Objective, Relevance

OBJECTIVE, RELEVANCE
Objectives & Relevance
A successful engineer of microwave and RF engineering is expected to know about the market
trends, latest Microwave technologies. This subject provides the students, the means to
understand and use these factors to improve their overall performance. The main objective of
the subject is to teach students essential information on microwave theory, components and
applications.
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Outcome:
1. Gain knowledge and understanding of microwave analysis methods.
2. Be able to apply analysis methods to determine circuit properties of passive/active

microwave devices.
3. Know how to model and determine the performance characteristics of a microwave circuit
or system using computer aided design methods.
4. Have knowledge of basic communication link design; signal power budget, noise evaluation
and link carrier to noise ratio.
5. Have knowledge of how transmission and waveguide structures and how they are used as
elements in impedance matching and filter circuits.
2
CODE OF CONDUCT
1. Students should report to the labs concerned as per the timetable.
2. Students who turn up late to the labs will in no case be permitted to perform the
experiment scheduled for the day.
3. After completion of the experiment, certification of the staff in-charge concerned in the
observation book is necessary.
4. Students should bring a notebook of about 100 pages and should enter the
readings/observations/results into the notebook while performing the experiment.
5. The record of observations along with the detailed experimental procedure of the
experiment performed in the immediate previous session should be submitted and
certified by the staff member in-charge.
6. Not more than three students in a group are permitted to perform the experiment on a
set up.
7. The group-wise division made in the beginning should be adhered to, and no mix up of
student among different groups will be permitted later.
8. The components required pertaining to the experiment should be collected from Lab-
in-charge after duly filling in the requisition form.
9. When the experiment is completed, students should disconnect the setup made by them,
and should return all the components/instruments taken for the purpose.
10. Any damage of the equipment or burnout of components will be viewed seriously either
by putting penalty or by dismissing the total group of students from the lab for the
semester/year.
11. Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduled duration.
12. Students are expected to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment before coming
to Laboratory.
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PRECAUTIONS
Excessive exposure to electromagnetic fields, including microwave radiation, can be harmful.

Although the power levels used in our Microwave Instructional Lab are very low and should
not present a health risk, it is still prudent to,
• be aware of the recommended safe power limits
• be aware of the power densities with which you will be working
• use good work habits to minimize exposure to radiated fields
Even though there should be little danger from microwave radiation hazards in the lab, the
following work habits are recommended whenever working with RF/microwave equipment:
1. Turn off the power before working on a circuit.

2. Always confirm that the circuit is wired correctly before turning on the power. If required,
have your instructor check your circuit wiring.
3. Perform the experiments as you are instructed: do not deviate from the documentation.
4. Never touch “live” wires with your bare hands or with tools.
5. Always hold test leads by their insulated areas.
6. be aware that some components can become very hot during operation. Always allow time
for the components to cool before proceeding to touch or remove them from the circuit.
7. Do not work without supervision. Be sure someone is nearby to shut off the power and
provide first aid in case of an accident.
8. Never look into the open end of a waveguide or transmission line that is connected to other
equipment.
9. Do not place any part of your body against the open end of a waveguide or transmission line.
10. Turn off the microwave power source when assembling or disassembling components
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
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Part A-Microwave Engineering Lab
1. Reflex Klystron Characteristics
2. Gunn Diode characteristics
3. Directional Coupler characteristics
4. VSWR Measurement
5. Measurement of waveguide parameters
6. Measurement of impedance of a given load
7. Measurement of S-parameters of a Magic Tee
8. Measurement of S-parameters of a circulator
9. Attenuation Measurement
10. Microwave Frequency Measurement
Part B-Digital Communications Lab
1. PCM generation and detection
2. Differential Pulse Code Modulation
3. Delta Modulation
4. Time Division Multiplexing of 2 Band limited signals
5. Frequency Shift Keying-Generation and Detection
6. Phase Shift Keying-Generation and Detection
7. Amplitude Shift Keying-Generation and Detection
8. Study of spectral characteristics of PAM, QAM
9. DPSK: Generation and Detection
10. QPSK: Generation and Detection
TEXT AND REFERENCE BOOKS

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Part-A: MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
Suggested Text Books
T1 Microwave and Radar engineering – M. Kulkarni
T2 Microwave device and circuits – Samuel Y.Liao PHI 3rd edition, 1994
T3 Microwave Engineering-G.S.N. Raju, I.K. International, 2008.
Reference Books
R1 Foundations of Microwave Engineering– Robert E Collins, John Wiley, 2nd

edition.
R2 Microwave Circuits and Passive Devices – M.L. Sisodia and G.S. Raghuvanshi
R3 Microwave Principles – Herbert J. Reich, J.G. Skalnik .
R4 Elements of Microwave Engineering – R.Charterjee

Part-B: DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
Text Books
1. Digital and Analog communication systems- K. Sam Shanmugam, John Wiley 2005
References
1. Digital communications-John G. Proakis, Masoud Salehi 5th edition

2. Digital communication-Simon Haykin, John Wiley 2005
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JNTU PRESCRIBED SYLLABUS
Part A-Microwave Engineering Lab
11. Reflex Klystron Characteristics
12. Gunn Diode characteristics
13. Directional Coupler characteristics
14. VSWR Measurement
15. Measurement of waveguide parameters
16. Measurement of impedance of a given load
17. Measurement of S-parameters of a Magic Tee
18. Measurement of S-parameters of a circulator
19. Attenuation Measurement
20. Microwave Frequency Measurement
Part B-Digital Communications Lab
11. PCM generation and detection
12. Differential Pulse Code Modulation
13. Delta Modulation
14. Time Division Multiplexing of 2 Band limited signals
15. Frequency Shift Keying-Generation and Detection
16. Phase Shift Keying-Generation and Detection
17. Amplitude Shift Keying-Generation and Detection
18. Study of spectral characteristics of PAM, QAM
19. DPSK: Generation and Detection
20. QPSK: Generation and Detection
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SYLLABUS ANALYSIS
PART A- MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LAB
S. No Name of the Experiment Unit No. Text/Ref Books

(as per theory)
1 Reflex Klystron 5 T2, Ch.9 (373-379)
T1,Ch8(303-310)
Characteristics R1,Ch9(686-690)
R3,Ch10(272-279)
2 Gunn Diode characteristics 7 T1, Ch.9(388-399)

T2,Ch7(269-290)
R1,Ch12(832-836)
3 Directional Coupler 3 and 4 T1, Ch.6 (203-208)
T2 Ch-4 ,(149-151)
characteristics
4 VSWR Measurement 3 and 8 T1, Ch.7(270-272)

R3,Ch5(117-119)
R4,Ch11(406-407)
5 Measurement of 1,2 and 8 T3 ch.9 (346-350)
waveguide parameters
6 Measurement of 8 T3 ch.9 (377-380)
impedance of a given load
7 Measurement of S- 4 and 8 T1, Ch.6 (190-202)

R1 ch-6 (437-438)
parameters of a Magic Tee T2 ch-4 (141-148)
R2 ch-6 (308-331)
8 Measurement of S- 4 and 8 R1, Ch-.6 (464-468)

R3, Ch-7 (430-441)
parameters of a circulator T2 Ch-4 (156-160)
9 Attenuation Measurement 8 T1, Ch.7(266-267)

10 Microwave Frequency 8 T3 Ch.9 (354-355)
Measurement
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PART B- DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS LAB
S. No Name of the Experiment Unit No. Text/Ref Books
(as per theory)
1 PCM generation and 2 T2, Ch2, 529-549
T1, Ch2, 487-505
detection R2, Ch5, 172-210
2 Differential Pulse Code 2 T2, Ch2, 529-549

T1, Ch2, 487-505
Modulation R2, Ch5, 172-210
3 Delta Modulation 2 T2, Ch2, 529-549

T1, Ch2, 487-505
R2, Ch5, 172-210
4 Time Division Multiplexing 1 T1
of 2 Band limited signals
5 Frequency Shift Keying- 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282
T2, Ch8, 380-412
Generation and Detection
R2, Ch7, 273-357
6 Phase Shift Keying- 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282

T2, Ch8, 380-412
Generation and Detection
R2, Ch7, 273-357
7 Amplitude Shift Keying- 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282

Generation and Detection T2, Ch8, 380-412
R2, Ch7, 273-357
8 Study of spectral Content T1
beyond
characteristics of PAM, syllabus (CBS)
QAM
9 DPSK: Generation and 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282

T2, Ch8, 380-412
Detection R2, Ch7, 273-357
10 QPSK: Generation and 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282

Detection T2, Ch8, 380-412
R2, Ch7, 273-357
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SESSION PLAN
Week Unit Remarks

