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3
Chapter

O
INSTRUMENT DRAWING, FREEHAND SKETCHING,
AND LETTERING TECHNIQUES
OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES
The traditional method of creating technical drawings is with draw- After studying the material in this chapter, you
ing instruments. Since the eighteenth century, precision instruments should be able to:
have been the tools of drafters. Today, CAD software is another tool 1. Identify the basic tools used by the
used by many drafters. The basic concepts of drawing and measur- drafter.
ing lines and circles is the same for traditional and CAD drawing.The 2. List the four objectives of drafting.
alphabet of lines and the meaning of line types is the same for tradi- 3. Describe the difference between the
tional and CAD drawings. By understanding the basic principles of T-square, parallel rule, and drawing
drawing, the properly trained drafter can create and modify any type machine.
of drawing. While some students may think that CAD software can 4. Identify various types of lines and how
replace the knowledge required to construct a drawing, this is not so. they are used.
While CAD makes drawing easier, it does not replace the basic 5. Draw lines, arcs, and circles of specific
knowledge that enables a skilled drafter to manipulate either a pen- size using drawing instruments.
cil or CAD software. 6. Draw lines at specific angles.
Sketching technique is one of the most important skills for
7. Read and measure with the architect’s
engineering visualization. Sketching is a quick way to communicate
scale, engineer’s scale, and metric
ideas with other members of the design team. A picture is often scale.
worth a thousand words (or 1K words, as it were). Sketching is a
8. Draw irregular curves.
time-efficient way to plan out the drawing processes needed to cre-
9. Identify several drawing media and
ate a complex object. Sketches act like a road map for the comple-
standard sheet sizes.
tion of a final paper or CAD drawing. When you sketch basic ideas
ahead of time, you can often complete a drawing sooner and with 10. Create freehand sketches using the cor-
rect sketching techniques.
fewer errors. Legible hand lettering is used on the sketch to specify
important information. 11. Sketch parallel, perpendicular, and
evenly spaced lines.
12. Sketch a circle and an arc of a given
diameter.
13. Use techniques to keep your sketch
proportionate.
14. Enlarge an object using grid paper.
15. Sketch various line types.
16. Add lettering to a sketch.
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INSTRUMENT DRAWING
3.1 ■ TYPICAL DRAWING EQUIPMENT
For many years the essential equipment for students in
technical schools and for engineers and designers in pro-
fessional practice remained unchanged.This equipment
included a drawing board, T-square, triangles, an archi-
tects’ or engineers’ scale, and a professional-quality set
of drawing instruments. Now, however, other equipment
has come into general use, including the drafting
machine, parallel-ruling straightedge, technical fountain
pen, and, of course, the computer.
The basic items of drawing equipment are shown
in Fig. 3.1. For best results, the drawing equipment you
use should be of high grade. When you are ready to
buy drawing instruments (item 3), you should talk to
an experienced drafter or designer, or reliable dealer,
about your purchase because it is difficult for begin-
ners to distinguish high-grade instruments from infe-
rior instruments.
1. Drawing board (approximately 20"
24"), draft-
ing table, or desk.
■ FIGURE 3.1 ■ Principal Items of Equipment.
3.1 Typical Drawing Equipment 39
2. T-square (24", transparent edge), drafting machine,
or parallel-ruling edge (§§3.4, 3.49, and 3.50)
3. Set of instruments (§§3.28 and 3.29)
4. 45 triangle (8" sides) (§3.11)
5. 30
60 triangle (10" long side) (§3.11)
6. Ames Lettering Guide or lettering triangle
7. Architects’ triangular scale (§3.24)
8. Engineers’ triangular scale (§3.22)
9. Metric triangular scale (§3.20)
10. Irregular curve (§3.46)
11. Protractor (§3.13)
12. Mechanical pencils and/or thin-lead mechanical
pencils and HB, F, 2H, and 4H to 6H leads, or draw-
ing pencils (§3.7)
13. Lead pointer and sandpaper pad
14. Pencil eraser
15. Plastic drafting eraser or Artgum cleaning eraser
16. Erasing shield
17. Dusting brush
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40 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

18. Drawing paper, tracing paper, tracing cloth, or films as

required;backing sheet (drawing paper—white,cream,
or light green) to be used under drawings and tracings
19. Drafting tape
20. Technical fountain pens
21. Drawing ink
22. Templates
23. Calculator

3.2 ■ OBJECTIVES IN DRAWING

The following pages explain the correct methods for
instrumental drawing. Students who practice and learn
correct manipulation of their drawing instruments will
eventually be able to draw correctly by habit and will be
able to give their full attention to the problems at hand.
■ FIGURE 3.2 ■ The T-square.
The following are the important objectives students
should strive to attain:

1. Accuracy. No drawing is of maximum usefulness if

it is not accurate. The engineer or designer cannot
achieve success in professional employment if the
habit of accuracy is not acquired.
2. Speed. Time is money in industry, and there is no
demand for a slow drafter, technician, or engineer.
However, speed is not attained by hurrying; it is an
unsought byproduct of intelligent and continuous
work. It comes with study and practice.
3. Legibility. Drafters, technicians, and engineers must
remember that a drawing is a means of communi-
cation to others, and that it must be clear and legi-
ble to serve its purpose well. Care should be given
to details, especially to lettering (discussed further
at the end of this chapter).
4. Neatness. If a drawing is to be accurate and legible,
it must also be clean. Untidy drawings are the re-
sult of sloppy and careless methods and will be un-
acceptable to an instructor or employer.
3.3 ■ DRAWING BOARDS
If the left edge of the drawing table top has a true
straightedge and if the surface is hard and smooth (such
as Masonite™), a drawing board is unnecessary, pro-
vided that drafting tape is used to fasten the drawings. It
is recommended that a backing sheet of heavy drawing
paper be placed between the drawing and the table top.
In most cases a drawing board will be needed.
Boards vary from 9"*12" (for sketching and field
work) up to 48"*72" or larger.The recommended size
for students is 20"*24", which will accommodate the
largest sheet likely to be used.
■ FIGURE 3.3 ■ Testing the Working Edge of the Drawing Board.
Drafters using drafting tape to hold paper in place,
which in turn permits surfaces such as hardwood or
other materials to be used for drawing boards.
For right-handed people, the left-hand edge of the
board is the working edge because the T-square head
slides against it (Fig. 3.2). (Left-handers: Place the head
of the T-square on the right.) This edge must be straight,
and you should test the edge with a T-square blade that
has been tested and found straight (Fig. 3.3). If the edge
of the board is not true, it should be replaced.
3.4 ■ T-SQUARES
The T-square is made of a long strip, called the blade,
fastened rigidly at right angles to a shorter piece called
the head (Fig. 3.2). The upper edge of the blade and the
inner edge of the head are working edges and must be
straight.The working edge of the head must not be con-
vex, or the T-square will rock when the head is placed
against the board. The blade should have transparent
plastic edges and should be free of nicks along the work-
ing edge.Transparent edges are recommended, because
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:38 AM Page 41
■ FIGURE 3.4 ■ Testing the T-square.
they allow the drafter to see the drawing in the vicinity
of the lines being drawn.
Do not use the T-square for any rough purpose.
Never cut paper along its working edge, as the plastic is
easily cut and even a slight nick will ruin the T-square.
3.5 ■ TESTING AND CORRECTING T-SQUARES
To test the working edge of the head, see if the T-square
rocks when the head is placed against a straightedge,
such as a drawing board working edge that has already
been tested and found true. If the working edge of the
head is not straight, the T-square should be replaced.
To test the working edge of the blade, draw a sharp
line very carefully with a hard pencil along the entire
length of the working edge; then turn the T-square over
and draw the line again along the same edge (Fig. 3.4).
If the edge is straight, the two lines will coincide; other-
wise, the space between the lines will be twice the error
of the blade.
It is difficult to correct a crooked T-square blade,
and if the error is considerable, it may be necessary to
discard the T-square and obtain another.
3.6 ■ FASTENING PAPER TO THE BOARD
The drawing paper should be placed close enough to the
working edge of the board to reduce to a minimum any
error resulting from a slight “give,” or bending, of the
blade of the T-square. The paper should also be close
enough to the upper edge of the board to permit space
at the bottom of the sheet for using the T-square and
supporting the arm while drawing (Fig. 3.5).
Drafting tape is preferred for fastening the drawing
to the board because it does not damage the board and
it will not damage the paper if it is removed by pulling
it off slowly toward the edge of the paper.
To fasten the paper in place, press the T-square head
firmly against the working edge of the drawing board
with the left hand, while the paper is adjusted with the
3.7 Drawing Pencils 41
■ FIGURE 3.5 ■ Placing Paper on Drawing Board.
■ FIGURE 3.6 ■ Positions of Drafting Tape.
right hand until the top edge coincides with the upper
edge of the T-square. Then move the T-square to the
position shown and fasten the upper left corner, then
the lower right corner, and finally the remaining corners
(Fig. 3.6). Large sheets may require additional fasten-
ing, whereas small sheets may require fastening only at
the two upper corners.
Tracing paper should not be fastened directly to the
board because small imperfections in the surface of the
board will interfere with the line work. Always fasten a
larger backing sheet of heavy drawing paper on the
board first; then fasten the tracing paper over this sheet.
3.7 ■ DRAWING PENCILS
High-quality drawing pencils should be used in technical
drawing never ordinary writing pencils (Fig. 3.7a).
Many makes of mechanical pencils are also avail-
able, together with refill leads of conventional size in all
grades (Fig. 3.7b). Choose a holder that feels comfort-
able in your hand and that grips the lead firmly without
slipping. Mechanical pencils have the advantages of
maintaining a constant length of lead while permitting
the use of a lead practically to the end, of being easily
refilled with new leads, of affording a ready source for
compass leads, of having no wood to be sharpened, and
of easy sharpening of the lead by various mechanical
pencil pointers.
Thin-lead mechanical pencils are available with 0.3-,
0.5-, 0.7-, or 0.9-mm-diameter drafting leads in several
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42 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 3.7 ■ Drawing Pencils.

