CAD/CAM/CAE

Unit-I
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TRANSFORMATION & DATA EXCHANGE
Unit 3 INTELLIGENT AND SUSTAINABLE MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS
What is Intelligence?
The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies, learn from
experience, store and retrieve information from memory, solve problems, comprehend complex
ideas, use natural language fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.
Types of Intelligence
As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental psychologist, the Intelligence
comes in multifold −
Intelligence Description Example
The ability to speak, recognize, and
use mechanisms of phonology
Linguistic intelligence Narrators, Orators
(speech sounds), syntax (grammar),
and semantics (meaning).
The ability to create, communicate
with, and understand meanings made Musicians, Singers,
Musical intelligence
of sound, understanding of pitch, Composers
rhythm.
The ability of use and understand
relationships in the absence of action Mathematicians,
Logical-mathematical intelligence
or objects. Understanding complex Scientists
and abstract ideas.
The ability to perceive visual or
spatial information, change it, and re- Map readers,
Spatial intelligence create visual images without Astronauts,
reference to the objects, construct 3D Physicists
images, and to move and rotate them.
The ability to use complete or part of
the body to solve problems or fashion
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence products, control over fine and coarse Players, Dancers
motor skills, and manipulate the
objects.
The ability to distinguish among
Intra-personal intelligence one’s own feelings, intentions, and Gautam Buddhha
motivations.
The ability to recognize and make Mass
Interpersonal intelligence distinctions among other people’s Communicators,
feelings, beliefs, and intentions. Interviewers
You can say a machine or a system is artificially intelligent when it is equipped with at least one
and at most all intelligences in it.
What is Intelligence Composed of?
The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of −
 Reasoning
 Learning
 Problem Solving
 Perception
 Linguistic Intelligence
Let us go through all the components briefly −
 Reasoning − It is the set of processes that enables us to provide basis for judgement,
making decisions, and prediction. There are broadly two types −
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
It starts with a general statement and examines
It conducts specific observations to makes
the possibilities to reach a specific, logical
broad general statements.
conclusion.
Even if all of the premises are true in a If something is true of a class of things in
statement, inductive reasoning allows for the general, it is also true for all members of that
conclusion to be false. class.
Example − "All women of age above 60 years
Example − "Nita is a teacher. Nita is studious.
are grandmothers. Shalini is 65 years.
Therefore, All teachers are studious."
Therefore, Shalini is a grandmother."
 Learning − It is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, practising, being
taught, or experiencing something. Learning enhances the awareness of the subjects of
the study.
The ability of learning is possessed by humans, some animals, and AI-enabled systems.
Learning is categorized as −
o Auditory Learning − It is learning by listening and hearing. For example,
students listening to recorded audio lectures.
o Episodic Learning − To learn by remembering sequences of events that one has
witnessed or experienced. This is linear and orderly.
o Motor Learning − It is learning by precise movement of muscles. For example,
picking objects, Writing, etc.
o Observational Learning − To learn by watching and imitating others. For
example, child tries to learn by mimicking her parent.
o Perceptual Learning − It is learning to recognize stimuli that one has seen
before. For example, identifying and classifying objects and situations.
o Relational Learning − It involves learning to differentiate among various stimuli
on the basis of relational properties, rather than absolute properties. For Example,
Adding ‘little less’ salt at the time of cooking potatoes that came up salty last
time, when cooked with adding say a tablespoon of salt.
o Spatial Learning − It is learning through visual stimuli such as images, colors,
maps, etc. For Example, A person can create roadmap in mind before actually
following the road.
o Stimulus-Response Learning − It is learning to perform a particular behavior
when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a dog raises its ear on hearing
doorbell.
  Problem Solving − It is the process in which one perceives and tries to arrive at a desired
solution from a present situation by taking some path, which is blocked by known or
unknown hurdles.
Problem solving also includes decision making, which is the process of selecting the best
suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach the desired goal are available.
 Perception − It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory
information.
Perception presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by sensory organs. In the
domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired by the sensors together in a
meaningful manner.
 Linguistic Intelligence − It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and write the
verbal and written language. It is important in interpersonal communication.
Difference between Human and Machine Intelligence
 Humans perceive by patterns whereas the machines perceive by set of rules and data.
 Humans store and recall information by patterns, machines do it by searching algorithms.
For example, the number 40404040 is easy to remember, store, and recall as its pattern is
simple.
 Humans can figure out the complete object even if some part of it is missing or distorted;
whereas the machines cannot do it correctly.

Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is introduced by the
researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department.
Artificial Intelligence - Overview
Since the invention of computers or machines, their capability to perform various tasks went on
growing exponentially. Humans have developed the power of computer systems in terms of their
diverse working domains, their increasing speed, and reducing size with respect to time.
A branch of Computer Science named Artificial Intelligence pursues creating the computers or
machines as intelligent as human beings.
What is Artificial Intelligence?
According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.
Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a
software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think.
AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans learn, decide, and
work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of
developing intelligent software and systems.

Philosophy of AI
While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human, lead him to wonder,
“Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”
Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar intelligence in
machines that we find and regard high in humans.
Goals of AI
 To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior, learn,
demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.
 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that understand,
think, learn, and behave like humans.
What Contributes to AI?
Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as Computer
Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and Engineering. A major thrust of AI
is in the development of computer functions associated with human intelligence, such as
reasoning, learning, and problem solving.
Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an intelligent system.