Sl.No Activity/Name of Experiment
No. No.
1 #1 1 Introduction to Microwave & DC Laboratory
2 #2 2 PCM Generation and Detection JNTUH
3 #3 2 Differential Pulse code modulation JNTUH
4 #4 2 Delta Modulation JNTUH
1 Time Division Multiplexing of 2 Band Limited JNTUH

5 #5
Signals
3 Frequency shift Keying: Generation and CBS
6 #6
Detection
7 #7 3 Phase shift keying: Generation and Detection JNTUH
3 Amplitude shift Keying: Generation and CBS

8 #8
Detection
9 #9 3 DPSK: Generation and Detection JNTUH
10 #10 - INTERNAL EXAMINATION -I JNTUH
11 #11 5 Reflex Klystron Characteristics JNTUH
12 #12 7 Gunn Diode characteristics JNTUH
13 #13 3 Directional coupler characteristics JNTUH
14 #14 8 VSWR Measurement JNTUH
15 #15 4 Measurement of Waveguide parameters JNTUH
16 #16 8 Measurement of Impedance of a given Load JNTUH
4 Measurement of Scattering parameters of a JNTUH

17 #17
Magic Tee
4 Measurement of scattering parameter of a JNTUH
18 #18
circulator
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9. EXPERIMENT WRITE-UP
INTRODUCTION
Lab Organization:
There are a total of 17 laboratory experiments described in this manual. The first 9 involve
basic microwave measurement techniques for frequency, Gunn diode V-I Characteristics,
VSWR, S parameters, power, attenuation and guide wavelength. The last 8 experiments deal
with Digital Communications Lab and involve PCM and DPCM signal generation and
detection, Delta Modulation, various Shift keying techniques etc.
Be sure to completely read the description of each experiment before beginning the experiment.
This will help you to see the overall plan of action, and should decrease the likelihood that you
will do the procedure incorrectly, or forget to do part of the procedure.
Some of the laboratory experiments will involve material that is out of sequence with the
classroom lecture, and you will be covering topics that have not yet been discussed in class.
You will need to read some text material (Microwave Devices and Circuits, 3rd edition, by
Samuel Y. Liao and Microwave Engineering by G.S.N. Raju) ahead of the lecture schedule so
that you have a better understanding of the experiments you are performing. Prior to
going to your first lab, you should read over the description of the first three experiments in
the lab handbook. Also, make sure you read first few pages of the lab handbook, since they
contain general information that you need to know.
You will be performing MWE lab through the first half of the semester, and Digital
Communications lab during the second half of the semester. Each Lab Section will have a
minimum of six lab groups, with two students in each group (some groups may consist of three
students in special situations).
Lab Reports:
Lab reports are required of individual students, and are due two weeks after the corresponding
experiment has been completed. Students are encouraged to keep a lab notebook to record
original data, equipment layout, and notes about the experiment. Reports should be neat and
clearly organized, and should include original data sheets. Graphs should be neatly drawn,
either using a computer graphics package, or by hand with a straightedge and French curve.
Each graph axis of a graph must include a title and units. Organization of the lab report is left
to the student, but a suggested report outline follows:
1. Introduction (purpose of experiment)

2. Procedure (equipment used, configuration, unexpected problems)
3. Results (measured data, relevant calculations)
4. Discussion (interpretation of results)
5. Conclusions (what was learned, recommendations)
In some of the experiments topics for optional work are suggested - you should consider these
options, if time permits. Students are also encouraged to try out their own "what if…” ideas.
You are encouraged to keep a lab notebook/observation notebook, with careful notes about the
experiment setup, measurements, expected (or unexpected) results, problems encountered, etc.
Completed lab reports are required of each student, and are due one week after each experiment
is completed. The Teaching Assistant will collect lab reports at the beginning of each lab
session.
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Care of Equipment:
Please be very careful with the microwave test equipment and signal sources, as it is very
delicate, and expensive to repair or replace. If you suspect something is not operating correctly,
report it to the lab technician or Teaching Assistant. Be especially careful when using
connectors to avoid breaking pins and cross-threading. If at any time you are uncertain about
lab safety, please ask the Teaching Assistant before proceeding.
Lab Support:
There will be a Lab Assistant assigned to each of the Lab Sections to help with questions about
experiment setup and measurements. Any problems with basic measurement equipment (e.g.
signal sources, VSWR meters, DC Hardware Kits, Oscilloscopes etc.) should be reported
immediately to the lab assistant.
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9.1 EQUIPMENTS USED IN MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LAB
Klystron Power Supply:
Specifications Model SKPS-610 Beam Supply:
 Voltage Range: 200-450 V continuously Variable
 Current: 50mA Max
 Regulation: Better than 0.5% for 10% variation in the mains supply voltage
 Ripple: Less than 5 mV rms
 Repler supply Voltage Range: 10V to 270 V DC Continuously variable with respect to
klystron cathode
 Regulation: 0.25% for 10% variation in the mains supply voltage
 Heater Supply: 6.3 V DC (Regulated)
Modulation:
 Square Wave: Max. Amplitude: + 110 V peak to peak Freq.: 500 Hz-2000Hz Amplitude and
frequency continuously variable
 Sawtooth: Amplitude: -60 V max. peak to peak Freq.: 50 Hz-150 Hz Amplitude and
frequency continuously variable
 Operating Voltage: 230V 10%, 50 Hz, A.C.
Gunn Power Supply: For Gunn based bench. It is regulated power supply to operate the gunn
oscillator. It also contains square wave generator to provide 1KHz frequency to the pin modulator
for amplitude modulation. Specifications:
 Voltage Range: 0-12V continuously variable
 Current: 1A max
 Regulation: 0.2 % for 10 % variation in the mains supply voltage
 Ripple: 1mVrms
 Modulation frequency: 1kHz +/- 10% (900-1100kHz)
 Output Connector: BNC (F) for Gunn Oscillator and TNC (F) for Pin Modulator
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14
MICROWAVE SUPPLIES AND VARIOUS COMPONENTS AT A GLANCE
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9.2 REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS
Preamble: Characteristics of reflex klystron will be studied.
Aim: To obtain the reflex klystron output and frequency characteristic.
Equipment Required
S. No Name of Equipment Specifications

1 Klystron power supply Model SKPS-610
Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
2 Oscilloscope Freq: 0-20 MHz
3 Cooling fan -
Component Required
S. No Name of component Type Range Quantity
1 Klystron Mount XKM-139 8.20-12.40 1
2 Attenuator variable 0-50db 1
3 Frequency meter micrometer 8-12 GHz 1
4 VSWR Analog 1-infinity 1
5 Isolator - 0-50db 1
Figure 9.2.1 Reflex Klystron Power Supply
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Figure 9.2.2 Reflex Klystron Microwave Test Bench
THEORY: Klystron is a vacuum tube microwave oscillator. Its operation depends
on the principle of velocity modulation and transit time.
The transit time and mode number, power, frequency characteristics, electronic
tuning sensitivity, output efficiency and klystron mode characteristics are some of
the important parameters in reflex klystron.
Transit time
The transit time and the frequency are related by
Here n is zero or a natural number, each value of n corresponds to a different transit time. These
transit times are called modes. The modes are represented by n.
Mode Number
Mode number is given by
If n = 0, it gives ¾ mode and if n =1, it gives 1 3/4 mode

Power in Frequency Characteristics
The mode of operation depends on the repeller voltage. The variations of power with repeller
voltage are called power characteristics. The variation of frequency with repeller voltage is
called frequency characteristics.
Frequency of Reflex Klystron
The klystron frequency can also be varied by reflector voltages. This type of variation of
frequency is known as electronic tuning. Electronic tuning sensitivity is defined as
17
Here f1 and f2 are frequencies expressed in MHz corresponding to half of its value at the dip,
V1 and V2 are repeller voltages.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Klystron
Power
supply
SKPS-610
Multi
meter
Klystron Variable Detector

Isolator Frequency VSWR
Mount attenuator mount
XI-621 meter XF-455 meter
XM-251 XA-520 XD-451
SW-115
CRO
Figure 9.2.3 Block Diagram of Reflex Klystron
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
CARRIER WAVE OPERATION
1. Connect the equipment and components as shown in the figure.
2. Set the variable attenuator at maximum Position.
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3. Set the MOD switch of Klystron Power Supply at CW position, beam voltage control
knob to fully anti clock wise and repeller voltage control knob to fully clock wise and
meter switch to ‘OFF’ position.
4. Rotate the Knob of frequency meter at one side fully.
5. Connect the DC microampere meter at detector.
6. Switch “ON” the Klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan for the Klystron tube.
7. Put the meter switch to beam voltage position and rotate the beam voltage knob
clockwise slowly up to 300 Volts and observe the beam current on the meter by
changing meter switch to beam current position. The beam current should not increase
more than 30 mA.
8. Change the repeller voltage slowly and watch the current meter, set the maximum
voltage on CRO.
9. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for the maximum output.
10. Rotate the knob of frequency meter slowly and stop at that position, where there is less
output current on multimeter. Read directly the frequency meter between two
11. Change the repeller voltage and read the current and frequency for each repeller Voltage.
SQUARE WAVE OPERATION:

