Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: A review on power conditioning units and MARK
topologies
⁎
Himadry Shekhar Das, Chee Wei Tan , A.H.M. Yatim
Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Fuel cell (FC) application in vehicular technology has gained much popularity since the past few years. Typically,
Hybrid electric vehicle fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FCHEV) consists of fuel cell, battery and/or ultracapacitor (UC) as the power
Fuel cell sources. The power converter is integrated to the power sources to form the hybrid FC system. This helps to
Battery compensate the drawback of individual power sources. Apart from the technical efficiency of power sources
Ultracapacitor
itself, the performance of an FCHEV is governed by the efficiency of power electronics and associated controller.
Converter
Control strategy
In this paper, a state-of-the-art of vehicle classification is reviewed, in which the focus is placed on the
deployment of fuel cell, battery, ultracapacitor and flywheel. The configurations used in FCHEV, followed by the
updated power converter topologies, are also discussed. The topologies are categorized and discussed according
to the power stages and control techniques used in the configurations. Then, multiple stages conversion and
single stage topologies are described chronologically. The advantages and disadvantages of each topology, safety
standards, current situation and environmental impact of FCHEV are also discussed. In addition, the current
development of FCHEV, challenges and future prospects are also elaborated. The rapid growth of FC based
research and technology has paved great prospects for FCHEVs in the near future, with the prediction of the
competitive cost of hydrogen as compared to gasoline.

1. Introduction
Transportation sector of the modern world mainly relies on fossil
fuel. Using large amount of fossil fuel is responsible for global
warming, air pollution and ozone layer depletion. Besides, excessive
usage of fossil fuel in vehicles is the reason behind dwindling of
underground petroleum resources. A statistics of U.S. Energy
Information Administration (EIA) shows that transportation sector
occupies almost 55% of the world's total energy consumption and
30.9% Carbon dioxide gas emission in 2014 [1]. This trend will keep
going if any alternative solution for transportation sector is not
adopted. Figs. 1 and 2 show the energy consumption and carbon
dioxide emission by different sectors in recent years. The figures also
show the prediction results for the upcoming years. As an alternative to
fossil fuels, automobile manufacturers are adopting electric sources
such as battery, ultracapacitor or fuel cell to power the vehicles. Electric
vehicles (EVs) are one of the viable solutions for decreasing the GHG
emission and saving the environment. The EVs not only help to
maintain a clean and healthy environment but also reduce the
operating cost of vehicles, compared to gas or oil powered vehicles.
In term of energy cost, EVs cost 2 cent/mile whereas gasoline powered
vehicles cost around 12 cents/mile [2]. At present, an EV can run 4–8
miles per kWh energy with zero emission of any GHG. A report by the
U.S. Department of Energy (USDE) shows that an ICE vehicle uses only
15% of total fuel energy to run a car, whereas an EV uses more than
75% of total energy [3,4]. The rest of the energy is emitted to
environment as heat, which consequently contributes to global warm-
ing. Thus, EV is a better alternative to ICE vehicles.
The main challenge in developing EVs is the energy source cost, as
it takes almost one third of the total cost of the vehicle. Different types
of energy sources are applied to reduce the storage cost with improved
efficiency, which results in different configurations of EVs [5]. All
electric vehicles are of three types: battery electric vehicle (BEV), fuel
cell electric vehicle (FCEV), and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle
(FCHEV), which uses a combination of fuel cell and battery/ultra-
capacitor storage system as energy source. The research steps for
FCHEV include designing vehicle components and improving the
vehicle efficiency. Numerous researches are being conducted to make
FCHEV popular in the vehicle market. However, there are very few
literatures available which overviewed all the major areas of recent
advancement in this hybrid vehicle technology [2,6–12]. Most reviews
are concerned with EVs or plug in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs),

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: himadry.s.das@gmail.com (H.S. Das), cheewei@utm.my (C.W. Tan), halim@fke.utm.my (A.H.M. Yatim).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.056
Received 16 January 2016; Received in revised form 7 February 2017; Accepted 8 March 2017
Available online 18 March 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

Nomenclature ICE Internal Combustion Engine

ICEV Internal combustion engine vehicle
AC Alternative current LQC Linear Quadratic Control
AEV All-electric vehicles MCFC Molten carbonate fuel cell
AFC Alkaline Fuel Cells MES Main Energy Source
ANN Artificial Neural network mild-HEV Mild hybrid electric vehicle
BEV Battery electric vehicle MIMO Multiple input multiple output
BTU British thermal unit MPG Miles per gallon
CHP Combined Heat and Power MPGe Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent
CSI Current source inverter NN Neural network
DBI Differential Boost Inverter NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
DC Direct Current PAFC Phosphoric acid fuel cells
DMFC Direct methanol fuel cell PDA Personal digital assistant
DP Dynamic programming PEMFC Proton exchange membrane fuel cells
DSP Digital Signal Processing PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
ECMS Equivalent Cost Minimization Strategy PI Proportional integral
EDLC Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor PR Proportional Resonant
EIA U.S. Energy Information Administration PID Proportional integral derivative
EM Electric motor plug-in HEV plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
EMI Electromagnetic interference PSO Particle swarm optimization
EREV Extended range full-HEV PWM Pulse Width Modulation
ESS Energy Storage System RESS Rechargeable Energy Storage System
EV Electric vehicle RBC Rule Based Control
FC Fuel cell SBI Switched Boost Inverter
FCEV Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle SMC Sliding Mode Control
FCHEV Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle SOC State of the charge
FES Flywheel energy system SOFC Solid oxide fuel cells
FLC Fuzzy logic controller UC Ultracapacitor
full-HEV Full hybrid electric vehicle UDSE U.S. Department of Energy
GA Genetic algorithm VRLA Valve regulated lead acid
GHG Green House Gases VSI Voltage source inverter
HESS Hybrid energy storage system ZEBRA Zero emissions batteries research activity
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle ZVS Zero-voltage switching
HF Hybridization factor ZSI Z Source Inverter

thus a comprehensive review on FCHEV is necessary to elaborate on
every major aspect of this technology. This paper aims to review the
state-of-the-art available energy sources, power conditioning topolo-
gies of FCHEV and their benefits and shortcomings. As FCHEV
technology is comparatively new and the research and development
stage is still underway, a thorough review on the different aspects of
this technology will help provide a clear vision for researchers.
Moreover, potential development areas of each section will be dis-
cussed throughout this review. The main objective of this review is to
acknowledge and analyze existing research to find the potential areas of
research as well as to discuss the challenges and future aspects of
FCHEV technology. For that purpose, an overview of vehicle technol-
ogy is presented first, followed by review of different types of energy
sources. Afterwards, different power conditioning topologies of FCHEV
are presented in the section 4. A discussion and finally the challenges
Energy consumpon
(Survey and predicon)
and future prospect of FCHEV, are elucidated in the later sections.
2. Overview of vehicle technology
Researches in vehicular technology has led to innovative, economic
and environment friendly transport system. The development of
vehicle system can be classified into three groups, namely internal
combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) and
all electric vehicle (AEV). ICEVs are solely dependent on gasoline based
internal combustion engine. AEVs use electricity based energy sources
such as battery, ultracapacitor, fuel cell etc. HEVs are the result of
hybridization of ICEV and AEV. Fig. 3 shows the classification of
Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Residenal
(Survey and Predicon)
2,000
Commercial
millions of metric tons

120 Residenal 1,600

Sector
100
Commercial 1,200 Industrial
Sector
80
Quadrilion BTU

Industrial Sector
800
60
Transporta
40
Transportaon
400 on
Sector

20 Electric Power Biogenic

0
Sector Energy
0 Combuson
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Fig. 1. Energy consumption statistics in different sectors. Fig. 2. Carbon-di-oxide emission statistics in different sectors.

269
H.S. Das et al.
vehicle technology. The hybridization factor shown in Eq. (1) is defined
as a ratio of electric motor (EM) power and total power [13,14]. Based
on the hybridization factor, vehicles are categorized into different types
of hybrids.
HF = PEM /(PEM + PICE) (1)
where, PEM is Electric motor power and PICE is internal combustion
engine power.
Hybridization of electric motor and internal combustion engine can
be done in two ways: by sharing a single shaft for both EM and ICE,
and by using a power split path. Vehicle hybridization results in
improvement of fuel economy, which is expressed by miles per gallon
(MPG) or Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe). The term MPGe
is used for EV or PHEV, where 33.7 kWh electrical energy equals to the
energy of one gallon of gasoline [15,16]. Different groups of vehicles
and their specifications are discussed in the below subsections.
2.1. Internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV)
Internal combustion engine vehicles use a combustion chamber to
convert the chemical energy of fossil fuel into kinetic energy to run the
vehicle. Heat is generated as a byproduct in the conversion process,
which is released to the environment. There are two types of ICEV: (1)
conventional ICEV with no assisting electric motor, and (2) micro HEV
with low voltage EM incorporated with it. The conventional ICEV
operates standalone, thus it has the lowest fuel economy, but produces
the most exhaust gas and heat that are harmful to the environment.
The micro-HEVs use electric motor of around 12–14 V, which provides
power around 5 kW with the ICE [17]. The motor only contributes to
start the ICE from cold state and does not contribute anything to drive
the vehicle. This type of vehicle has the benefit of shutting down the
ICE during coasting, braking or stopping, which improves the fuel
efficiency up to 5–15% [2]. An example of micro-HEV is the Citroën C3
manufactured by Automobiles Citroën [18].
2.2. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) incorporate two types of sources:
ICE and EM, in such a way that, they run the vehicle together in a fuel
efficient manner. The HEVs can be divided into three types: mild-HEV,
full-HEV and plug-in HEV. The advantage of Mild-HEV can be related
with micro-HEV. However, the power of EM in mild-HEV is larger (7–
12 kW/150 V) than micro-HEV. Moreover, EM can run together with
ICE to propel the vehicle, resulting in greater fuel economy (up to 30%)
[19]. The disadvantage is that EM cannot run standalone due to
sharing the same shaft with ICE [20]. Some commercial mild-HEVs are
GMC Sierra 1500 pickup, Honda Civic, Honda Accord and Saturn Vue
2009.
To reach the requirement of better fuel economy, most of the car
manufacturers have adopted the production of full-HEVs. This type of
HEV is capable of using split power path for both ICE and EM, so that
they can run the vehicle independently or together. By adopting this
Vehicles
Vehicle
Internal Combustion Engine Hybridization Hybrid Electric
(ICE) Vehicle eg. Combination of ICE Vehicle (HEV)
and EM
1. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) 1. Mild-Hybrid Electric Vehicle
2. Micro-Hybrid Electric Vehicle 2. Full Hybrid Electric Vehicles (Full-HEV) 1. Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)
- Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle
- Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle
- Series-parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle
- Complex Hybrid Electric Vehicle
3. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)
Fig. 3. The classification of vehicle [2].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
topology, fuel economy can be increased by 40% without compromising
the performance. Usually, full-HEVs use large energy storage systems
(ESS) such as, battery or ultracapacitor. The EM of full-HEV operates
at around 50 kW/330 V. This technology can be divided into four
types: series full-HEV, parallel full-HEV, series-parallel full-HEV and
complex full-HEV.
Series full-HEVs use EM as the main propulsion power provider
similar to the battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Series full-HEVs have a
high power ICE generator for recharging the battery. An example of
series full-HEV is Chevrolet Volt. It is also categorized as extended
range full-HEV (EREV) or series plug-in HEV. The benefit of this
topology is that the ESS size can be reduced based on the generator
power and fuel capacity. The vehicle is capable of using most of the
regenerative braking energy to store the ESS. However, it turns down
the vehicle efficiency to around 25.7%, which is the lowest of all types
of full-HEVs. Nevertheless, it is most suitable for city driving pattern,
where the car driving practice is stop-and-run.
Parallel full-HEV uses separate propulsion system for ICE and EM
connected by mechanical coupler. The vehicle topology improves the
fuel efficiency up to 43.4%; however, the battery capacity is weakest
here. Parallel full-HEV is preferable than series full-HEV because it has
higher efficiency and also smaller EM and ESS.
The series–parallel full-HEV vehicles use one mechanical and one
electrical powered coupler for combining the ICE and EM. It utilizes
the benefit of both series and parallel full-HEVs, although the config-
uration is complex and costly.
The complex full-HEV topology is similar to the series parallel full-
HEV, except it has power converters connected to the motors/
generators. Thus, this topology is efficient in power handling, more
controllable and reliable, yet costly and complex. All these full-HEV
configurations allow manufacturers to use existing technology of
motor, engine and ESS, which results in having the lowest vehicles
cost [5,21,22]. Among some commercially available full hybrids,
Toyota Prius, Lexus LS 600 h and Nissan Tino use series–parallel
full-HEV topology whereas, Honda Civic hybrid, Honda Insight and
Ford Escape use parallel full-HEV concept.
Another type of HEV is plug-in HEV, which facilitates external
charging of the ESS used in the vehicle. Apart from the power of ICE,
the ESS can be charged from the grid power. This facility enables the
vehicle to use larger ESS, thus increases the range of the vehicle. A
schematic of series-parallel PHEV is shown in Fig. 4, and in Table 1, a
summary of latest achievements in hybrid vehicle industry is presented
[23].
2.3. All electric vehicle (AEV)
All electric vehicles or AEVs are vehicles which use only electrical
power for vehicle propulsion. There are six types of power transfer
topologies in AEV which have been discussed in literature [2].
Depending on the energy source selection, AEVs can be classified into
three types: Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles
(FCEVs) and Fuel Cell Hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs). The power-
Vehicle
Hybridization
H bridi ation All Electric
Vehicle (AEV)
2. Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV)
3. Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FCHEV)
H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

