UNIVERSITATEA DE ŞTIINŢE AGRONOMICE ŞI

MEDICINĂ VETERINARĂ DIN BUCUREŞTI

FACULTATEA DE ÎMBUNĂTĂŢIRI FUNCIARE

ŞI
INGINERIA MEDIULUI

SPECIALIZAREA - MĂSURĂTORI TERESTRE ŞI

CADASTRU, AN IV, IFR, GRUPA 9402

CADASTRAL SURVEYING METHODS

Student
Cristina – Elena Plăcintă

BUCUREŞTI
2018
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 CADASTRAL SURVEYING METHODS

Cadastral surveying is the discipline of land surveying relating to the laws of

land ownership and the definition of property boundaries. It involves interpreting
and advising on boundary locations, on the status of land ownership and on the
rights, restrictions and interests in property. Such information is recorded for use
on plans, maps and other legal documents. It also involves the physical delineation
of property boundaries and determination of dimensions, area, and certain rights
associated with properties, whether they are on land, water or defined by natural or
artificial features.
The ethimology of cadastre comes from mid 19th century: from French,
from cadastre „register of property‟, from Provençal cadastro, from Italian catastro
(earlier catastico), from late Greek katastikhon „list, register‟, from kata stikhon
„line by line‟.
The cadastre of a country is its register of property titles and is usually
managed by government agencies. The information recorded includes an accurate
description of the location of a parcel of land and who owns it. It may also record
what the land can be used for (e.g. residential or not, national park etc) and may
also show the location and shape of buildings. In some countries it also records the
value of a property. In these cases the cadastre may also be used for land taxation
purposes.
The foundation block of a cadastre is the cadastral plan (or survey plan).
This is produced by a registered ⁄ licensed surveyor who accurately measures and
records the boundaries of each property. This occurs whenever a new land parcel
is created and each new survey produces a new survey plan. Because of this each
plan is static in time, i.e. it represents the shape and status of the cadastre at the
time of survey. Cadastral plans from different parts of the world will contain
different information – this is dependent on local legislation relating to the
registering of cadastral plans into the local cadastre. A properly registered
cadastral plan is a legal document.
Cadastral maps are produced by joining together individual cadastral plans.
A cadastral map is a general land administrative tool which has no real legislative
basis (as a cadastral plan does). It is often created on demand and therefore not
necessarily up–to–date. These maps are used by a broad range of people (public
and professional) for all manner of things including real estate sales, valuation,
Land Title Office management of the cadastre, planning etc.
Cadastral mapping is one of the best known forms of mapping, because it is
the mapping that shows all of the land parcels in relation to one another and to the
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adjoining roads. It is also one of the most ancient forms of mapping – for example
ancient Egyptians are known to have developed cadastral records so that land
ownership could be re–established after the annual flooding of the Nile River.
Cadastral surveys are generally performed to subdivide land into parcels for
ownership under a land title and to re-establish boundaries of previously surveyed
properties in order to determine the physical extent of ownership or to facilitate the
transfer of the property title.
The development of Cadastre (“cadastral survey”) at a region is defined as
the procedure of recording the real property or other registrable rights (e.g. full or
limited ownership, usufruct, prenotification or other real property encumbrance,
etc.) which a person or a legal entity has on real properties of a specific region of
the country and the connection of these rights to a specific property or properties,
as the latter are defined and depicted, after being checked and technically
processed, on cadastral diagrams.
On recording a real property right, a series of legal details (register and ID
details of the beneficiary, way of acquisition of the right, details of the deed with
which the right was acquired, etc.) are also recorded. Furthermore, land parcels are
depicted on cadastral diagrams in absolute accuracy with specific node
coordinates, specific boundaries and property areas. Consequently, the cadastral
survey procedure aims at collecting, processing and recording property and other
registrable rights per property but also at collecting and processing details that
allow the most accurate possible depiction of land parcels on cadastral diagrams.
Cadastral surveyors (also known as licensed surveyors) are generally the
types of surveyors you don‟t see very much, as they vanish into the bush for long
periods of time, fossicking around for evidence of survey marks that can be up to
centuries old.
This meticulous acquisition of data enables cadastral surveyors to deliver
accurate boundary markings, so the the surveyor will need to demonstrate
competency in the following units:
 Professional practice;
 Collection of data and information;
 Management of data and information;
 Presentation of information;
 Communications;
 Spatial referencing system and core databases; and,
 Land administration and property development.
If the surveyor holds these competencies, along with a solid knowledge-base
of all the relevant legalities that the land dealings entail, then he or she will be able
to assist in guiding the above mentioned aspects of your project in the right
direction, to avoid potential pitfalls along the way.