grades (Fig. 3.7c). These thin leads produce uniform
width lines without sharpening, providing both a time
savings and a cost benefit. Mechanical pencils are rec-
ommended as they are less expensive in the long run.
Drawing pencils are made of graphite with the addi-
tion of either a polymer binder or kaolin (clay) in vary-
ing amounts to make 18 grades from 9H, the hardest, to
7B, the softest. The uses of these different grades are
described in Fig. 3.8. Note that small-diameter leads are
used for the harder grades, whereas large-diameter leads
are used to give more strength to the softer grades.
Therefore, the degree of hardness in a wood pencil can
be roughly judged by a comparison of diameters.
Specifically formulated leads of carbon black parti-
cles in a polymer binder are also available in several
grades for use on the polyester films now used quite
extensively in industry (see §3.54).
In the selection of a grade of lead, the first con-
sideration is the type of line work required. For light
construction lines, guide lines for lettering, and accu-
rate geometrical constructions or work in which accu-
racy is of prime importance, use a hard lead, such as
4H to 6H.
For mechanical drawings on drawing paper or trac-
ing paper, the lines should be black, particularly for
drawings to be reproduced.The lead chosen must be soft
enough to produce jet black lines, but hard enough not
to smudge too easily or permit the point to crumble
under normal pressure. The same comparatively soft
lead is preferred for lettering and arrowheads.
This lead will vary from F to 2H, depending on the
paper and weather conditions. If the paper is hard, it will
generally be necessary to use harder leads. For softer
surfaces, softer leads can be used. On humid days, paper

■ FIGURE 3.8 ■ Lead Grade Chart.

Hard Medium Soft

The hard leads in this group (left)
are used where extreme accuracy
is required, as on graphical com-
putations and charts and diagrams.
The softer leads in this group
(right) are sometimes used for line
work on engineering drawings, but
their use is restricted because the
lines are apt to be too light.
These grades are for general pur-
pose work in technical drawing.
The softer grades (right) are used
for technical sketching, for letter-
ing, arrowheads, and other free-
hand work on mechanical
drawings. The harder leads (left)
are used for line work on machine
drawings and architectural draw-
ings. The H and 2H leads are wide-
ly used on pencil tracings for
reproduction.
These leads are too soft to be useful
in mechanical drafting.Their use for
such work results in smudged, rough
lines that are hard to erase, and the
lead must be sharpened continually.
These grades are used for art work
of various kinds, and for full-size
details in architectural drawing.
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3.8 Alphabet of Lines 43

absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and becomes
soft. This can be recognized because the paper expands
and becomes wrinkled. It is necessary to select softer
leads to offset the softening of the paper. If you have
been using a 2H lead, for example, change to an F until
the weather becomes drier.
3.8 ■ ALPHABET OF LINES
Each line on a technical drawing has a definite mean-
ing and is drawn in a certain way. The line conventions
endorsed by the American National Standards Institute,
ANSI Y14.2M–1992, are presented in Fig. 3.9, together
with illustrations of various applications.

■ FIGURE 3.9 ■ Alphabet of Lines (Full Size).

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44 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
■ FIGURE 3.10 ■ Line Gage. Courtesy of Koh-I-Noor Rapidograph, Inc.
Two widths of lines are recommended for use on
drawings. The ratio of line widths should be approxi-
mately two-to-one. It is recommended the thin line width
be 0.3 mm minimum, and the thick line width be 0.6 mm
minimum. All required lines should be clean-cut, dark,
uniform throughout the drawing, and properly spaced
for legible reproduction by all commonly used methods.
Spacing between parallel lines may be exaggerated to a
maximum of 3 mm .120 so there is no fill-in when the
drawing is reproduced.The size and style of the drawing
and the smallest size to which it is to be reduced govern
the actual width of each line. The contrast between the
two widths of lines should be distinct. Pencil leads should
be hard enough to prevent smudging, but soft enough
to produce the dense black lines necessary for quality
reproduction.
When photoreduction and blowback are not neces-
sary, as is the case for most drafting laboratory assign-
ments, three weights of lines may improve the appearance
and legibility of the drawing. The “thin lines” may be
made in two widths regular thin lines for hidden lines,
and stitch lines, and a somewhat thinner version for the
other secondary lines (such as center lines, extension
■ FIGURE 3.11
lines, dimension lines, leaders, section lines, phantom lines,
and long-break lines).
For the “thick lines” visible, cutting plane, and short
break use a relatively soft lead, such as F or H. All thin
lines should be made with a sharp medium-grade lead,
such as H or 2H. All lines (except construction lines)
must be sharp and dark. Make construction lines with a
sharp 4H or 6H lead so thin that they can barely be seen
at arm’s length and need not be erased.
In Fig. 3.9, the ideal lengths of all dashes are indi-
cated.You would do well to measure the first few hidden
dashes and center-line dashes you make and thereafter
to estimate the lengths carefully by eye. The line gage
(Fig. 3.10) is a convenient reference for lines of various
widths.
3.9 ■ DRAWING HORIZONTAL LINES
To draw a horizontal line, press the head of the
T-square firmly against the working edge of the board
with your left hand; then slide your hand to the position
shown in Fig. 3.11a so that the blade is pressed tightly
■ Drawing a Horizontal Line.
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3.11 Triangles 45

against the paper. Lean the pencil in the direction of

the line at an angle of approximately 60° with the
paper, and draw the line from left to right (Fig. 3.11b).
Keep the pencil in a vertical plane; otherwise, the line
may not be straight (Fig. 3.11c). While drawing the line,
let the little finger of the hand holding the pencil glide
lightly on the blade of the T-square, and rotate the pen-
cil slowly, except for the thin-lead pencils, between your
thumb and forefinger to distribute the wear uniformly
on the lead and maintain a symmetrical point. Thin-
lead pencils should be held nearly vertical to the paper
and not rotated. Also, pushing the thin-lead pencil from
left to right, rather than pulling it, tends to minimize
lead breakage.
When great accuracy is required, the pencil may be
“toed in” to produce a perfectly straight line (Fig. 3.11d).
(Left-handers: In general, reverse the procedure just out-
lined. Place the T-square head against the right edge of
the board, and with the pencil in the left hand, draw the
line from right to left.)

3.10 ■ DRAWING VERTICAL LINES

Use either the 45° triangle or the 30°*60° triangle to
draw vertical lines. Place the triangle on the T-square
with the vertical edge on the left, as shown in Fig. 3.12a.
With the left hand, press the head of the T-square against
the board; then slide the hand to the position shown
where it holds both the T-square and the triangle firmly
in position. Draw the line upward, rotating the pencil
slowly between the thumb and forefinger. (The only time
it is advisable for right-handers to turn the triangle so
that the vertical edge is on the right is when drawing a
vertical line near the right end of the T-square. In this
case, the line would be drawn downward.)
Lean the pencil in the direction of the line at an ■ FIGURE 3.12 ■ Drawing a Vertical Line.
angle of approximately 60° with the paper and in a ver-
tical plane (Fig. 3.12b). Meanwhile, the upper part of the
body should be twisted to the right (Fig. 3.12c). (Left-
handers: In general, reverse the foregoing procedure.
Place the T-square head on the right and the vertical
edge of the triangle on the right; then, with the right
hand, hold the T-square and triangle firmly together, and
with the left hand draw the line upward.)

