consumption in
Barbados hotels has been found to be higher in July and August [77].
Only a few studies analyse the shape of typical DHW tapping
profiles in hotels. Thrasher and DeWerth [87] analysed the daily
tapping profile of a 300 rooms hotel building in the USA provided
with laundry service, sauna and swimming pool with a daily DHW
consumption of 170 l per occupied room. The hotel profiles presented
steady hot water consumption throughout the day and a significant
spike only at midday and in the evening. In contrast to this early study,
the average daily hot water use profiles for two Californian hotels
analysed by Urban [83] showed demand peaks in the morning and the
evening, which were associated with shower events, while in between
these two peaks there was a steady background water consumption
resulting from the launderette service. Similarly, the hot water
consumption profile in a 3 stars hotel in Senegal has been found to
present even peaks in the early morning and the evening [88].
However, important variations are found depending on the hotel
locations, as shown in the field study of 4 hotels in South Africa that
reveals dominant hot water draw-off peaks in the morning and midday
with negligible evening demand [86].
Murakawa et al. [82] conducted a detailed monitoring study on the
cold and hot water consumption of three rooms of a 225 guestrooms
hotel in Kyoto, Japan. The authors analysed the frequency of fixture
usage, duration time of pouring water and flow rates in each fixture,
and the temperature of water uses. The frequencies of hot water usage,
such as showering and bathing, were concentrated in the time-zone
22:00 to 23:00 h, while the night peaks on Friday and Saturday had a
tendency to later time-zones. The average value of hot water supply
temperature was 51.7 °C, while the mean values of cold water
temperature in winter, middle and summer season were 17.9 °C,
19.3 °C and 21.4 °C, respectively. When hourly water consumption
was compared between genders it was found that the volume of hot
water consumption by female was larger than that by male guests.
Most available studies on the energy consumption of collective
accommodation buildings are limited to hotels, with very few studies
focusing on analysing other type of lodging buildings, such as hostels
and residences. Calmeyer and Delport [89] performed a study on
optimized control of DHW for a youth hostel in Pretoria, South Africa,
using real monitored data. The daily water consumption profile for the
hostel exhibited consumption peaks between 7:00 and 9:00, and from
18:00 to 23:00, with an average daily DHW thermal energy consump-
tion of 5.9 kWh. Studies focusing on the water consumption in schools
with collective accommodation indicate total water consumption levels
for boarding schools in Ghana of 115 l/person per day [90], where 62%
of the water was consumed by showers and 30% by toilets.
Daily total water consumption (hot water fraction)
342 l total water/guest day
863 l total water/guest day
108.5 l total water/guest day (25% hot water)
215–515 l total water/guest day
981.9 l total water/ guest day
104–289 l total water/guest day
83 l total water/guest day (34% hot water)
708.9 l total water/guest day (50% hot water)
64.35–94.6 l hot water/room day
541.6 l total water/guest day
E. Fuentes et al.
4.3. Hospitals, educational premises, commercial and office buildings
Hospital buildings are intensive consumers of hot water as a result
of frequent activities related to patients hygiene, kitchen service, and
cleaning practices. Survey studies show that DHW consumption
accounts for 30% of the total energy consumption in US hospitals
[1]. Despite its significance, very few studies focus on investigating the
DHW energy share in hospital buildings. The average daily domestic
hot-water consumption per bed in hospitals ranges from 80 to 130 l/
bed in Europe and from 100 to 150 l/bed in the US [91]. According to
field measurements in Norway hospitals, the DHW daily demand
profile is characterised by a dominant hot water usage peak at around
8:00 followed by a consistent use of hot water throughout the day that
decays towards the evening [85]. For the case of Norwegian hospitals
the average hot water energy consumption is estimated to be 7.1 W/m2
[85], while in Korea hospitals an average daily DHW energy usage of
1.8 MJ/m2 per day has been measured [73]. A monitoring study of two
hospitals in Poland, yielded 5 l hot water consumption/h per bed per
day, which equals a daily usage of 120 L/bed [91].
There exist a number of studies aiming at analysing the total water
saving potential of educational premises such as universities and
schools [94,90]; however, these lack the specific information required
to evaluate the energy consumption associated with DHW usage.
Although energy consumption in schools in different countries has
been investigated [95], a distinction is not generally made between the
energy consumption resulting from space heating and domestic hot
water usage. Among the few studies focusing on DHW use, we find the
work by Koiv et al. [96] who investigated the DHW energy consump-
tion in educational premises in 25 schools in Estonia. Monitored data
indicated maximum measured hot water flow rates in these schools
from 15 to 40 lpm, which contrasted with much larger design flow rates
in the Estonian Standard EVS 835:2003 [25] and the European
standard EN 806-3, as these recommend design values for school
and children nursery facilities from 1.3 to 4 times higher than what
monitoring studies exhibit. The application of these technical stan-
dards therefore leads to a significant over-dimensioning of hot water
facilities in schools. Regarding the tapping pattern, the maximum
consumption on weekdays was identified at lunchtime for Estonian
schools, while for Norway the main peaks were observed at 8:00 and
14:00 [85]. Factors like climate, age of users, school facilities and
cultural habits are expected to be highly influential on consumption
profiles in educational premises.
Domestic hot water systems are needed in commercial buildings to
provide hot water to restrooms, kitchens and special activity rooms like
sport centers. Institutional public buildings, museums, libraries or
restaurants will present different DHW demand profiles depending on
their particular usage of hot water. A very limited number of studies are
found in the literature regarding the DHW usage in different building
types. For some buildings, such as restaurants, the DHW consumption
is particularly important, as they have an intensive use of hot water as a
result of meals preparation and washing activities. This is shown in a
monitoring study performed in 7 Japanese restaurants for a period of
one year, that indicated an average hot water daily consumption
between 440–4830 l/day [92]. Statistical analysis of these data in-
dicated a significant relationship between the hot water consumption
and the number of customers and dishes served, with an average of 8–
20 l hot water consumed per person per day. In the study, the peak
hours of hot water consumption was observed to occur during the
preparation of cooking in the period 7:00–11:00, followed by a
dominant peak at around lunch time in the time-zone of 12:00 to
15:00 and a later important consumption period from 18:00 to 22:00.