Programming Without and With AI

The programming without and with AI is different in following ways −
Programming Without AI Programming With AI
A computer program without AI can answer the A computer program with AI can answer the
specific questions it is meant to solve. generic questions it is meant to solve.
AI programs can absorb new modifications by
putting highly independent pieces of
Modification in the program leads to change in
information together. Hence you can modify
its structure.
even a minute piece of information of program
without affecting its structure.
Modification is not quick and easy. It may lead
Quick and Easy program modification.
to affecting the program adversely.
What is AI Technique?
In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcomed properties −
 Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.
 It is not well-organized or well-formatted.
 It keeps changing constantly.
AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in such a way that −
 It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.
 It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.
 It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or inaccurate.
AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is equipped with.
Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −
 Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc.,
where machine can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic
knowledge.
 Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the computer that
understands natural language spoken by humans.
  Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and
special information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and
advice to the users.
 Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on
the computer. For example,
o A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out spatial
information or map of the areas.
o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the
stored portrait made by forensic artist.
 Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and
comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a human
talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in
human’s noise due to cold, etc.
 Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads the text written
on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and
convert it into editable text.
 Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have
sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature,
movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors
and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from
their mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.
History of AI
Here is the history of AI during 20th century −
Year Milestone / Innovation
Karel Čapek play named “Rossum's Universal Robots” (RUR) opens in London, first
1923
use of the word "robot" in English.
1943 Foundations for neural networks laid.
1945 Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.
Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and published
1950 Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon published Detailed Analysis of
Chess Playing as a search.
John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the first
1956
running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.
1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.
Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can understand natural
1964
language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.
Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that carries on a
1965
dialogue in English.
Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot, equipped with
1969
locomotion, perception, and problem solving.
The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the Famous
1973
Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble models.
1979 The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was built.
1985 Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.
1990 Major advances in all areas of AI −
 Significant demonstrations in machine learning
 Case-based reasoning
  Multi-agent planning
 Scheduling
 Data mining, Web Crawler
 natural language understanding and translation
 Vision, Virtual Reality
 Games
1997 The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.
Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT displays Kismet, a robot
2000 with a face that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad explores remote regions of
Antarctica and locates meteorites.
Artificial Intelligence - Intelligent Systems
While studying artificially intelligence, you need to know what intelligence is. This chapter
covers Idea of intelligence, types, and components of intelligence.
What is Intelligence?
The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies, learn from
experience, store and retrieve information from memory, solve problems, comprehend complex
ideas, use natural language fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.
Types of Intelligence
As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental psychologist, the Intelligence
comes in multifold −
Intelligence Description Example
The ability to speak, recognize, and
use mechanisms of phonology
Linguistic intelligence Narrators, Orators
(speech sounds), syntax (grammar),
and semantics (meaning).
The ability to create, communicate
with, and understand meanings made Musicians, Singers,
Musical intelligence
of sound, understanding of pitch, Composers
rhythm.
The ability of use and understand
relationships in the absence of action Mathematicians,
Logical-mathematical intelligence
or objects. Understanding complex Scientists
and abstract ideas.
The ability to perceive visual or
spatial information, change it, and re- Map readers,
Spatial intelligence create visual images without Astronauts,
reference to the objects, construct 3D Physicists
images, and to move and rotate them.
The ability to use complete or part of
the body to solve problems or fashion
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence products, control over fine and coarse Players, Dancers
motor skills, and manipulate the
objects.
The ability to distinguish among
Intra-personal intelligence one’s own feelings, intentions, and Gautam Buddhha
motivations.
The ability to recognize and make Mass
Interpersonal intelligence distinctions among other people’s Communicators,
feelings, beliefs, and intentions. Interviewers
You can say a machine or a system is artificially intelligent when it is equipped with at least one
and at most all intelligences in it.
What is Intelligence Composed of?
The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of −
 Reasoning
 Learning
 Problem Solving
 Perception
 Linguistic Intelligence

Let us go through all the components briefly −

 Reasoning − It is the set of processes that enables us to provide basis for judgement,
making decisions, and prediction. There are broadly two types −
Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning
It starts with a general statement and examines
It conducts specific observations to makes
the possibilities to reach a specific, logical
broad general statements.
conclusion.
Even if all of the premises are true in a If something is true of a class of things in
statement, inductive reasoning allows for the general, it is also true for all members of that
conclusion to be false. class.
Example − "All women of age above 60 years
Example − "Nita is a teacher. Nita is studious.
are grandmothers. Shalini is 65 years.
Therefore, All teachers are studious."
Therefore, Shalini is a grandmother."
 Learning − It is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill by studying, practising, being
taught, or experiencing something. Learning enhances the awareness of the subjects of
the study.
The ability of learning is possessed by humans, some animals, and AI-enabled systems.
Learning is categorized as −
o Auditory Learning − It is learning by listening and hearing. For example,
students listening to recorded audio lectures.
o Episodic Learning − To learn by remembering sequences of events that one has
witnessed or experienced. This is linear and orderly.
o Motor Learning − It is learning by precise movement of muscles. For example,
picking objects, Writing, etc.
o Observational Learning − To learn by watching and imitating others. For
example, child tries to learn by mimicking her parent.
o Perceptual Learning − It is learning to recognize stimuli that one has seen
before. For example, identifying and classifying objects and situations.
o Relational Learning − It involves learning to differentiate among various stimuli
on the basis of relational properties, rather than absolute properties. For Example,
 Adding ‘little less’ salt at the time of cooking potatoes that came up salty last
time, when cooked with adding say a tablespoon of salt.
o Spatial Learning − It is learning through visual stimuli such as images, colors,
maps, etc. For Example, A person can create roadmap in mind before actually
following the road.
o Stimulus-Response Learning − It is learning to perform a particular behavior
when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a dog raises its ear on hearing
doorbell.
 Problem Solving − It is the process in which one perceives and tries to arrive at a desired
solution from a present situation by taking some path, which is blocked by known or
unknown hurdles.
Problem solving also includes decision making, which is the process of selecting the best
suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach the desired goal are available.
 Perception − It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory
information.
Perception presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by sensory organs. In the
domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired by the sensors together in a
meaningful manner.
 Linguistic Intelligence − It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and write the
verbal and written language. It is important in interpersonal communication.
Difference between Human and Machine Intelligence
 Humans perceive by patterns whereas the machines perceive by set of rules and data.
 Humans store and recall information by patterns, machines do it by searching algorithms.
For example, the number 40404040 is easy to remember, store, and recall as its pattern is
simple.
 Humans can figure out the complete object even if some part of it is missing or distorted;
whereas the machines cannot do it correctly.
Artificial Intelligence - Research Areas
The domain of artificial intelligence is huge in breadth and width. While proceeding, we consider
the broadly common and prospering research areas in the domain of AI −
Speech and Voice Recognition
These both terms are common in robotics, expert systems and natural language processing.
Though these terms are used interchangeably, their objectives are different.
Speech Recognition Voice Recognition
The speech recognition aims at understanding The objective of voice recognition is to
and comprehending WHAT was spoken. recognize WHO is speaking.
It is used in hand-free computing, map, or menu It is used to identify a person by analysing its
navigation. tone, voice pitch, and accent, etc.
Machine does not need training for Speech This recognition system needs training as it is
Recognition as it is not speaker dependent. person oriented.
Speaker independent Speech Recognition Speaker dependent Speech Recognition
systems are difficult to develop. systems are comparatively easy to develop.
Working of Speech and Voice Recognition Systems
The user input spoken at a microphone goes to sound card of the system. The converter turns the
analog signal into equivalent digital signal for the speech processing. The database is used to
compare the sound patterns to recognize the words. Finally, a reverse feedback is given to the
database.
This source-language text becomes input to the Translation Engine, which converts it to the
target language text. They are supported with interactive GUI, large database of vocabulary, etc.
Real Life Applications of AI Research Areas
There is a large array of applications where AI is serving common people in their day-to-day
lives −
Sr.No. Research Areas Example

Expert Systems
1
Examples − Flight-tracking systems, Clinical systems.
 Natural Language Processing
2 Examples: Google Now feature, speech recognition,
Automatic voice output.