3.11 ■ TRIANGLES
Most inclined lines in mechanical drawing are drawn at
standard angles with the 45° triangle and the 30°*60° tri-
angle (Fig. 3.13). The triangles are made of transparent
plastic so that lines of the drawing can be seen through ■ FIGURE 3.13 ■ Triangles.
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46 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
them. A good combination of triangles is the 30°*60°
triangle with a long side of 10" and a 45° triangle with
each side 8" long.
3.12 ■ DRAWING INCLINED LINES
The positions of the triangles for drawing lines at all
of the possible angles are shown in Fig. 3.14. In the
figure it is understood that the triangles in each case
are resting on the blade of the T-square. Thus, it is pos-
sible to divide 360° into twenty-four 15° sectors with
the triangles used singly or in combination. Note care-
fully the directions for drawing the lines, as indicated
■ FIGURE 3.14
by the arrows, and that all lines in the left half are
drawn toward the center, while those in the right half
are drawn away from the center.
3.13 ■ PROTRACTORS
For measuring or setting off angles other than those
obtainable with the triangles, the protractor is used.The
best protractors, which produce the most accurate meas-
urements, are made of nickel silver (Fig. 3.15a). For ordi-
nary work, a plastic protractor is satisfactory and much
cheaper (Fig. 3.15b).To set off angles with greater accu-
racy, use one of the methods presented in §4.19.
■ The Triangle Wheel.
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3.16 Drawing Parallel Lines 47

■ FIGURE 3.15 ■ Protractors.

3.14 ■ DRAFTING ANGLES
There are a variety of devices that combine the pro-
tractor with triangles to produce great versatility of use.
One such device is shown in Fig. 3.16.
3.15 ■ DRAWING A LINE THROUGH
TWO POINTS
To draw a line through two points, place the pencil verti-
cally at one of the points (Fig. 3.17), and move the straight-
edge about the pencil point as a pivot until it lines up with
the other point; then draw the line along the edge.
3.16 ■ DRAWING PARALLEL LINES
To draw a line parallel to a given line, move the triangle
and T-square as a unit until the hypotenuse of the tri-
angle lines up with the given line (Fig. 3.18a); then, hold-
ing the T-square firmly in position, slide the triangle
away from the line, and draw the required line along the
hypotenuse (Figs. 3.18b and 3.18c).

■ FIGURE 3.16 ■ Adjustable Triangle. ■ FIGURE 3.17 ■ To Draw a Pencil Line Through Two Points.

■ FIGURE 3.18 ■ To Draw a Line Parallel to a Given Line.

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48 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
■ FIGURE 3.19
Obviously, any straightedge, such as one of the tri-
angles, may be substituted for the T-square in this oper-
ation, as shown in Fig. 3.18a.
3.17 ■ DRAWING PERPENDICULAR LINES
To draw a line perpendicular to a given line, move the
T-square and triangle as a unit until one edge of the tri-
angle lines up with the given line (Fig. 3.19a); then slide
the triangle across the line and draws the required line
(Figs. 3.19b and 3.19c).
To draw perpendicular lines when one of the lines
makes 15° with horizontal, arrange the triangles as
shown in Fig. 3.20.
3.18 ■ DRAWING LINES AT 30°, 60°, OR 45°
WITH A GIVEN LINE
To draw a line making 30° with a given line, arrange the
triangle as shown in Fig. 3.21.Angles of 60° and 45° may
be drawn in a similar manner.
■ FIGURE 3.20 ■ Perpendicular Lines.
■ FIGURE 3.21 ■ Line at 30° with Given Line.
■ To Draw a Line Perpendicular to a Given Line.
3.19 ■ SCALES
A drawing of an object may be the same size as the
object (full size), or it may be larger or smaller than the
object. The ratio of reduction or enlargement depends
on the relative sizes of the object and of the sheet of
paper on which the drawing is to be made. For example,
a machine part may be half size; a building may be drawn
1 1
48 size; a map may be drawn 1200 size; or a printed circuit
board, may be drawn four times its size.
Scales are instruments used in making technical
drawings full size at a given enlargement or reduction.
Figure 3.22 shows various types of scales, including (a)
the metric scale, (b) the engineers’ scale, (c) the decimal
scale, (d) the mechanical engineers’ scale, and (e) the
architects’ scale. A full-divided scale is one in which
the basic units are subdivided throughout the length of
the scale. The architects’ scale is an open divided scale,
one in which only the end unit is subdivided.
Scales are usually made of plastic or boxwood. The
better wood scales have white plastic edges. Scales are
either triangular or flat. The triangular scales have the
advantage of combining many scales on one stick, but
the user will waste much time looking for the required
scale if a scale guard (Fig. 3.23) is not used. The scale
guard marks the scale that is being used. Flat scales are
almost universally used by professional drafters because
of their convenience, but several flat scales are neces-
sary to replace one triangular scale, and the total cost is
greater.
3.20 ■ METRIC SYSTEM AND METRIC SCALES
The metric system is an international standard of meas-
urement that, despite modifications over the past 200
years, has been the foundation of science and industry
and is clearly defined. The modern form of the metric
system is the International System of Units, commonly
referred to as SI (from the French name, Le Système
International d’Unités). The SI system was established
in 1960 by international agreement and is now the inter-
national standard of measurement.
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3.20 Metric System and Metric Scales 49

■ FIGURE 3.22 ■ Types of Scales.

■ FIGURE 3.23 ■ Scale Guard.

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50 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

The metric scale is used when the meter is the stan-

dard for linear measurement.The meter was established
by the French in 1791 with a length of one ten-millionth
of the distance from the Earth’s equator to the pole.The
meter is equal to 39.37 inches or approximately 1.1 yards.
The metric system for linear measurement is a dec-
imal system similar to our system of counting money.
For example,
1 mm  1 millimeter (1000
1
of a meter)
1 cm  1 centimeter (100 of a meter)
1