ICE Fuel Tank

Transmission

Charger
Generator EM PCU
Charger
Power ESS
Motor Batteries
Converter

Fig. 4. Drivetrain architecture of a Series-parallel PHEV.

train configuration of BEV and FCEV are similar, whereas FCHEV
powertrain is the result of hybridization of battery and fuel cell. Other
than that, BEVs use only energy storage systems and FCEVs use only
fuel cells, while FCHEVs use a combination of fuel cell and energy
storage system to power the vehicle.
2.3.1. Battery electric vehicle (BEV)
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are one type of AEVs which use
battery as energy source. The battery is mounted in the vehicle and is
charged from the grid time to time. The charging system can be
onboard or off board. The advantage of this configuration is that it has
the lowest mechanical drivetrain. As a result, the weight of the vehicle
is low, and the loss from energy conversion from electrical to mechan-
ical is also low. However, the main requirement of this type of vehicles
is high torque traction motors for accelerating the vehicle, which
reduces the efficiency. High torque traction motor has high current
flow in armature winding, which results in heat loss in the motor
[5,21,22,24]. BEVs can only travel a short distance and the top speed is
limited, which make this type of vehicles suitable for stop-and-run
driving conditions. Currently, BEVs are mostly applicable for in-city
driving due to their low mileage, low weight and low top speed. To
increase the driving range and top speed some modifications can be
done in the vehicle powertrain, for example addition of gearbox in the
vehicle. Gearbox enables BEVs to run in both city and highway;
however this modification compromises the efficiency of the vehicle.
BEVs without gearbox (motor to wheel) has higher efficiency due to
lower moving parts, thus low rotational inertia and no energy loss in
gear and differential mechanism [18]. The drivetrain architecture of
basic BEV is shown in the Fig. 5.
2.3.2. Fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV)
Similar to BEV, fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) use an all-electric
powertrain; however the energy source is a fuel cell stack. An FCEV is
Fig. 5. Basic powertrain configuration of BEV.
fueled with hydrogen, thus emits only water and heat. There is no
tailpipe pollutant, thus it is recognized as zero emission vehicle. For
vehicular purpose, low temperature and pressure fuel cells such as
PEMFC are ideal since they show high power density, lower operating
temperature (60–80 °C) and low corrosion compared to other types of
FCs [25,26]. The fuel used in FCEV is either direct hydrogen which is
stored in a tank mounted in the vehicle, or hydrogen extracted from
fuel using a fuel processor. In Fig. 6, a typical powertrain configuration
with optional fuel processor is shown [27]. The characteristic of FC is
ideal for constant power supply, but not proper for abrupt change in
power demand. Thus, slow speed vehicles such as forklifts, buses,
trams, submarines, material handling vehicles are suitable for FC
application. Nowadays, FC is being used for high speed vehicles as
well. In order to produce high speed vehicles, different modifications
can be made to the basic powertrain. Vehicle manufacturers like
Honda, Toyota, and Hyundai are manufacturing high performance
fuel cells for their vehicles. Different energy management techniques
are being adopted, focusing on different aspects like fuel economy,
energy losses and vehicle efficiency.
2.3.3. Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV)
The modification of FCEV powertrain leads to a new vehicle
configuration called FCHEV. This type of vehicle architecture adopts
another auxiliary ESS for supporting the fuel cell. Battery or ultra-
capacitor can be used as ESS as they can be charged and discharged
based on the power demand and supply. Using fuel cell as the main
energy source and battery or ultracapacitor as ESS in a hybrid vehicle,
several issues need to be taken care of to ensure efficient and smooth
operation of the vehicle. Fig. 7 shows a typical powertrain of FCHEV
[28]. The possible issues are concerned with the power converter size,
weight and reliability. Moreover, the converter efficiency, electromag-
netic interference (EMI) and output voltage and current ripples are

Table 1
Summary of commercially available HEVs [23].

Vehicle model Type Energy source Fuel economy MPGe (city/highway) Annual fuel cost (per 15,000 miles)

Honda Fit 2014 BEV Electric 132/105 $ 500

Nissan Leaf 2015 BEV Electric 126/101 $ 550

Ford Focus Electric 2016 BEV Electric 110/99 $ 600

Mitsubishi i-MiEV 2016 BEV Electric 126/99 $ 550
Honda Civic Hybrid 2015 HEV Gasoline 44/47 $ 800
BMW Active E 2011 BEV Electric 107/96 $ 600
BMW Active Hybrid3 2015 HEV Gasoline 25/33 $ 1500
Toyota Camry Hybrid LE 2015 HEV Gasoline 43/39 $ 850
Ford Fusion Hybrid FWD 2016 HEV Gasoline 44/41 $ 850
Honda Insight 2014 HEV Gasoline 41/44 $ 850
Lexus LS 600 h L 2015 HEV Gasoline 19/23 $ 2050
Toyota Prius 2015 HEV Gasoline 51/48 $ 700
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid 2016 PHEV Gasoline - Electric 51 (combined) $ 1450
Chevrolet Volt 2015 PHEV Gasoline - Electric 101 / 93 $ 800
Toyota Prius 1.8 2015 PHEV Gasoline - Electric 95/50 $ 650
Audi A3 E-tron 2016 PHEV Gasoline - Electric 83 (combined) $ 950

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H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

Fig. 6. Powertrain configuration of FCEV [27].

Fig. 8. Specific Energy vs Specific Power of ESS.

Fig. 7. Powertrain configuration of a FCHEV [28].
some important factors. The achievement in FCHEV research has led to
successful commercial fuel cell vehicles. Table 2 shows some commer-
cial and prototypes of fuel cell vehicles [28]. The table also shows the
operating range of the vehicles in single fueling, and fuel economy in
both city and highway driving conditions.
3. Energy sources for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle
The energy sources for FCHEVs can be Fuel Cell (FC), Battery,
Ultracapacitor (UC) and flywheel. The sources are chosen based on the
basic power flow architecture, which is one source with high energy
supply capability defined as “Main Energy Source” (MES), and another
one with high power capability and reversibility facility which is known
as “Rechargeable Energy Storage System” (RESS) [44]. Sometimes
both sources have the reversibility and energy storage facility. MES is
for steady state power supply and RESS is for transient power supply
and regenerative braking usage. The RESS plays important role in the
case of cold start of MES and sudden high power demand such as in
case of accelerating the vehicle. To decide the MES and RESS precisely,
the knowledge of the power density and energy density is necessary.
The optimum operating area of different types of energy sources is
presented in Fig. 8. The figure shows the specific power, specific energy
and time constant. It shows that fuel cell and battery have higher
energy density, but with low power density. The time constant related
to discharge rate is also high for batteries. Thus, fuel cell and batteries
are appropriate as MES. Meanwhile, different type capacitors (ultra-
capacitor, electrolytic capacitor and thin film capacitors) and flywheel
have low energy density (0.001−1 Wh/kg), high power density
(102−107 W/kg) and also very high discharge rate (1 ms−1 s), which
means these sources can supply high power, but the duration is very
low. These characteristics make them suitable to be used as RESS.
The energy sources and storage devices used in FCHEVs are
explained in the below subsections.
3.1. Fuel cell
The fuel cell is an electrochemical device that generates electrical
energy using chemical energy of the fuel. It takes fuel and air as input
and supplies electricity and water as output through a chemical
reaction [45]. Conventional heat engines generate electricity by using
mechanical energy conversion process, which has a reduced efficiency
compared to fuel cells. Fuel cells have the advantages of both engines
and batteries, thus they can work continuously as long as the fuel is
supplied. Their characteristics are similar to a battery under load
conditions [46]. The basic principle was initially invented by Swiss
scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838 [47], but the first fuel
cell was only developed in 1839 by Sir William Robert Grove [48,49].
The first usable and developed fuel cell was a 5 kW alkaline fuel cell,
demonstrated by Sir Francis Bacon in 1950. Further improvement was
done by International Fuel Cells, which developed an alkaline fuel cell
with capacity of 12 kW for NASA's spacecraft. In mid-1960s, the

Table 2
Summary of different model of FCEVs and FCHEVs [29–43].