1. Connect the equipments and components as shown in figure.
2. Set Micrometer of variable attenuator around some Position.
3. Set the range switch of VSWR meter at 40 db position, input selector switch to
crystal impedance position, meter switch to narrow position.
4. Set Mod-selector switch to AM-MOD position .beam voltage control knob to fully anti
Clockwise position.
5. Switch “ON” the klystron power Supply, VSWR meter, CRO and cooling fan.
6. Switch “ON” the beam voltage. Switch and rotate the beam voltage knob clockwise up
to 300V in meter.
7. Keep the AM – MOD amplitude knob and AM – FREQ knob at the mid position.
8. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter or square wave
on CRO.
9. Rotate the AM – MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter
or CRO.
10. Maximize the deflection with frequency knob to get the maximum output in VSWR
meter or CRO.
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11. If necessary, change the range switch of VSWR meter 30dB to 50dB if the deflection
in VSWR meter is out of scale or less than normal scale respectively.
MODE STUDY ON OSCILLOSCOPE
1. Set up the components and equipment as shown in Fig.
2. Keep position of variable attenuator at min attenuation position.
3. Set mode selector switch to FM-MOD position FM amplitude and FM frequency knob at
mid position keep beam voltage knob to fully anti clock wise and reflector voltage knob to
fully clockwise position and beam switch to ‘OFF’ position.
4. Keep the time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100 HZ frequency measurement and
volt/div. to lower scale.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply and oscilloscope.
6. Change the meter switch of klystron power supply to Beam voltage position and set beam
voltage to 300V by beam voltage control knob.
7. Keep amplitude knob of FM modulator to max. Position and rotate the reflector voltage
anti clock wise to get the modes as shown in figure on the oscilloscope. The horizontal axis
represents reflector voltage axis and vertical represents o/p power.
8. By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation in any mode of klystron
tube can be seen on oscilloscope.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Beam Voltage :…………V (Constant)
Beam Current :………….Ma
Power
RepellerVoltage
Current(mA) DipFrequency(GHz)
(V) (mW)
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EXPECTED GRAPH:
RESULT:
Applications of Reflex Klystron:

1. In radar receivers
2. Local oscillator in μw receivers
3. Signal source in micro wave generator of variable frequency
4. Portable micro wave links.
5. Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier
Viva Voce:
1. What is the difference between 2 cavity klystron amplifier and reflex klystron?
2. What is the frequency range of reflex klystron?
3. What is output power and efficiency of reflex klystron?
4. List out various applications of reflex klystron
5. A) Define transit time
B) What is the value of reflex klystron transit time?
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Sample Questions:
1. what is the difference between the cavity klystron amplifier and the reflex klystron
2. what is the frequency range of reflex klystron
3. what is the output power and efficiency of the reflex klystron
4. list out various applications of reflex klystron
5. Define transit time
6. What are the governing factors of transit time?
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9.3 GUNN DIODE V-I CHARACTERISTICS
PREAMBLE: Operation of Gunn diode is studied and its characteristics will be plotted.
AIM: To study the V-I Characteristics of Gunn diode.
Equipment Required
S. No Name of specifications
Equipment
1 Gunn power supply Listed above in page no
Component Required

1 PIN-Modulator - 8.20-12.40GHz 1
THEORY: : Gunn diode is a negative resistance device. It is used as amplifier and oscillator.
The circuit using co-axial cavity has the Gunn diode at one end at one end of cavity
along with the central conductor of the co-axial line. The O/P is taken using a inductively or
capacitively coupled probe. The length of the cavity determines the frequency of oscillation.
The location of the coupling loop or probe within the resonator determines the load impedance
presented to the Gunn diode. Heat sink conducts away the heat due to power dissipation of the
device.
Salient Features
 Gunn diode is discovered by J.B. Gunn in 1963
 It is used as amplifier and oscillator
 It can be used up to 100 GHz frequency
 Its power output is about 10 W at lower microwave frequency range
 It does not have a p-n junction
 It is an example of transfer electron device (TED)
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 It is a wide band device
 It has low noise characteristics
 It is bulk effect device
 Its V-I characteristics is given by
Figure 9.3.1 Theoritical graph of Gunn Diode
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Gunn Matched
power termination
supply XL -400
Gunn Pin Frequency

Isolator
oscillator modulator meter
XI -621
XG -11 XF- 710
Figure 9.3.2 Block diagram of Gunn diode
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Figure 9.3.3 Gunn Diode Microwave Test Bench Setup
Figure 9.3.4 Gunn Power Supply

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristics:
1. Set the components and equipment as shown in Figure.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for minimum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below
Meter switch – “OFF”
Gunn bias knob – Fully anti clock wise
PIN bias knob – Fully anti clock wise
PIN mode frequency – any position
4. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
5. Switch “ON” the Gunn power supply.
6. Measure the Gunn diode current to corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltage through
the digital panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.
7. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph.
8. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponding to max current.
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EXPECTED GRAPH:
Threshold voltage
Figure 9.3.5 Expected Graph of Gunn Diode
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Gunn bias voltage Gunn diode current

(v) (mA)
Precautions:
 Cooling fan should be used to avoid heating of Gunn diode
 While measuring frequency, frequency meter should be detuned each time
 Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 seconds
 Reading should be obtained as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive heating
Gunn diode may burn
 Before application of the Gunn power supply, keep Gunn bias and PIN bias knobs fully
anti-clockwise
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RESULT:
Applications
1.It is used in radar transmitters.
2.It is used in microwave oscillator
3.Broadband linear amplifier.
Viva Voce:
1. What are the applications of Gunn diode?

2. What are the drawbacks of Gunn diode?
3. What is the frequency range and efficiency of Gunn diode?
4. What is the basis behind the Gunn Effect?
5. What is meant by population inversion?
6. In which frequency mode the Gunn diode will oscillate?
7. What is the noise factor of Gunn diode when compared to IMPATT diode?
Sample questions:
1. Explain the I-V characteristics of a Gunn Diode?

2. Explain the negative resistance of a Gunn diode?
3. Why Gunn diode exhibits negative resistance characteristics?
4. Explain the frequency characteristics of Gunn diode?
5. What are bulk semiconductors? Explain the p-n junction less diode’s V-I
characteristics with appropriate diagrams?
27
9.4 Measurement of Parameters of DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
Preamble: Operation of Directional coupler will be studied and parameters will be calculated.
AIM: To find out Coupling factor, Insertion Loss and Directivity of the Directional coupler
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
3 Cooling fan -
Components Required
THEORY: A waveguide directional coupler is a four-port waveguide junction device that

samples part of the EM power through the main waveguide.
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and
reflected wave separately. It consist of two transmission lines the main arm and auxiliary arm,
electromagnetically coupled to each other Refer to the Fig.1. The power entering, in the main-
arm gets divided between port 2 and 3, and almost no power comes out in port (4) Power
entering at port 2 is divided between port 1 and 4.
The coupling factor is defined as Coupling (db) = 10 log10 [P1/P3] where port 2 is terminated,
Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 [P2/P3] where P1 is matched.
With built-in termination and power entering at Port 1, the directivity of the coupler is
a measure of separation between incident wave and the reflected wave. Directivity is measured
indirectly as follows:
Hence Directivity D (db) = I-C = 10 log10 [P2/P1]
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Figure 9.4.1 Directional Coupler
Main line VSWR is SWR measured, looking into the main-line input terminal when
the matched loads are placed at all other ports. Auxiliary live VSWR is SWR measured in the
auxiliary line looking into the output terminal when the matched loads are placed on other
terminals.
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in the transmission line by insertion of
coupler, it is defined as:
Insertion Loss (dB) = 10 log10 [P1/P2]
29
Figure 9.4.2 Block diagram of Directional coupler
Figure 9.4.3 A High Power Directional Coupler
30
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the equipments as shown in the Figure.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular operation of frequency.
3. Remove the multi hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount to the slotted
section.
4. Set maximum amplitude in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be X.
5. Insert the directional coupler between the slotted line and detector mount. Keeping port 1
to slotted line, detector mount to the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination to port 2
without changing the position of variable attenuator.
6. Calculate the Coupling factor X-Y in dB.
9. Now carefully disconnect the detector mount from the auxiliary port 3 and matched
termination from port 2 , without disturbing the setup.
10. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector mount to port 2 and
measure the amplitude on CRO, Let it be Z.
11. Compute Insertion Loss= X – Z in dB.
12. Repeat the steps from 1 to 4.
13. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction i.e., port 2 to slotted section,
matched termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3, without disturbing the position
of the variable attenuator.
14. Measure and note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be Y0.
15. Compute the Directivity as Y-Y0 in dB.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax errors.
RESULT:
Applications
1.used in impedance bridges for microwave mixers.
2.used for power monitoring.
3.used in microwave mixers.
Viva Voce:
1. What is the purpose of a Directional Coupler?
2. What is meant by coupling factor and what is its formula?
31
3. What is mean by the directivity of a DC and how can it be expressed?
4. What is meant by isolation and how can it be expresses
5. How many types of DCs are there and which is the most commonly used one?
6. Summarize the properties of idealized Directional coupler?
Sample questions:
1. Explain the various parameters associated with Directional Coupler.
2. Explain coupling factor and directivity of a 4 port directional coupler
3. Explain the function of a four port directional coupler with neat sketches.
4. Explain the practical used of a directional coupler
5. What are the properties of a directional coupler? Explain the various
parameters associated with it.
32
9.5 VSWR MEASUREMENTS
PREAMBLE: Measurement of Low, Medium and High(double minimum method ) will be
done.
AIM: To measure VSWR of a given unit under test.