 10 mm
1 dm  1 decimeter (101 of a meter)
 10 cm  100 mm
1 m  1 meter
 100 cm  1000 mm
1 km  1 kilometer  1000 m
 100,000 cm  1,000,000 mm
The primary unit of measurement for engineering
drawings and design in the mechanical industries is the
millimeter (mm). Secondary units of measure are the
meter (m) and the kilometer (km).The centimeter (cm)
and the decimeter (dm) are rarely used.
In recent years, automotive and other industries
have used a dual dimensioning system of millimeters
and inches. Manufacturers of large agricultural machin-
ery use all metric dimensions with the inch equivalents
given in a table on the drawing.
Many of the dimensions in the illustrations and the
problems in this text are given in metric units. Dimen-
sions that are given in the customary units (inches and
feet, either decimal or fractional) may be converted eas-
ily to metric values. In accordance with standard practice,
the ratio 1 in.=25.4 mm is used. Decimal equivalents
tables can be found inside the front cover, and conver-
sion tables are given in Appendix 31.
Metric scales are available in flat and triangular
styles with a variety of scale graduations.The triangular
scale illustrated in Fig. 3.34 has one full-size scale and
five reduced-size scales, all full divided. By means of
these scales a drawing can be made full size, enlarged
sized, or reduced sized. To specify the scale on a draw-
ing see §3.26.
FULL SIZE The 1:1 scale (Fig. 3.24a) is full size, and each
division is actually 1 mm in width with the numbering of
the calibrations at 10-mm intervals.The same scale is also
convenient for ratios of 1:10, 1:100, 1:1000, and so on.
HALF SIZE The 1:2 scale (Fig. 3.24a) is one-half size, and
each division equals 2 mm with the calibration num-
■ FIGURE 3.24 ■ Decimal Dimensions.
bering at 20-unit intervals. This scale is also convenient
for ratios of 1:20, 1:200, 1:2000, and so on.
The remaining four scales on this triangular metric scale
include the typical scale ratios of 1:5, 1:25, 1:33 13, and
1:75 (Figs. 3.24a and 3.24b). These ratios may also be
enlarged or reduced as desired by multiplying or divid-
ing by a factor of 10. Metric scales are also available with
other scale ratios for specific drawing purposes.
The metric scale is used in map drawing and in
drawing force diagrams or other graphical constructions
that involve such scales as 1 mm=1 kg and 1 mm =
500 kg.
3.21 ■ INCH-FOOT SCALES
Several scales that are based on the inch-foot system of
measurement continue in domestic use today along with
the metric system of measurement, which is accepted
worldwide for science, technology, and international
trade.
3.22 ■ ENGINEERS’ SCALES
The engineers’ scale is graduated in the decimal system.
It is also frequently called the civil engineers’ scale
because it was originally used mainly in civil engineer-
ing. The name chain scale also persists because it was
derived from the surveyors’ chain composed of 100 links,
used for land measurements.
The engineers’ scale is graduated in units of 1 in.divided
into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 parts. Thus, the engineers’
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 51
■ FIGURE 3.25
scale is convenient in machine drawing to set off dimen-
sions expressed in decimals. For example, to set off 1.650"
full size, use the 10-scale and simply set off one main divi-
sion plus 6 12 subdivisions (Fig. 3.25a). To set off the same
dimension half size, use the 20-scale, since the 20-scale is
exactly half the size of the 10-scale (Fig. 3.25b). Similarly,
to set off a dimension quarter size, use the 40-scale.
The engineers’ scale is also used in drawing maps
to scales of 1"=50', 1"=500', 1"=5 miles, and so on
and in drawing stress diagrams or other graphical con-
structions to such scales as 1"=20 lb and 1"=4000 lb.
3.23 ■ DECIMAL SCALES
The increasing use of decimal dimensions has brought
about the development of a scale specifically for that
3.24 Architects’ Scales 51
■ Metric Scales.
use. On the full-size scale, each inch is divided into fifti-
eths of an inch, or .02" (Fig. 3.25c), and on the half- and
quarter-size scales, the inches are compressed to half size
or quarter size and then are divided into 10 parts, so that
each subdivision stands for .1".
The complete decimal system of dimensioning in
which this scale is used is described in §12.10.
3.24 ■ ARCHITECTS’ SCALES
The architects’ scale is intended primarily for drawings
of buildings, piping systems, and other large structures
that must be drawn to a reduced scale to fit on a sheet
of paper.The full-size scale is also useful in drawing rel-
atively small objects, and for that reason the architects’
scale has rather general usage.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 52
52 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
The architects’ scale has one full-size scale and ten
overlapping reduced-sized scales. By means of these
scales a drawing may be made to various sizes from full
1
size to 128 size. Note that, in all the reduced scales the
major divisions represent feet, and their subdivisions
represent inches and fractions thereof. Thus, the scale
marked 34 means 34 inch=1 foot, not 34 inch=1 inch;
that is, one-sixteenth size, not three-fourths size.And the
scale marked 12 means 12 inch+1 foot, not 12 inch=1 inch,
(that is, one twenty-fourth-size, not half size).
1 1
All the scales, from full size to 128 size, are shown in
Fig. 3.26. Some are upside down, just as they may occur
in use. These scales are described as follows.
FULL SIZE Each division in the full-size scale is 161 " (Fig.
3.26a). Each inch is divided first into halves, then quar-
■ FIGURE 3.26
ters, eighths, and finally sixteenths, the dividing lines di-
minishing in length with each subdivision. To set off 321 ",
estimate visually one half of 161 "; to set off 641 ", estimate
one fourth of 161 ".
HALF SIZE Use the full-size scale, and divide every di-
mension mentally by two. (Do not use the 12 " scale, which
is intended for drawing to a scale of 12 "=1', or one-
twenty-fourth size.) To set off 1", measure 14 "; to set off
2", measure 1"; to set off 6.5 1
16 ", measure 1 2 " (half of 30"),
1 13
then 8 " (half of 4 "); to set off 2-16" (see Fig. 3.26), meas-
ure 1" then 13 6.5 13
32 " ( 16 " or half of 16 ").
QUARTER SIZE Use the 3" scale in which 3"=1' (Fig.
3.26b).The subdivided portion to the left of zero, which
represents 1 foot, is divided into inches, half inches,
■ Architects’ Scales.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 53
quarter inches, and eighth inches. The entire portion
representing 1 foot actually measures 3 inches; there-
fore, 3"=1'. To set off anything less than 12", start at
zero and measure to the left.
To set off 10 18", read off 9" from zero to the left and
add 1 18" and set off the total 10 18", as shown. To set off
more than 12" for example, 1'–389 " (see your scale) find
the 1' mark to the right of zero and the 9 38" mark to the
left of zero; the required distance is the distance between
these marks and represents 1'–9 38".
EIGHT SIZE Use the 1 12" scale in which 1 12"=1' (Fig.
3.26b).The subdivided portion of the right of zero repre-
sents 1' and is divided into inches, then half inches, and fi-
nally quarter inches. The entire portion, representing 1',
actually is 1 12"; therefore, 1 12"=1'.To set off anything less
than 12", start at zero and measure to the right.
DOUBLE SIZE Use the full-size scale, and multiply every
dimension mentally by 2. To set off 1", measure 2"; to
set off 3 14", measure 6 12"; and so on.The double-size scale
is occasionally used to represent small objects. In such
cases, a small actual-size outline view may be shown
near the bottom of the sheet to help the shop worker vi-
sualized the actual size of the object.
OTHER SIZE The scales besides those just described are
used chiefly by architects. Machine drawings are cus-
tomarily made only double size, full size, half size, one-
fourth size, or one-eighth size.
3.25 ■ MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SCALES
The objects represented in machine drawing vary in size
from small parts, an inch or smaller in size, to equipment
or parts of large dimensions. By drawing these objects full
size, half size, quarter size, or eighth size, the drawings will
readily come within the limits of the standard-size sheets.
For this reason the mechanical engineers’ scales are divided
into units representing inches to full size, half size, quarter
size, or eighth size (Fig. 3.26c). To make a drawing of an
object to a scale of one-half size, for example, use the
■ FIGURE 3.27 ■ Accurate Measurements.
3.27 Accurate Measurements 53
mechanical engineer’s scale marked half size,which is grad-
uated so that every 21 " represents 1".Thus, the half-size scale
is simply a full-size scale compressed to one-half size.
These scales are also very useful in dividing dimen-
sions. For example, to draw a 3 11 16 " diameter circle full
size, we need half of 3 1116 " to use as radius. Instead of using
arithmetic to find half of 3 11 16 ", it is easier to set off 3 11
16"
on the half-size scale.
Triangular combination scales are available that
include the full- and half-size mechanical engineers’
scales, several architects’ scales, and an engineer’s scale.
3.26 ■ SPECIFYING THE SCALE ON A DRAWING
For machine drawings, the scale indicates the ratio of
the size of the drawn object to its actual size, irrespective
of the unit of measurement used. The recommended
practice is to letter FULL SIZE or 1:1; HALF SIZE or 1:2;
and similarly for other reductions. Expansion or enlarge-
ment scales are given as 2:1 or 2:3; 3:1 or 3:3; 5:1 or
5:3; 10:1 or 10 3; and so on.
The various scale calibrations available on the met-
ric scale and the engineers’ scale provide almost unlim-
ited scale ratios.The preferred metric scale ratios appear
to be 1:1; 1:2; 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, and 1:200.
Map scales are indicated in terms of frac-
1
tions, such as Scale 62500 , or graphically, such as
.
3.27 ■ ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS
Accurate drafting depends considerably on the correct
use of the scale in setting off distances. Do not take
measurements directly off the scale with the dividers or
compass, as damage will result to the scale. Place the
scale on the drawing with the edge parallel to the line on
which the measurement is to be made and, with a sharp
pencil having a conical point, make a short dash at right
angles to the scale and opposite the correct graduation
mark, as shown in Fig. 3.27a. If extreme accuracy is
required, a tiny prick mark may be made at the required
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 54
54 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
point with the needle point or stylus, (Fig. 3.27b),or with
one leg of the dividers.
Avoid cumulative errors in the use of the scale. If a
number of distances are to be set off end-to-end, all
should be set off at one setting of the scale by adding
each successive measurement to the preceding one, if
possible. Avoid setting off the distances individually by
moving the scale to a new position each time, since slight
errors in the measurements may accumulate and give
rise to a large error.
3.28 ■ DRAWING INSTRUMENTS
In technical drawing, accuracy, neatness, and speed are
essential, §3.2. These objectives are not likely to be
obtained with cheap or inferior drawing instruments.
For the student or the professional drafter, it is advis-
able, and in the end more economical, to purchase the
best instruments that can be afforded. Good instruments
will satisfy the most rigid requirements, and the satis-
faction, saving in time, and improved quality of work
that good instruments can produce will more than jus-
tify the higher price.
Unfortunately, the qualities of high-grade instru-
ments are not likely to be recognized by the beginner,
who is not familiar with the performance characteristics
required and who is apt to be attracted by elaborate sets
containing a large number of shiny, low-quality instru-
ments. Therefore, the student should obtain the advice
of the drafting instructor, an experienced drafter, or a
reliable dealer.
3.29 ■ GIANT BOW SETS
Giant bow sets contain various combinations of instru-
ments, but all feature a large bow compass in place of
the traditional large compass (Fig. 3.28). Most of the
large bows are of the center-wheel type (Fig. 3.29a). Sev-
eral manufacturers now offer different varieties of quick-
acting bows. The large bow compass shown at (b) can
be adjusted to the approximate setting by simply open-
ing or closing the legs in the same manner as for the
other bow-style compass.
■ FIGURE 3.29
(a) CENTER-WHEEL
■ FIGURE 3.28 ■ Giant Bow Set. Courtesy of Frank Oppenheimer.
3.30 ■ COMPASSES
The compass, with pencil and inking attachments, is used
for drawing circles of approximately 25 mm (10) radius
or larger.
The giant bow compass (Figs. 3.28–3.30) has a socket
joint in one leg that permits the insertion of either pen-
cil or pen attachments. A lengthening bar or a beam
attachment is often provided to increase the radius. Most
of the large bows are of the center-wheel type (Fig. 3.29a).
Several manufacturers now offer different varieties of
quick-acting bows. The large bow compass shown in
Fig. 3.29b can be adjusted to the approximate setting by
simply opening or closing the legs in the same manner as
for the other bow-style compass. For production draft-
ing, in which it is necessary to make dense black lines to
secure clear legible reproductions, the giant bow or an
appropriate template is preferred.The large bow instru-
ment is much sturdier than the traditional compass and
is capable of taking the heavy pressure necessary to pro-
duce dense black lines without losing the setting.
3.31 ■ USING COMPASSES
The following instructions apply generally both to old
style and giant bow compasses.
Most compass needle points have a plain end for use
when the compass is converted into dividers and a shoul-
der end for use as a compass.Adjust the needle point with
the shoulder end out and so that the small point extends
slightly farther than the pencil lead or pen nib (Fig. 3.32d).
■ Giant Bow Compass.
(b) QUICK ACTING
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 55
■ FIGURE 3.30 ■ Using the Giant Bow Compass.
To draw a penciled circle, (1) set off the required
radius on one of the center lines, (2) place the needle
point at the exact interse`ction of the center lines, (3)
adjust the compass to the required radius (25 mm or
more), and (4) lean the compass forward and draw the
circle clockwise while rotating the handle between the
thumb and forefinger.To obtain sufficient weight of line,
it may be necessary to repeat the movement several
times.
Any error in radius will result in a doubled error in
diameter; so it is best to draw a trial circle first on scrap
■ FIGURE 3.31 ■ Drawing a Circle of Large Radius with the Beam Compass.
3.31 Using Compasses 55
paper or on the backing sheet and then check the diam-
eter with the scale.
On drawings that have circular arcs and tangent
straight lines, draw the arcs first, whether in pencil or in
ink, as it is much easier to connect a straight line to an
arc than the reverse.
For very large circles, a beam compass (discussed
later in this section) is preferred, or use the lengthening
bar to increase the compass radius. Use both hands, as
shown in Fig. 3.31, but be careful not to jar the instrument
and thus change the adjustment.
When using the compass to draw construction
lines, use a 4H to 6H lead so that the lines will be very
dim. For required lines, the arcs and circles must be
black, and softer leads must be used. However, since
heavy pressure cannot be exerted on the compass as it
can on a pencil, it is usually necessary to use a compass
lead that is one or two grades softer than the pencil
used for the corresponding line work. For example, if
an H lead is used for visible lines drawn with a pencil,
then an F lead might be found suitable for the com-
pass work. The hard leads supplied with the compass
are usually unsatisfactory for most line work except
construction lines. In summary, use leads in the com-
pass that will produce arcs and circles that match the
straight pencil lines.
It is necessary to exert pressure on the compass to
produce heavy “reproducible" circles, and this tends to
enlarge the compass center hole in the paper, especial-
ly if there are a number of concentric circles. In such
cases, use a horn center, or center tack, in the hole, and
place the needle point of the compass in the center of the
tack.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 56