Vehicle model Type Energy source Fuel economy MPGe (city/highway) Range (mile)

Honda FCX clarity 2014 FCEV Hydrogen 58/60 231

Honda Clarity Fuel Cell 2017 FCHEV Hydrogen –– 434
Toyota Mirai 2016 FCEV Hydrogen 66/66 312
Hyundai Tucson Fuel Cell 2016 FCEV Hydrogen 49/51 265
Hyundai ix35 2013 FCHEV Hydrogen –– 369
Toyota FCHV-adv FCHEV Hydrogen 39/43 400–500
Audi Sportback A7h-tron Quattro 2014 FCHEV Hydrogen 62 (overall) 310.7
Honda FCV Concept 2014 FCEV Hydrogen –– 435
Mercedes-Benz F800 2010 FCEV Hydrogen –– 373
Nissan Terra FCEV SUV 2012 FCEV Hydrogen ––
Roewe 950 Fuel Cell 2014 FCEV Hydrogen –– 249
Volkswagen Golf Hymotion 2014 FCEV Hydrogen –– 310
Kia Borrego FCEV FCEV Hydrogen –– 426

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H.S. Das et al.
researchers started working on fuel cells to avail them for general
applications like stationary power supply and transportation. During
these years, the governments of USA, Japan and Canada started
funding the research works on fuel cell [46]. 50 years on, the research
and development of fuel cell based application is still under progress
and requires more concentration to reduce the expenses and improve
the efficiency.
3.1.1. Principle of operation
Fuel cells operate through electrochemical conversion process,
which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Input reactants
(fuel and oxidant) are fed into a cell where the reaction occurs in the
presence of an electrolyte, and electricity is generated as output. It is a
zero emission system because it does not emit any exhaust gas, and
only produce water and heat as wastage of the reactions. The schematic
diagram of a simplified fuel cell is presented in Fig. 9 [50]. Different
types of fuel cells take different types of fuel as input, but the chemical
reaction that takes place in the fuel cell is similar. The reaction happens
between oxygen from air and hydrogen from the fuel, and forms water.
The reaction is given in Eq. (2), and Fig. 9 shows the operating
principle of a fuel cell [51].
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)→2H2 O + energy (electricalpower + heat ) (2)
Hydrogen + Oxygen→Water + Energy (ElectricalPower + heat )
The chemical reactions involved in anode and cathode are given in
Eqs. (3) and (4) [51].
Anode reaction:
(3)
H 2→2H+ + 2e−
Cathode reaction:
1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e−→ H2 O (4)
The voltage produced by the reaction of H2 and O2 is 1.23 V
theoretically; however the amount is less than this practically. A unit
elementary cell of fuel cell generates around 0.6–0.7 V at rated current.
Due to several factors like activation loss, ohmic loss and mass
transport loss the voltage decreases and the current increases [52].
3.1.2. FC classification and application
Fuel cells are classified into different groups according to their
chemical properties and operating temperature. Kirubakaran et al.
demonstrated fuel cells in 6 major groups based on the choice of fuel
and electrolyte [47]. Table 3 shows a summary of the operational
characteristics and technical specification of different types of fuel cells
and their application area [26,53,54]. The Fuel cell types along with
their operating temperature and power characteristics are shown in the
Fig. 10. Among these fuel cells DMFC, PEMFC, AFC and PAFC are
considered as low temperature fuel cells. They can be used in different
portable applications such as: mobile phone power, PDAs, tablet pc,
laptop and transportation. MCFC and SOFC are high temperature fuel
cells and can be used in stationary power generation. Specially, SOFC is
used in distributed generation with CHP.
3.2. Battery
A battery is a storage device that stores electrical energy in the form
of chemical energy. There are two types of batteries: (a) primary
batteries which are not rechargeable and (b) secondary batteries which
are rechargeable. For multiple uses, secondary batteries are suitable,
thus are preferable for vehicular applications. The schematic diagram
of a secondary battery is shown in the Fig. 11.
The capacity of a battery is measured in ampere-hour (Ah), while
the energy stored in battery is measured in watt-hour (Wh) and the
usable state-of-charge is expressed as percentage, which defines the
availability of charge in the battery. The operation of battery should be
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
maintained in certain range of SOC to prolong the battery lifecycle. The
capacity of a battery is proportional to the maximum discharge current,
represented by the index of C. That means, if the value of C is higher,
the battery will deplete quickly. The maximum discharge current is
dependent on the chemical reaction and the temperature of the battery.
3.2.1. Classification and application
Battery is the most reliable energy source for long time, as a result
various types of batteries with different capacity and characteristics can
be observed [57,58]. Currently, five groups of batteries suitable for
vehicular applications are available in the market, such as lead acid
batteries, nickel batteries, ZEBRA batteries, lithium batteries and metal
air batteries. Table 4 shows the types of battery specifications and
applications [2,59–62].
3.3. Ultracapacitor
Ultracapacitor, the derivative of conventional capacitor is a high
energy density storage system. It is also known as supercapacitor or
electrochemical capacitors [63,64]. The range of Ultracapacitor capa-
city is measured in Farads (F), whereas the conventional capacitors are
measured in the range of milli-farads (mF), microfarads (µF) and pico-
farads (pF) [65]. However, the power density of ultracapacitor is
compromised to increase the energy density. For a conventional
capacitor the power density and energy density are at ~1012 W/m3
and ~50 Wh/m3 range respectively whereas, an ultracapacitor holds
power density of 106 W/m3 and energy density of 104 Wh/m3 range
[66]. In a conventional capacitor two conducting electrodes are
separated by an insulating dielectric material, whereas in an ultra-
capacitor the electrodes are enclosed in an electrolyte and parted by a
separator between them. The purpose of using electrolyte is to facilitate
the storage of electrostatic charges in the form of ions. The surface area
of electrodes of ultracapacitor is much higher than that of conventional
battery or capacitor electrodes. The electrodes absorb the ions and
provide much higher charge density than the available capacitors.
Again the movement of ions in ultracapacitor is slower than electrons
which results in higher charging and discharging time than electrolytic
capacitors, thus the capacity is increased this way [66]. The usable
energy stored (E) in an ultracapacitor is given by:
⎛3⎞
E (Wh ) = 1/2CVr 2 ⎜ ⎟ /3600
⎝4⎠ (5)
Here, Vr is the rated voltage of the ultracapacitor cell [67].
Due to its high capacity, high efficiency ( > 90%) and high range
operating temperature, ultracapacitors are used in various applications
as a replacement for batteries. It was first used in military projects for
ignition of battle tank engines and submarines. Due to the advance-
ment of nano-material technology and commercialized manufacturing,
Fig. 9. Fuel cell diagram [50].
H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

the cost of ultracapacitors has decreased significantly and at the same

to higher performance, Can use a variety of catalysts.

High efficiency, Fuel flexibility, Can use a variety of

High efficiency, Fuel flexibility, Can use a variety of

Cathode reaction faster in alkaline electrolyte, leads

management problems, Suitable for CHP, Hybrid/

time capacitance has increased. As a result, the application of ultra-

Solid electrolyte reduces corrosion & electrolyte

management problems, Low temperature, Quick
Higher overall efficiency with CHP, Increased

catalysts, Solid electrolyte reduces electrolyte,

capacitor has become more common. Currently, it is used in starting of

Reduced cost due to absence of fuel reformer

diesel engines, locomotives, wind turbines for pitch control, actuators
and memory back up. Due to its quick charging ability it is used in

tolerance to impurities in hydrogen

regenerative braking applications [52].

3.3.1. Classification and application

catalysts, Suitable for CHP

Depending on current research and development trends, ultraca-
pacitors can be divided into three major classes, which are
Electrochemical Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC), Pseudocapacitors
Advantages

and hybrid capacitors. Every class has its own characteristics and
mechanism to store charge. The mechanisms are classified as either
GT cycle

start-up
non-Faradaic, Faradaic, or a combination of both, respectively. In
Faradaic process, transfer of charges between electrode and electrolyte
occurs. The examples of this process are oxidation and reduction
Electric utility, Large distributed
Auxiliary power, Electric utility,

Backup power, Portable power,

reaction. Non-Faradaic process does not involve in any chemical

mobiles, computers and other
Small distributed generation,
Large distributed generation

reaction, rather charges are distributed on surfaces by physical process

portable devices power

that does not make or break the chemical bonds [68]. EDLC is the
Distributed generation

cheapest ultracapacitor and most commonly used among the three

types [69]. The detailed classification of ultracapacitor is shown in
Military, Space

Transportation
Applications

Fig. 12.
generation

The chemical properties of different types of ultracapacitors and

their application area are given in the Table 5 [2,67,70,71]. Currently,
for most of the applications, EDCL ultracapacitor is used due to its
higher power density than the other two types. Thus, EDLC is produced
efficiency (%)

by most of the commercial companies. Maxwell, APowerCap, Ness,

Electrical

Asahi Glass, Panasonic, EPCOS, LS Cable, BatScap, Power Sys., Fuji

and JSR Micro are some of the companies producing ultracapacitors.
35–43

45–47

53–58
> 40

A. Burke has tested the performance characteristics of commercial

60

40

ultracapacitors in University of California Davis [67,72,73].

output (kW)

0.001–100
< 1–3000

< 1–1000

3.4. Flywheel energy storage (FES)

50–1000

< 1–250
System

10–100

Flywheel energy storage, also known as FES, is another type of

energy storage device, which uses a rotating mechanical device to
store/maintain the rotational energy. The operational mechanism of a
temperature (◦C)

flywheel has two states: energy storage and energy release. Energy is
stored in a flywheel when torque is applied to it. The torque increases
Operating

600–1000

the rotational speed of the flywheel; as a result, energy is stored.

150–200

600–700
90–100

50–100

60–200

Conversely, the energy is released in the form of torque to the

connected mechanical device [74]. The stored kinetic energy of a
flywheel is expressed by:
voltage

0.8–1.0

0.7–1.0

0.2–0.4

Ek = 1/2Iω 2 (6)
Cell

1.0

1.1

1.1

where, I = moment of inertia and ω = angular velocity.

FES technology uses two approaches: mechanical output and
CH4, other

CH4, other

electrical output. Usually, mechanical output approach has efficiency

Pure H2

Pure H2

Pure H2
H2, CO,

H2, CO,

CH3OH

of almost double (around 70%) the electrical output approach. This

Fuel

mechanical output efficiency of FES can be raised up to 97%, and the

Temperature, power and application area of FC [26,53,54].

round-trip efficiency up to 85% by using frictionless magnetic and

and/or potassium carbonates, soaked

vacuum bearings [40]. The current research has developed FES

Liquid phosphoric acid soaked in a

Liquid solution of lithium, sodium,

systems having 10–150 Wh/kg energy and 2–10 kW/kg power density
Aqueous solution of potassium
hydroxide soaked in a matrix

with a lifetime of around 15 years. For instance, Lawrence Livermore

Solid organic polymer poly-

Solid polymer membrane

National Laboratory (LLNL) has built a 100 kW FES prototype which

Yttria stabilized zirconia
Common electrolyte

perfluorosulfonic acid.

can achieve 1 kWh energy at 6000 rpm. The diameter of the FES
system is 20 cm and the height is 30 cm. Research institutes such as
LLNL in United States, Ashman Tech, AVCON, Northrop Grumman,
in a matrix

Power R & D, Rocketdyne/Rockwell Trinity Flywheels and UT Austin

Power Center are working on to develop high speed FES system for
matrix

electric vehicles. FES system has the advantage of having long lifetime,
low maintenance, quick response, low recharge time and no tempera-
ture dependency, which make it suitable for electric vehicle applica-
Fuel cell

PEMFC

tions [75,76]. The obstacles faced by FES system for EV application are
DMFC
MCFC
Table 3