Hot water consumption in office buildings is produced as a result of
kitchen and hygiene activities by users; hence the level of water usage is
highly dependent on the specific facilities installed in these buildings.
DHW consumption in office buildings in US and UK has been found to
account for 4% and 10% of the total energy use, respectively [1]. Hot
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water consumption in 18 Estonian office buildings was investigated by
Koiv et al. [96]. The number of showers installed in these buildings
ranged from 1 to 7, while sink outlets ranged from 19 to 41. Maximum
measured average flow rates ranged from 8.4 to 15.6 lpm, which were
from 2.3 to 12 times smaller than the design flow rates specified in
standards EVS 835:2003 and EN 806-3 [25,21]. The highest consump-
tion rate in these office buildings occurred at lunch time due to the use
of kitchen premises. Analysis of hot water consumption in 7 office
buildings in Norway detected DHW peak demand in the morning
around 8:00, followed by later peaks at 15:00 and 22:00 to 23:00,
although the late evening water consumption is attributed to overtime
working hours [85]. It is expected to have higher hot water consump-
tion in office buildings in colder countries for sink outlets, while in
warm countries sinks outlets may not be supplied with hot water.
Investigation of the DHW consumption in three office buildings in
Hiroshima City, Japan, with 122–159 staff members, was done by the
installation of water meters on the hot water pipelines that supplied the
toilet basins and a service room [93]. The recorded measurements
showed hourly peaks occurring in the time-zones 8:00 to 9:00 and
16:00 to 17:00 both for male and female staff, with an average hot
water consumption 2.5–6.4 l/ employee per working day.
Table 7 summarizes the characteristic daily hot water consumption
for different building types, as found in the reviewed studies. Fig. 5
shows representative average daily profiles for domestic hot water
hourly consumption in 4 different building types, according to the
literature. Both the shape of the profiles and the magnitude of the
consumption is significantly different between buildings, as the result-
ing consumption is determined by the particular activities performed in
each of them. While peak consumption in residential buildings is
frequently dominated by the morning and evening peaks, the dominant
peaks are narrower and shifted towards the centre of the day in office
buildings. The average profile of the restaurants in Fig. 5 presents a
much higher consumption than for office and single households, while
the represented hotel profile is dominated by the evening peak.
Comparison of these profiles indicate that water consumption patterns
are significantly different among buildings types. This implies that a
detailed characterization of a building water use profile is needed to
allow the design of tailored renewable energy integration and demand
side management strategies. In general, there exist limited information
on the hot water consumption profiles of non-residential buildings.
Furthermore, additional studies characterising the hot water usage for
non-residential buildings on different geographical zones and climates
are needed.
5. Daily and seasonal variability of domestic hot water
consumption
Climate and season both affect hot water consumption patterns
through their impact on the temperature of the mains water. The
higher the mains temperature, the lower the flow rate of hot water
necessary to obtain the desired end-use temperature in showers, baths
and sinks. Along with the influence of seasonality, DHW demand
profiles are influenced by different diurnal lifestyle of users during
weekdays and weekends, which leads to variations in the consumption
Table 7
Average daily hot water consumption for different building types according to several
field studies [1,91–93].
Building type Zone Daily hot water consumption
Hospitals Europe 80–130 l/bed day
US 100–150 l/bed day
Poland 120 l/bed day
Office buildings Japan 2.5–6.4 l/ employee day
Restaurants Japan 8–20 l/ customer day
E. Fuentes et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547

Fig. 5. Comparison of average daily DHW profiles for different building types
[82,92,93,97]. Only the residential profile type is represented on the right axis.
profiles between weekdays and weekends.
A relationship has been found between the DHW energy consumption
and the outdoor temperature, which is characterised by a decreasing linear
trend of the energy usage with increasing external temperature [99].
Table 8 summarizes findings on seasonal variations of the DHW demand
as reported in diverse studies. In the case of Finland, the seasonal variation
of DHW usage has been seen as a higher water volume consumption per
person from November to February with lower DHW use in the months
from May to August [101]. The use of monthly correction factors that
account for the seasonal influence on the DHW volume usage has been
shown to affect the total energy calculation in a 5% in the case of residential
buildings in Finland [101]. This seasonal trend was consistently found in a
study with residential buildings in Bratislava, in which water volume
consumption was lower in the summer months, particularly, August, with
maximum consumption in winter and springtime [98] (Fig. 6). Average
daily profiles for different months of the year in the monitoring study by
Masiello and Parker [99] exhibit peak DHW energy demands for the
coldest months, higher by a factor of 2 with respect to the warmest month
for a Floridian climate (US). Analysis of daily and seasonal variation of
DHW in Greece for 4 apartment buildings indicates that the daily DHW hot
water volume usage was higher during weekends than weekdays while
seasonal analysis indicated a 100% higher demand in springtime than in
the summer season [102]. Investigations in Belgium has shown maximum
seasonal variations in the DHW volume usage per day of +13% for the
Table 8
Maximum seasonal variation of daily hot water volume consumption in dwellings,
according to different studies. Variation is quantified as the maximum change in the daily
DHW volume consumption with respect to the average daily consumption throughout the
year.
Fig. 6. Influence of the month of the year on the average daily hot water consumption
per capita in dwellings according to different studies [52,98–100]. For Gerin et al. [100]
the daily consumption has been normalized to an average of 2.5 persons per household
and 120 l/day hot water usage.
winter season, and −17% for the summer season with respect to the
average annual daily consumption [100]. In a study based on the
monitorization of residential buildings in the UK, the seasonal variation
of water daily usage was found to be caused by a difference of about 10 °C
in the mains water temperature between seasons [53]. In the case of
Canadian houses, hot water consumption in the winter has been found to
be 9.6% higher than summer consumption and 2.9% above the annual
average of 172 l/day, while summer is the season of lowest consumption
with 5.8% below the average [52]. Similarly, a hot water metering field
campaign in residential dwellings in Melbourne (Australia) shows that the
morning and evening hot water consumption peaks are lower during the
warmer months of the year, leading to a reduction of the water consump-
tion in the summer with respect to the colder periods (Fig. 7) [97]. It is
expected that the mains temperatures in the warmer periods will be higher
than the rest of the year; therefore, less water heating will be required by
the users to reach the desired temperature in the summer period. In
addition, in the warmer months it is expected to have less energy losses as
external temperatures are warmer. The fact that air temperature is warmer
in the summer also influences the behaviour of the users, who require less
hot water in showers to warm themselves as compared to colder periods.