Equipment Required:
Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
3 Cooling fan -
Component Required

THEORY:
VSWR means Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. Standing waves indicate the quality of
transmission. The well matched loads have no reflections and VSWR is one.
VSWR = Vmax/Vmin
BLOCK DIAGRAM
33
Figure 9.5.1 Block diagram of Low VSWR measurement
Figure 9.5.2 Block diagram of HighVSWR measurement
Figure 9.5.3 VSWR
PROCEDURE:
34
1. Set up equipment as shown in figure.
2. Keep variable attenuator in minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep control knobs of VSWR meter as below
Range dB = 40db / 50db
Input switch = low
impedance Meter switch
= Normal
Gain (coarse fine) = Mid position
4. Keep control knobs of klystron power supply as below.
Beam Voltage = OFF
Mod-Switch = AM
Beam Voltage Knob = fully anti clock wise
Reflection voltage knob = fully clock wise
AM-Amplitude knob = around fully clock
wise AM frequency and amplitude knob =
mid position
5. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
6. Switch ‘ON” the beam voltage switch position and set (down) beam voltage at 300V.
7. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Tune the O/P by turning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of AM modulation.
9. Tune plunges of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
10. If required, change the range db-switch variable attenuator position and (given) gain
control knob to get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
As you move probe along the slotted line, the deflection will change.
A. Measurement of low and medium VSWR:

1. Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
2. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicates
1.0 on normal VSWR scale.
3. Keep all the control knob as it is move the probe to next minimum position. Read the
VSWR on scale.
4. Repeat the above step for change of S-S tuner probe depth and record the corresponding
SWR.
5. If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range 0dB switch to next higher position
35
and read the VSWR on second VSWR scale of 3 to 10.
B. Measurement of High VSWR: (double minimum method)
1. Set the depth of S-S tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
2. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain n a reading of
3db in the normal dB scale (0 to 10db) of VSWR meter.
4. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10 db
scale. Note and record the probe position on slotted line. Let it be d1.
5. Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full scale
deflection is obtained on 0-10db normal db scale. Let it be d2.
6. Replace S-S tuner and termination by movable short.
7. Measure distance between 2 successive minima positions of probe. Twice this distance is
guide wave length λg.
8. Compute SWR from following equation
SWR=
OBSERVATION TABLE:
LOW VSWR
VSWR = _______
HIGH VSWR
Beam
x1 x2 x1 x2 Avg (x1-x2) = x λg=2x
Voltage
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(v)
36
λg = 6cm
d1 d2 d1-d2
VSWR = λg /  (d1-d2)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
RESULT: .
Applications
1.Used in antennas for connecting radio transmitters and receivers.
2.Used for cable Television signals.
Viva Voce:
37
1. What is meant by VSWR and what is its range?
2. What is the expression for reflection coefficient and what is its range?
3. Which method is useful for the measurement of high VSWR>10?
4. What is the empirical relation for the VSWR in terms of power positions?
5. What is the function of the SWR indicator in the microwave bench?
6. What is the minimum value of VSWR.
Sample questions:
1. Explain the relation between VSWR and the reflection coefficient?

2. Explain the practical use of VSWR measurement
3. Which method is useful for the measurement of high VSWR>10?
4. Which method is useful for the measurement of low VSWR<10?
5. What is the function of the SWR indicator in the microwave bench?
9.6. IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT USING REFLEX KLYSTRON
PREAMBLE: Unknown impedance will be calculated.

AIM: To find out unknown impedance using slotted line.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
3 Cooling fan -
Components Required

38
THEORY:
The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written in the form R+jx.
For comparison SWR can be calculated as
Where ‘ρ’ is reflection coefficient

It is given as
Where
Zo = characteristics impedance of wave guide at operating frequency.
Zl is the load impedance
The measurement is performed in the following way.
The unknown device is connected to the slotted line and the position of one minima is
determined. The unknown device is replaced by movable short to the slotted line. Two
successive minima portions are noted. The twice of the difference between minima position
will be guide wave length. One of the minima is used as reference for impedance measurement.
Find the difference of reference minima and minima position obtained from unknown load. Let
it be‘d’. Take a smith chart, taking ‘1’ as centre, draw a circle of radius equal to S. Mark a point
on circumference of smith chart towards load side at a distance equal to d/λg.
Join the center with this point. Find the point where it cut the drawn circle. The co-
ordinates of this point will show the normalized impedance of load.
39
Figure 9.6.1 Block diagram of Impedance Measurement
PROCEDURE:
1. Calculate a set of Vmin values for short or movable short as load.
2. Note:
3. From the above 2 steps calculate d = d1-d2
4. With the same setup as in step 2 but with few numbers of turns (2 or 3). Calculate low
VSWR.
Note: Draw a VSWR circle on a smith chart.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Load (short or movable short)
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
x = ______
40
λg = _____
Load (S.S. Tuner + Matched Termination)
S.S Tuner + Matched Termination Short or Movable Short
d1= , d2 =
d = d1 ~
d2 = Z =
d/λg =
RESULT:
Viva Voce:
1. Mention the methods used for measurement of impedance

2. For measuring low impedance which method is used?
3. In which method both impedance and reflection coefficient is measured?
Sample questions:
1. What is the use of Klystron Power supply in the measurement of impedance?

2. Define load and characteristic impedances? How they are related to reflection
coefficient? How to measure them?
3. Explain the setup for measuring the impedance using Klystron Power supply
4. What is a balanced transmission line? Explain various methods for the measurement of
impedance
5. In which method both impedance and reflection coefficient are measured?
41
9.7 SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF MAGIC TEE
PREAMBLE: Operation of Magic-Tee is studied and its parameters will be calculated.

AIM: To observe the parameters of Magic Tee
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
3 Cooling fan -
Components Required

THEORY:
The device Magic Tee is a combination of E and H plane Tee. Arm 3 is the H-arm and arm 4
is the E-arm. If the power is fed, into arm 3 (H-arm) the electric field divides equally between
arm1 and 2 with the same phase and no electric field exists in the arm 4. If power is fed in arm
4 (E-arm) it divides equally into arm 1 and 2 but out of phase with no power to arm 3, further,
if the power is fed in arm 1 and 2 simultaneously it is added in arm 3 (H-arm) and it is subtracted
in E-arm i.e., arm 4.
A. Isolation
The Isolation between E and H arm is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by the
generator connected to the E-arm (port 4) to the power detected at H-arm (port 3) when side
arm 1 and 2 terminated in matched load.
Isolation (dB) = 10 log10 [P4/P3]
B. Coupling FactorIt is defined as Cij = 10 – /20
42
Where ‘’ is attenuation / isolation in dB when ‘i' is input arm and ‘j’ is output
arm. Thus,  = 10 log10 [P4/P3]
Where P3 is the power delivered to arm ‘i’ and P4 is power detected at ‘j’ arm.
Figure 9.7.1 Block diagram of Magic Tee
Figure 9.7.2 Magic Tee

43
LABORATORY MANUAL DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
1. Setup the components and equipments as shown in figure.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the detector
mount for maximum output.
3. With the help of variable frequency of operation and tune the detector mount for maximum
output attenuator, set any reference in the CRO let it be V3.
4. Without disturbing the position of the variable attenuator, carefully place the Magic Tee after
the slotted line, keeping H-arm to slotted line, detector mount to E-arm and matched
termination to Port-1 and Port-2.
5. Note down the amplitude using CRO, Let it be V4.
6. Determine the Isolation between Port-3 and Port-4 as V3-V4.
7. Determine the coupling co-efficient from the equation given in theory part.
8. The same experiment may be repeated for other Ports also.
OBSERVATIONS:
Ports Power
(W)
Calculations:
Coupling Co-efficient:
Vi
Vj
–α /20
RESULT:
Applications
1. Used for mixing.