SOFC
PAFC
type

AFC

the gyroscopic force management and safety issues [21,77]. The

application area of FES system includes powering road vehicles, rails,

274
H.S. Das et al.
Fig. 10. Fuel cell types according to the operating temperature and power range [55].
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of a secondary battery [56].
rail electrification, UPS, Aircraft launcher system, spacecraft energy
storage, amusement rides, soft toys, motor sports, wind turbines and
grid energy storage [78–80].
4. Power conversion topologies of FCHEV applications
The advantages of fuel cell, such as superior efficiency and near zero
emission, have attracted the interests of researchers and entrepreneurs
of automotive manufacturers. However, ongoing research is yet to gain
the overall goal of this sector, which is to develop fuel cell based
vehicles with comparable range of conventional automobiles and
gaining environmental benefits of battery electric vehicles. The present
fuel cell technology in automotive industry is quite expensive, provided
with highly efficient and comparatively quiet operation due to its low
number of moving parts. The major components of FCHEVs have been
explained in earlier sections. The schematic diagrams of different fuel
cell vehicle propulsion system will be explained in this section.
A basic schematic diagram of a complete FC based HEV is shown in
Fig. 13 [81]. In the system, fuel cell and battery are used as sources.
The FC produces a low voltage, which is made usable by two DC/DC
275
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
converters. One converter transfers power to the auxiliary loads such as
water, fuel and air pumps, ventilation and control systems. Another
converter transfers power to the input DC bus of traction motor
inverter. The battery system is interfaced to the DC bus by a
bidirectional converter. The traction motor inverter produces AC from
the DC power supplied by FC and battery, and the traction motor uses
the AC power to produce mechanical output used to drive the wheel of
the vehicle. This system is a hybrid arrangement, which utilizes the
regenerative braking power of the traction motor. The battery also
works as power source during the initial startup of FC. Once the fuel
cell is warmed up, the battery supply is turned off and the system runs
by FC solely.
In the aforementioned topology ultracapacitor is not used; however
FCHEVs use various combinations of FC, UC and battery. Depending
on the power conversion stages of fuel cell vehicle propulsion system,
the configurations can be sub-categorized into two types: multiple stage
power conversion and single stage power conversion.
4.1. Multiple stage power conversion
Power conversion in a hybrid vehicle has two stages: DC-DC
conversion and DC-AC conversion. First, low voltage DC power form
sources are converted into high voltage DC and then the high voltage
DC is converted into AC by inversion. The topologies of multiple stage
power conversion discussed in different literatures can be classified
into six topologies, as shown in Fig. 14 [82].
The first topology (T1) is the simplest one, where the FC is
connected with its storage device directly without any converter, and
the combined DC bus is connected with the motor inverter. The
reference for this topology is hard to find, because it is more suitable
for single stage power conversion. Azib et al. [83] proposed this
topology with control strategy for FCHEV. He used Ballard proton
exchange membrane FC for his project and proposed the control
strategy based on power decoupling strategy. The SC unit only has a
charge controller and connected directly to the DC bus.
In the next topology (T2), FC is connected via a DC/DC converter.
The storage system is connected directly to the DC bus and the motor is
interfaced via inverter. This configuration is widely used because it
facilitates the power split control over FC and battery/ultracapacitor.
Q. Li et al. and Mallouh et al. [84,85] used fuzzy controller for energy
management of the vehicles. Differently, Tazelaar et al. [86] considered
a medium size truck as test subject and used equivalent consumption
minimization strategy based analytical solution for energy manage-
H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

Table 4
Different types of batteries, their characteristics and application [2,59–62].

Energy storage type Specific Energy Specific Life cycle Energy Production cost Application
energy density power (W/ efficiency (%) ($/kWh)
(Wh/kg) (Wh/L) kg)

Lead acid battery Conventional automotive starting, lighting

Lead acid 35 100 180 1000 > 80 60 and ignition, large power backup, grid
Advance lead acid 45 – 250 1500 – 200 energy storage, BEVs, UPS. IC engine
Valve regulated lead acid 50 – 150+ 700+ – 150 startup.
(VRLA)
Metal foil lead acid 30 – 900 500+ – –
Nickel battery Ni-Cd - Two-way radios, emergency medical
Nickel–iron 50–60 60 100–150 2000 75 150–200 equipment, professional video cameras and
Nickel–zinc 75 140 170–260 300 76 100–200 power tools. NiMH- Powering portable low
Nickel–cadmium (Ni–Cd) 50–80 300 200 2000 75 250–300 powered devices. Ni-Fe- Off-grid power
Nickel–metal hydride(Ni– 70–95 180–220 200–300 < 3000 70 200–250 system storage.
MH)
ZEBRA battery Suitable for automobile applications: cars,
Sodium–sulfur 150–240 – 150–230 800+ 80 250–450 buses and transporters where low
Sodium–nickel chloride 90–120 160 155 1200+ 80 230–345 maintenance is needed.
Lithium battery Lightweight and high energy density battery.
Lithium–iron 150 – 300 1000+ 80 110 Can be used for EVs, portable devices like
sulphide(FeS) laptop, torch, smartphone, camcorder,
Lithium–iron 120 220 2000–4500 42000 – 350 digital camera, electronic cigarette, toys.
phosphate(LiFePO4)
Lithium-ion 130–225 200–250 260–450 > 1200 – 150
polymer(LiPo)
Lithium-ion 118–250 200–400 200–430 2000 495 150
Lithium–titanate (LiTiO/ 80–100 – 4000 18000 – 2000
NiMnO2)
Metal-air battery Vehicle propulsion, Grid storage.
Aluminum-air 220 – 60 – – –
Zinc-air 460 1400 80–140 200 60 90–120
Zinc-refillable 460 – – – – –
Lithium-air 1800 – – – – –

ment.
The third topology (T3) as shown in Fig. 14 depicts that, the storage
system is interfaced via a DC/DC converter, whereas FC system is
directly connected to the DC bus. This topology suffers from higher loss
than the second one, because the power flow through the DC/DC
converter is bidirectional here. Thus, the power electronic loss is higher
in this topology. Moreover, the converter and control strategy of this
topology is complex. Some models of this topology have been proposed
in the literature [87,88]. L. Wang, et al. presented an optimized hybrid
energy storage system for fuel cell vehicles, which consisted of FC, UC
and battery. A three port bidirectional converter was used to interface
the UC and the battery. A one sided asymmetrical phase shift and a
duty cycle controller were developed for converter control. For power
management, a maximum fuel economy control strategy was applied
[87].
The topology (T4) as shown in Fig. 14 is commonly preferred by the
researchers. This topology has the flexibility in controlling both FC and
storage power flow. As the power of the sources should meet the
demanded power and the voltage level of the DC bus should be stable, a
strict control on both source converters is needed. This can be done by
adding a capacitor in the DC bus which results in the 5th topology. As
the 4th topology provides a stable voltage level on DC bus and restricts
large voltage swings, the inverter requirement is flexible. Most of the
literatures on this topology focus on power flow control [87–92].
Kisacikoglu et al. proposed a load sharing strategy for FC/UC vehicle
using fuzzy logic [89]. A novel fuzzy logic control algorithm was
proposed by the researchers for incorporation into the power con-
ditioning unit of the system. The main focus of the system was to keep
the DC bus voltage level stable around the nominal value by determin-
ing the FC power demand for propulsion power supply. It also used the
braking energy of the motors. Hegazy et al. also proposed a FC hybrid
control system, but the control strategy used particle swarm optimiza-
tion [90,93]. The model presented by Zheng et al. focuses on fuel
economy in FC hybrid vehicles [91,92]. The strategy used for energy
management was Equivalent Consumption Minimization System
(ECMS) which would sense the state of charge of the battery system.
A rule based control system was also applied to the system, and then
the results in term of fuel consumption were compared with the

Fig. 12. The classification of Ultracapacitors.

276
H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

optimal control system's result.

applications, Elevators, cranes or pallet trucks, flashlights, Radars and

Satellite phones, digital wireless communication devices, Radars and

The 5th configuration (T5) depicts a propulsion system with battery

torpedoes, defibrillators and cardiac pacemakers, pulsed laser and

Engine startup, Hybrid Vehicle power, UPS, powering Toys, GSM
and ultracapacitor with fuel cell. The main advantage of this topology is
that it has benefits of both UC and battery; having high power and high
energy density. However, the drawback of the system is its complexity.

torpedoes, aircraft electronic appliances, Space shuttle.

Gao, et al. proposed a hybrid fuel cell bus which consisted of both
battery and ultracapacitor with FC, interconnected as the topology 5
[94]. To control the system, fuzzy logic controller is used which
considers battery state of charge (SOC), ultracapacitor SOC and
required vehicle power as input and gives decision about the power
supplied by battery, ultracapacitor and fuel cell. This topology also
facilitates the regenerative braking. One of the topologies proposed by
UPS, Low power applications

Li et al. in [84] was similar to fuzzy controlled hybrid architecture type.

Same as the previous one, in this configuration, the battery was
connected with the DC bus directly and UC was connected via a
bidirectional DC-DC converter. This topology was applied by slight
modification of the configuration as in the experiment by Odeim et al.
Application

[95]. In the experiment, the FC and UC were interfaced via DC-DC

welding.

converters and the battery was connected directly to the DC bus. The
controller used in the system was proportional integral (PI).
Topology (T6) as shown Fig. 14 comprises of FC, UC and battery; all
are interfaced via DC-DC converters. This configuration provides better
efficiency (%)

control of DC bus voltage than the previous five topologies. It enables

the supercapacitor to handle power and battery to store energy more
Energy

efficiently, compared to topology 3, 4 and 5. Erdinc et al. presented a

> 95

model of energy management system based on wavelet and fuzzy logic

[96].
40 years

All the sources of the topology are interfaced via DC-DC converters
cycle
Life

as shown in the topology 6 as shown in Fig. 14. Similar configuration

based on fuzzy logic control was proposed by Merlo-Perez et al. which
consisted of a multiple input DC-DC converter instead of three different
Power density

converters [97]. Yu et al. proposed a system with global optimization

controller which uses the same topology [98]. The summary of the
(W/kg)

topologies are given in the Table 6.

1–3 M
1–2 M

1–2 M
1–2 M

1–2 M
–

4.2. Single stage power conversion

Energy density

Two stage power conversions would make the converters bulky,

expensive and less efficient, thus recent researches focus on single stage
(Wh/kg)

10–15
10–15

10–12

power conversion. Some literatures proposed a single stage power

8–12
5–7

converter, which is capable of supplying the required output power by

–

maintaining input sources in good health. A generalized schematic

diagram of single stage power conversion is shown in Fig. 15.
voltages

Several choices for inverters are available for single stage power
1.5–2.2
3–3.5

2–3.5
2–3.3
2.5–3

2.5–3

conversion, such as voltage source inverters (VSI), current source

Cell

inverters (CSI), switched boost inverters (SBI) Z-source inverters (ZSI)

and differential boost (DBI) inverters. VSI and CSI have several
Different types of ultracapacitors and their applications [2,67,70,71].

Redox charge transfer

Double-layer/faradaic

limitations, thus they are not suitable for certain kinds of applications.
Double-layer/charge
Charge transfer or
Charge separation

Charge separation
Energy storage

For example, VSI cannot boost the AC output voltage level, and CSI
mechanisms

cannot lower the voltage level [127], therefore for wide range of voltage
intercalation

applications, they cannot operate independently. Moreover, they are

transfer

not interchangeable and EMI noise affects both converters vulnerably.