Seasonality variations are found in buildings other than residential
as a result of the effects of climate, but also due to changes in the
activities performed in these buildings. The hot water consumption was
found to be 20–50% lower in the summer with respect to the winter in
restaurants in Japan [92], however, factors other than climate condi-
tions, related to the seasonality in the number of customers may
explain this difference. For instance, larger volumes of hot water usage

Reference Location and sample Max. Max. variation,

variation,
cold period warm period
(%) (%)

Krippelova and 72 apartments in +8.6 −27.9

Perckov [98] Bratislava, Slovakia
George et al. [52] 119 Canadian houses +6.8 −9.6
Gerin et al. [100] 8.046 apartments in +13.7 −16.9
Belgium
Ahmed et al. [101] 182 apartments in +15.3 −17.4
Finland
Defra report [53] UK households +11.9 −16.9
Burch and Phoenix household +12.7 −27
Christensen [6] (US)
Knoxville household +6.1 −10.7
(US)
Helena household +2.9 −4.6
(US) Fig. 7. Seasonal influence on the hot water daily profile for residential dwellings
Miami household (US) +5.4 −9.0 (Residential End Use Monitoring Program (REMP report), New Zealand and
Australian governments [97].

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E. Fuentes et al.
Fig. 8. Influence of the day of the week on the average daily hot water consumption per
capita according to different studies on residential buildings [52,98,99].
have been found to be consumed at weekends than on weekdays in
Japanese restaurants, while the evening peak related to dinners is seen
to be larger in the springtime due to different number of customers
depending on the time of the week and the season.
The influence of the weekday on the DHW is attributed to the
different user behaviour at weekends as compared to working days. A
number of studies have addressed the influence of weekday on the
consumption of DHW through the analysis of monitored data in
residential buildings (Fig. 8). The daily variation of DHW usage in 72
apartment buildings in Bratislava is reflected in a shift of the dominant
morning hot water volume usage peak on workdays from 9:00 to
around midday at weekends [98]. This is due to a change in the activity
of occupants in the weekends when household bathing practices are
shifted to later times and due to more activity around meal times
related to cooking and dishwasher usage with respect to weekdays. On
non-working days, water demand is distributed more evenly through-
out the day, since people are at home for a longer period of time.
Higher peaks are, therefore, normally experienced on working days. A
larger amount of hot water may also be used at the weekends compared
to weekdays, with 52 l/day per occupant at weekends versus 44 l/day
per occupant for weekdays in the study on Finnish apartments by
Ahmed et al. [101]. This trend is supported by findings in the large
scale monitoring study by Masiello and Parker [99] on 171 residences
in Central Florida (USA), in which an average increase of 0.15 kWh/
day of DHW energy load was found at the weekends with respect to
weekdays as a result of higher occupancy and more household
activities. A recent study based on field data from 119 homes in
Canada shows a systematic 12% increase in the hot water volume
consumption for weekends with respect to the weekly average [52]. In
this latter study a delay in the water demand was observed for the
weekends, with Sunday morning consumption presenting a peak 3 h
later than for other days of the week. Analysis over a large number of
residential buildings in France [58] shows higher DHW consumption at
weekends and later morning consumption peaks compared to the daily
profiles of the rest of the week.
The application of correction coefficients on the average hot water
consumption profile is generally used for accounting for daily, weekly
and seasonal variability [58]. Some technical guidelines provide values
for these correction coefficients that are determined in field campaigns
with data collection that extends for a year. As an example, the French
technical guideline from ADEME [58] provides hourly, weekly and
monthly coefficients values based on data collected during a year in
more that 70 residential buildings in Yvelines and Strasbourg in France
for DHW water volume consumption at 40 °C.
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Table 9
Socio-economical factors identified as influential on DHW consumption in households.
The symbols (+) and (−) indicate whether increasing the factor implies an increasing or
decreasing effect on the water usage, respectively. *In the case of household income, the
resulting effect depends on the efficiency of the home appliances.
Factor Influence on DHW consumption
Occupancy +
Females presence +
Teenagers presence +
Children presence +
Number of generations +
Occupants' age +
Household income* +
Higher education +
Appliances efficiency −
Household size +
Owned property +
6. Impact of cultural and socio-economic factors on domestic
hot water consumption
User behaviour is a strong driving factor affecting energy consump-
tion in buildings. Along with geographical and climate conditions, user
behaviour is determined by cultural habits, education and socio-
economic background, which are factors that greatly affect the way
users behave with respect to their energy use practices. As expected,
socio-economic and demographic factors are not independent and can
thus be related with one another. Socio-economic and demographic
factors include dwelling size, number and age of adults, gender, age,
income and education [103]. Table 9 summarizes findings in diverse
studies regarding he influence of socio-economical factors on DHW
consumption.
Household size is frequently found as a key factor influencing hot
water demand per dwelling and per capita [64,104–106]. Although a
higher occupancy is expected to increase water consumption, this is
frequently not a linear relationship. In contrast, the DHW consumption
per capita is shown to decrease with increasing household size, which is
assumed to be due to a economy-of- scale effect [107,108] or to user
behaviour adaptations at high occupancy conditions at which facilities
are shared among users [103].