Neural Networks
Examples − Pattern recognition systems such as face
3
recognition, character recognition, handwriting
recognition.

Robotics
Examples − Industrial robots for moving, spraying,
4
painting, precision checking, drilling, cleaning, coating,
carving, etc.

Fuzzy Logic Systems

5
Examples − Consumer electronics, automobiles, etc.

Task Classification of AI
The domain of AI is classified into Formal tasks, Mundane tasks, and Expert tasks.

Task Domains of Artificial Intelligence

Mundane (Ordinary) Tasks Formal Tasks Expert Tasks
  Mathematics
 Engineering
Perception  Geometry
 Fault Finding
 Computer Vision  Logic
 Manufacturing
 Speech, Voice  Integration and
 Monitoring
Differentiation
Natural Language Processing Games
 Understanding  Go
Scientific Analysis
 Language Generation  Chess (Deep Blue)
 Language Translation  Ckeckers
Common Sense Verification Financial Analysis
Reasoning Theorem Proving Medical Diagnosis
Planing Creativity
Robotics
 Locomotive
Humans learn mundane (ordinary) tasks since their birth. They learn by perception, speaking,
using language, and locomotives. They learn Formal Tasks and Expert Tasks later, in that order.
For humans, the mundane tasks are easiest to learn. The same was considered true before trying
to implement mundane tasks in machines. Earlier, all work of AI was concentrated in the
mundane task domain.
Later, it turned out that the machine requires more knowledge, complex knowledge
representation, and complicated algorithms for handling mundane tasks. This is the reason why
AI work is more prospering in the Expert Tasks domain now, as the expert task domain needs
expert knowledge without common sense, which can be easier to represent and handle.
AI - Agents & Environments
An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The agents act in their environment.
The environment may contain other agents.
What are Agent and Environment?
An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon that
environment through effectors.
 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin parallel to
the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.
 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors, and various
motors and actuators for effectors.
 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.

Agent Terminology
 Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which determines how successful an
agent is.
 Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any given sequence of
percepts.
  Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given instance.
 Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till date.
 Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an action.
Rationality
Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and having good sense of
judgment.
Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results depending upon what the agent has
perceived. Performing actions with the aim of obtaining useful information is an important part
of rationality.
What is Ideal Rational Agent?
An ideal rational agent is the one, which is capable of doing expected actions to maximize its
performance measure, on the basis of −
 Its percept sequence
 Its built-in knowledge base
Rationality of an agent depends on the following four factors −
 The performance measures, which determine the degree of success.
 Agent’s Percept Sequence till now.
 The agent’s prior knowledge about the environment.
 The actions that the agent can carry out.
A rational agent always performs right action, where the right action means the action that causes
the agent to be most successful in the given percept sequence. The problem the agent solves is
characterized by Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators, and Sensors (PEAS).
The Structure of Intelligent Agents
Agent’s structure can be viewed as −
 Agent = Architecture + Agent Program
 Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.
 Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.
Simple Reflex Agents
 They choose actions only based on the current percept.
 They are rational only if a correct decision is made only on the basis of current precept.
 Their environment is completely observable.
Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state (condition) to an action.

Model Based Reflex Agents

They use a model of the world to choose their actions. They maintain an internal state.
Model − The knowledge about “how the things happen in the world”.
Internal State − It is a representation of unobserved aspects of current state depending on
percept history.
Updating the state requires the information about −
 How the world evolves.
 How the agent’s actions affect the world.

Goal Based Agents

They choose their actions in order to achieve goals. Goal-based approach is more flexible than
reflex agent since the knowledge supporting a decision is explicitly modeled, thereby allowing
for modifications.
Goal − It is the description of desirable situations.

Utility Based Agents

They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state. Goals are inadequate when −
 There are conflicting goals, out of which only few can be achieved.
 Goals have some uncertainty of being achieved and you need to weigh likelihood of
success against the importance of a goal.

Nature of Environments
Some programs operate in the entirely artificial environment confined to keyboard input,
database, computer file systems and character output on a screen.
In contrast, some software agents (software robots or softbots) exist in rich, unlimited softbots
domains. The simulator has a very detailed, complex environment. The software agent needs to
choose from a long array of actions in real time. A softbot designed to scan the online
preferences of the customer and show interesting items to the customer works in the real as well
as an artificial environment.
The most famous artificial environment is the Turing Test environment, in which one real and
other artificial agents are tested on equal ground. This is a very challenging environment as it is
highly difficult for a software agent to perform as well as a human.
Turing Test
The success of an intelligent behavior of a system can be measured with Turing Test.
Two persons and a machine to be evaluated participate in the test. Out of the two persons, one
plays the role of the tester. Each of them sits in different rooms. The tester is unaware of who is
machine and who is a human. He interrogates the questions by typing and sending them to both
intelligences, to which he receives typed responses.
This test aims at fooling the tester. If the tester fails to determine machine’s response from the
human response, then the machine is said to be intelligent.
Properties of Environment
The environment has multifold properties −
 Discrete / Continuous − If there are a limited number of distinct, clearly defined, states
of the environment, the environment is discrete (For example, chess); otherwise it is
continuous (For example, driving).
 Observable / Partially Observable − If it is possible to determine the complete state of
the environment at each time point from the percepts it is observable; otherwise it is only
partially observable.
 Static / Dynamic − If the environment does not change while an agent is acting, then it is
static; otherwise it is dynamic.
 Single agent / Multiple agents − The environment may contain other agents which may
be of the same or different kind as that of the agent.
 Accessible / Inaccessible − If the agent’s sensory apparatus can have access to the
complete state of the environment, then the environment is accessible to that agent.
 Deterministic / Non-deterministic − If the next state of the environment is completely
determined by the current state and the actions of the agent, then the environment is
deterministic; otherwise it is non-deterministic.
 Episodic / Non-episodic − In an episodic environment, each episode consists of the agent
perceiving and then acting. The quality of its action depends just on the episode itself.
Subsequent episodes do not depend on the actions in the previous episodes. Episodic
environments are much simpler because the agent does not need to think ahead.