The switching devices and motor connected to VSI or CSI face higher
stresses, thus the motor's constant power speed ratio is limited.
Carbon/lead oxide

Another type of inverter is the switched boost inverter (SBI) which

Activated carbon
Graphite carbon

Nanotube forest

Carbon/metal

uses a DC-DC boosted inversion system. Although it is not a pure single

Metal oxides
Electrode
materials

stage it can act as a single stage boost inverter. Fig. 16 shows the circuit
diagram of a SBI [128]. The SBI configuration has two parts: the boost
oxide

part and the inverter part. The boost part consists of an inductor and/
or a switch and a diode which increases the DC voltage level and then
Electric double-layer
Technology type

the full bridge inverter which converts the DC voltage into AC. As the
Advanced carbon

Advanced carbon

Hybrid Capacitor

Hybrid Capacitor
Pseudo-capacitor

inverter is based on high speed switching, the output needs a filter to

achieve pure sinusoidal AC voltage. Thus, an LC filter is added to the
topology. Several modifications have been performed in this topology.
Table 5

The Z source inverter can overcome the limitations of VSI and CSI by
keeping the size smaller than the DC-DC boosted PWM inverter. The Z

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H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

Fig. 13. Schematic of a fuel cell based power system for a passenger car [81].

source inverter can produce required voltage level for traction motor by
monitoring the battery state of charge and output power controlling at
the same time. However, it has lower switching device power for low
boost ratio range (1−2), and the LC impedance network increases the
size and cost of the converter [129,130]. A Z source inverter for fuel cell
applications is shown in the Fig. 17 [131].
For fuel cell application where low input voltage and high boost
ratio is required, a differential boost inverter is the best configuration
due to its high boost ratio (greater than 2). For single stage converter,
boost type inverter topology is popular because it can perform both
boosting and inversion. The limitation of the converter is that only one
source can be connected at a time. To connect multiple sources with the
inverter special arrangement is needed. The differential boost inverter
topology is shown in the Fig. 18.
The main complication with this topology is its control system.
Different researchers have proposed different control methods for this
differential boost inverter among which PWM control [133], sliding
mode control [134–138] and dual loop control [132,139–151] are
most popular. Apart from these, several other control strategies are
also proposed; such as: adaptive control and fuzzy rule based neural
network control [152,153], nonlinear feedback linearization technique
[154], current feedback technique [155], and linear multiple input/
multiple output control strategy [149,156]. Several modifications of the
DBI topology have been proposed by researchers in recent years.
Danyali et al. proposed a multiple input, single stage DC-DC and DC-
AC converter [149,156]. The major benefit of this topology is that the
number of inputs can be increased easily. The central part of the
converter enables battery or ultracapacitor interfacing because it has
the bidirectional power flow and the side branches are for fuel cell
interfacing and they are for unidirectional power flow. The control
method used in this converter is multiple loop control, because the
converter has multiple inputs. Researchers have proposed the use of n-
control loops; two for output voltage control and n-2 for input dc
current regulation. The control method selected here is linear MIMO
(multiple input multiple output) control which is pole placement
approach via integral state feedback, because designing classical
control compensators like PID (proportional integral derivative) or PI
(proportional integral) is complicated for multiple inputs. While the
number of inputs is increased, the transfer function identification
becomes more complicated.

Fig. 14. Topologies of FCHEV (T1) floating DC bus, (T2) Controlled FC with floating battery/ultracapacitor, (T3) Floating FC with controlled battery/ultracapacitor (T4) Controlled DC
bus with Controlled FC, battery/ultracapacitor, (T5) Controlled FC with controlled battery and floating ultracapacitor, (T6) Controlled FC with controlled battery and ultracapacitor [82].

278
 Table 6
FCHEV topologies summary.

Topology Source Controller EMS method control strategy Analysis type DC bus Max speed Max power Author
H.S. Das et al.

component

T1 PEMFC/UC PWM controller Cascaded control loop with power decoupling Practical implementation 60 V – 10 kW T. Azib, et al. [83]
strategy in frequency domain.
T2 PEMFC/Battery Fuzzy Logic Controller DIRECT algorithm based on Fuzzy logic control Simulation: unknown tool (UDDS, HWFET, NEDC – 30 m/s 30 kW Li and Liu [99]
drive cycles)
T2 PEMFC/Battery Fuzzy Logic Controller Operational mode strategy(4modes) Simulation: ADVISOR (UDDS cycle) 300 V 88.5 km/h 25 kW Xiao and Wang [100]
T2 PEMFC/Battery Fuzzy Logic Controller Multi model control based on fuzzy supervised rule Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink, ADVISOR 300 V 80 km/h 40 kW Xie et al. [101]
(UDDS, EPA drive cycles)
T2 PEMFC/Battery PI Controller Comparison of 3 control strategies (FC output Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink Hardware: 450 V 90 km/h 40 kW Hong-wen et al. [102]
power oriented, FCE loading and unloading, Hybrid bus
instantaneous power distribution optimization)
T2 PEMFC/Battery PI Controller Comparison of 3 control strategies (rule- based, Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink (China Urban Bus – 60 km/h 130 kW Shuang et al. [103]
existing-optimal, revised- optimal) Drive Cycle)
T2 PEMFC/Battery Fuzzy Logic Controller Fuzzy logic control (4 operating modes) Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink – 88.5 km/h 75 kW Xiao et al. [104]
T2 PEMFC/Battery Fuzzy Logic Controller, The thermostat strategy, fuel cell optimized Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink – – – X Li, et al. [105]
strategy, load following strategy, fuzzy logic
strategy,
T2 PEMFC/Battery Thermostat controller, Four strategies are compared (Thermostat control Simulation: PSAT. – 120 km/h 80 kW M.A. Mallouh, et al.
Fuzzy Logic Controller strategy, fuel cell optimization strategy, load [85]
following strategy and fuzzy logic control strategy)
T3 PEMFC/Battery/ Proportional Integral (PI) One-side asymmetrical phase shift and duty cycle Simulation: Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) 320 V – 10 kW L. Wang, et al. [87]
UC controller, control. (urban ECE R40 driving cycle). Hardware
implementation using emulated system test bed.
T3 PEMFC/UC sliding mode controller Flatness-based nonlinear control method. Implementation using dSPACE 35 V – 27 W A. Payman, et al. [106]
T4 PEMFC/Battery PI Controller Comparison of 2 strategies (power frequency Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink Sim Power 60 V – 2 kW Ouddah et al. [107]

279
splitting, optimal control strategy – Pontryagin's Systems (ECE- 15 drive cycle)
minimum principle)
T4 PEMFC/Battery Programming based control Optimal control strategy using Deterministic Simulation: ADVISOR – 129 km/h 80 kW Sundstrom and
Dynamic Programming Stefanopoulou [108]
T4 PEMFC/Battery Fuzzy Logic Controller Adaptive Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink Sim Power – 1200 rpm 2 kW Karunarathne et al.
System [109]
T4 PEMFC/Battery PI Controller Frequency separation method using PI regulator Simulation: unknown tool (European drive cycle) 400 V 50 km/h 8 kW Alloui et al. [110]
T4 PEMFC/Battery Programming based control Anticipatory Power Splitting Algorithm Simulation: unknown tool (US06, NEDC, J1015 – < 40 m/s 4 kW Kelouwani et al. [111]
drive cycles)
T4 PEMFC/Battery Programming based control Digital current sharing method (4 operating Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink (Standard Drive – 120 km/h 60 kW Benrabeh et al. [112]
modes) Cycle)
T4 PEMFC/UC PI Controller Comparison PI controller and differential flatness Simulation: MATLAB / Simulink Hardware: 42 V – 720 W Thountong et al. [113]
control dSPACE DS1103
T4 PEMFC/UC PI Controller Bidirectional load power sharing (polynomial Simulation: MATLAB / Simulink (NEDC drive 47 V 150 rad/s 1 kW Tani et al. [114]
control technique) cycle)
T4 PEMFC/UC – Wavelet-based load sharing algorithm Simulation: MATLAB / Simulink 188 V 56.7 mph 60 kW Uzunoglu and Alam
[115]
T4 PEMFC/UC Fuzzy Logic Controller Two fuzzy logic controllers to gear box system Hardware: VIAEPIA- P700–10Pico-ITXmain – 10 m/s – Efstathiou et al. [116]
(constant gear ratio and continuous variable board
transmission)
T4 PEMFC/UC ECMS based supervisory Supervisory ECMS controller with ECMS algorithm Simulation: VP-SIM (based on MATLAB / 340 V 120 km/h 60 kW Rodatz et al. [117]
controller Simulink) (NEDC, FUDS, FHDS drive cycles)
T4 PEMFC/UC – Wavelet ADALINE method (ANN based method) Simulation: MATLAB / Simulink Sim Power 188 V – 60 kW Ates et al. [118]
System (UDDS drive cycle)
T4 PEMFC/UC – Adaptive optimal control algorithm based on Simulation: unknown tool – – 100 kW Zheng et al. [119]
neural network
T4 PEMFC/UC Fuzzy Logic Controller, Load Sharing Strategy, Simulation: MATLAB & SIMULINK and 206 V 56.7 mph 40 kW M.C. Kisacikoglu, et al.
ADVISOR [89]
T4 PEMFC/Battery Objective function based Generic algorithm and particle swarm Simulation: MATLAB & SIMULINK and hardware 400 V – 30 kW O. Hegazy, et al. [90,93]
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
 Table 6 (continued)

Topology Source Controller EMS method control strategy Analysis type DC bus Max speed Max power Author
component
H.S. Das et al.

optimization, Rule based optimization, Equivalent fuel consumption. implementation using DSP board
control
T4 PEMFC/Battery PMP based supervisory Pontryagin's Minimum Principle (PMP) based Simulation: MATLAB & SIMULINK ( driving – – 62 kW C.H. Zheng et al.
control algorithm is compared with dynamic programming cycle: FTP72 urban, NEDC 2000, and Japan 1015) [91,92]
approach.
T5 PEMFC/Battery/ Fuzzy Logic Controller Type−1 fuzzy logic controller Hardware: ECCE vehicle (electrical chain 560 V 20 km/h 40 kW Martinez et al. [120]
UC component evaluation)
T5 PEMFC/Battery/ Fuzzy Logic Controller Comparison of fuzzy logic in fuel cell–battery (FC- Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink, ADVISOR – 160 km/h 40 kW Li et al. [84]
UC B) and fuel cell–battery-supercapacitor(FC-B-SC) (UDDS, HWFET, US06, ECE+EUDC drive cycles)
HEV
T5 PEMFC/Battery/ Fuzzy Logic Controller, PI Comparison of control strategies (state machine Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink Sim Power 280 V – < 12 kW Matopan et al. [121]
UC controller control, rule- based fuzzy logic, classical PI, System Hardware: NI-PXI8108
frequency decoupling + fuzzy logic, ECMS)
T5 PEMFC/Battery/ fuzzy logic controller, Member function based Fuzzy logic control Practical implementation. 400 V 23.4 km/h 120 kW D. Gao, et al. [94]
UC strategy,
T6 PEMFC/Battery/ PI Controller Operational mode control (7 operational states) Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink (ECE−47 test 120 V 47 km/h < 3 kW Hannan et al. [122]
UC drive cycle)
T6 PEMFC/Battery/ PI Controller Comparison of 5 control strategies (operational Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink Sim Power 750 V 50 km/h 400 kW Garcia et al. [123]
UC mode, cascade control, fuzzy logic, equivalent System. Hardware: Urbos3 (urban street railway)
consumption minimization strategy, predictive
control)
T6 PEMFC/Battery/ Thermostat control Comparison of optimal control strategies with Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink (UDDS, US06 300 V 128 km/h 100 kW Yu et al. [98]
UC thermostatic control strategy drive cycles)
T6 PEMFC/Battery/ – Traction control strategy using simulation code Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink (NEDC, UDDS, 48 V – 60 kW Paladini et al. [124]
UC ECoS, multi objective genetic algorithm is used. HWFET 1015 drive cycles)