2. Used for duplexing.
3. Used in Impedance measurements.
Viva Voce questions:
1. What is a magic tee?
2. What are the applications of magic tee?
44
Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering ASTRA
3. What is the scattering matrix of magic tee?
4. How magic tee is different from E-plane and H-plane tees?
5. Why a magic tee is named magic tee? Explain in detail.
Sample Questions:
1. What are the applications of Magic tee? Explain in detail.
2. Explain the scattering matrix of a magic tee? How it is different from that of E-plane and
H-plane tees?
3. What is a Hybrid tee? Explain
4. Explain the practical usage of magic tee in Microwaves
5. Explain the properties of a magic tee highlighting its advantages and applications
45
9.8. SCATTERING PARAMETERS OF CIRCULATOR

PREAMBLE: Analysis of circulator will be done and parameters are calculated.
AIM: To determine and calculate scattering parameters of circulator.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
3 Cooling fan -
Components Required
THEORY:
CIRCULATOR:
Circulator is defined as device with ports arranged such that energy entering a port is coupled to
an adjacent port but not coupled to the other ports. This is depicted in figure circulator can have
any number of ports.
Figure 9.8.1 Circulator
46
ISOLATOR:
An Isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little attenuation
and from output to input with very high attenuation.
Figure 9.8.2 Isolator
The isolator, shown in Fig. can be derived from a three-port circulator by simply placing a
matched load (reflection less termination) on one port.
A. Insertion Loss B. Isolation is the ratio of power applied to the output to that measured
at the input. This ratio is expressed in db. The isolation of a circulator is measured with
the third port terminated in a matched load.
Measurement of insertion Loss
1. Remove the isolator or circulator from slotted line and connect the detector mount to the slotted
section. The output of the detector mount should be connected with CRO.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation.
Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the CRO.
3. Set any reference level of output in CRO with the help of variable attenuator, Let it be V1.
4. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing the position of the
set up. Insert the isolator/circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keep input port
to slotted line and detector its output port. A matched termination should be placed at third
port in case of Circulator.
5. Record the output in CRO, Let it be V2.
6. Compute Insertion loss given as V1-V2 in db.
Measurement of Isolation:
7. For measurement of isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected in reverse i.e.
47
output port to slotted line and detector to input port with other port terminated by matched
termination (for circulator).
8. Record the output of CRO and let it be V3.
9. Compute Isolation as V1-V3 in db.
10. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
11. Repeat the above experiment for other frequency if needed.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax errors.
RESULT:
Applications
1. Used to couple a transmitter and receiver to a common antenna.
2. Used to seperate the input and output in negative resistance applications.
1. What does a circulator mean?
2. What type of transition takes place in circulator?
3. How circular act as a duplexer?
4. How VSWR measurement can be made by a circulator?
5. What are the applications of circulator?
Sample questions:
1. What is a circulator? Why it is called so? Explain.

2. Explain the practical significance of a microwave circulator
3. Explain the functional difference between a circulator and an isolator? Explain the
scattering matrix of a circulator.
4. Explain the working of a circulator as duplexer.
5. Explain the main properties and applications of a circulator.
48
9.9. ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
PREAMBLE: Measurement of attenuation will be done.

AIM: To measure the attenuation of microwave setup
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
3 Cooling fan -
Components Required
9.9.1 Block diagram of Attenuation Measurement
49
THEORY:
The attenuator is a two port bidirectional device which attenuates some power when
inserted into a transmission line.
Attenuation A (dB) = 10 log (P1/P2)
Where P1 = Power detected by the load without the attenuator in the
line P2 = Power detected by the load with the attenuator in the
line.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the equipments as shown in the above figure.

2. Energize the microwave source for maximum power at any frequency of operation
3. Connect the detector mount to the slotted line and tune the detector mount also for max
deflection on VSWR or on CRO
4. Set any reference level on the VSWR meter or on CRO with the help of variable attenuator.
Let it be P1.
5. Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without disturbing any position
on the setup place the test variable attenuator to the slotted line and detector mount to O/P port
of test variable attenuator. Keep the micrometer reading of text variable attenuator to zero and
record the readings of VSWR meter or on CRO. Let it to be P2. Then the insertion loss of test
attenuator will be P1-P2 db.
6. For measurement of attenuation of fixed and variable attenuator. Place the test attenuator to
the slotted line and detector mount at the other port of test attenuator. Record the reading of
VSWR meter or on CRO. Let it be P3 then the attenuation value of variable attenuator for
particular position of micrometer reading of will be P1-P3 db.
7. In case the variable attenuation, change the micro meter reading and record the VSWR meter
or CRO reading. Find out attenuation value for different position of micrometer reading and
plot a graph.
8. Now change the operating frequency and all steps should be repeated for finding frequency
sensitivity of fixed and variable attenuator.
Note:1.
50
EXPECTED GRAPH:
9.9.2 Expected Graph of

Attenuation Measurement
OBSERVATION TABLE:
P1 P2 Attenuation = P1-P2
Micrometer reading
(dB) (dB) (dB)
RESULT:
1. define attenuation and write its expression
2. name the methods of measurements of attenuation
51
3. what is the drawback of attenuator factor
4. what is the effect method for measuring the attenuator factor
5. define the power ratio method
6. what is the function of the variable attenuator in micro wave bench
Sample questions:
1. Explain the method of attenuation measurement.
2. Explain the various types of attenuators and their significance in microwave
3. What is attenuation factor? Explain how it can be measured
4. How does a variable attenuator works? Explain.
5. With the help of neat diagrams explain the measurement of attenuation at microwave
52
9.10. MEASUREMENTS OF FREQUENCY AND GUIDE WAVELENGTH
PREAMBLE: Experimental Microwave set-up is studied and frequency, guide wavelength

will be calculated.
AIM: To measure the source frequency and guide wavelength
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
3 Cooling fan -
Components Required

THEORY: The cut-off frequency relationship shows that the physical size of the wave guide will
determine the propagation of the particular modes of specific orders determined by values of m
and n. The minimum cut-off frequency is obtained for a rectangular wave guide having dimension
a>b, for values of m=1, n=0, i.e. TE10 mode is the dominant mode since for TMmn modes, n#0
or n#0 the lowest-order mode possible is TE10, called the dominant mode in a rectangular wave
guide for a>b.
For dominant TE10 mode rectangular wave guide λo, λg and λc are related as
below. 1/λo² = 1/λg² + 1/λc²
Where λo is free space wave

length λg is guide wave
length
λc is cut off wave length
53
For TE10 mode λc – 2a where ‘a’ is broad dimension of wave gu
Figure 9.10.1 Block diagram of Frequency and waveguide length
PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure.
2. Set up variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Beam voltage – OFF
Mod-switch – AM
Beam voltage knob – Fully anti clock wise
Repeller voltage – Fully clock wise
AM – Amplitude knob – Around fully clock wise
AM – Frequency knob – Around mid-position
4. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan switch.
5. Switch ’ON’ the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V with help of beam voltage
knob.
6. Adjust the repeller voltage to get the maximum amplitude in CRO

7. Maximize the amplitude with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power supply.
8. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum Amplitude.
9. Tune the repeller voltage knob for maximum Amplitude.
10. Tune the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the CRO and note down the frequency from
frequency meter.
11. Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
12. Move the probe along with slotted line. The amplitude in CRO will vary .Note and record the
probe position, Let it be d1.
54
13. Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again, let it be d2.
14. Calculate the guide wave length as twice the distance between two successive minimum
position obtained as above.
15. Measure the wave guide inner board dimension ‘a’ which will be around 22.86mm for
x-band.
16. Calculate the frequency by following equation.
f= =c
Verify with frequency obtained by frequency modes

17. Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.
8
fo = C/λo => C =>
1/λo² = 1/λg² + 1/λc²
λg = 2x ∆d
For TE10 mode => λc = 2a
a wave guide inner broad dimension a
= 2.286cm” (given in manual)
λc = 4.6c
OBSERVATION TABLE:
RESULT:
1. what is the function of frequency measurement in micro wave bench
2. what is the technique for measuring the frequency
3. what are the advantage of frequency measurement
4. what are the applications of frequency measurement
Sample questions:
1. what is the function of frequency measurement in micro wave bench
55
2. what is the technique for measuring the frequency
3. what are the advantage of frequency measurement
4. what are the applications of frequency measurement
56
9.11. REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISITCS: DETERMINATION OF MODES