Artificial Intelligence - Fuzzy Logic Systems

Fuzzy Logic Systems (FLS) produce acceptable but definite output in response to incomplete,
ambiguous, distorted, or inaccurate (fuzzy) input.
What is Fuzzy Logic?
Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning. The approach of FL
imitates the way of decision making in humans that involves all intermediate possibilities
between digital values YES and NO.
The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise input and produces a
definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent to human’s YES or NO.
The inventor of fuzzy logic, Lotfi Zadeh, observed that unlike computers, the human decision
making includes a range of possibilities between YES and NO, such as −
 CERTAINLY YES
POSSIBLY YES
CANNOT SAY
POSSIBLY NO
CERTAINLY NO
The fuzzy logic works on the levels of possibilities of input to achieve the definite output.
Implementation
 It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging from small
micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control systems.
 It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both.
Why Fuzzy Logic?
Fuzzy logic is useful for commercial and practical purposes.
 It can control machines and consumer products.
 It may not give accurate reasoning, but acceptable reasoning.
 Fuzzy logic helps to deal with the uncertainty in engineering.
Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture
It has four main parts as shown −
 Fuzzification Module − It transforms the system inputs, which are crisp numbers, into
fuzzy sets. It splits the input signal into five steps such as −
LP x is Large Positive
MP x is Medium Positive
S x is Small
MN x is Medium Negative
LN x is Large Negative
 Knowledge Base − It stores IF-THEN rules provided by experts.
 Inference Engine − It simulates the human reasoning process by making fuzzy inference
on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.
 Defuzzification Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the inference engine
into a crisp value.

The membership functions work on fuzzy sets of variables.

Membership Function
Membership functions allow you to quantify linguistic term and represent a fuzzy set graphically.
A membership function for a fuzzy set A on the universe of discourse X is defined as μA:X →
[0,1].
Here, each element of X is mapped to a value between 0 and 1. It is called membership value or
degree of membership. It quantifies the degree of membership of the element in X to the fuzzy
set A.
 x axis represents the universe of discourse.
 y axis represents the degrees of membership in the [0, 1] interval.
There can be multiple membership functions applicable to fuzzify a numerical value. Simple
membership functions are used as use of complex functions does not add more precision in the
output.
All membership functions for LP, MP, S, MN, and LN are shown as below −

The triangular membership function shapes are most common among various other membership
function shapes such as trapezoidal, singleton, and Gaussian.
Here, the input to 5-level fuzzifier varies from -10 volts to +10 volts. Hence the corresponding
output also changes.
Example of a Fuzzy Logic System
Let us consider an air conditioning system with 5-level fuzzy logic system. This system adjusts
the temperature of air conditioner by comparing the room temperature and the target temperature
value.
Algorithm
 Define linguistic variables and terms.
 Construct membership functions for them.
 Construct knowledge base of rules.
 Convert crisp data into fuzzy data sets using membership functions. (fuzzification)
 Evaluate rules in the rule base. (Inference Engine)
 Combine results from each rule. (Inference Engine)
 Convert output data into non-fuzzy values. (defuzzification)
Logic Development
Step 1: Define linguistic variables and terms
Linguistic variables are input and output variables in the form of simple words or sentences. For
room temperature, cold, warm, hot, etc., are linguistic terms.
Temperature (t) = {very-cold, cold, warm, very-warm, hot}
Every member of this set is a linguistic term and it can cover some portion of overall temperature
values.
Step 2: Construct membership functions for them
The membership functions of temperature variable are as shown −
Step3: Construct knowledge base rules
Create a matrix of room temperature values versus target temperature values that an air
conditioning system is expected to provide.
RoomTemp.
Very_Cold Cold Warm Hot Very_Hot
/Target
Very_Cold No_Change Heat Heat Heat Heat
Cold Cool No_Change Heat Heat Heat
Warm Cool Cool No_Change Heat Heat
Hot Cool Cool Cool No_Change Heat
Very_Hot Cool Cool Cool Cool No_Change
Build a set of rules into the knowledge base in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE structures.
Sr. No. Condition Action
1 IF temperature=(Cold OR Very_Cold) AND target=Warm THEN Heat
2 IF temperature=(Hot OR Very_Hot) AND target=Warm THEN Cool
3 IF (temperature=Warm) AND (target=Warm) THEN No_Change
Step 4: Obtain fuzzy value
Fuzzy set operations perform evaluation of rules. The operations used for OR and AND are Max
and Min respectively. Combine all results of evaluation to form a final result. This result is a
fuzzy value.
Step 5: Perform defuzzification
Defuzzification is then performed according to membership function for output variable.
Application Areas of Fuzzy Logic
The key application areas of fuzzy logic are as given −
Automotive Systems
 Automatic Gearboxes
 Four-Wheel Steering
 Vehicle environment control
Consumer Electronic Goods
 Hi-Fi Systems
 Photocopiers
 Still and Video Cameras
 Television
Domestic Goods
 Microwave Ovens
 Refrigerators
 Toasters
 Vacuum Cleaners
 Washing Machines
Environment Control
 Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters
 Humidifiers
Advantages of FLSs
 Mathematical concepts within fuzzy reasoning are very simple.
 You can modify a FLS by just adding or deleting rules due to flexibility of fuzzy logic.
 Fuzzy logic Systems can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input information.
 FLSs are easy to construct and understand.
 Fuzzy logic is a solution to complex problems in all fields of life, including medicine, as
it resembles human reasoning and decision making.
Disadvantages of FLSs
 There is no systematic approach to fuzzy system designing.
 They are understandable only when simple.
 They are suitable for the problems which do not need high accuracy.
Artificial Intelligence - Expert Systems
Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is introduced by the
researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science Department.
What are Expert Systems?
The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a
particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.
Characteristics of Expert Systems
 High performance
 Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive
Capabilities of Expert Systems
The expert systems are capable of −
 Advising
 Instructing and assisting human in decision making
 Demonstrating
 Deriving a solution
 Diagnosing
 Explaining
 Interpreting input
 Predicting results
 Justifying the conclusion
 Suggesting alternative options to a problem
They are incapable of −
 Substituting human decision makers
 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge
Components of Expert Systems
The components of ES include −
 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface
Let us see them one by one briefly −
Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit
intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and
precise knowledge.
What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task
domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.
Components of Knowledge Base
The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.
 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers
and scholars in the task domain.
 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of
evaluation, and guessing.
Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.
Knowledge Acquisition
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of
the information stored in the knowledge base.
The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the Knowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning,
and case analyzing skills.
He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at
work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of
IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also
monitors the development of the ES.
Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.
In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.
In case of rule based ES, it −
 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.
To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −
 Forward Chaining
 Backward Chaining
Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”
Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces
the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.
This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.

Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this happened?”
On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out which
conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding
out cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.

User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally
Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain.
The user of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear
in the following forms −
 Natural language displayed on screen.
 Verbal narrations in natural language.
  Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.
Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface
 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.
 It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.
 Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.
 It should make efficient use of user input.
Expert Systems Limitations
No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require significant
development time, and computer resources. ESs have their limitations which include −
 Limitations of the technology
 Difficult knowledge acquisition
 ES are difficult to maintain
 High development costs
Applications of Expert System
The following table shows where ES can be applied.
Application Description
Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.
Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from observed data,
Medical Domain
conduction medical operations on humans.
Comparing data continuously with observed system or with
Monitoring Systems prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring in long petroleum
pipeline.
Process Control Systems Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.
Knowledge Domain Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.
Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions, stock market
Finance/Commerce
trading, Airline scheduling, cargo scheduling.
Expert System Technology
There are several levels of ES technologies available. Expert systems technologies include −
 Expert System Development Environment − The ES development environment
includes hardware and tools. They are −
o Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.
o High level Symbolic Programming Languages such as LISt Programming (LISP)
and PROgrammation en LOGique (PROLOG).
o Large databases.
 Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert system to large
extent.
o Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.
o They provide rapid prototyping
o Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and inference
design.
 Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell provides
the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and
explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below −
o Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for
creating an expert system.
 o Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology,
Mumbai in 1993. It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN rules.
Development of Expert Systems: General Steps
The process of ES development is iterative. Steps in developing the ES include −
Identify Problem Domain
 The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.
 Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.
 Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
Design the System
 Identify the ES Technology
 Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and databases.
 Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.
Develop the Prototype
From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to −
 Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.
 Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.
Test and Refine the Prototype
 The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any deficiencies in
performance.
 End users test the prototypes of the ES.
Develop and Complete the ES
 Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment, including
end users, databases, and other information systems.
 Document the ES project well.
 Train the user to use ES.
Maintain the ES
 Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.
 Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems evolve.
Benefits of Expert Systems
 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.
 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable.
 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual puts in.
 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
 Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
 Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or fatigued.
 Entertainment − Disney’s engineers have created hundreds of robots for movie making.
Artificial Intelligence - Issues
AI is developing with such an incredible speed, sometimes it seems magical. There is an opinion
among researchers and developers that AI could grow so immensely strong that it would be
difficult for humans to control.
Humans developed AI systems by introducing into them every possible intelligence they could,
for which the humans themselves now seem threatened.
Threat to Privacy
An AI program that recognizes speech and understands natural language is theoretically capable
of understanding each conversation on e-mails and telephones.
Threat to Human Dignity
AI systems have already started replacing the human beings in few industries. It should not
replace people in the sectors where they are holding dignified positions which are pertaining to
ethics such as nursing, surgeon, judge, police officer, etc.
Threat to Safety
The self-improving AI systems can become so mighty than humans that could be very difficult to
stop from achieving their goals, which may lead to unintended consequences.
Artificial Intelligence - Terminology
Here is the list of frequently used terms in the domain of AI −
Sr.No. Term & Meaning
Agent
Agents are systems or software programs capable of autonomous, purposeful and
1
reasoning directed towards one or more goals. They are also called assistants, brokers,
bots, droids, intelligent agents, and software agents.
Autonomous Robot
2
Robot free from external control or influence and able to control itself independently.
Backward Chaining
3
Strategy of working backward for Reason/Cause of a problem.
Blackboard
4 It is the memory inside computer, which is used for communication between the
cooperating expert systems.
Environment
5
It is the part of real or computational world inhabited by the agent.
Forward Chaining
6
Strategy of working forward for conclusion/solution of a problem.
Heuristics
7
It is the knowledge based on Trial-and-error, evaluations, and experimentation.
Knowledge Engineering
8
Acquiring knowledge from human experts and other resources.
Percepts
9
It is the format in which the agent obtains information about the environment.
Pruning
10
Overriding unnecessary and irrelevant considerations in AI systems.
Rule
11 It is a format of representing knowledge base in Expert System. It is in the form of IF-
THEN-ELSE.
Shell
12 A shell is a software that helps in designing inference engine, knowledge base, and
user interface of an expert system.
Task
13
It is the goal the agent is tries to accomplish.
Turing Test
14 A test developed by Allan Turing to test the intelligence of a machine as compared to
human intelligence.
What are Expert Systems?
The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a
particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.
Characteristics of Expert Systems
 High performance
  Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive
Capabilities of Expert Systems
The expert systems are capable of −
 Advising
 Instructing and assisting human in decision making
 Demonstrating
 Deriving a solution
 Diagnosing
 Explaining
 Interpreting input
 Predicting results
 Justifying the conclusion
 Suggesting alternative options to a problem
They are incapable of −
 Substituting human decision makers
 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge
Components of Expert Systems
The components of ES include −
 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface
Let us see them one by one briefly −

Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit
intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and
precise knowledge.
What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task
domain. Data, information, and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.
Components of Knowledge Base
The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.
 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers
and scholars in the task domain.
 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of
evaluation, and guessing.
Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the
form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules.
Knowledge Acquisition
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of
the information stored in the knowledge base.
The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the Knowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning,
and case analyzing skills.
He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at
work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of
IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also
monitors the development of the ES.
Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.
In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge
from the knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.
In case of rule based ES, it −
 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.
To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies −
 Forward Chaining
 Backward Chaining
Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”
Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces
the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.
This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of
share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates.
Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this happened?”
On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out which
conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding
out cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.