280
T6 PEMFC/Battery/ Fuzzy Logic Controller Flatness control technique and fuzzy logic control Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink Hardware: 42 – 48 V – 780 W Zandi et al. [125]
UC dSPACE and PC test bench
T6 PEMFC/Battery/ Programming based control Simple-rule based strategy Simulation: MATLAB /Simulink Pro@design 300 V 120 km/h 58 kW Liu et al. [126]
UC
T6 PEMFC/Battery/ fuzzy logic controller, Multiple input converter, Fuzzy logic control, Simulation- MATLAB & SIMULINK and Sim 400 V – 38.5 kW A. Merlo-Perez, et al.
UC Power System (driving cycle: UDDS drive cycle). [97]
Practical implementation.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
H.S. Das et al.
Fig. 15. Single stage power conversion of FCHEV.
Fig. 16. Switched boost inverter topology [128].
Fig. 17. Z source inverter for fuel cell applications [131].
Fig. 18. Differential Boost inverter topology with single source [132].
The advantages of this converter are it can convert both DC-DC and
DC-AC with boost feature, output filter is not needed and the number
of connected sources is flexible. Moreover, this topology uses less
number of switches and passive elements. The limitation of this
topology is it can avail only one device with bidirectional power flow,
meaning either only battery or ultracapacitor can be connected here.
The number of connected unidirectional sources (FCs) is flexible in this
topology. In this study, the authors implemented the system, consisting
of three sources and the efficiency gained for DC-DC conversion was
91.6% and for DC-AC conversion was 92.3%. Another modification of
the single input differential boost inverter was proposed by
Abeywardana et al. where multiple inputs are created by adding extra
branches of switches and input inductors [157]. The modification
enabled the DBI to work as an interleaved boost inverter. The
configuration required double the number of switches as well as
inductors which makes the configuration quite bulky.
281
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
Fig. 19. Boost inverter topology with multiple input [143].
Jang et al. proposed a dual loop control strategy for fuel cell battery
hybrid system based on DBI topology [143–147]. The topology as in
Fig. 19 shows that the fuel cell is directly connected to the boost
inverter; and to support the slow dynamics, a back-up unit is connected
to the unregulated DC bus. The back-up battery storage is interfaced
with a current-mode-controlled bidirectional DC-DC converter to
facilitate charging and discharging of the battery. The boost inverter
is constructed by connecting two boost converters in series with load.
Each boost converter generates a unipolar DC biased AC voltage at
output with 180° phase shift. The output voltage is the subtraction of
two boost converter output voltages. Therefore, DC bias is omitted and
only AC voltage is achieved at the output. The voltages at each boost
converter and the boost inverter can be calculated by using:
V1 = Vdc+1/2. A1 . sin θ (7)
V2 = Vdc+1/2. A2 . sin(θ−180) (8)
V0 = V1−V2 = A. sin θ (9)
where A = A1 = A2
A dual loop control system is introduced for each converter; one
loop is for limiting the inductor current and another is for output
voltage control. In addition, two PI controllers are used for each boost
converter. That means four PI controllers are used to control the boost
inverter. To control the back-up unit output current, the inner current
control loop of the boost inverter is used. This control method is
satisfactory as the dynamic load is suitable for FC based system.
However, for vehicular usage, the system is required to utilize the
braking energy from the load for higher efficiency. This control system
does not allow the braking energy for charging the back-up unit. The
back-up unit is only charged by FC supplied current in case of lower
load current demand [143–147]. A summary of single stage power
conversion topologies are given in the Table 7. The topologies are
classified into three inverter types named CSI/SBI, DBI and ZSI. The
modifications in topologies along with control strategies of the
topologies are also elaborated in the table.
5. Discussion on FCHEV
In this section different aspects of FCHEV such as control techni-
ques, safety standards, current situation and environmental impacts
are discussed.
5.1. Control techniques
The topologies discussed in the previous section use different
control strategies. The strategies differ based on their configuration
and focus of optimization. Multiple stage configuration control strate-
gies focus on efficient operation, minimum fuel consumption, system
 Table 7
Summary of single stage power conversion topologies.

Basic Modification Controller EMS method/Control Analysis type Comments Author

H.S. Das et al.

inverter type strategy

CSI/SBI CSI inverter is modified for boost SMC Sliding Mode Control Simulation and hardware The full bridge buck converter with prior boosting facility is D Biel [128]
operation implementation controlled using two sliding control laws. One for controlling
the full bridge converter and another for the boost converter.
The configuration also requires output filter like all other
CSIs.
CSI/SBI CSI inverter is modified for buck, PWM Switching pattern is generated Simulation and hardware The CSI based structure is implemented using DCM mode BS Prasad [158]
boost and buck-boost operation using PWM implementation operation. It can operate in all the modes like buck, boost or
buck-boost. However, for high power application buck mode
is preferred. Controller does not focus variation in load
voltage or frequency.
CSI/SBI – PI Dual loop control Simulation and hardware Dual loop control technique has been modified to increase LP Sampaio [159]
implementation performance during transients. The proposed control
strategy shows reduced THD and also stable operation with
good dynamic response.
CSI/SBI CSI inverter is modified for boost PWM Switching pattern is generated Simulation and hardware The topology is controlled by a switching pattern, where AK Kaviani [160]
operation using PWM implementation output voltage or current is not considered as reference.
Dynamic load handling problems are also not focused here.
CSI/SBI CSI inverter is modified for boost PWM Switching pattern is generated Simulation and hardware Conventional CSI topology is modified for boost operation R Adda [161,162]
operation using PWM implementation with a LC network. The DSP based PWM controller uses soft
start method to prevent inrush current at startup. Controller
does not focus variation in load voltage or frequency. The
PWM controlled e SBI is compared with ZSI in terms of
switching state, number of components, stress and switch
utilization ratio and EMI noise. In several cases the ZSI is

282
better than the SBI.
CSI/SBI Modified as Improved SBI PWM Boost the voltage in shoot Simulation A modified SBI is proposed to improve the performance of Y Jia [163]
through state. boost inverter. Control strategy is simple and required to
improve.
CSI/SBI CSI inverter is modified for boost PWM Microcontroller based reference Hardware implementation The control technique is based on the input inductor current L Garcia [164,165]
operation waveform generation technique and output voltage reference. The topology uses a CSI
inverter with boost facility.
CSI/SBI – – – Mathematical modelling and A new half bridge SBI is proposed and compared with ZSI. E Babaei [166]
simulation The HB-SBI uses less number of passive components such as
inductor and capacitors. Also the topology can generate zero
level voltage.
DBI – PWM – Mathematical modelling and A new topology is proposed and named as boost inverter. RO Caceres [136]
hardware implementation Converter operation principle, mathematical model and
PWM control has been proposed.
DBI – SMC – Mathematical modelling and The sliding mode controller is robust and have fast dynamic RO Caceres [167]
simulation response with good static behaviour.
DBI Buck-Boost Inverter based on boost PID Ziegler-Nichols tuning Mathematical modelling and The inverter consists two DC-DC converters and have the RO Caceres [138]
inverter topology simulation ability to boost the output voltage with the inversion
function. The design is intended to be used in UPS.
DBI – SMC Sliding Mode Control Mathematical modelling and Basic mathematical modelling and a sliding mode controller RO Caceres [137]
hardware implementation design is performed. The experimental validation shows that
for constant load the topology shows boosting and inversion
function. Dynamic loads are not tested.
DBI – SMC – Simulation The comparison between conventional buck, buck-boost and J Almazan [168]
boost inverters are presented. The controller used for
simulation is sliding mode.
DBI – PID – Mathematical modelling and A robust PID control of the boost inverter is proposed. The RO Caceres [169]
simulation simulation results show that the configuration can boost and
invert the input DC voltage to AC output voltage.
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
 Table 7 (continued)

Basic Modification Controller EMS method/Control Analysis type Comments Author

inverter type strategy
H.S. Das et al.

DBI – PI dual loop control strategy Simulation and hardware The proposed control strategy is PI based dual loop control. P Sanchis [132]
implementation The results has been compared with sliding mode control.
The simulation result is supported by hardware
implementation.
DBI – SMC Sliding Mode Control Simulation and hardware Sliding mode based nonlinear controller focuses input and N Vazquez [170]
implementation output voltage. Current measurement is not done. The
system design is simple and low cost. However, the
performance is compromised as current ripple is not
considered.
DBI Modified Boost inverter topology PI dual loop control strategy Mathematical modelling and The proposed topology consists of a full bridge DC-DC boost TJ Liang [171]
simulation converter. The paper discusses the steady state operating
principle and control strategy.
DBI The Boost inverter is modified for PI dual loop control strategy Simulation and hardware Dual loop control technique is applied for buck boost P Sanchis [132,172]
buck-boost operation implementation operation and also boost operation of the boost inverter. The
control technique introduces an additional feed-forward loop
to improve the robustness against input voltage and output
current disturbances.
DBI – PWM dual loop control strategy Simulation Based on PWM technique, the basic boost inverter topology R Akhter [173]
is used for photovoltaic application. The configuration is
simulated using P-Spice. The voltage is boosted from 12Vdc
to 220Vac.
DBI – SMC Sliding Mode Control Simulation and hardware The sliding mode control strategy considers only load voltage D Cortes [134]
implementation as reference. It does not consider output current or input
voltage. With variation in load, the configuration shows
robustness.