56 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 3.32 ■ Compass Lead Points.

3.32 ■ SHARPENING THE COMPASS LEAD
Various forms of compass lead points are illustrated in
Fig. 3.32. In Fig. 3.32a, a single elliptical face has been
formed by rubbing on the sandpaper pad, as shown in
Fig. 3.33. In Fig. 3.32b, the point is narrowed by small
side cuts. In Fig. 3.32c, two long cuts and two small side
■ FIGURE 3.33 ■ Sharpening Compass Lead.
cuts have been made to produce a point similar to that
on a screwdriver. In Fig. 3.32d, the cone point is prepared
by chucking the lead in a mechanical pencil and shaping
it in a pencil pointer.Avoid using leads that are too short
to be exposed as shown.
In using the compass, never use the plain end of the
needle point. Instead, use the shoulder end, as shown in
Fig. 3.32d, adjusted so that the tiny needlepoint extends
about halfway into the paper when the compass lead
just touches the paper.

3.33 ■ BEAM COMPASSES

The beam compass, or trammel (Fig. 3.34), is used for
drawing arcs or circles larger than can be drawn with the
regular compass and for transferring distances too great
for the regular dividers. Besides steel points, pencil and
pen attachments are provided. The beams may be made

(a)

■ FIGURE 3.34 ■ Beam Compass Sets.

(a) Courtesy of Frank Oppenheimer; (b) Courtesy
of Tacro, Div. of A&T Importers, Inc. (b)
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 57
■ FIGURE 3.35 ■ Adjusting the Dividers.
of nickel silver, steel, aluminum, or wood and are procur-
able in various lengths.A square nickel silver beam com-
pass set is shown in Fig. 3.34a, and a set with the beam
graduated in millimeters and inches is shown in Fig. 3.34b.
3.34 ■ DIVIDERS
Dividers, as the name implies, are used for dividing dis-
tances into a number of equal parts. They are also used
for transferring distances or for setting off a series of
equal distances. Dividers are similar to compasses in con-
struction and are made in square, flat, and round forms.
The friction adjustment for the pivot joint should be
loose enough to permit easy manipulation with one hand,
as shown in Fig. 3.35. If the pivot joint is too tight, the
legs of the divider tend to spring back instead of stop-
ping at the desired point when the pressure of the fin-
gers is released.To adjust tension, use a small screwdriver.
Many dividers are made with a spring and thumb-
screw in one leg so that minute adjustments in the setting
can be made by turning the small thumbscrew (Fig. 3.36).
3.35 ■ USING DIVIDERS
Dividers are used for spaces of approximately 25 mm
(10) or more. For spaces less than 25 mm, use the bow
dividers (Fig. 3.39a). Never use the large dividers for small
spaces when the bow dividers can be used; the latter are
more accurate.
Dividing a given distance into a number of equal
parts is a matter of trial and error (Fig. 3.35). Adjust the
dividers with the fingers of the hand that holds them,
to the approximate unit of division, estimated by eye.
3.36 Proportional Dividers 57
■ FIGURE 3.36 ■ Using the Dividers.
Rotate the dividers counterclockwise through 180°, and
so on, until the desired number of units has been stepped
off. If the last prick of the dividers falls short of the end
of the line to be divided, increase the distance between
the divider points proportionately. For example, to divide
the line AB into three equal parts, the dividers are set by
eye to approximately one-third the length AB. When it
is found that the trial radius is too small, the distance
between the divider points is increased by one-third the
remaining distance. If the last prick of the dividers is
beyond the end of the line, a similar decreasing adjust-
ment is made.
Cumulative errors may result when dividers are used
to set off a series of distances end to end. To set off a
large number of equal divisions say, 15 first set off three
equal large divisions and then divide each of these into
five equal parts.Wherever possible in such cases, use the
scale instead of the dividers (§3.27), or set off the total
and then divide into the parts by means of the parallel-
line method (§4.13).
3.36 ■ PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS
For enlarging or reducing a drawing, proportional
dividers are convenient (Fig. 3.37). They may also be
used for dividing distances into a number of equal parts,
or for obtaining a percentage reduction of a distance.
For this purpose, points of division are marked on the
■ FIGURE 3.37 ■ Proportional Dividers.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 58
58 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
■ FIGURE 3.38 ■ Combination Pen and Pencil Bow. Courtesy of Frank
Oppenheimer.
instrument to secure the required subdivisions readily.
Some instruments are calibrated to obtain special ratios,
such as 1:square root of 2, the diameter of a circle to
the side of an equal square, and feet to meters.
3.37 ■ BOW INSTRUMENTS
The bow instruments are classified as the bow dividers,
bow pen, and bow pencil. A combination pen and pen-
cil bow, usually with center-wheel adjustment, and sep-
arate instruments, with either side-wheel or center-wheel
adjustment, are available (Figs. 3.38 and 3.39).The choice
is a matter of personal preference.
3.38 ■ USING BOW INSTRUMENTS
Bow pencils and bow pens are used for drawing circles
of approximately 25 mm (10) radius or smaller. Bow
■ FIGURE 3.39 ■ Bow Instruments with Side Wheel.
■ FIGURE 3.40 ■ Using the Bow Instruments.
dividers are used for the same purpose as the large
dividers, but they are used for smaller (approximately
25 mm or less) spaces and more accurate work.
Whether a center-wheel or side-wheel instrument is
used, the adjustment should be made with the thumb and
finger of the hand that holds the instrument (Fig. 3.40a).
The instrument is manipulated by twirling the head
between the thumb and fingers (Fig. 3.40b).
The lead is sharpened in the same manner as for
the large compass except that for small radii, the inclined
cut may be turned inside if preferred (Fig. 3.41a). For
general use, the lead should be turned on to the out-
side, as shown in Fig. 3.41b. In either case, always keep
the compass lead sharpened. Avoid stubby compass
leads, which cannot be properly sharpened. At least
6 mm (0) of lead should extend from the compass at all
times.
■ FIGURE 3.41 ■ Compass-Lead Points.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 59

3.40 To Lay Out a Sheet 59

In adjusting the needle point of the bow pencil or

bow pen, be sure to have the needle extending slightly
longer than the pen or the lead (Fig. 3.41b), the same as
for the large compass.
In drawing small circles, greater care is necessary in
sharpening and adjusting the lead and the needle point,
and especially in accurately setting the desired radius.
If a 6.35 mm (0) diameter circle is to be drawn, and if
the radius is “off” only 0.8 mm (0), the total error on I
diameter is approximately 25%, which is far too much.
Appropriate templates may also be used for draw-
ing small circles.