User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally
Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain.
The user of the ES need not be necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear
in the following forms −
 Natural language displayed on screen.
 Verbal narrations in natural language.
 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.
Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface
 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.
 It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices.
 Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round.
 It should make efficient use of user input.
Expert Systems Limitations
No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require significant
development time, and computer resources. ESs have their limitations which include −
 Limitations of the technology
 Difficult knowledge acquisition
 ES are difficult to maintain
 High development costs
Applications of Expert System
The following table shows where ES can be applied.
Application Description
Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.
Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from observed data,
Medical Domain
conduction medical operations on humans.
Comparing data continuously with observed system or with
Monitoring Systems prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring in long petroleum
pipeline.
Process Control Systems Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.
Knowledge Domain Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.
Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions, stock market
Finance/Commerce
trading, Airline scheduling, cargo scheduling.
Expert System Technology
There are several levels of ES technologies available. Expert systems technologies include −
 Expert System Development Environment − The ES development environment
includes hardware and tools. They are −
o Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.
o High level Symbolic Programming Languages such as LISt Programming (LISP)
and PROgrammation en LOGique (PROLOG).
o Large databases.
 Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert system to large
extent.
o Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.
o They provide rapid prototyping
o Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and inference
design.
 Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A shell provides
the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user interface, and
explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below −
o Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API for
creating an expert system.
o Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software Technology,
Mumbai in 1993. It enables knowledge encoding in the form of IF-THEN rules.
Development of Expert Systems: General Steps
The process of ES development is iterative. Steps in developing the ES include −
Identify Problem Domain
 The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.
 Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.
 Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
Design the System
 Identify the ES Technology
 Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and databases.
 Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.
Develop the Prototype
From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to −
 Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.
 Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.
Test and Refine the Prototype
 The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any deficiencies in
performance.
 End users test the prototypes of the ES.
Develop and Complete the ES
 Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment, including
end users, databases, and other information systems.
 Document the ES project well.
 Train the user to use ES.
Maintain the ES
 Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.
 Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems evolve.
Benefits of Expert Systems
 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.
 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them affordable.
 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual puts in.
 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.
 Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.
 Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or fatigued.

What is Intelligent Project Management Methodology?

Agile project management methodology is known for getting the best results faster, because
development only follows a given path for two weeks, then adjusts as necessary. This is fantastic
for getting your project from initiation to completion in the shortest time period, but reporting
results in the meantime can be torture.
You can’t take your lead developers’ word for it – you need communication throughout the
course of every project. How far along are we? Is the project still on budget? It’s not just an “I’d
like to know” situation – it’s “I need to know so I can provide those results to the rest of the
leadership team!”
IntelligentMethodology™
We offer a dashboard approach to project management so you have your project status available
at all times – no hunting down updates right before your presentation is due. At 5x Technology,
we serve large enterprise government and commercial clients. We know what kind of status
meetings you’re walking into, and we won’t leave you high and dry.
In addition to timely communication and reporting, our project management tools:
 Float high-return delivery elements to the surface
 Quickly define project tasks so they stand out – nothing falls between the cracks
 Allocate and focus resources in the right areas
 Establish a QA structure for the project

IntelligentOfferings™
You've probably heard this a thousand times: our project may suffer setbacks because of poor
data, system issues, licensing problems, etc. Your team is right – if you want to reduce cost,
increase revenue, and improve profitability, the success of your project requires certain key
items:
 Data
 Strategy
 Execution
 Efficiency
We created IntelligentOfferings™ to address these four elements, using the following
components:
IntelligentAssessment™
We provide a deep-dive system checkup for an optimal environment. Our Tiger Team consists of
a project manager, data modeler, ETL specialist, and database architect. This team can bring your
system and users back together to better meet business goals. As part of our thorough Blueprint
Process we evaluate your environments, installation architecture (ETL and Security), and servers
(both application and web) to ensure optimal performance. After the assessment we provide full
documentation with details on the systems that are running optimally and which
improvements will take your configuration to the next level.
IntelligentSupport™
We specialize in providing administrators who only work on the applications you use. Our team
of proven BI administrators ensures all patches and hot fixes are up to date for optimum
performance and monitors your system going forward. Remote administration services cost
about 60 percent less than supporting a similar level of service in-house. Meanwhile, this leaves
your valuable IT staff to focus on universe and report creation.
IntelligentRenewals™
The deceptively simple process of renewing software licenses can be a huge drain on your
productivity and budget. We save you money by taking advantage of renewal cost reductions,
understanding what renewing software licenses does in each case, renewing the right number of
licenses, and keeping a watchful eye for sunsetting projects. We'll help you get the most out of
your software at the lowest possible cost. Get better discounted pricing on your current
agreements, save time and increase discounts with multi-year agreements that aren't due until
your annual period of performance date (3-5 years), all handled by one vendor who understands
your needs and requirements
IntelligentInformation™
Your team keeps complaining about data quality, and you know it impacts your bottom line...but
what can you do about it? Our process provides CRM data standardization, cleansing, merging,
deduping, and enhancement. This is a consultative service that extracts your data from the CRM
system, runs it through our tool, tags redundant and incorrect records based on your specs,
merges and cleanses dupes, and then uploads the data back to your CRM database.

Development Team Management

You want your development team to be busy all the time, working on meaningful projects. While
it might seem obvious, you also want your senior developers working with the junior members of
the team to train them according to your company’s way of doing things. With our Paired
Programming methods, we partner senior developers with junior developers so your senior team
isn’t overloaded and your junior team receives the on-hands mentoring they need. Our process
quickly builds capacity over the course of the project.
When it’s time for all hands on deck, we have a pool of developers that we can pull from on an
as-needed basis so you only pay for programming talent when you need it. Nobody is sitting
around on your dime.
5x Technology
The purpose of project management is to provide a person who will manage all aspects of the
project from corner to corner, and communicate to you and every other stakeholder at the right
time, in the right format. Our project management professionals are certified, experienced, and
excel in communication. Learn more about our IntelligentOfferings and have 5x Technology
manage your next endeavor, or get your current projects back on track.
Data flow system architecture:
 Unit 5
CAE

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the broad usage of computer software to aid in engineering tasks. It
includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided analysis (CAA), computer-integrated
manufacturing (CIM), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), material requirements planning (MRP),
and computer-aided planning (CAP).

CAE fields and phases

CAE areas covered include:

 Stress analysis on components and assemblies using FEA (Finite Element Analysis);

 Thermal and fluid flow analysis Computational fluid dynamics (CFD);

 Multibody dynamics(MBD) & Kinematics;

 Analysis tools for process simulation for operations such as casting, molding, and die
press forming.

 Optimization of the product or process.

 Safety analysis of postulate loss-of-coolant accident in nuclear reactor using realistic

thermal-hydraulics code.

In general, there are three phases in any computer-aided engineering task:

 Pre-processing – defining the model and environmental factors to be applied to it.

(typically a finite element model, but facet, voxel and thin sheet methods are also used)

 Analysis solver (usually performed on high powered computers)

 Post-processing of results (using visualization tools)

CAE in the automotive industry

CAE tools are very widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled
the automakers to reduce product development cost and time while improving the safety,
comfort, and durability of the vehicles they produce. The predictive capability of CAE
tools has progressed to the point where much of the design verification is now done using
computer simulations rather than physical prototype testing. CAE dependability is based
upon all proper assumptions as inputs and must identify critical inputs (BJ). Even though
there have been many advances in CAE, and it is widely used in the engineering field,
physical testing is still used as a final confirmation for subsystems due to the fact that
CAE cannot predict all variables in complex assemblies (i.e. metal stretch, thinning).
(Or)
 CAE tools are very widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled
the automakers to reduce product development cost and time while improving the safety,
comfort, and durability of the vehicles they produce. The predictive capability of CAE
tools has progressed to the point where much of the design verification is now done using
computer simulations (diagnosis) rather than physical prototype testing. CAE
dependability is based upon all proper assumptions as inputs and must identify critical
inputs (BJ). Even though there have been many advances in CAE, and it is widely used in
the engineering field, physical testing is still a must. It is used for verification and model
updating, to accurately define loads and boundary conditions and for final prototype
sign-off.