283
DBI – PI dual loop control strategy Simulation and hardware Both output voltage and current control is applied using dual W Zhao [174]
implementation loop control. The current control strategy maintains zero
steady-state tracking error.
DBI – Dynamic linearizing Nonlinear feedback Simulation and hardware The boost inverter is used to generate high frequency sine K Jha [154]
modulator (DLM) linearization technique implementation wave. The controller ensures good dynamic response with
the step change in load.
DBI – PI dual loop control strategy Simulation and hardware The topology is implemented with Silicon carbide switches to M Jang [175]
implementation reduce size and energy loss in switches. Also power
conversion efficiency is high.
DBI – Repetitive controller Dual mode control using Simulation and hardware The controller for the DBI is designed for both DM and CM Y Tang [150]
plugged in repetitive controller implementation mode operation. DM controller is concerned with output AC
voltage regulation and CM controller is concerned with the
DC offset regulation. Plugged in repetitive controller along
with conventional repetitive controller is used to implement
the control algorithm.
DBI – PR and PI Rule based control (RBC) for Mathematical modelling, Rule based control technique ensures the single stage boost DBW Abeywardana
ripple current mitigation. simulation and Hardware and inversion operation for grid connected application. Two [176]
implementation PI controllers are designed to control the active and reactive
power. Also a second order generalized integrator based PLL
in applied for grid synchronization and power measurement.
The results show that RBC control is better than the
waveform control for mitigation of second order harmonics.
DBI – PR and PI Current feedback method for Mathematical modelling, The main focus is to reduce the second order harmonics in DBW Abeywardana
harmonic mitigation simulation and Hardware input current of the inverter. Dual loop control method with [155]
implementation current feedback gain is applied for the grid connected boost
inverter system. Experimental results shows minimized
input ripple current of the inverter.
DBI – SMC and PI dual loop control strategy Simulation and hardware The sliding mode based cascaded control strategy is FF Bahamonde [177]
implementation implemented for the boost inverter topology. The outer
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
 Table 7 (continued)

Basic Modification Controller EMS method/Control Analysis type Comments Author

inverter type strategy
H.S. Das et al.

control loop is controlled by a PI compensator regulating the

inverter output voltage and the inner control loop is
controlled by the sliding mode controller regulating the
inductor current.
DBI – PWM unipolar trailing edged PWM Simulation and hardware The boost inverter based photovoltaic system provides AC G. Arunkumar [178]
control implementation output of 48 Vmax with a DC input of 48V. The harmonic
component of output voltage is low and has 5 of THD.
DBI – PWM one-cycle control (OCC) Simulation and hardware The controller for the boost inverter is implemented using I Purnama [179]
implementation simple circuit. The output power factor is maintained close
to unity.
DBI – PIR Dual loop control with Simulation and hardware A new controller is introduced to reduce the output dc offset OJ Moraka [151]
Proportional Integral Resonant implementation voltage and clipping effect of the boost inverter while using
controller the PR controller. The new PIR controller introduces the
integral term which reduces the dc offset voltage as well as
the clipping effect.
DBI – PI dual loop control strategy Simulation and hardware The control strategy uses both output voltage control and M Jang [142–
implementation input current control. For additional input sources, an extra 144,147,148]
bidirectional DC-DC converter is connected which takes
power from the main source only.
DBI – – Waveform control Simulation and hardware The waveform control is applied to reduce the low frequency GR Zhu [180–182]
implementation current ripple in the input DC voltage of the DBI. A current
feedback mechanism is added to the waveform control which
ensures the ripple mitigation always.
DBI Boost inverter topology is extended – Linear multiple input/multiple Mathematical modelling and The number of inputs can be increased easily, but the S Danyali [149,156]
for connecting multiple sources output control strategy Hardware implementation number should be odd. Only one source supports

284
bidirectional power flow. Classical control is complicated for
this type of topology. It can convert both DC-DC and DC-AC
with boost feature.
DBI Boost inverter topology is modified to PR and PI Modified Dual loop control for Mathematical modelling and Two dual loop control system is applied using proportional DBW Abeywardana
interleaved configuration for multiple multiple source operation Hardware implementation resonant and proportional integral controllers. Kalman filter [157,183]
sources connection. is used to control the SOC of the ultracapacitor. The control
system ensures the interleaved operation of the boost
inverter.
DBI – – Adaptive control and Fuzzy Simulation and hardware Three control system has been implemented: double loop PI, RJ Wai [152,153]
neural control implementation adaptive control, FNN. Among these three, adaptive control
shows better tracking response and also robust. FNN
controller can be designed without the complex
mathematical dynamic model. Another comparison of
adaptive fuzzy neural network control is done with double
loop PI control. The results show AFNNC is superior in
robustness, component requirement, training requirement
and system parameter dependencies. However, the
computational burden is high for AFNNC method.
ZSI – PWM modified space vector PWM Hardware implementation A 50 kW system is designed using the Z source inverter. M Shen [184]
control
ZSI modified for multiple source PWM Shoot through duty ratio Simulation and hardware The LC network of the ZSI is modified for FC/B/UC hybrid FZ Peng [185]
application control and modulation index implementation system. A battery is added parallel to the capacitor of the ZSI
control configuration.
ZSI – PWM Maximum constant boost Simulation and hardware Comparison among conventional PWM, SBI and ZSI are M Shen [186]
control with third harmonic implementation performed. The results show ZSI is promising in the context
injection. of total switching device power, passive components
requirement, and constant power speed ratio
ZSI – – – – The advantages, limitations and disadvantages of ZSI are A Florescu [187]
elaborated. Comparison with VSI, CSI, and traditional PWM
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

cost minimization, loss minimization and so on. On the other hand,

single stage topology control strategies focus on efficient operation, loss

L Suresh [188]
minimization, simplicity, robustness and convenience in implementa-
tion.
Author

Multiple stage configuration control strategies can be categorized

into five types:

(a) Classical control.

Working principle of ZSI is elaborated. The PWM control

(b) Filtering.
technique ensures maximum boosting capacity of the

(c) Heuristic control.

(d) Fuzzy control and
(e) Optimization based control.

In classical control category, the linear feed-back/feed-forward

controllers such as Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controllers
converters are also performed.

can be adopted. Sometimes PID controllers are modified to PI or

adaptive PI controllers. The technique of classic control is to control the
duty cycle of the DC-DC converters to achieve the set point of
ultracapacitor/battery current based on the voltage in the system
[87,189]. Filtering technique can be applied by two approaches. The
Comments

first one focuses on the transient distribution in power demand. It is

converter.

done by using wavelet decomposition [190] and sometimes wavelet

decomposition is incorporated with small neural network [191]. The
second approach focuses on frequency contents distribution. This
approach is sometimes implemented using linear transfer functions
[192] and sometimes using direct duty cycle control of the DC-DC
converter of ultracapacitor/battery [193]. A heuristic strategy is
applied by determining a set of rules which operate the system. For
example, separate set of rules can be set for different mode of
Analysis type

operation, such as peak load, normal operation and braking [124].

Simulation

The operating modes are sometimes referred to as states. The number

of states may vary based on the designers’ choice. Moreover, the
operating modes can be optimized to achieve minimum fuel consump-
tion. The simplicity and real time operation have made heuristic
Maximum Boost control PWM

approach popular. The next approach is fuzzy logic control (FLC),

which is more frequently applied for FCHEV due to its freedom of
EMS method/Control

system design. The designer has the freedom to set the boundary
conditions of the membership functions. However, this relaxes the
control goal; as a result, control problem frequently arises in fuzzy
systems. For better control, an expert should define the rules in the
technique
strategy

interference of a fuzzy controller and also select the size of the fuzzy
sets. Efficient rule defining can reduce the number of membership
function with valid solutions. Due to convenience in real time,
implementation fuzzy control schemes are popular for complex systems
[84,94,97]. For better performance, fuzzy control is sometimes com-
bined with neural network (NN) and wavelet filtering [96,194,195].
Controller

Optimization based strategies are used to mathematically define the

control goals in a cost function. The cost function can be focused on
PWM

fuel consumption minimization, system cost minimization or loss

minimization or a combination of all. Various approaches have been
proposed to obtain an optimal control, such as dynamic programing,
stochastic dynamic programing (DP), Linear Quadratic Control (LQC),
Equivalent Cost Minimization Strategy (ECMS), and Model Predictive
Controllers (MPC) [98,196–200]. All these approaches for multiple
stage power conversion of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle can be
classified as in Fig. 20.
Modification

Single stage power conversion topologies show that a single

converter does both boost and inversion function. Different methods
have been proposed for controller design of single stage converter, such
as classical control [133], sliding mode control [134,137] and dual loop
–
Table 7 (continued)

control [132,143,145,147,149–151]. Table 8 shows the benefit and

inverter type

shortcomings of different single stage power conversion control

strategies.
Basic

ZSI

285
H.S. Das et al.
Fig. 20. Optimization algorithms of multiple stages configuration of FCHEV.
5.2. Safety standards of FCHEV
Safety standards are defined by the transportation monitoring
organizations all over the world. The most popular vehicle standard
is SAE, defined by United States. Other standards are ISO from
international community, EC from European Union, KS from Korea,
CGA and CSA from United States, GB/T from China, and CNS from
Taiwan and Japan government regulations. All these standards define
the regulations of fuel cell vehicle system design/testing, safety factors,
vehicle performance- efficiency, emission, durability, vehicle terminol-
ogy and fuel systems. These standards also regulate the same factors
for fuel cells. Table 9 summarizes the vehicle standards and their
regulations [201].
5.3. Current status of FCHEV
Previous researches in FCHEV have improved the vehicle perfor-
mance and made it feasible for commercialization. Vehicle manufactur-
ing companies like Toyota, Honda, and Hyundai have already brought
fuel cell vehicles into market and some other companies like Audi,
BMW, Nissan, Mercedez-Benz and Volkswagen have announced their
concept model and proposed the year of commercialization. The
maximum range achieved so far is 400–500 mile in single refueling
(Toyota FCHV-adv) and the best fuel economy achieved is 66 MPGe
(Toyota Mirai 2016) [29]. The two available models of FCHEVs’ fuel
economy ratings illustrate higher efficiency than ICEVs; for example,
the 2011 Honda FCX Clarity has a fuel economy equivalent to 60 mpg,
and the 2011 Mercedes-Benz F-Cell has a fuel economy of 53 mpg
[202]. Comparatively, the average fuel economy for gasoline vehicles
for passenger cars from model year 2010 is 33.8 mpg [203], and the
Table 8
Properties of single stage converter controllers.
Classical control Sliding mode
• Forseparate
single boost inverter 2 controllers needs 2 • Simple and effective.
reference values. • Analogue implementation is easier. Can’t control the
• Not suitable for dynamic loads [129,134]. current of inductor.
• Dynamic response handling is poor.
• Digital implementation is tough due to high speed error
tracking of controller.
• Small signal based SMC have small range of operation
[145,147].
286
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
most efficient HEV from the same model year has a fuel economy
rating of 50 mpg [203]. The price of FCHEV will be coming down
eventually and the companies will certainly offer catchy installment
services to increase the sales. Companies like Hyundai are promoting
free hydrogen refueling and maintenance service. In California,
FCHEVs are purchased in monthly lease basis with an initial down
payment. To develop the hydrogen infrastructure, California State has
fifty one operational and forty six planned hydrogen fuel stations for
FCHEV refueling. As of 2014, these hydrogen stations have dispensed
62,784 kg of hydrogen. NREL (National Renewable Energy
Laboratory) is also working on the business case for hydrogen stations
[204]. Similar steps are taken by Japan and German governments.
Japan has announced to establish 100 hydrogen fueling stations by
2015, while German government with some private companies like
Daimler, Linde, Total and Shell have planned to set up hydrogen
network by 2015. Some sources claim that the chemical industries in
Germany produce enough hydrogen as byproduct which can fuel
around 150,000 vehicles per year [1].
5.4. Environmental impact
FCHEVs are more energy efficient than ICEVs or HEVs. They have a
number of environmental benefits, such as low pollution level, low
noise level, low temperature system, production of water, saving in
fossil fuels due to high efficiency and good part load, and so on [205].
FCHEVs have almost no environmental impact; with main advantages
from environmental point of view as low greenhouse gas emissions,
reduced oil dependence and less air pollutant emission.
Gasoline and diesel operated vehicles emit greenhouse gases
(GHGs), mostly carbon dioxide (CO2), causing serious environmental
Dual loop
• Single reference value is enough for the 2 converters.
• Ideal for dynamic loads and abrupt load changes,
• Can monitor and control the input inductor current as
well as output voltage.
• Digital implementation is possible using DSP boards
[143,145,147].
H.S. Das et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291

Table 9
Vehicle standard and regulations [201].