USING OSCILLOSCOPE
Preamble: Various modes of reflex klystron will be determined.
AIM: To determine modes
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Beam
supply(mentioned
above)
3 Cooling fan -
Components Required

THEORY: Klystron is a vacuum tube microwave oscillator. Its operation depends

on the principle of velocity modulation and transit time.
Mode Number
Mode number is given by
If n = 0, it gives ¾ mode and if n =1, it gives 1 3/4 mode
The transit time and mode number, power, frequency characteristics, electronic
tuning sensitivity, output efficiency and klystron mode characteristics are some of
the important parameters in reflex klystron.
57
Transit time
The transit time and the frequency are related by
Here n is zero or a natural number, each value of n corresponds to a different transit time. These
transit times are called modes. The modes are represented by n.
Power in Frequency Characteristics
The mode of operation depends on the repeller voltage. The variations of power with repeller
voltage are called power characteristics. The variation of frequency with repeller voltage is
called frequency characteristics.
Frequency of Reflex Klystron
The klystron frequency can also be varied by reflector voltages. This type of variation of
frequency is known as electronic tuning. Electronic tuning sensitivity is defined as
Here f1 and f2 are frequencies expressed in MHz corresponding to half of its value at the dip, V1
and V2 are repeller voltages.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Figure 9.11.1 Block diagram of mode characteristics of reflex klystron
58
Procedure:
1. Assemble the components and equipment as shown in above figure.

2. Keep variable attenuator at maximum attenuation position.
3. Keep mode selector switch in FM-MOD.
4. Set beam voltage in the klystron power supply at 300 V and keep amplitude knob of FM
modulator at maximum position.
5. Change the reflector voltage and observe the variation of output power with reflector
voltage.
6. Vary the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation position and observe the
klystron modes on the CRO
Precautions:
1. An isolator or attenuator should be used between the klystron and the other equipment in
the set up to avoid loading of the klystron.
2. While measuring frequency, frequency meter should be detuned each time.
3. The negative repeller voltage should be applied first before anode voltage is applied.
4. Before switching on power supply, the control knobs of klystron power supply should be
kept as below:
Meter switch: OFF
Mode switch: AM
Beam voltage knob: Fully anti-clockwise
AM-Amplitude: Fully clockwise
AM-Frequency knob: Mid position
5. The control knob of VSWR meter should be kept as below
Meter switch: Normal
Input switch: Low impedance position
Range dB switch: 40/50 dB
Gain control knob: Fully clockwise
6. Cooling fan should be used to avoid heating of klystron tube.
Viva Voce:
1. What is the difference between 2 cavity klystron amplifier and reflex klystron?
2. What is the frequency range of reflex klystron?
3. What is output power and efficiency of reflex klystron?
59
4. List out various applications of reflex klystron

5. A) Define transit time
6. B) What is the value of reflex klystron transit time?
Sample Questions:
1. How would you determine mode number using Reflex Klystron
2. How would you avoid loading of reflex klystron?
3. what is the output power and efficiency of the reflex klystron
4. list out various applications of reflex klystron
5. Define mode number
6. How will you set the following in determination of mode number using reflex
klystron:
I. Meter switch
II. Mode switch
III. Beam voltage knob: Fully anti-clockwise
IV. AM-Amplitude
V. AM-Frequency knob
60
9.12 EQUIPMENTS USED IN DIGITAL COMMUNICTIONS LAB
61
62
9.13 PULSE CODE MODULATION & DEMODULATION

PREAMBLE: PCM modulation and demodulation is studied.
AIM: To Study Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation
Equipment and components Required:
S. No Name of Equipment Model Type/Range Quantity

1 PCM transmitter trainer AET-68M Dc source:0- 1
kit 5v
Freq:200Hz
2 PCM receiver trainer kit AET-68D 1
3 CRO Analog Freq:0- 1
20MHz
4 Connecting wires BNC - 2-3
THEORY: In the PCM communication system, the input analog signal is sampled and these
samples are subjected to the operation of quantization. The quantized samples are applied to an
encoder. The encoder responds to each such a sample by generation unique and identifiable
binary pulse. The combination of quantize and encoder is called analog to digital converter. It
accepts analog signal and replaces it with a successive code symbol, each symbol consists of a
train of pulses in which the each pulse represents a digit in arithmetic system.
When this digitally encoded signal arrives at the receiver, the first operation to be
performed is separation of noise which has been added during transmission along the channel.
It is possible because of quantization of the signal for each pulse interval; it has to determine
which of many possible values has been received.
63
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Figure 9.13.1 Block diagram of PCM Modulation and Demodulation
OUTPUT WAVEFORM
Figure 9.13.2 Output waveform of PCM Modulation and Demodulation
64
PROCEDURE:
1. The two inputs of function generator are connected to channel -0 and channel-1
simultaneously that is DC1 output to channel -0 and DC2 to channel-1.
2. Transmitter and receiver are connected by the synchronization of clock pulses and by
connecting ground transmitter to ground receiver.
3. The transmitter is connected to the input of receiver to go the original signal at the receiver
output.
4. The phase shift of a channel can be obtained by comparing the input and output of channels
at the transmitter block.
5. Thus the output of transmitter can be noted down and input of receiver is similar to that.
6. The receiver output signals are noted down at channel 0 and channel 1 of the receiver block.
RESULT:
Applications:
1. Telecom systems.
2. Digital audio recording.
3. Digitized video effects.
4 . Voice mail.
5. Radio control units.
Viva questions:
1. What is the expression for transmission bandwidth for PCM?

2. What is the expression for quantization noise/error in PCM?
3. What are the advantages of PCM?
4. What are the disadvantages of PCM?
5. What are the applications of PCM?
65
Sample questions:
1. What is PCM? Explain PCM modulation and demodulation using block diagram and
waveforms.
2. Explain the input and output waveforms of PCM.
3. Explain analogue to digital conversion process in detail using appropriate sketches.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of PCM?
5. What are the practical applications of PCM?
66
9.14. DIFFERENTIAL PULSE CODE MODULATION
PREAMBLE: Operation of DPCM will be studied.

Aim:
To study Differential Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation by sending variable
frequency sine wave and variable DC signal inputs.
Equipment Required:
S. No Name of Equipment Model Quantity
1 DPCM Modulator trainer AET-68M 1
2 PCM Demodulator AET-69D 1
trainer
3 CRO Analog 1
4 Multimeter Digital 1
4 Connecting wires BNC 2
THEORY:
It consists of a decoder to reconstruct the quantized error signal. The
quantized version of the original input is reconstructed from the decoder output using
the same prediction filter used in transmitter. In the absence of channel noise, we
find that the encoded signal at the receiver input is identical to the encoded signal at
the transmitter output. Accordingly, the corresponding receiver output is equal to m
q (n), which differs from the original input m(n) only by the quantization error q(n)
incurred as a result of quantizing the prediction error e(n).
q
DPCM includes Delta Modulation as a special case. By comparing the

DPCM system with DM system, they are basically similar, except for two important
differences: The use of a one-bit (two-level) quantizer in the delta modulator and the
replacement of the prediction filter by a single delay element (i.e., zero prediction
order). Simply, Delta Modulation is the 1-bit version of DPCM. Unlike a standard
PCM system, the transmitter of both the DPCM&DM involve the use of feedback.
Circuit Diagram: DPCM like DM is subject to slope-overload distortion whenever
the input signal changes too rapidly for the prediction filter to track it. Also like
PCM, DPCM suffers from quantization noise.
67
Figure 9.14.1 DPCM TRANSMITTER
Figure 9.14.2 DPCM RECEIVER
Procedure:
1. Switch on Differential Pulse Code Modulation & Demodulation trainer.
2. Observe the sampling signal output on channel-1 of CRO.
3. Observe the DPCM output on channel-2 of CRO, from 00000000 to 11111111 by

adjusting the DC voltage potentiometer.
4. Disconnect the DC voltage and apply AF oscillator output to the AF input of DPC
modulation.
5. Observe the DPCM output in synchronization with the sampling signal.
6. During demodulation, connect DPCM output to the data input of DPC demodulation
7. Connect CP output of DPC modulation to the CLK pulse input of DPC-

Demodulation.
8. Observe the demodulation output at DPCM demodulation output of DPC