The future of CAE in the product development process

Even though CAE has built a strong reputation as a verification, troubleshooting and
analysis tool, there is still a perception that sufficiently accurate results come rather late
in the design cycle to really drive the design. This can be expected to become a problem
as modern products become ever more complex. They include smart systems, which
leads to an increased need for multi-physics analysis including controls, and contain new
lightweight materials, to which engineers are often less familiar. CAE software
companies and manufacturers are constantly looking for tools and process improvements
to change this situation. On the software side, they are constantly looking to develop
more powerful solvers, better use computer resources and include engineering knowledge
in pre- and post-processing. On the process side, they try to achieve a better alignment
between 3D CAE, 1D System Simulation and physical testing. This should increase
modeling realism and calculation speed. On top of that, they try to better integrate CAE
in the overall product lifecycle management. In this way, they can connect product
design with product use, which is an absolute must for smart products. Such an enhanced
engineering process is also referred to as predictive engineering analytics.

CAE

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the broad usage of computer software to aid in engineering tasks. It
includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided analysis (CAA), computer-integrated
manufacturing (CIM), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), material requirements planning (MRP),
and computer-aided planning (CAP).

CAE fields and phases

CAE areas covered include:

 Stress analysis on components and assemblies using FEA (Finite Element Analysis);

 Thermal and fluid flow analysis Computational fluid dynamics (CFD);

 Multibody dynamics(MBD) & Kinematics;

 Analysis tools for process simulation for operations such as casting, molding, and die
press forming.

 Optimization of the product or process.

 Safety analysis of postulate loss-of-coolant accident in nuclear reactor using realistic

thermal-hydraulics code.

In general, there are three phases in any computer-aided engineering task:

 Pre-processing – defining the model and environmental factors to be applied to it.

(typically a finite element model, but facet, voxel and thin sheet methods are also used)

 Analysis solver (usually performed on high powered computers)

 Post-processing of results (using visualization tools)

CAE in the automotive industry

CAE tools are very widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled
the automakers to reduce product development cost and time while improving the safety,
comfort, and durability of the vehicles they produce. The predictive capability of CAE
tools has progressed to the point where much of the design verification is now done using
computer simulations rather than physical prototype testing. CAE dependability is based
upon all proper assumptions as inputs and must identify critical inputs (BJ). Even though
 there have been many advances in CAE, and it is widely used in the engineering field,
physical testing is still used as a final confirmation for subsystems due to the fact that
CAE cannot predict all variables in complex assemblies (i.e. metal stretch, thinning).
(Or)
CAE tools are very widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled
the automakers to reduce product development cost and time while improving the safety,
comfort, and durability of the vehicles they produce. The predictive capability of CAE
tools has progressed to the point where much of the design verification is now done using
computer simulations (diagnosis) rather than physical prototype testing. CAE
dependability is based upon all proper assumptions as inputs and must identify critical
inputs (BJ). Even though there have been many advances in CAE, and it is widely used in
the engineering field, physical testing is still a must. It is used for verification and model
updating, to accurately define loads and boundary conditions and for final prototype
sign-off.

The future of CAE in the product development process

Even though CAE has built a strong reputation as a verification, troubleshooting and
analysis tool, there is still a perception that sufficiently accurate results come rather late
in the design cycle to really drive the design. This can be expected to become a problem
as modern products become ever more complex. They include smart systems, which
leads to an increased need for multi-physics analysis including controls, and contain new
lightweight materials, to which engineers are often less familiar. CAE software
companies and manufacturers are constantly looking for tools and process improvements
to change this situation. On the software side, they are constantly looking to develop
more powerful solvers, better use computer resources and include engineering knowledge
in pre- and post-processing. On the process side, they try to achieve a better alignment
between 3D CAE, 1D System Simulation and physical testing. This should increase
modeling realism and calculation speed. On top of that, they try to better integrate CAE
in the overall product lifecycle management. In this way, they can connect product
design with product use, which is an absolute must for smart products. Such an enhanced
engineering process is also referred to as predictive engineering analytics.

CAE
Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the broad usage of computer software to aid in engineering tasks. It
includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided analysis (CAA), computer-integrated
manufacturing (CIM), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), material requirements planning (MRP),
and computer-aided planning (CAP).

CAE fields and phases

CAE areas covered include:

 Stress analysis on components and assemblies using FEA (Finite Element Analysis);

 Thermal and fluid flow analysis Computational fluid dynamics (CFD);

 Multibody dynamics(MBD) & Kinematics;

 Analysis tools for process simulation for operations such as casting, molding, and die
press forming.

 Optimization of the product or process.

 Safety analysis of postulate loss-of-coolant accident in nuclear reactor using realistic

thermal-hydraulics code.

In general, there are three phases in any computer-aided engineering task:

 Pre-processing – defining the model and environmental factors to be applied to it.

(typically a finite element model, but facet, voxel and thin sheet methods are also used)

 Analysis solver (usually performed on high powered computers)

 Post-processing of results (using visualization tools)

CAE in the automotive industry

CAE tools are very widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled
the automakers to reduce product development cost and time while improving the safety,
comfort, and durability of the vehicles they produce. The predictive capability of CAE
tools has progressed to the point where much of the design verification is now done using
 computer simulations rather than physical prototype testing. CAE dependability is based
upon all proper assumptions as inputs and must identify critical inputs (BJ). Even though
there have been many advances in CAE, and it is widely used in the engineering field,
physical testing is still used as a final confirmation for subsystems due to the fact that
CAE cannot predict all variables in complex assemblies (i.e. metal stretch, thinning).
(Or)
CAE tools are very widely used in the automotive industry. In fact, their use has enabled
the automakers to reduce product development cost and time while improving the safety,
comfort, and durability of the vehicles they produce. The predictive capability of CAE
tools has progressed to the point where much of the design verification is now done using
computer simulations (diagnosis) rather than physical prototype testing. CAE
dependability is based upon all proper assumptions as inputs and must identify critical
inputs (BJ). Even though there have been many advances in CAE, and it is widely used in
the engineering field, physical testing is still a must. It is used for verification and model
updating, to accurately define loads and boundary conditions and for final prototype
sign-off.