Household income is a factor that is found to strongly relate to
water usage in residential dwellings [103,109,111–113]. The shape of
DHW daily consumption profiles of low and high income families
present different features resulting from higher occupancy in low
income households. Profiles for low income families present peaks in
the morning and evening, scattered peaks throughout the day for
clothes washing and peaks around lunch time due to cooking. In
general, the weekday profile for low income households indicates
occupation during the whole day [?], leading to a profile significantly
different from the average profile for households, as shown in Fig. 9. A
consistent loss of hot water, accounting for 20–30% of the total water
consumption, attributed to leaks in the distribution system, has been
found in some studies based on low income homes, which is linked to a
lower ability of their users to cover facility maintenance costs [109].
Results in different studies indicate that the higher the education level
of users, the higher the hot water usage in the household [105,109].
According to some authors, this is explained because education
correlates with income [109]. A survey study in ten countries
(Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Korea, Mexico,
Netherlands, Norway and Sweden) found that household size, increas-
E. Fuentes et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547

Greece and Poland, revealing that male adults and children took
shorter showers than female adults, and that children took fewer
showers per week than adults [103,114]. Households occupied by
people of higher age consume more water per capita than those
occupied by younger individuals [107]. It has been hypothesized that
retired users spend longer periods at home, leading to a higher use of
water appliances [111], however it should be taken into account that
because of the relationship between age, household income and wealth,
the increase of water consumption per household is a result of the joint
influence of these variables [113]. Clarke and Brown [118] found that
demographic characteristics had an influence on the ability of indivi-
duals to apply household water saving and water recycling measures. In
a recent research on 132 detached households in the Gold Coast,
Australia [111] residents with very positive environmental and water
Fig. 9. Comparison of daily DHW consumption profile in low income (LI) dwellings in conservation attitudes were found to consume significantly less water
Manresa (Spain) obtained from a measurement campaign [110], as compared with the
than those with only moderately positive conservation concern.
average European residential profile (Annex 42) [67].
Some parameterizations are proposed in the literature to estimate
the domestic hot water consumption as a function of the socio-
ing educational level and income had increasing and significant effects
economical factors discussed above. An equation has been proposed
on household water consumption [105]. This was also reported in the
by Rocheron [119] to calculate the daily total water volume at 55 °C
study by Gregory and Leo [106] in Shoalhaven, Australia, where these
consumed per person as a function of occupancy, type of housing, life
three factors (as well as the age of household members) had a
standards and type of end-use appliances, that was derived from DHW
significant influence on household water usage. Although income
measurements from field campaigns in France. Once the average daily
appears to be a significant factor in many studies, the potential
water consumption is determined with this equation, it is possible to
association between household income and water saving behaviour
calculate the daily DHW energy demand by considering a representa-
may be ambiguous. Such is the case of results by Shan et al. [114] and
tive mains water temperature. Further correction with modulating
Beal et al. [107], that show a lower consumption for higher income
coefficients to account for the influence of the week of the year, the day
families in Greece, Poland and Australia. A high income facilitates
of the week, and the hour of the day allows for the estimation of hourly
purchase of more efficient appliances, which would reduce water usage
DHW energy consumption profiles [119]. Similarly, a linear multiple
per capita; however, habits for higher income families may lead to
regression method was applied by Makki et al. [117] to derive a
increasing usage of water with more frequent use of appliances than in
predictive model for average daily shower water usage based on
lower income households, where there may exist stricter money saving
household makeup, occupation status and shower-head efficiency.
habits. Efficiency of appliances is identified as an influential factor on
Although these models have been validated for households different
the end use water consumption of households. Comparison of the water
to those used for the model development, further research is needed to
end use consumption per capita of appliances rated with different
assess whether they are valid for other cultural habits and climates,
efficiencies has shown that clothes washers rated 3 stars or less led to
beyond the conditions for which they were created.
an average total water consumption of 35.1 l/(person day), while 4 star
Many of the reviewed studies focus on the influence of the above
or less clothes washers resulted in an average consumption of 28.3 l/
factors on the total water usage. A more specific quantification is
(person day) [103,107]. This finding is supported by other studies
required on the influence of socio-economical factors on DHW
showing that more efficient appliances result in lower water usage
consumption in new studies. On the other hand, while the influence
[108,113,115]. As stated above, income is related with the technology
of socio-economical factors have been extensively investigated in
of installed appliances; hence, it is expected to have lower consumption
households, there is a lack of studies analysing the influence of these
per capita in high income households, if only for the consideration of
factors in other type of buildings such as schools, hospitals, restau-
efficiencies of the end use facilities (e.g. washing machines, dish-
rants, public buildings and offices. Although users may have similar
washers). However, user behaviour is also influenced by income status
water usage attitudes outside their homes, the particular activities
that will determine the final water consumption in these households.
performed in the buildings they occupy will eventually determine their
Analysis of the impact of household typology (single person, family
DHW consumption in such buildings. Thus, further research is needed
size) indicates a reduction of water consumption per capita for
to determine the influence of socio-economical factors on the DHW
increasing family size, but for clothes washing and water usage related
usage in buildings other than residential.
to activities with children [104]. Kim et al. [104] performed an
extensive statistical analysis on the influence of socio-cultural and
economic factors on the domestic hot water consumption in 45
households in Korea that were monitored and surveyed for a period
7. Models and tools for generating DHW consumption
of three years. Among the factors investigated in the analysis were
profiles
family size, type and number of generations, room number, laundries
and meals per day, occupation and education of residents, income and
Existing tools and models for the prediction of DHW consumption
house size. Statistical analysis of the data indicated a number of
profiles for buildings can be summarised into several categories:
distinctly influential parameters, which showed an increasing effect
methods based on the application of technical standards [120];
on water consumption: the existence of children, family number
stochastic models, which are calibrated with monitored consumption
generations, leased residential type, greater house area, higher educa-
measurements and time of use data (TUD) [15,16,121]; time series
tion and greater income. Other typology factors, such as owner-
forecasting models [12]; time series models; data-learning modelling
occupied properties has also been linked to a higher water usage [116].
methods such ANN (Artificial Neural Network) [122]; statistical
Regarding the influence of age and gender, the presence of females
models based on equations [123] and lastly, databases of average
and children, and particularly teenagers has been associated with
DHW consumption profiles obtained from data collected in long term
increased shower water usage in several studies [103,117]. Gender
field monitoring campaigns [19]. Table 10 summarizes the character-
and age have been found to affect water usage duration in a study in
istics of different models found in the literature.