3.39 ■ DROP SPRING BOW PENCILS AND PENS

Drop spring bow pencils and pens (Fig. 3.42) are
designed for drawing multiple identical small circles,
such as drill holes or rivet heads. A central pin is made II
to move easily up and down through a tube to which the
pen or pencil unit is attached. To use the instrument,
hold the knurled head of the tube between your thumb
and second finger, placing your first finger on top of the
knurled head of the pin. Place the point of the pin at the
desired center, lower the pen or pencil until it touches
the paper, and twirl the instrument clockwise with your
thumb and second finger. Then lift the tube independ- III
ently of the pin, and finally lift the entire instrument.

3.40 ■ TO LAY OUT A SHEET

After the sheet has been attached to the board, as
explained in §3.6, proceed as shown in Fig. 3.43 (see also
Layout A-2, inside front cover).
1. Using the T-square, draw a horizontal trim line near
the lower edge of the paper and then, using the tri-
IV
angle, draw a vertical trim line near the left edge of
the paper. Both should be light construction lines.

■ FIGURE 3.42 ■ Drop Spring Bow Instruments.

VI
■ FIGURE 3.43 ■ To Lay Out a Sheet. Layout A–2; see inside front
cover.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 60
60 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
■ FIGURE 3.44 ■ Technique of Lines (Enlarged).
2. Place the scale along the lower trim line with the
full-size scale up. Draw short and light dashes per-
pendicular to the scale at the required distances
(see Fig. 3.27a).
3. Place the scale along the left trim line with the full-
size scale to the left, and mark the required dis-
tances with short and light dashes perpendicular to
the scale.
4. Draw horizontal construction lines with the aid of
the T-square through the marks at the left of the
sheet.
5. Draw vertical construction lines from the bottom
upward along the edge of the triangle through the
marks at the bottom of the sheet.
6. Retrace the border and the title strip to make them
heavier. Notice that the layout is made independ-
ently of the edges of the paper.*
3.41 ■ TECHNIQUE OF PENCIL DRAWING
Most commercial drafting is executed in pencil. Most
prints or photocopies are made from pencil tracings, and
all ink tracings must be preceded by pencil drawings. It
should therefore be evident that skill in drafting chiefly
implies skill in pencil drawing.
Technique is a style or quality of drawing imparted
by the individual drafter to the work. It is characterized
by crisp black line work and lettering. Technique in let-
tering is discussed later in this chapter.
* In industrial drafting rooms the sheets are available, cut to standard
sizes, with border and title strips already printed. Drafting supply
houses can supply such papers, printed to order, to schools for little
extra cost.
DARK ACCENTED LINES The pencil lines of a finished pen-
cil drawing or tracing should be very dark (Fig. 3.44).
Dark crisp lines are necessary to give punch or snap to
the drawing. (a) The ends of lines should be accented by
a little extra pressure on the pencil. (b) Curves should
be as dark as other lines. (c) and (d) Hidden-line dashes
and center-line dashes should be carefully estimated as
to length and spacing and should be of uniform width
throughout their length.
Dimension lines, extension lines, section lines, and
center lines also should be dark.The difference between
these lines and visible lines is mostly in width there is
very little difference, if any, in blackness.
A simple way to determine whether your lines on
tracing paper or cloth are dense black is to hold the trac-
ing up to the light. Lines that are not opaque black will
not print clearly by most reproduction processes.
Construction lines should be made with a sharp,
hard lead and should be so light that need not be erased
when drawing is completed.
CONTRAST IN LINES Contrast in pencil lines, like that in
ink lines, should be mostly in widths of the lines, with lit-
tle if any difference in the degree of darkness (Fig. 3.45).
The visible lines should contrast strongly with the thin
lines of the drawing. If necessary, draw over a visible
line several times to get the desired thickness and dark-
ness. A short retracing stroke backward (to the left),
producing a jabbing action, results in a darker line.
3.42 ■ PENCIL TRACING
While some pencil tracings are made of a drawing placed
underneath the tracing paper (usually when a great deal
of erasing and changing is necessary on the original
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 61
■ FIGURE 3.45
■ FIGURE 3.46 ■ Technical Fountain Pen and Pen Set. Courtesy of Koh-I-Nor Rapidograph, Inc.
drawing), most drawings today are made directly in pen-
cil on tracing paper, pencil tracing cloth, films, or vel-
lum. These are not tracings but pencil drawings, and the
methods and technique are the same as previously
described for pencil drawing.
In making a drawing directly on a tracing medium,
a smooth sheet of heavy white drawing paper, a backing
sheet, should be placed underneath. The whiteness of
the backing sheet improves the visibility of the lines, and
the hardness of the surface makes it possible to exert
pressure on the pencil and produce dense black lines
without excessive grooving of the paper.
3.43 Technical Fountain Pens 61
■ Contrast of Lines (Enlarged).
All lines must be dark and cleanly drawn when
drawings are to be reproduced.
3.43 ■ TECHNICAL FOUNTAIN PENS
Technical fountain pens (Fig. 3.46), with tube and nee-
dle point are available in several line widths. Many peo-
ple prefer this type of pen because the line widths are
fixed and it is suitable for freehand or mechanical let-
tering and line work. The pen requires an occasional
filling and a minimum of skill to use. For uniform line
work, the pen should be used perpendicular to the
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 62
62 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
■ FIGURE 3.47 ■ Using the Technical Fountain Pen.
paper (Fig. 3.47). For best results, follow the manufac-
turer’s recommendations for operation and cleaning.
3.44 ■ DRAWING INK
Drawing ink is composed chiefly of carbon in colloidal
suspension and gum.The fine particles of carbon give the
deep, black luster to the ink, and the gum makes it water-
proof and quick to dry. The ink bottle should not be left
uncovered, as evaporation will cause the ink to thicken.
Special drawing ink is available for use on acetate
and polyester films. Such inks should not be used in tech-
nical fountain pens unless the pens are specifically made
for acetate-based inks.
For removing dried waterproof drawing ink from
pens or instruments, pen-cleaning fluids are available at
dealers.
3.45 ■ TECHNIQUE OF INKING
The various widths of lines used for inked drawings or
tracings are shown in Fig. 3.48. In inking a drawing or
tracing (Fig. 3.49), proceed in the following order:
1. (a) Mark all tangent points in pencil directly on
the drawing or tracing.
(b) Indent all compass centers (with pricker or
divider point).
(c) Ink visible circles and arcs.
(d) Ink hidden circles and arcs.
(e) Ink irregular curves, if any.
■ FIGURE 3.48 ■ Alphabet of Ink Lines (Full Size).
2. In (a) through (c), ink horizontal lines first, vertical
lines second, and inclined lines last:
(a) Ink invisible straight lines.
(b) Ink hidden straight lines.
(c) Ink center lines, extension lines, dimension
lines, leader lines, and section lines (if any).
3. (a) Ink arrowheads and dimension figures
(b) Ink notes, titles, etc. (Pencil guide lines direct-
ly on the drawing or tracing.)
Some drafters prefer to ink center lines before indent-
ing the compass centers because ink can go through the
holes and cause blots on the back of the sheet.
When an ink blot is made, the excess ink should be
taken up with a blotter, paper towel or tissue, and not
allowed to soak into the paper. When the spot is thor-
oughly dry, the remaining ink can be erased easily.
For cleaning untidy drawings or for removing the
original pencil lines from an inked drawing, a Pink Pearl
or the Mars-Plastic eraser is suitable if used lightly.
When a gap in a thick ink line is made by erasing,
the gap should be filled in with a series of fine lines
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 63

3.47 Using Irregular Curves 63

that are allowed to run together. A single heavy line is

difficult to match and is more likely to run and cause
a blot.

3.46 ■ IRREGULAR CURVES

Drawing mechanical curves other than circles or circu-
lar arcs generally requires the use of an irregular or
French curve. An irregular curve is a device for the
mechanical drawing of curved lines and should not be
applied directly to the points or used for purposes of pro-
ducing an initial curve. Many different forms and sizes
of curves are manufactured (Fig. 3.50).
The curves are composed largely of successive seg-
ments of the geometric curves, such as the ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola, and involute. The best curves are
made of transparent plastic. Among the many special
types of curves available are hyperbolas, parabolas,
ellipses, logarithmic spirals, ship curves, and railroad
curves.
Adjustable curves are also available. Figure 3.51a
consists of a core of lead, enclosed by a coil spring
attached to a flexible strip. Figure 3.51b consists of a
spline to which “ducks" (weights) are attached. The
spline can be bent to form any desired curve, limited
only by the elasticity of the material. An ordinary piece
of solder wire can be used very successfully by bending
the wire to the desired curve.