Demodulation.
68
Result:
The operation of DPCM is observed and the output waveforms are verified.
Applications
1.It is used in Lossy compression techniques.
2.used in video or JPEG signals.
Viva voce questions:
1. With the help of neat diagrams explain the transmitter and receiver of DPCM
2. What is uniform Quantization
3. Explain quantization error and derive an expression for maximum signal to noise ratio
4. Derive the relation for signaling rate and transmission band width in DPCM
5. What is the necessity of non-uniform quantization and explain companding?
Sample questions:
1. What is DPCM? Explain DPCM modulation and demodulation using block diagram and
waveforms.
2. Explain the input and output waveforms of DPCM.
3. What are the advantages of DPCM over PCM?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of DPCM?
5. What are the practical applications of DPCM?
69
9.15.DELTA MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
PREAMBLE: Operation of Delta modulation and de-modulation is studied and its waveforms
are observed.
AIM: To study the operation of Delta Modulation and Demodulation and observe the
waveforms
Equipment Required
1 Delta Modulator trainer AET-73M 1
2 Delta Demodulator AET-73D 1
trainer
3 CRO Analog 1
THEORY: Delta Modulation is almost similar to DPCM. In this only one bit is transmitted per
sample just to indicate whether the present sample is larger or smaller than the previous one. The
encoding, decoding and quantizing process become extremely simple but this system cannot
handle rapidly varying samples. This increases quantizing noise. It has also not found wide
acceptance.
BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR MODULATOR
Figure 9.15.1 DM MODULATOR
70
BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR DEMODULATOR:
Figure 9.15.2 Block diagram of Demodulator

PROCEDURE:
MODULATOR
1. 1.Give the 1kHz analog input to the comparator input pin(9) and the output of the
comparator is given to the bi-stable circuit input the TX clock signal is given to the other
input of the bi-stable circuit.
2. The bi-stable circuit output is internally given to the Unipolar/bipolar converter and the
output of this converter will be given to the input of integrator.
3. The integrator output is given to the second input of the comparator.
4. Then plot the comparator input waveforms and the bi-stable circuit output, and the
corresponding clock signal.
DEMODULATOR
1. Connect the bi-stable circuit output to the demodulator side bi-stable circuit input, and
also give the receiver clock signal to this circuit.
2. The output of this bi-stable circuit is internally given to the Unipolar/bipolar converter and
the output of this converter will be given to the input of integrator at demodulator side.
3. Then the integrator output is given to the low pass filter, so finally we observe the original
71
analog signal output across low pass filter output terminal.
OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:
Figure 9.15.3 Output waveform of Delta modulator
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections must be tight.
2. Note down the comparator inputs carefully.
RESULT:
Applications
1.It is used in radio communication devices such as TV remotes.
2It is also used in telecommunications.
72
Viva voce questions:

1. What are the advantages of Delta modulator?
2. What are the disadvantages of delta modulator?
3. How to overcome slope overload distortion?
4. How to overcome Granular or ideal noise?
5. What are the differences between PCM & DM?
6. Define about slope over load distortion?
7. What is the other name of Granular noise?
8. What is meant by staircase approximation?
9. What are the disadvantages of Delta modulator?
10. Write the equation for error at present sample?
Sample questions:
1. What is Delta Modulation? Explain Delta modulation and demodulation using block
diagram and waveforms.
2. Explain the input and output waveforms of Delta Modulation.
3. What are the advantages of Delta Modulation over DPCM?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Delta Modulation?
5. What are the drawbacks of Delta Modulation? How they can be overcome?
6. What are the practical applications of DPCM
9.16 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND DEMULTIPLEXING
73
PREAMBLE:
Time division multiplexing is a technique used for transmitting several analog message
signals over a single communication channel, by dividing the time frame in to number of slots, i.e.
one slot for each signal. Here there are four input signals; all are band limited to fx by the input
Low pass filters, and all these are sequentially sampled at the transmitter by using a rotary switch
i.e. commutator. This commutator makes fs revolutions per second and extracts one sample from
each input during each revolution. The out put of the switch is a PAM wave form containing
samples of the input signals periodically interfaced with time.
AIM: To study Time Division Multiplexing and De-multiplexing
Equipment Required

1 TDM Multiplexer trainer AET-55M 1
2 TDM De-multiplexer AET-55D 1
trainer
3 CRO Analog 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
(AT TRANSMITTING BLOCK)
74
1. Place the duty cycle controlled switch in position-5

2. Turn the potentiometer in function generator block fully in clock wise
3. The following connections are made
a. 250Hz to channel-o
b. 500Hz to channel-1
c. 1kHz to channel-2
d. 2kHz to channel -3
4. The external triggering will be given to the channel-0 terminal.
5. Then multiplexed output is observed across Tx output terminal.
6. Vary the amplitude of input sine wave by varying the potentiometers in
function generator block to indicate which sample belongs to which output
channel and then the outputs are plotted on the graph.
(AT RECEIVER BLOCK)
1. The following connections are made
• Tx output to Rx output
• Tx clock to Rx clock
• Tx t0 to Rx t0
2. Above connections are made sure that the Tx clock signal is used by the Rx to
Synchronize its activity
3. Then de-multiplexed original message signals are available across the low pass
filters at receiver block.
PRECAUTIONS:
2. Waveforms must be noted carefully.
OUTPUT WAVEFORMS: (Transmitting Signals)
75
76
DEMULTIPLEXED OUTPUT:
Figure 9.16.1 Demultiplexed output of TDM
RESULT:
Hence four message signals are transmitted at a time through a single communication
channel, using TDM system and again de-multiplex these four message signals at receiver is
observed.
Applications
1.Mobile communications.
2. Telecommunications.

1. What is meant by multiplexing technique and what are the different types of
Multiplexers?
77
2. Briefly explain about TDM&FDM?

3. What is the transmission band width of a PAM/TDM signal?
4. Define crosstalk effect in PAM/TDM system?
5. What are the advantages of TDM system?
Sample Questions:
1. What are major differences between TDM&FDM?
2. Give the value of Ts in TDM system?
3. What are the applications of TDM system and give some example?
4. What is meant by signal overlapping?
5. Which type of modulation technique will be used in TDM?
78
9.17. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

AIM: To study Frequency Shift Keying and observe the waveforms
Equipment Required

1 FSK trainer AET-48 1
2 Dual trace oscilloscope Analog 1
THEORY:
In FSK, the waveform is generated by switching the frequency of the carrier between
two values corresponding to the binary information which is to be transmitted. Here the
carrier frequency varies from lowest to highest point i.e. carrier swing is known as Frequency
shift keying. FSK signaling schemes find a wide range of applications in low speed digital
data transmission systems.
79
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Figure 9.17.1 Block Diagram of Frequency shift Keying
PROCEDURE: (PCM TX)

1. D.C 1 to CH.0
• CH.0 to CH.1
2. The following conditions should be there
• Mode switch - fast mode
• Switched faults – OFF
• Error check code – OFF
• Adjust D.C1 until the 7 bit code is displayed on A/D converter LED.
(DATA FORMATTING AND CARRIER MOD.&DEMOD. TRAINER)
1. From PCM Tx clock to Tx clock input terminal.
2. PCM output to Tx data input.
3. Then connect NRZ (L) output, carrier of 1.44MHz is applied at modulating input&
carrier inputs of Modulator I.
4. Now invert the NRZ (L) output, then the inverted output and 960MHz carrier
signal both are given to Modulator II.
5. Both the outputs of Modulator I& Modulator II are given to a summing amplifier
then we observe the FSK output across the summing amplifier output terminal.
6. For demodulation of this FSK signal, connect this FSK output to FSK demodulator
input terminal and the output of this FSK demodulator block is given to the input of
LPF.
7. The LPF output is given to the input of voltage comparator, then we observe the
demodulated output across the output terminal of the voltage comparator of
DF&CDM trainer kit.
8.
80
PRECAUTIONS:
2. Carefully draw the output waveform

OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:
Figure 9.18.2 Output waveform of Frequency shift Keying
RESULT:
Applications
81
1.FM radio.
2.point-point military communications.
3.Telephone modem.
1. Define Binary FSK signal?
2. What is meant by carrier swing?
3. Define Frequency deviation of FSK signal?
4. What are the advantages of this FSK signal?
5. Give the differences between FSK & FM?
Sample questions
1. Explain how FSK works with the help of neat diagrams.
2. What is the bandwidth requirement of BPSK?
3. What is the expression for error probability of BPSK reception using coherent matched filter
detection?
4. What are the draw backs of BPSK?
5. Draw the Power spectral density of BPSK
82
9.18 PHASE SHIFT KEYING

PREAMBLE:
The differentially coherent PSK signaling scheme makes use of a clever technique designed to
get around the need for a coherent reference signal at the receiver.
AIM: To study Phase Shift Keying

Equipment Required
1 PSK trainer AET-71 1
2 CRO Analog 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Figure 9.18.1 Circuit Diagram of Phase Shift Keying

83
PROCEDURE:
X1Channel-0 i/p is connected to chennal-1 i/p
1. Mode switch is kept in fast mode.

2. Synch button is kept in on position.
3. Switched faults should be in OFF position.
4. Error check OFF (00).
5. Adjust the DC1 until the 7bit code displayed on A/D converter.
x
OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:
Figure 9.18.2 Output waveform of Phase Shift Keying
84
RESULT:
Applications
1.It is used in digital communications to modulate signals.
Viva Voce questions
1. What is the bandwidth requirement of BPSK?