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Table 10
Summary of available models and tools for modelling and forecasting total water and DHW detailed daily profiles. PPM=Poisson Pulse Model.

Reference Model/resource type Resolution Source data

Widén et al [121]
Jordan and Vajen [15]
Hendron et al. [16]
Buchberger and Wells [124]
Blokker et al. [125]
Scheepers and Jacobs [126]
Richard [127]
Yao and Steemers [63]
Bakker et al. [122]
Ladd and Harrison [123]
Negnevitsky and Wong [128]
Popescu and Serban [129]
Gelazanskas and Gamage [12]
Aki et al. [138]
Ferrantelli et al. [139]
Fischer et al. [130]
McKenna and Thomson [131]
Pflugradt [132]
Edwards et al. [19]
George et al. [52]
Stochastic activity-based model, DHW energy usage 5 min TUD from 179 Swedish households
Stochastic, hot water at 45 °C 1 min, 6 min, 1 h DHW patterns in Switzerland and Germany
Stochastic+clustering, hot/cold water 1 s to 6 min DHW patterns from USA dwellings
Stochastic PPM, total water – 4 single family residences, US
Stochastic PPM, hot/cold water 1s TUD from Netherland dwellings
Stochastic PPM, total water 10 s REUWS database
Stochastic PPM, hot water 1 min REUWS database
Stochastic, hot water 1–30 min DHW consumption from UK dwellings
ANN-based model, total water 1h DHW energy usage, 4 households, Netherlands
Statistical functions model, hot water 1h DHW consumption from 110 US dwellings
Stochastic, hot water − DHW consumption from 279 households, Australia
Time series analysis, hot water – DHW energy consumption from 60 apartments,
Romania
Time series analysis, hot water 1h DHW consumption from 120 UK dwellings
Stochastic, hot water 10 min DHW consumption from dwellings in Osaka, Japan
Stochastic, hot water 1h DHW consumption in Finnish apartment
Stochastic activity-based with behavioral model, hot water – TUD from German database
Stochastic activity-based with thermo-electric integration, hot 1 min TUD from UK dwellings
water
Desire driven activity-based model, hot water 1 min Based on psychological model
12 annual DHW profiles for dwellings 5 min 73 houses, Québec (Canada)
45 annual DHW profiles for dwellings 1 min 119 households, Halifax, Canada

7.1. Models based on technical standards
DHW tapping patterns can be built by applying typical profiles
definitions and design flow rates as defined in testing standards for
water heaters [21,33,41,24,42]. Marini et al. [120] performed a
comparative analysis of five different software calculation tools based
on technical standards for predicting monthly and daily DHW con-
sumption profiles in residential buildings. Information of design flow
rates of individual fixtures in standards can be used to create tapping
profiles by adding up the flow consumption of all the building fixtures
of the same type and multiplying this total by a simultaneous usage
factor to get the maximum hourly demand. Measurements from UK
dwellings were compared by Marini et al. [120] with outputs from
models based on several technicals standards, including results of total
hot water volume, energy losses, system efficiency, mains water
temperature and temperature rise for hot water production.
Calculations were found to deviate from measured data from about
−30% to +40% as compared to the measured data. Accuracy was mostly
found to depend on the input design values for the calculations and
better estimations were obtained with methods based on standards
specific to the country where measurements were made.
7.2. Stochastic models
A second group of methods for estimating DHW profiles is based on the
application of stochastic models derived from monitored data and survey
information. The stochastic methods based on time of use data determine
the probability density distributions of resident activities and the resulting
energy use profiles derived from these activities [121]. The obtained
probability distributions are calibrated with consumption measurements
and time of use data, while probability state transitions are modelled with
approaches such as a Markov chains process. The stochastic model to
derive DHW energy usage profiles by Widén et al. [121] is based on data
from time use diaries (TUD) in Sweden with a resolution of 5 min, that is
used to construct patterns associated to 25 household hot water consuming
activities. To construct the consumption profiles assumptions are made
regarding water usage associated to these activities. For instance, in the case
of showers, the energy demand is assumed to be constant during the
activity; while for taking a bath the demand is determined with a time
constraint that considers that the bath tub will be filled up. Cooking and
baking are assumed to require on average two hand washes or rinsing of
household goods every 15 min.
Hendron et al. [16] designed a stochastic method to model water
consumption profiles based on probability distributions derived from
data of hot water event duration, flow rate, individual fixture use and
duration between events obtained from two residential hot water
studies conducted by Aquacraft [64,16]. This model applies a clustering
approach which is based on the hypothesis that hot water events tend
to occur in clusters, and it adopts hypothesis for the features of flow
rates, duration and probability distributions for five different draw-off
categories. A uniform random number generator method is used to
assign the specific hour during which each cluster of events begins and
a second random number is used to model the events start time. The
probability distribution obtained is adjusted to account for differences
between days of the week and the seasonal influence. The authors
provide an open source spreadsheet tool that generates year-long hot
water event schedules consistent with realistic probability distributions
of start time, duration and flow rate variability, clustering, fixture
assignment, holiday periods and seasonality. The model is based on
assumptions that each house is provided with two showers, two baths,
four sinks and a dishwasher and a washing machine and does not
account for the influence of the number of occupants.
The model by Yao and Steemers [63] generates stochastic load
profiles with a resolution from one minute to half an hour, considering
four DHW water consuming activities: bath/shower, wash hand basin,
dish washing (by hand and by machine) and washing machine. This
model does not have statistical TUD as an input, but data on the times
for the first and the last water use activities in the day, including
unoccupied periods. The water extractions events are modelled with a
random generator that considers similar probability for every minute
inside the given user interval.