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SURVEYING METHODS
> Triangulation (with anglar measurement)
> trilateration
> traversing

Triangulation
In the past it was difficult to accurately measure very long distances, but it
was possible to accurately measure the angles between points many kilometres
apart, limited only by being able to see the distant beacon. This could be anywhere
from a few kilometres, to 50 kilometres or more.
Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle
formed by three survey control points. Using trigonometry and the measured
length of just one side, the other distances in the triangle are calculated. The shape
of the triangles is important as there is a lot of inaccuracy in a long skinny triangle,
but one with base angles of about 45 degrees is ideal.
Each of the calculated distances is then used as one side in another triangle
to calculate the distances to another point, which in turn can start another triangle.
This is done as often as necessary to form a chain of triangles connecting the origin
point to the Survey Control in the place needed. The angles and distances are then
used with the initial known position, and complex formulae, to calculate the
position (Latitude and Longitude) of all other points in the triangulation network.
Although the calculations used are similar to the trigonometry taught in high
school, because the distance between the survey points is generally long (typically
about 30 kilometres) the calculations also allow for the curvature of the Earth.
The measured distance in the first triangle is known as the „Baseline‟ and is
the only distance measured; all the rest are calculated from it and the measured
angles. Prior to the 1950s, this initial baseline distance would have to be very
carefully measured with successive lengths of rods whose length were accurately
known. This meant that the distance would be relatively short (maybe a kilometre
or so) and it would be in a reasonably flat area, such as a valley or plain. The
triangles measured from it gradually increased in size, and up onto the hilltops
where distant points could be seen easily.
The angles in the triangles are measured using a theodolite, which is an
instrument with a telescope connected to two rotating circles (one horizontal and
one vertical) to measure the horizontal and vertical angles. A good quality
theodolite used for geodetic surveys would be graduated to 0.1 second of an arc
and an angle resulting from repeated measurements would typically have an
accuracy of about 1 second of arc, which is equivalent to about 5 cm over a
distance of 10 kilometres.
In triangulation the vertical angles are not needed, but they can be used to
measure the difference in height between the points.
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 Angular Measurement: there are 360 degrees in a full circle. One degree
contains 60 minutes and each minute contains 60 seconds. So there are 3,600
seconds in a degree and 1,296,000 seconds in a full circle. These seconds or
minutes are often referred to as ‟seconds of arc‟ or ‟minutes of arc‟ to distinguish
them from seconds and minutes of time.

Theodolite Theodolite schematic

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Trilateration

In the 1950s, accurate methods of measuring long distances (typically 30 to

50 km) were developed. They used the known speed of light (299,792.458 km per
second) and the timed reflection of a microwave or light wave along the measured
line. Known as Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM), the two initial
types of instrument were the „Tellurometer‟, which used a microwave, and
„Geodimeter‟, which used a light wave.
The distances in a triangle could then be measured directly instead of
calculating them from the observed angles. If needed the angles could be
calculated. The process of calculating positions through the chain of triangles is
then the same as for triangulation.
Sometimes both angles and distances were measured in some triangles to
check on the observations and improve the accuracy of the calculations.

Trilateration Network

The early EDM instruments could measure long distances with an accuracy
of about 5 parts per million (i.e. 5 mm for every km or to 150 mm over a 30 km

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line), but later versions were more accurate, able to measure with an accuracy of
about 1 part per million (1 mm per kilometre or 30 mm over a 30 km line)
These days there are also many types of accurate and compact EDM
instruments integrated with an electronic theodolite and known generically as a
„Total Station‟. These instruments can also measure with an accuracy of about 1
part per million, but generally only for shorter lines of about one kilometre.

Total Station Theodolite

Traversing

Triangulation and Trilateration are difficult and sometimes impossible in flat

country where there are not many hills. This is often the situation in outback areas
of Australia.
With EDM this problem can be minimised by measuring the distances and
angle between successive survey control points. With a known starting position
and orientation (or two known starting positions) repeating this process through a
chain of points allows the position of each point to be calculated.
However, in a traverse, if a mistake is made, it may not be obvious, so these
traverses generally close back onto their starting point to form a loop, or finish on
another known position. The difference between the known finishing position and

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the calculated position for this point is the misclose and indicates the accuracy of
the traverse measurements and calculations.

Traverse Diagram

Surveying Heights

Heights are usually shown on maps by contour lines or spot heights and they
give the height above Mean Sea Level (MSL) which can vary slightly with time
and from place to place.
In the past when a direct connection to Mean Sea Level was not possible, the
relationship between barometric pressure and height was used to calculate heights
above sea level. This is a complex process if the best possible result is wanted, but
it is the same principle used in an aircraft‟s altimeter.

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 The pressure at sea level is about 1013 millibars (mb) and it decreases by
about 10 mb for every 85 metres of increased height (although this changes as you
go higher).
This is not the most accurate method of obtaining heights, but it is relatively
simple and can be improved by using several barometers simultaneously on points
of known height. Allowance can then be made for changing weather patterns, but
even at its best Barometric heighting will result in a height with an uncertainty of
about 10 metres.