The future of CAE in the product development process

Even though CAE has built a strong reputation as a verification, troubleshooting and
analysis tool, there is still a perception that sufficiently accurate results come rather late
in the design cycle to really drive the design. This can be expected to become a problem
as modern products become ever more complex. They include smart systems, which
leads to an increased need for multi-physics analysis including controls, and contain new
lightweight materials, to which engineers are often less familiar. CAE software
companies and manufacturers are constantly looking for tools and process improvements
to change this situation. On the software side, they are constantly looking to develop
more powerful solvers, better use computer resources and include engineering knowledge
in pre- and post-processing. On the process side, they try to achieve a better alignment
between 3D CAE, 1D System Simulation and physical testing. This should increase
modeling realism and calculation speed. On top of that, they try to better integrate CAE
in the overall product lifecycle management. In this way, they can connect product
design with product use, which is an absolute must for smart products. Such an enhanced
engineering process is also referred to as predictive engineering analytics.
SIMULATION AND BUSINESS PROCESS CHANGE
Simulation is a tool for managing change. Practitioners in business process management
know the critical importance of carefully leading organizations and people from old to
new ways of doing business, and simulation is one way to accelerate change. This
capability derives largely from the ability of simulation to bring clarity to the reasons for
change. Simulation provides more than an answer: it shows you how the answer was
derived; it enables you to trace from cause to effect; and it allows you to generate
explanations for decisions. Simulation is a component of a business rules engine. You can
view simulation as a solution to both off-line design and on-line operational management
problems. Engineers derive rules from the mental models experts provide on how their
processes work and how to make decisions that will help them forecast how a change
might impact those decisions. Formalizing and simulating these models makes the
automation of business rules more robust. In the design of new business rules, simulation
provides a way to validate that processes will work as designed. Simulation enables the
successful use of organizational improvement programs such as Six Sigma. The activities
of define, measure, analyze, improve, and control depend on the earnest participation of
everyone involved to manage quality. In particular, the last three (analyze, improve &
control) revolve around identification of root causes, coming up with new policies and
practices, and putting controls in place to keep quality high. Clearly, simulation can play
the important role of reducing the risk of change and managing change. This article
presents background material on simulation, its relation to modeling, the technology of
simulation, and some practical applications in business process management.
SIMULATION EXTENDS BUSINESS PROCESS MODELING INTO VALIDATION
Modeling is a tool for representation. Models define the boundaries of the system you
want to simulate. Business process modeling practitioners and software vendors have
created a wealth of formalisms, software tools, and methodologies for understanding
what to model, how to model, and ways to conduct analyses with models. The articles
published on this website provide many examples of these tools of the trade. Modeling is
a necessary component of any simulation, but it is not sufficient for conducting a
simulation. To simulate, one needs a simulation engine, which is described in the section
below. Models for simulation can be simple or complex. Some modeling and simulation
tools allow you
to create detailed models of business processes with a high degree of fidelity to actual
processes. Other simulations are simple calculations of indicators or metrics. While it
seems reasonable that a high-fidelity model would be the best, this does not mean that the
model must be complex. A common mistake in modeling and simulation is to build an
overly complex model, resulting in an over-abundance of data and great confusion in
analysis of the results. If the model doesn’t represent the behavior of the system of
interest, it is useless for analysis of that system; in addition, overly complex models are
unwieldy, slow, and difficult to analyze. Simulation experts are effective at finding the
right model size and complexity needed to represent the problem to be addressed without
unnecessary detail. The key facility that experts develop is an ability to distill real-world
problems and extract the essence of the problem so that it can be modeled simply, but still
retain the dynamic behavior needed to examine important problems. Some tools aid the
user in this task by providing templates or guides that encapsulate this expertise.
Simulation is a tool for time and space compression, both of which are needed for robust
validation. Successful business process transformations are those that have withstood the
test of time and solve real problems. They have been validated through months or years
of operation with a demonstrated return-on-investment. New implementations of these
processes aren’t risky because users know they will work as expected. However, when a
new or innovative process is devised, it’s impossible to tell whether an asserted ROI can
ever be realized. Simulation provides a mechanism for robust validation under realistic
conditions and can substantially reduce the risk of deploying a new process.
Validation of a business process can be done in many ways, but a structured method for
examination involves a series of qualitative or quantitative experiments. A business
problem statement identifies the variables that experimenters change, as well as the
metrics that indicate success or failure, and the validation exercise is completed through a
series of simulations. Pilot projects with limited data sets, conducted in low-risk
laboratory environments, provide data that support cost/benefit analyses.
Since there are a large number of possible alternatives, simulations are limited by a
careful
selection of variables and the application of design-of-experiments techniques. The hard
constraints are time and space, and achieving a compression of both can only be done one
way – through modeling and simulation.
TYPES OF SIMULATION MODELS
Simulation is used to describe a broad range of capabilities. By definition, these all
involve
 reproducing or projecting the behavior of a modeled system. Computer-based simulations
can involve everything from simple addition of a few numbers to intensive computations
that challenge the fastest computing machines currently available. Models for simulation
can be classified along four distinct dimensions:
System of Interest – The system of interest can be one of the following:
• a physical system, for example, a supply chain or production line,
• a management system, for example, a CRM process, or
• a meta-model, for example, rules that establish whether a model is formulated properly.
Visibility – Internally, a model may be:
• transparent, that is, a description of actual mechanisms, or black-box’, that is, a
description that results in the same behavior as the real system but
internally does not model the actual mechanisms.
• Probability – A model can be probabilistic, that is, a single set of inputs that results in
many possible outputs—the outputs exhibit variations that are described using statistics,
or • deterministic, that is, the same set of inputs results in the same set of outputs; the
outputs are causally determined by preceding events.

Mass Property Analysis:

The size, volume, surface area, and other properties available from a solid model are most often
part of the design constraints your design must satisfy.

The following are mass property calculations available in today’s solid modeling programs:
Volume Density Mass
Surface area Centroid Moment of Inertia
Product of Inertia Radii of Gyration Principal Axes
Principal Moments
Volume
• Volume is the amount of three-dimensional space contained within an object.
• Design engineers use volume to determine the amount of material needed to produce a
part.
• Different formulas for different shapes
Density
• Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
• Density is different for every material and can be found in a machinist handbook.
Mass
• Mass is the amount of matter in an object or the quantity of the inertia of the object.
• Many materials are purchased by weight; to find weight, you need to know the mass.