The stochastic model by Jordan and Vajen [15] generates DHW
load profiles at a delivery temperature of 45 °C with a resolution of
1 min, 6 min or 1 h. DHW extractions are categorized into four types:
small, medium, shower and bath. For each draw category different
values are assumed for mean flow rate, duration and number of events
per day while the actual flow rate for each event is assigned using a
Gaussian probability distribution. Seasonal variations in this model are
included by varying the total daily DHW-volume correction defined
with a sinusoidal-function with an amplitude of 10% that extends
between the beginning of February and September. The probability
model is based on statistical data obtained from water use activities in
dwellings in Germany and Switzerland and has been compared with
average real profiles in the IEA Annex 42. The model produces good

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predictions with respect to real average consumption profiles for a
number of European countries, as shown in the report by Annex 42
[67]. Sandels et al. [133] developed a stochastic simulation model for
DHW that forecasts load profiles for households. This model is based
on a non-homogeneous Markov chains approach, where the state of
occupants varies within certain probability limits over time. The
occupant states correspond to certain activities at home that imply
the usage of an specific amount of energy. The DHW model only
accounts for showers or baths although it considers heat losses from
storage tanks.
Residential water demand events have been found to occur as single
pulses in over 80% of indoor residential water demands, while more
complex water use patterns can be readily converted to single
equivalent rectangular pulses [124]. This implies that a water draw-
off event can be represented as a single rectangular pulse of random
duration and random but steady intensity characterised by its arrival
time, intensity, flow and duration [124]. Based on these findings the
Poisson Rectangular Pulse (PRP) model for residential water use has
been formulated assuming that water draw events behave as a time
dependent Poisson Rectangular Pulse (PRP) arrival process. The PRP
model for household water use allows determining water demand
patterns by estimating arrival time, intensity and duration of each
pulse by means of five statistical parameters whose values are obtained
through calibration with real time measurement data [124]. The
SIMDEUM model (Simulation of water Demand, an End-Use Model)
is based on the same principle of rectangular pulses as the PRP model
[125], with the difference that pulse properties are dependent on users
and end use types. The times for event occurrence, their intensity and
duration are modelled with probability distributions for each end-use
taking time-of-water-use data from a survey conducted in 2001 by
Dutch water utility companies. Simulation results in Blokker et al.
[125] showed good agreement between predictions from this model
and measured water demand patterns in a range of time scales from
1 min to 1 h at a spatial scale of a single home. Recently, this type of
modelling approach has been improved by including the mutual
dependence of pulse duration and intensity [134,135]. Simulation
results from the PRP and SIMDEUM models have been compared
with measurement data in Blokker et al. [136]. The performance of
both models has been shown to be good in predicting hourly water
consumption. The PRP model requires water flow measurements for
calibration, thus it can be defined as a descriptive model. On the other
hand the SIMDEUM model requires sociological data and thus, it can
be adapted to the particular region under study. On the other hand,
SIMDEUM has been shown to work better for predictions of single
home consumption patterns while the PRP model performs more
adequately at predicting the demand patterns of the sum of multiple
homes. The end-use model SIMDEUM for residential water demand
has been extended to be used for non-residential buildings. For non-
residential application, the model is based on a modular approach in
which the building is integrated by individual functional rooms of
different type and use. A functional room is characterised by its typical
users and particular water using appliances, which allows applying the
model to any type of building [137]. SIMDEUM has been tested to
predict the water demand of three standard building categories of
office, hotel and nursing home buildings used as a reference for
calibration. Data was obtained from different buildings provided by
Uneto-VNI, the Dutch association of building installers. Predictions
from the model were compared to measured water demand patterns.
These predictions showed a good agreement for a range of time scales
(from 5 min to one hour) and for spatial scales ranging from a single
office to a hotel and a nursing home [137].
A probability based end-use model was developed by Scheepers and
Jacobs [126], based on the SIMDEUM model approach, to derive
residential diurnal indoor water demand patterns on a high resolution
temporal scale without discrimination between cold and hot water
consumption. The model considers six water end-uses that are
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described in terms of volume, duration and time of occurrence. The
probability distributions used to describe the parameters of the
residential end-use model were obtained from North American water
measurements, extracted from the Residential End-Uses of Water
Study (REUWS) by Mayer and DeOreo [64]. A similar approach as
that used in Scheepers and Jacobs [126] was employed by Richard
[127] to create a stochastic based model based on various factors to
extract hot water demand, with a temporal scale of one minute. The
model, which is also based on the REUWS database, considers as
influential factors the mains water temperature, ambient temperature,
water heater temperature settings, pipe flow heat loss and volume
balances. End-uses were assumed to have a constant flow rate
throughout the event duration, thus represented by rectangular
demand pulses. A total of five DHW end-uses were modelled, namely,
shower, bath, tap, dishwasher and washing machine. The resulting
profile from this model is an aggregation of end-use events with
stochastic frequencies, starting times and characteristics, while the
average DHW demand profiles are obtained with a Monte Carlo
method. The diurnal demand profiles yielded by this model were
similar to the ASHRAE 90.2 profile used in North America, while the
total average hot water demand volumes obtained were realistic
compared with other works.
Another stochastic DHW model generator was developed by
Negnevitsky and Wong [128] in a study to develop a tool for demand
side management of domestic hot water systems. The model employs a
Monte Carlo approach to generate hot water consumption profiles for
single households by the initial generation of random values to
determine specific parameters for a single household: family type,
when showers are taken (morning, or evening, or morning and
evening), number of showers, number of low volume usages, length
of each shower and each gap between consecutive showers, starting
time for each shower and each low volume usage. Based on these
parameters, the tool generates a daily hot water consumption profile
for a single household. The profile generation process is repeated for a
specified number of households using a new set of random values each
time. The data to define the hot water consumption patterns of
households was obtained from a survey that was conducted on 1000
randomly selected households and energy metering data of 279
households across Tasmania (Australia).