Measuring Height by Barometric Pressure

Heights from Vertical Angles

With Triangulation and Traversing, horizontal angles are measured with the
theodolite and it is not much more effort to also measure the vertical angles
between survey points. Again using trigonometry, the difference in height can be
calculated from the vertical angles and the distances. This is called Trigonometric
Heighting.
When the distance between the observed points is more than about a
kilometre, corrections are also made for the curvature of the Earth and the

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refraction of the line of sight as it passes through the different atmospheric layers.
To cancel out much of the uncertainty due to refraction, vertical angles may be
observed simultaneously from each end of the line.
With care and applying all the necessary corrections, a difference in height
with an uncertainty of a few decimetres may be obtained over lines up to 30 or
more kilometres (a decimetre is one tenth of a meter).
Starting from a point of known height, the simple addition of the calculated
differences in height gives the height of each point above MSL.

Measuring Difference In Height by Vertical Angles

Heights from Optical Levelling

Just as a builder uses a spirit level to make sure a construction is „level‟, a

surveying instrument known as an optical level is used to project a horizontal line
in two directions (forwards and backwards) so that differences in height can be
measured. At each end of the line being measured the value is noted where this
horizontal line intersects a vertical staff (basically just a big ruler). The difference
between the values at each end of the line gives the difference in height.
Provided the line of sight is kept relatively short (usually less than 50
metres) the problems of refraction and Earth curvature experienced with

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Trigonometric Heighting are eliminated. By repeating this process in a leap-frog
manner and adding up all the differences in height, the total difference in height
between two very distant points can be calculated. If the first point is a tide gauge
where Mean Sea Level has been measured, all the points will have known heights
above Mean Sea Level.

Measuring Height by Optical Levelling

Surveyors Measuring with an Optical Level

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Surveying Using GPS

GPS or Global Positioning System was developed and is maintained by the

US Department of Defense. Since the introduction of GPS many other countries
have developed similar satellite based navigation systems, such as the Russian
Glonass, Chinese BeiDou and European Galelio.
Modern surveying GPS equipment, and recent smart phones, are now able to
use multiple systems thus increasing the number of satellites „visible‟ at any one
time. Being able to reach these extra satellites improves reliability and accuracy.
To distinguish equipment utilising multiple satellite systems the term Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is often used instead of GPS.
Initially developed for military use, GPS is now part of everyday life. . A
few of the many things that GPS is used in include: mobile phones, in-car
navigation and search and rescue equipment. But there is a wide variety of
equipment and techniques that can be used for surveying.
GPS was rapidly adapted for surveying, as it can give a position (Latitude,
Longitude and Height) directly, without the need to measure angles and distances
between intermediate points. Survey control could now be established almost
anywhere and it was only necessary to have a clear view of the sky so the signal
from the GPS satellites could be received clearly.
GPS is similar in some ways to the Trilateration and EDM previously
discussed, except that the known positions are now the GPS satellites (and their
orbits) 20,000 km in space. The equipment and calculations are extremely
complex, but for the user the process is generally very simple.
In the commonly available receivers, the GPS receiver almost instantly
works out its position (Latitude, Longitude and Height) with an uncertainty of a
few metres, from the data broadcast by the satellites. This data includes a
description of the satellites changing position (its orbit) and the time the data was
transmitted.
The GPS receivers used for surveying are generally more complex and
expensive than those used in everyday life. They use the two frequencies
broadcast by the GPS satellites. The physical characteristic of the GPS signal (the
phase) and sophisticated calculation methods to greatly improve the accuracy of
the positions obtained. These receivers usually have a separate high-quality
antenna.
A GPS baseline uses two survey-quality GPS receivers, with one at each end
of the line to be measured . They collect data from the same GPS satellites at the
same time. The duration of these simultaneous observations varies with the length
of the line and the accuracy needed, but is typically an hour or more. When the
data from both points is later combined, the difference in position (Latitude,

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Longitude and Height) between the two points is calculated with special software.
Many of the uncertainties of GPS positioning are minimized in these
calculations because the distortions in the observations are similar at each end of
the baseline and cancel out.

GPS Point Positioning

The accuracy obtained from this method depends on the duration of the
observations, but is typically about 1 part per million (1 millimetre per kilometre)
so a difference in position can be measured over 30 kilometres with an uncertainty
of about 30 mm, or about 100 mm over 100 kilometres. Because the GPS satellites
are in a very high orbit (20,000 km) the ends of the GPS baseline can be hundreds,
or even thousands of kilometres apart and still observe the same satellites.
Although a single baseline from a known position is enough to give the
position at the other end of the baseline, additional GPS baselines to other points
are often measured to give a check on the results and an estimate of the uncertainty
of the calculated position.

Geodetic GPS Receivers

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadastre

http://www.linz.govt.nz

http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/

http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/v4860e/v4860e03.htm

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