2. What is the expression for error probability of BPSK reception using coherent matched filter
detection?
3. What are the draw backs of BPSK?
4. Draw the Power spectral density of BPSK?
5. What are the major differences between DPSK&BPSK?
Sample questions:
a. Explain the operation of Phase Shift Keying (PSK) with the help of neat diagrams.
b. How PSK is different from FSK in principle.
c. What are major applications of PSK?
d. What are the major advantages of PSK over other shift keying techniques?
e. What are the limitations of PSK?
85
9.19 ASK MODULATOR & DEMODULATOR

Aim: To study ASK modulation and demodulation
To study the various steps involved in generating Amplitude shift keying modulation and
demodulation.
Equipment Required

1 ASK Modulator trainer AET-68M 1
2 ASK Demodulator AET-69D 1
trainer
3 CRO Analog 1
Procedure:
MODULATOR:
1. Connect the carier signal output to the input of the modulator.
2. Connect the data input provided on board to the data input of the modulator.
3. Connect channel one of the CRO at the O/P and channel two at data signal.
4. Now observe the modulated (ASK) signal on channel one with respect to data signal.
DEMODULATOR:
1. Connect the ASK output to the input of Demodulator.
2. Connect the carrier signal as mentioned on the trainer.
3. Connect channel one of the CRO at the O/P of Demodulator and channel toe at data signal.
4. Observe the Demodulated signal and compare that with data signal.
86
ASK Modulation & Demodulation Circuit
Figure 9.19.1 Block Diagram of time Division Multiplexing

Result: The operation of ASK is observed and the output waveforms are verified.
Applications
1.It is mainly used for radio frequencies.
2.It is used as a switch.

1. Explain differences between ASK and PSK systems
2. Explain ASK system with its transmitter receiver and signal space representation
3. Explain the mechanism of ASK
4. Explain the band width requirements of ASK
5. What are the advantage of ASK
Sample questions:
1. Explain differences between ASK and PSK systems
87
2. Explain ASK system with its transmitter receiver and signal space representation
3. Explain the block diagram of ASK modulator and demodulator
4. Explain the band width requirements of ASK. What are the applications of ASK
5. What are the advantage of ASK
88
LABORATORY MANUAL DIGITAL
COMMUNICATIONS
9.20 DIFFERENTIAL PHASE SHIFT KEYING
AIM: To study the operation of Differential Phase Shift Keying
Equipment Required
1 DPSK trainer AET-71 1
2 CRO Analog 1
PREAMBLE:
We may view DPSK as the non-coherent vision of PSK. It eliminates the need for
adjustment coherent reference signal at the receiver by connecting two basic operations at the
transmitter.
1. Differential encoding at the transmitter.
2. Phase shift keying
Hence differential encoding means the given input data will be done EX-OR operation with the
previous encoded bit. Now the process of Phase shift keying will be done for both differentially
encoded data and the carrier signal.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
DPSK MODULATOR
Figure 9.20.1 Block Diagram of Differential Phase shift keying
89
COMMUNICATIONS
DPSK DEMODULATOR
Figure 9.20.2 Block diagram of DPSK Demodulator
PROCEDURE:
(MODULATOR)
1. In this DPSK trainer kit there three signal generators one is for carrier signal and the
second is for clock signal and another is for electrical representation of data bits, so
give the carrier signal to CARRIER IN terminal OF MODULATOR.
2. Give the clock signal to CLOCK IN terminal and there are four different data bit
combinations are available in the form of (D1, D2, D3 and D4) so connect one of
this input data signal to DATA IN terminal of the modulator.
3. Take the differential data output across the DIFF.OUT terminal of the
modulator.
4. And then observe the differentially phase shifted carrier signal across the output
of the modulator i.e. DPSK output.
(DEMODULATOR)
5. Connect DPSK output to DPSK input terminal of the demodulator block.
6. Give the clock signal to CLOCK IN terminal and also connect the carrier signal
to CARRIER IN terminal.
90
COMMUNICATIONS
7. Ground both the modulator and demodulator circuits.
8. Observe the DPSK demodulated output across the DEMOD.OUT terminal of the
demodulator circuit.
OUTPUT WAVE FORMS:
Figure 9.20.3 Output waveform of Differential Phase shift Keying
Result:
Applications
1.in radio communications.
6. Explain differences between DPSK and PSK systems
7. Explain DPSK system with its transmitter receiver and signal space representation
8. Explain the mechanism of DPSK
9. Explain the band width requirements of DPSK
10. What are the advantages of DPSK
91
COMMUNICATIONS
Sample questions:
6. Explain differences between DPSK and PSK systems
7. Explain DPSK system with its transmitter receiver and signal space representation
8. Explain the block diagram of DPSK modulator and demodulator
9. Explain the band width requirements of DPSK. What are the applications of DPSK
10. What are the advantage of DPSK
92

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OBJECTIVE, RELEVANCE

Objectives & Relevance

1. Gain knowledge and understanding of microwave analysis methods.

2. Be able to apply analysis methods to determine circuit properties of passive/active

1. Students should report to the labs concerned as per the timetable.

Excessive exposure to electromagnetic fields, including microwave radiation, can be harmful.

1. Turn off the power before working on a circuit.

TEXT AND REFERENCE BOOKS

T1 Microwave and Radar engineering – M. Kulkarni

T3 Microwave Engineering-G.S.N. Raju, I.K. International, 2008.

R1 Foundations of Microwave Engineering– Robert E Collins, John Wiley, 2nd

R3 Microwave Principles – Herbert J. Reich, J.G. Skalnik .

R4 Elements of Microwave Engineering – R.Charterjee

1. Digital communications-John G. Proakis, Masoud Salehi 5th edition

S. No Name of the Experiment Unit No. Text/Ref Books

2 Gunn Diode characteristics 7 T1, Ch.9(388-399)

4 VSWR Measurement 3 and 8 T1, Ch.7(270-272)

6 Measurement of 8 T3 ch.9 (377-380)

impedance of a given load

7 Measurement of S- 4 and 8 T1, Ch.6 (190-202)

8 Measurement of S- 4 and 8 R1, Ch-.6 (464-468)

9 Attenuation Measurement 8 T1, Ch.7(266-267)

2 Differential Pulse Code 2 T2, Ch2, 529-549

3 Delta Modulation 2 T2, Ch2, 529-549

6 Phase Shift Keying- 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282

7 Amplitude Shift Keying- 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282

9 DPSK: Generation and 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282

10 QPSK: Generation and 3 T1, Ch6, 249-282

Week Unit Remarks

4 #4 2 Delta Modulation JNTUH

1 Time Division Multiplexing of 2 Band Limited JNTUH

7 #7 3 Phase shift keying: Generation and Detection JNTUH

3 Amplitude shift Keying: Generation and CBS

9 #9 3 DPSK: Generation and Detection JNTUH

10 #10 - INTERNAL EXAMINATION -I JNTUH

11 #11 5 Reflex Klystron Characteristics JNTUH

12 #12 7 Gunn Diode characteristics JNTUH

13 #13 3 Directional coupler characteristics JNTUH

14 #14 8 VSWR Measurement JNTUH

15 #15 4 Measurement of Waveguide parameters JNTUH

16 #16 8 Measurement of Impedance of a given Load JNTUH

4 Measurement of Scattering parameters of a JNTUH

1. Introduction (purpose of experiment)

S. No Name of Equipment Specifications

Figure 9.2.1 Reflex Klystron Power Supply

If n = 0, it gives ¾ mode and if n =1, it gives 1 3/4 mode

Klystron Variable Detector

Figure 9.2.3 Block Diagram of Reflex Klystron

SQUARE WAVE OPERATION:

Beam Voltage :…………V (Constant)

Beam Current :………….Ma

Applications of Reflex Klystron:

2. what is the frequency range of reflex klystron

3. what is the output power and efficiency of the reflex klystron

4. list out various applications of reflex klystron

5. Define transit time

6. What are the governing factors of transit time?

S. No Name of component Type Range Quantity

Figure 9.3.1 Theoritical graph of Gunn Diode

Gunn Pin Frequency

Figure 9.3.2 Block diagram of Gunn diode

Figure 9.3.4 Gunn Power Supply

Figure 9.3.5 Expected Graph of Gunn Diode