Fischer et al. [130] developed a bottom-up stochastic model for
DHW consumption profiles based on TUD data from a German
database. The model included as additional features, with respect to
previous stochastic approaches, a behavioral model to determine DHW
tappings as a function of socio-economical factors. Comparison with
tapping profiles measurements taken in German dwellings showed that
the typical hourly, daily and yearly characteristics of the domestic hot
water profile were correctly captured by their model. Along with the
introduction of additional behavioral factors, recent modelling ap-
proaches are making an effort to integrate detailed stochastic modelling
of DHW demand with other thermo-electrical components in buildings
[131]. Aki et al. [138] developed a predictive bottom-up approach
model based on DHW consumption behaviour analysis with detailed
energy consumption measurement. The model estimates DHW de-
mand for each end-use (bathtub filling, bathtub reheating, and shower/
kitchen use), based on probability distributions for amount and
duration of DHW events obtained from previous hot water consump-
tion historical data. Hot water consumption measurements from
residential dwellings in Osaka City, Japan, were used for model
development. Similarly Ferrantelli et al. [139], developed a bottom-
up model based on correlations derived from previous consumption
data, accounting for occupancy and the variability between weekdays
and weekends.
7.3. Time-series forecasting models
Time series models are based on the analysis of collected history
E. Fuentes et al.
data to be able to forecast the behaviour of a system in a future time.
Gelazanskas and Gamage [12] applied time series analysis on a dataset
of DHW consumption measurements and they intercompared different
forecasting techniques: exponential smoothing (ETS), seasonal auto-
regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA), seasonal decomposi-
tion of time series by Loess model (STL) and a combination of them.
The results show that times series prediction methods could be
potentially used for DHW demand side management applications.
The best performing methods were found to be a combination of STL/
ETS and STL/ARIMA techniques. Popescu and Serban [129] derived a
thermal energy domestic hot water consumption forecasting model in
district heating systems using time series analysis. The authors used
data collected from a block of flats with 60 apartments and applied a
Box-Jenkins model to forecast aggregated total thermal power demand
for different days of the week.
7.4. Statistical, behavioral and data learning models
The EPRI (Electric Power Research Institute) model [123] is a
correlation-based model for daily DHW consumption profiles derived
from data collected from 110 US households, that can be used to
estimate the hourly amount of hot water, by time of the day. This model
derived from statistical analysis of collected data, consists of a set of
multiple regression equations that allow the prediction of the beha-
vioral structure of hot water demands at different times of day. The
model disaggregates demographic features into three age groups
instead of using the typical household. Hot water demand is predicted
as a function of three types of variables: demography, climate and type
of water heater. The key determinant variables for the model, after
analysis of the collected data, were the number of people within a
household, divided into three age groups, infants and young children
(up to age five), children (ages six to 13), and adults (ages 14 and
older); the outside air temperature, the inlet water temperature of the
water heater; the thermostat setting of the lower heating element of the
water heater; the size of the storage tank; a dummy variable for an
unemployed household member; and four season dummy variables
that indicated presence or absence of a certain condition. The dummy
variable for an unemployed household member would equal one if one
or more unemployed member of the household stayed home during the
day and would equal zero for any other situation. The 16 equations
contained in the EPRI model predict average hot water flow rate use for
different time ranges of day. Each day is divided into eight periods of
unequal length by combining hours with similar average hot water
consumption by time of day, type of day, and season. The length of each
period ranges from two to seven hours. The EPRI model was developed
based upon data collected before 1980. Since then, energy-efficiency
and water-efficiency standards have changed, as has residential use of
hot water consuming appliances. Hence, further research is needed to
assess whether this model is valid for the current DHW consumption
levels and for different locations. Pflugradt [132] developed a model for
DHW consumption tapping profiles based on a psychological model
that states that the behaviour of users is driven by desires, that lead to
conducting activities that allow for the fulfillment of such desires. The
evolution of the fulfillment state of each desire is modelled for each
individual in the home. When an activity is performed the associated
fulfillment state is 1 and this decays after the activity is finished until
reaching a threshold value for which the desire becomes relevant. This
then leads to the performance of another activity that fulfills the desire.
A limitation of this model is that it is based on the isolated desires of
the household members. Although the model considers the perfor-
mance of some specific activities to occur when users have coincidental
shared desires, it is difficult to account for all the potential household
users interactions that drive their actual behaviour. For validation
purposes, the author of this model compared the total hot water
consumed per day and per person with average consumption data from
a statistical database in Germany; however, no validation is provided
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on the performance of this model regarding the reproduction of the
tapping profiles.
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) models have been shown to be
useful for predicting residential water end use consumption per
household per day with moderate accuracy [103] considering as key
determinants household income, number of adults, number of chil-
dren, number of teenagers, and appliance stock efficiency. Bakker et al.
[122] applied a ANN model with the input of the previous day and
previous week heat demand profile for households, as well as weather
information to forecast the daily DHW thermal energy 24 h ahead. This
model was proved to provide good estimations of daily DHW profiles,
however improvements are needed to include as inputs for the model
additional variables related to user behaviour.
Central domestic hot water systems are increasingly becoming an
important part of current installations worldwide, e.g., hotels, hospi-
tals, sports centers, social facilities, and multifamily residential or
apartment buildings. The optimization of such systems requires
forecasting capabilities and the aggregation of diverse DHW profiles
to obtain a pattern that is representative of the whole set of consumers.
Within this context, reliable tools are required for the integration of
multiple DHW consumption profiles from diverse users and buildings,
such as clustering techniques [11]. Using a clustering aggregation tool
the DHW daily profiles collected from past days from different
buildings, can be used to forecast a number of patterns that are applied
for decision making by a centralized control system. For validation
purposes the tool can include a parallel validation method that tests the
reliability of the output patterns on which decisions are taken as
compared to the input profiles.
7.5. Databases of DHW tapping profiles
Some authors claim that synthetic profiles from models present the
drawback that they are unable to capture the true temporal variability
of real consumption patterns, as they rely on engineering judgment and
expectation and thus, databases based on real measurements of DHW
profiles are more reliable tools than stochastic models [19]. Edwards
et al. [19] performed a study aimed at providing representative DHW
residential profiles suitable for use in simulation-based studies of solar
and micro-cogeneration systems. These DHW profiles have been
developed using monitored data that were taken in 73 houses in
Quebec (Canada). Statistical treatment of the data allowed generating
12 different DHW draw annual profiles at a time-resolution of 5 min
for 4 consumption levels and 3 temporal consumption patterns
(average, median, sparing and profligate consumers) with total water
volume daily consumptions between 70 to 438 l/day. Edwards et al.