Regulation issue Standards Details

Vehicles- system design/testing Japanese government Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles

Vehicles - Safety
Vehicles - Performance (efficiency,
emissions, durability)
Vehicles - Terminology
Vehicles - Fuel Systems
regulations
GB/T 23645-2009 Test method of fuel cell power system for passenger car
GB/T 25319-2010 Fuel Cell test system used for motor vehicles - Technical specification
GB/T 28183-2011 Test methods of fuel cell power system for bus
SAE J1766 Recommended Practice for Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Battery Systems Crash Integrity
Testing
SAE J2578 Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety
ISO 6469–1 Electrically propelled road vehicles – Safety specifications – Part 1: On-board rechargeable energy
storage systems (RESS)
ISO 6469–2 Part 2: Vehicle operational safety means and protection against failures
ISO 6469–3:2011 Part 3: Protection of persons against electric shock
ISO 6469–4:2015 Part 4: Post crash electrical safety requirements
ISO 23273:2013 Fuel Cell Road Vehicle – Safety specifications - Protection against hydrogen hazards for vehicles
fueled with compressed hydrogen
KS R ISO 23273–1 Fuel cell road vehicles- Safety specification - Part 1: Vehicle functional safety
KS R ISO 23273–2 Part 2: Protection against hydrogen hazard for vehicles fueled with compressed hydrogen
KS R ISO 23273–3 Part 3: Protection of persons against electric shock
CNS 15499–1 Electrically propelled road vehicles – Safety specifications Part 1: On-board rechargeable energy
storage systems (RESS)
CNS 15499–2 Part 2: Vehicle operational safety means and protection against failure
CNS 15499–3 Part 3: Protection of persons against electric shock
SAE J2572 Recommended Practice for Measuring the Exhaust Emissions, Energy Consumption and Range of
Fuel Cell Powered Electric Vehicles Using Compressed Hydrogen
ISO 23828:2013 Fuel Cell Road Vehicle- Energy Consumption Measurement Part 1: Vehicles fueled with
compressed hydrogen
ISO/TR 11954 Fuel Cell Road Vehicles- Road Maximum Speed Measurement
SAE J2754 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Terminology
SAE J2760 - TIR Pressure Terminology Used in Fuel Cells and Other Hydrogen Vehicle Applications
ISO/TR 8713:2012 Electrically propelled road vehicles – Vocabulary
CSA America HGV3.1 Fuel System Components for Hydrogen Gas Powered Vehicles
NFPA 52 Vehicle Fuel System Code
SAE J2579 Standard for Fuel Systems in Fuel Cell and Other Hydrogen Vehicles
CGA Publication PS31 Cleanliness for PEM Hydrogen Piping / Components
EC No.79/2009 Type-approval of hydrogen-powered motor vehicles
ISO 12619–1 Road vehicles Compressed gaseous hydrogen and hydrogen/methane blends fuel components Part 1: General
requirements and definitions
ISO 12619–2 Road vehicles Part 2: Performance and general test methods
ISO 12619–3 Road vehicles Part 3: Pressure regulator

consequences (i.e., global warming). Whereas, fuel cell vehicles pow-
ered by pure hydrogen emit no GHGs from their tailpipe, only
producing heat and water, thus causing no harm to the environment.
However, producing hydrogen to power FCVs can generate GHGs,
depending on the production method, nevertheless, much less than
that emitted by conventional gasoline and diesel vehicles [206].
Since FCHEVs runs on hydrogen, it will reduce a country's
dependence on foreign oil. Hydrogen can be derived from domestic
sources; for instance, natural gas and coal, renewable resources such as
water, biogas, and agricultural waste. This will result in less economic
dependency on other countries and less vulnerable to oil price shocks
from an increasingly unstable oil market.
In case of highway driving, vehicles emit substantial amount of air
pollutant which produces smog and other environmental pollutants.
FCHEVs operated by pure hydrogen do not produce such pollutants,
thus no impact on environment is present. Although, if the hydrogen
production method includes burning fossil fuels, some pollutants may
be emitted, the amount is still less than the amount of pollutant
generated by ICEVs [207].
6. FCHEV challenges and future prospects
6.1. Challenges
Several challenges such as technical, economical and others need to
be subdued in order to make FCHEVs popular and successful compe-
titor with conventional vehicles for consumers.
For vehicular application, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel cells
are ideal. To mitigate the basic commercial system packaging require-
ments, the power density and specific power targets of PEMFC have
been achieved but further improvements are required. The anticipated
specific power for automotive application is 1 kW/kg; however, the
achievement until year 2010 has only reached 0.65 kW/kg [208]. The
catalyst used in PEMFC is platinum, which is an expensive and rare
material. Due to this reason, the price of fuel cell is high. Performance
and durability are other factors needed to be ensured. Hence, the
volume, mass and cost of the stack needs to be reduced for commercial
applications. The future challenges for FC system are the cost,
performance, robustness and reliability.
A major portion of the energy source of FCHEV is occupied by the
energy storage system (ESS). The performance of an FCHEV depends
on the performance of the storage system, which relies on the system
design as well as the type of storage used. Normally, the capacity of
storage system differs between EVs, HEVs or FCHEVs. EVs require
bigger storage system (i.e., in the range of 34.5–140 Wh/kg) whereas
HEVs need comparatively smaller storage system (i.e., in the range of
26.3–77 Wh/kg). However, the power capacity for EV battery is lower
(i.e., in the range of 40–255 W/kg) than that of HEV battery (i.e., in the
range of 77–745 W/kg) [209]. The requirement for FCHEV ESS is a
combination of high power and high energy density to handle the cold
start issue and the transient power demand. Thus, designing a proper
ESS is a challenge for FCHEV manufacturers. Currently, Li-ion
batteries and ultracapacitors are either used separately or combined
for FCHEV ESS. These storage devices are costly and the recycling
policy of these devices is yet to adopt. In future, the potential of other
storage devices such as flywheel energy storage needs to be investi-

287
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gated. Among the other technical challenges of FCHEV ESS are higher
initial cost, higher replacement cost, large size and weight, perfor-
mance and robustness. Furthermore, future challenges include lifetime
testing of ESS in field and commercial production facility development.
The challenges in the area of propulsion motor and motor control
technologies, methods to eliminate speed/position sensors and inverter
current sensors etc. are similar to those of EVs, HEVs and PHEVs.
Development of sensorless machines and reduction or elimination of
current sensors in inverter is yet to achieve. High temperature and low
cost permanent magnet development will increase the robustness,
speed range and use of permanent magnet motors. Thus, the future
challenges will be developing smaller, lighter motors with wide range,
higher torque and increased lifetime.
The other major challenges of FCHEV include onboard hydrogen
storage, hydrogen availability, and vehicle safety, competition with
other technologies like EVs or HEVs, and public awareness. Since
hydrogen is very sensitive gas and keeping onboard is risky, the
hydrogen storage should be secured and vehicle safety should be
ensured. Finally, the public awareness should be ensured to gain the
trust and acceptance toward FCHEV.
6.2. Future prospects
FCHEVs can play a significant role in the future vehicle market. It
can be a strong contender to the conventional ICE vehicles. As the fossil
fuel reserve is decreasing gradually, alternative solution adoption is
highly needed in the near future. It is assumed as certain that if the
performance of FCHEV is competitive with the ICEV, people will
choose FCHEVs.
Researchers have done cost prediction analysis to predict the cost of
FCHEV in near future [210]. The prediction shows that the average
capital cost of FCHEV powertrain is $19,700 in 2010 and will be $5665
in 2030. In the future, the capital cost of ICEV, BEV and FCEV in 2030
will be $ 2465, $ 7865 and $ 10,530 respectively. It shows that the
capital cost of FCHEV will be competitive to ICEV in the near future.
The running cost is also predicted from the analysis, where the average
fuel cost in 2030 for gasoline, hydrogen and electric will be 28.5 $/Gj,
35 $/Gj and 36 $/Gj respectively. The mileages for the same fuels are
40 mpg, 72 mi/kg and 3.6 mi/kWh, respectively, which means hydro-
gen price is competitive to gasoline and the running cost will be lower
than gasoline. These predictions open wide the prospects for FCHEVs
in future.
Two of the prospective applications of FCHEV can be vehicle
mobility and car sharing. Due to traffic congestion and air pollution
in urban area, both the efficiency and the quality of public transport
systems need to be increased. In small countries such as Singapore and
Hong Kong, where road is scarce, vehicle ownership is expensive
because of high taxes and vehicles quotas; thus vehicle sharing concept
is introduced to satisfy the citizen's aspiration to use a car [153]. This
concept is very popular in Europe and North America. More than 400
cities practicing car sharing system are identified, mostly in Europe
(around 80%), followed by North America 18% and Oceania 2% [211].
With vast support, FCHEVs can be applied in these places successfully.
FCHEVs have several positive aspects that can attract future consu-
mers, such as: the driving range of FCHEV is high and there is an
opportunity to supply emergency power to home power supply. Market
surveys show that, for these features consumers are willing to spend
$500 to $1000 more in addition to the vehicle price [212].
7. Conclusion
The aim of this article was to present state-of-art FCHEV technol-
ogy and its different aspects, technical configurations and current
status, barriers and future prospects. To achieve this aim, the current
status of power converters, its topologies and controller used in fuel cell
electric vehicles to serve as a fundamental platform especially for study
288
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 76 (2017) 268–291
and research in the field of FCHEV have been reviewed and compiled.
The review consists of state-of-art overview of vehicular technology,
four possible energy sources of FCHEV namely FC, battery, UC and
FES, the research trend on FCHEV. The control strategies of single
stage and multiple stage FCHEV configurations have also been
discussed. For multiple stage configuration control, optimization algo-
rithms are applied. The optimization algorithms discussed here focus
on different aspects for improvement like minimizing cost, maximizing
efficiency, minimizing fuel cost, minimizing losses or sometimes a
combination of all these parameters. The introduction of single stage
power conversion has made a revolutionary change in the research
trend of FCHEV. The conversion can significantly reduce the compo-
nent count and also make the control process become simpler,
although the single stage conversion is yet to be ready for commercia-
lization. The research trend focuses on efficient power conversion and
effective controller design for the system. There are some issues yet to
be solved, like facilitating regenerative braking, maximizing efficiency,
improving the transient performance of FC in the system, and
minimizing the fuel consumption of FC. Moreover, in this review, the
factors of FCHEV research such as safety standards, environmental
impact, challenges and future prospects have also been taken into
account. Findings show that the FCHEVs have great potential to grow
in the transportation industry; attributed to various advantages of
FCHEV. The main concern as for now, is the high cost of FCHEV
powertrain and its maintenance cost. Nevertheless, predictions have
been made by researchers that FCHEV will be a great competitor to the
conventional ICEV in the near future, as the cost of FC and its related
technology are showing decreasing trend.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to pay gratitude to Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia (UTM) for supporting with library facilities. In addition, the
authors pay gratitude to Ananya Raka Chakraborty of Faculty of
Management, UTM, who helped by reviewing the manuscript several
times, also regarding figure reproduction. The authors would like to
express their appreciation to the Ministry of Higher Education,
Malaysia (MOHE). They also acknowledge funding provided by funda-
mental research grant scheme (FRGS) under vote 4F596 and long term
research grant (LRGS) under vote RJ130000.7823.4L818, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Lastly thanks to those colleagues who have
either directly or indirectly contributed to the completion of this work.
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