[19] conducted simulations of a solar DHW system using three
different consumption profiles with usage predominating in the morn-
ing, in the evening, and dispersed throughout the day in order to
investigate the influence of the shape of domestic hot water profiles on
system performance. Results revealed that different DHW draw profiles
can lead to a significant changes in the prediction of the operational
performance of the solar system through different periods during the
day. Beyond the profiles provided by Edwards et al. [19], measure-
ments of domestic water consumption from the Solar City program in
Halifax (Canada) were analysed by George et al. [52] in order to
construct a database of DHW annual profiles that account for weekly
and seasonal variability as well as the influence of occupancy. These
profiles, derived from data in 119 homes at a time-step of 1 min, are
available from the authors and will be integrated with the open source
ESP-r building performance simulation software. It should be noted
that the resolution for data monitoring is highly influential on the
characteristics of the DHW profiles data collected. Bagge et al. [140]
shows that different levels of time averaging affect the resulting
measured profiles and that a loss of information can occur when
measuring rapidly domestic hot water flow rate values, missing the
peaks of the profiles, as the time interval is increased.
E. Fuentes et al.
8. Conclusions and directions for future research
Information on the features of realistic DHW demand profiles is
required to describe typical building energy demands comprehensively
and allow the design of efficient demand side management strategies in
buildings. The present work was based on the review of existing studies
and technical standards addressing the characterization of DHW
demand in buildings with a twofold purpose: summarizing the avail-
able information on this topic for future research studies and identify-
ing key shortcomings in current research that should be addressed in
the future. In particular, the present study aims at addressing the
following aspects: (1) providing information on the international
standards that are of potential use in research studies on DHW
consumption (2) analysing and assessing the existing methodologies
for estimating the mains water temperature and hot delivered water in
DHW systems (3) identifying the characteristics of DHW consumption
profiles, including timing and duration of water usage events in
different type of buildings (4) conducting an analysis of the main
technical and socio-economical factors affecting the shape of DHW
consumption profiles in buildings (5) evaluating and summarising the
main modelling techniques existing in the literature to model DHW
consumption profiles in buildings (6) identifying caveats and research
lines to improve the state-of-the-art on the research field of DHW
consumption in buildings. In order to address the above aspects, the
study considers and review existing technical standards, and current
literature that allowed making a synthesis of the state of the art.
In the present study it has been found that technical standards are
useful as a guideline to model DHW consumption by systems and for
modelling purposes, however, it remains unclear whether the usage of
more realistic profiles have a significant influence in the analysis of the
performance of energy systems and buildings. On the other hand, most
research works provide information on daily or annual average DHW
consumption of buildings either in terms of volumetric or energy usage.
However, data on average DHW demand per building or per capita
represents limited information, given the complexity of hot water usage
profiles. On the other hand, although there is an important number of
studies addressing the characteristics of hot water usage profiles in
households, there is a significant lack of information on DHW demand
for other building types. Furthermore, it is necessary to gain a better
understanding of factors that influence DHW demand, such as number
of draws, draw length, volumes, flow rates and starting times of events
for different buildings, users and climatic conditions.
The accuracy in estimating mains water temperatures needs to be
assessed and improved with monitored data from field studies and the
development of more comprehensive modelling approaches. Existing
relationships for mains water temperatures seem to be valid only for the
particular climates for which they were calibrated. Although some relation-
ships have been found between the ground and the mains water
temperatures, more studies are required to derive suitable models that
are valid for different climatic conditions and distribution systems with the
aim of constraining the relationship between these variables. Most reviewed
studies indicate that seasonal effects can substantially affect the DHW
demand, however there is a lack of information on the influence of
seasonality on the shape of the daily tapping profiles and how their
variation can affect the design of energy management strategies. Currently,
seasonality is taken into account by correcting the daily or monthly
volumetric water consumption with correction coefficients obtained from
monitored data specific to a particular location. Formulations of these
seasonal coefficients should be investigated so that they can be derived and
applied in different climatic conditions. Many engineering studies for
testing the efficiency of energy production systems are based on typical
tapping profiles provided in technical standards; however the validity of
these profiles has not been investigated when compared with more realistic
profiles provided by stochastic models. Further studies are required to
assess the representativeness of profiles in standards as compared with real
DHW patterns.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2018) 1530–1547
Socio-economical factors have been found to be highly influential
on the average daily DHW consumption in households in different
studies. All these effects should be accounted for in future studies
aimed at modelling DHW usage; however, there is limited information
available on the influence of these factors on the shape of daily DHW
tapping profiles. Further studies are therefore required that are able to
provide relationships between socio-economical factors and detailed
usage of DHW in buildings. On the other hand, almost no studies have
addressed the influence of socio-economical factors on the DHW
consumption in buildings other than residential. Therefore, further
research is needed in this area.
An important body of literature is found addressing the detailed
modelling of DHW profiles, preferentially in households. Most model-
ling approaches are based on stochastic methods, with a smaller
number of studies applying time series and statistical methodologies.
While most of these models have been validated, more independent
studies are required that provide an intercomparison and assessment
of different models techniques for a variety of climate conditions and
building types. A very limited number of models focus on predicting
DHW demand profiles in non-residential buildings; therefore, more
research is recommended in this area. In addition, shortcomings in the
existing modelling approaches are identified as a lack of interconnec-
tion of DHW usage with space heating and electrical energy consump-
tion activities and a neglect of the influence of user behaviour on DHW
use profiles.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the BEE Group of CIMNE for their
collaboration through the project BECA (Balanced European
Conservation Approach), Grant Agreement number: 270981, partially
funded under the ICT Policy Support Programme (ICT PSP) as part of
the Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Programme by the
European Community.
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