3.47 ■ USING IRREGULAR CURVES

The proper use of the irregular curve requires skill, espe-
cially when the lines are to be drawn in ink (Fig. 3.52).
After points have been plotted through which the curve
is to pass, a light pencil line should be sketched freehand
smoothly through the points.
To draw a mechanical line over the freehand line
with an irregular curve, you match the various segments
of the irregular curve with successive portions of the
freehand curve and draw the line with pencil or ruling
pen along the edge of the curve (Fig. 3.53). The irreg-
ular curve must match the sketched curve for some dis-
tance at each end beyond the segment to be drawn for
any one setting of the curve so that successive sections
of the curve will be tangent to each other, without any
abrupt change in the curvature of the line (Fig. 3.53). In
placing the irregular curve, the short-radius end of the
curve should be turned toward the short-radius part
of the curve to be drawn; that is, the portion of the
■ FIGURE 3.49 ■ Order of Inking. irregular curve used should have the same curvilinear
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 64

64 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 3.50 ■ Irregular or French Curves.

■ FIGURE 3.51 ■ Adjustable Curves. ■ FIGURE 3.52 ■ Using the Irregular Curves.

■ FIGURE 3.53 ■ Settings of Irregular Curve.

GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 65
■ FIGURE 3.54
tendency as the portion of the curve to be drawn. This
will prevent abrupt changes in direction.
The drafter should change the position of the draw-
ing when necessary to avoid working on the lower side
of the curve.
When plotting points to establish the path of a
curve, it is desirable to plot more points, and closer
together, where sharp turns in the curve occur.
Free curves may also be drawn with the compass, as
shown in Fig. 4.42.
For symmetrical curves, such as an ellipse, use the
same segment of the irregular curve in two or more oppo-
site places (Fig. 3.54). For example, in Fig. 3.54a the irreg-
ular curve is matched to the curve and the line drawn
from 1 to 2. Light pencil dashes are then drawn directly
on the irregular curve at these points. (The curve will take
■ FIGURE 3.55
3.48 Templates 65
■ Symmetrical Figures.
pencil marks well if it is lightly “frosted” by rubbing with
a hard pencil eraser.) In Fig. 3.54b the irregular curve is
turned over and matched so that the line may be drawn
from 2 to 1. In similar manner, the same segment is used
again in Figs. 3.54c and 3.54d.The ellipse is completed by
filling in the gaps at the ends by using the irregular curve,
or if desired, a compass.
3.48 ■ TEMPLATES
Templates are available for a great variety of special-
ized needs (Fig. 3.55). A template may be found for
drawing almost any ordinary drafting symbols or repeti-
tive features.The engineers’ triangle (Fig. 3.55a) is useful
for drawing hexagons or for bolt heads and nuts; the draft-
square (Fig. 3.55b) is convenient for drawing the curves on
■ Templates.
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66 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

bolt heads and nuts, for drawing circles, thread forms, and
so forth; and the chemistry stencil (Fig. 3.55c) is useful for
drawing chemical apparatus in schematic form.
Ellipse templates (§4.53), are perhaps more widely
used than any other type. Circle templates are useful for
drawing small circles quickly and for drawing fillets and
rounds: such templates are used extensively in tool and
die drawings.

3.49 ■ DRAFTING MACHINES

The drafting machine is an ingenious device that
replaces the T-square, triangles, scales, and protractor
(Figs. 3.56 and 3.57).The links, or bands, are arranged so
that the controlling head is always in any desired fixed
position regardless of where it is placed on the board;
thus, the horizontal straightedge will remain horizontal
if so set. The controlling head is graduated in degrees
(including a vernier on certain machines), which allows
the straightedges, or scales, to be set and locked at any
angle.There are automatic stops at the more frequently
used angles, such as 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90°.
The chief advantage of the drafting machine is that
it speeds up drafting. Since its parts are made of metal,
■ FIGURE 3.57 ■ Adjustable Drafting Table with Track Drafting
their accurate relationships are not subject to change,
Machine. Courtesy of Keuffel & Esser Co.
whereas T-squares, triangles, and working edges of draw-
ing boards must be checked and corrected frequently.
Drafting machines for left-handers are available from
the manufacturers.
straightedge is recommended (Fig. 3.58). The ends of
3.50 ■ PARALLEL-RULING STRAIGHTEDGE the straightedge are controlled by a system of cords
For large drawings, the long T-square becomes unwieldy, and pulleys that permit the straightedge to be moved
and considerable inaccuracy may result from the “give" up or down on the board while maintaining a horizontal
■ FIGURE 3.58 ■ Parallel-Ruling Straightedge.
or swing of the blade. In such a case the parallel-ruling position.

■ FIGURE 3.56 ■ Drafting Machine. Courtesy of VEMCO Corporation.

GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 67
3.51 ■ DRAWING PAPERS
Drawing paper, or detail paper, is used whenever a draw-
ing is to be made in pencil but not for reproduction.
From working drawings and for general use, the pre-
ferred paper is light cream or buff in color, and it is avail-
able in rolls of widths 24" and 36" and in cut sheets of
standard sizes, such as 8.5"*11", 11"*17", 17"*22",
and so on. Most industrial drafting rooms use standard
sheets with printed borders and title strips (§3.55). Since
the cost for printing adds so little to the price per sheet,
many schools have also adopted printed sheets.
The best drawing papers have up to 100% pure rag
stock; they have strong fibers that afford superior eras-
ing qualities, folding strength, and toughness; and they
will not discolor or grow brittle with age. The paper
should have a fine grain or tooth that will pick up the
graphite and produce clean, dense black lines. However,
if the paper is too rough, it will wear down the pencil
excessively and will produce ragged, grainy lines. The
paper should have a hard surface so that it will not
groove too easily when pressure is applied to the pencil.
For ink work, as for catalog and book illustrations,
white papers are used.The better papers, such as Bristol
Board and Strathmore, come in several thicknesses, such
as 2-ply, 3-ply, and 4-ply.
3.52 ■ TRACING PAPERS
Tracing paper is a thin transparent paper on which draw-
ings are made for the purpose of reproducing by blue-
printing or by other similar processes. Tracings are
usually made in pencil but may also be made in ink. Most
tracing papers will take pencil or ink, but some are espe-
cially suited to one or to the other.
Tracing papers called vellums have been treaded
with oils, waxes, or similar substances to render them
more transparent; other tracing papers are not so treated,
but may be quite transparent due to the high quality of
the raw materials and the methods of manufacture. Some
treated papers deteriorate rapidly with age, becoming
brittle within a few months, but some excellent vellums
are available. Untreated papers made entirely of good
rag stock will last indefinitely and will remain tough.
3.53 ■ TRACING CLOTH
Tracing cloth is a thin transparent muslin fabric (cotton,
not linen as commonly supposed) sizes with a starch com-
pound or plastic to provide a good working surface for
pencil or ink. It is much more expensive than tracing
paper.Tracing cloth is available in rolls of standard widths,
such as 30", 36", and 42", and also in sheets of standard
sizes, with or without printed borders and title forms.
For pencil tracings, special pencil tracing cloths are
available. Many concerns make their drawings in pencil
3.55 Standard Sheets 67
directly on this cloth, dispensing entirely with the pre-
liminary pencil drawing on detail paper, thus saving a
great deal of time.These cloths generally have a surface
that will produce dense black lines when hard pencils
are used. Hence, these drawings do not easily smudge
and will stand up well to handling.
3.54 ■ POLYESTER FILMS AND COATED SHEETS
Polyester film is a superior drafting material available
in rolls and sheets of standard size. It is made by bond-
ing a matte surface to one or both sides of a clear poly-
ester sheet. The transparency and printing qualities are
very good, the matte drawing surface is excellent for
pencil or ink, erasures leave no ghost marks, and the film
has high dimensional stability. Its resistance to cracking,
bending, and tearing makes it virtually indestructible, if
given reasonable care. The film has rapidly replaced
cloth and is competing with vellum in some applications.
Some companies have found it more economical to
make their drawings directly in ink on the film.
Large coated sheets of aluminum (which provides a
good dimensional stability) are often used in the aircraft
and auto industry for full-scale layouts that are scribed
into the coating with a steel point rather than a pencil.The
layouts are reproduced from the sheets photographically.
3.55 ■ STANDARD SHEETS
Two systems of sheet sizes, together with length, width,
and letter designations, are listed by ANSI, as shown in
the accompanying table.
The use of the basic sheet size, 8.5"*11.0" or
210 mm*297 mm, and multiples thereof permits filing
of small tracings and of folded prints in standard files with
or without correspondence. These sizes can be cut with-
out waste from the standard rolls of paper, cloth, or film.
For layout designations, title blocks, revision blocks,
and a list of materials blocks (see inside the front cover
of this book).
Nearest Standard
International Size a U.S. Size a
(millimeter) (inch)
A4 210
297 A 8.5
11.0
A3 297
420 B 11.0
17.0
A2 420
594 C 17.0
22.0
A1 594
841 D 22.0
34.0
A0 841
1189 E 34.0
44.0
a
ANSI Y14.1m-1992.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 68
68 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
■ FIGURE 3.59 ■ A Drawing Created Using CAD. Courtesy of Zura Sports, Inc.
3.56 ■ THE COMPUTER AS A DRAFTING TOOL
Many of you will be using a CAD system as your draft-
ing tool. Drawings created using a computer are basi-
cally the same as drawings created by hand. Accuracy,
speed, and the ability to understand spatial and visual
information, are equally important in instrumental draw-
ing and in using a CAD system. Drawings created using
a CAD system should follow the proper drafting stan-
dards so that they can be easily interpreted. Most CAD
drawings are plotted on standard sheet sizes and to sim-
ilar scales as hand prepared instrumental drawings.You
still need to master the concepts and standards for
orthographic and pictorial projections in order to use a
CAD system effectively to create models and drawings.
An advantage of using CAD is that the system con-
tains commands for easily drawing perfectly straight uni-
form lines and other geometric elements.Also the various
styles of lines can be quickly represented by the CAD
system (Fig. 3.59). Though it will take you some time to
learn the command structure of your CAD system, you
would take as long to learn instrumental drawing tech-
niques for preparing neat accurate drawings. Keeping
* Freehand sketching is discussed again, at length, in detail in Chapter 5 within the discussion on “Technical Sketching Shape Description.”
your drawing files organized and following conventions
for naming the drawings so that you can find them on the
CAD system is also an important consideration. Even
when using a CAD system, skill in freehand sketching is
still necessary to quickly get your ideas down on paper.
FREEHAND SKETCHING*
3.57 ■ TECHNICAL SKETCHING
Freehand sketches are a helpful way to organize your
thoughts and record ideas. They provide a quick, low-
cost way to explore various solutions to a problem so
that the best choice can be made. Investing too much
time in doing a scaled layout before exploring your
options through sketches can be a costly mistake.
Sketches are also used to clarify information about
changes in design or provide information on repairing
existing equipment.
The degree of precision needed in a given sketch
depends on its use. Quick sketches to supplement ver-
bal descriptions may be rough and incomplete. Sketches
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 11:47 AM Page 69
■ FIGURE 3.60 ■ Great Ideas Often Start as Freehand Sketches
Made on Scratch Paper. Courtesy of ANATech, Inc.
that are supposed to convey important and precise
information should be drawn as carefully and accurately
as possible.
The term freehand sketch does not mean a sloppy
drawing.As shown in Figure 3.60, a freehand sketch shows
attention to proportion, clarity, and correct line widths.
3.58 ■ SKETCHING MATERIALS
One advantage of freehand sketching is that it requires
only pencil, paper, and eraser. Small notebooks or sketch
pads are useful in the field (when working at a site) or
when an accurate record is needed. Graph paper can be
helpful in making neat sketches like the one in Figure 3.61.
Paper with 4, 5, 8, or 10 squares per inch is convenient for
maintaining correct proportions.
■ FIGURE 3.61 ■ Sketch on Graph Paper.
3.59 Types of Sketches 69
Find a style of pencil that suits your use. Figure 3.7
(see page 42) shows three styles which are all good for
preparing sketches. Automatic mechanical pencils
(shown as C in the illustration) come in .3-mm, .5-mm,
.7-mm, and .9-mm leads that advance automatically and
are easy to use.The .5-mm lead is a good general size, or
you can use a .7-mm lead for thick lines and .3-mm for
thin lines. The lead holder shown as part B requires a
special sharpener, so it is not usually suitable for work in
the field. Plain wooden pencils work great. They are
inexpensive and make it easy to produce thick or thin
lines by the amount you sharpen them.
A sketch pad of plain paper with a master grid sheet
showing through underneath works well as a substitute
for grid paper. You can create your own master grid
sheets for different sketching purposes using CAD. Spe-
cially ruled isometric paper is available for isometric
sketching.
Figure 3.8 (see page 42) shows the grades of lead and
their uses. Use soft pencils, such as HB or F, for freehand
sketching. Soft vinyl erasers are recommended.
3.59 ■ TYPES OF SKETCHES
Technical sketches of 3-D objects are usually one of four
standard types of projection, shown in Figure 3.62:
• Multiview projection
• Axonometric (isometric) projection
• Oblique projection
• Perspective sketches
Multiview projection shows one or more necessary
views. You will learn multiview projection in Chapter 6.
Axonometric, oblique, and perspective sketches are
■ FIGURE 3.62 ■ Types of Projection.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 70
70 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
■ FIGURE 3.63
methods of showing the object pictorially in a single
view. They will be discussed in Chapters 16, 17, and 18.
3.60 ■ SCALE
Sketches are not usually made to a specific scale. Sketch
objects in their correct proportions as accurately as pos-
sible by eye. Grid paper helps you sketch the correct
proportions by providing a ready-made scale (by count-
ing squares).The size of the sketch is up to you, depend-
ing on the complexity of the object and the size of the
paper available. Sketch small objects oversize to show
the details clearly.
3.61 ■ TECHNIQUE OF LINES
The main difference between an instrument drawing and
a freehand sketch is in the style or technique of the lines.
A good freehand line is not expected to be precisely
straight or exactly uniform, as is a CAD or instrument-
drawn line. Freehand lines show freedom and variety.
Freehand construction lines are very light, rough lines.
All other lines should be dark and clean.
■ FIGURE 3.64
■ Technique of Lines (Enlarged).
3.62 ■ STYLES OF LINES
Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning.
Drawings use two different line widths thick and thin and
different line styles indicate the meaning of the line. A
person reading a drawing depends on line styles to com-
municate whether a line is visible or hidden, if it repre-
sents a center axis, or if its purpose is to convey dimension
information.Without making these distinctions, drawings
would become a confusing jumble of lines.To make your
drawings clear and easy to read, make the contrast
between the two widths of lines distinct.Thick lines such
as visible lines and cutting plane lines should be twice as
thick as thin lines. Thin lines are used for construction
lines, hidden lines, dimension lines, extension lines, center
lines, and phantom lines. Figure 3.9 (see page 43) shows
the different styles of lines that you will be using.All lines
except for construction lines should be sharp and dark.
Construction lines should be very light so that they are
not visible (or are barely visible) in the completed draw-
ing. Figures 3.63 and 3.64 show examples of technique for
sketching using different line patterns.
■ Contrast of Lines (Enlarged).
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 71
■ FIGURE 3.65 ■ Circle Viewed as an Ellipse.
3.63 ■ SKETCHING CIRCLES, ARCS,
AND ELLIPSES
Small circles and arcs can be sketched in one or two
strokes without any preliminary blocking in. Sketch-
ing arcs is similar to sketching circles. In general, it is
easier to sketch arcs by holding your pencil on the
inside of the curve. In sketching arcs, look closely at
the actual geometric constructions and carefully
approximate all points of tangency so that the arc
touches a line or other entity at the right point. Circle
templates also make it easy to sketch accurate circles
of various sizes.
If a circle is tipped away from your view, it appears
as an ellipse. Figure 3.65 shows a coin viewed so that it
appears as an ellipse. You can learn to sketch small
ellipses with a free arm movement similar to the way
you sketch circles, or you can use ellipse templates to
help you easily sketch ellipses.These templates are usu-
ally grouped according to the amount a circular shape
the would be rotated to form the ellipse.They provide a
number of sizes of ellipses on each template, but usually
only one or a couple typical rotations.
3.64 ■ MAINTAINING PROPORTIONS
The most important rule in freehand sketching is to keep
the sketch in proportion. No matter how brilliant the
technique or how well-drawn the small details, if the pro-
portions are bad, the sketch will be of little use. To keep
your sketch in proportion, first determine the relative
proportions of the height to the width and lightly block
them in.Then lightly block in the medium-size areas and
the small details.
■ FIGURE 3.66
3.66 Lettering Standards 71
Compare each new estimated distance with already-
established distances. One way to estimate distances is
to mark an arbitrary unit on the edge of a card or strip
of paper. Then see how many units wide and how many
units high the object is.
To sketch an object with many curves to a different
scale, use the squares method. On the original picture,
rule accurate grid lines to form squares of any convenient
size. It is best to use a scale and some convenient spacing,
such as 21 inch or 10 mm. On the new sheet, rule a similar
grid, marking the spacing of the lines proportional to the
original, but reduced or enlarged as needed. Draw the
object’s contours in and across the new grid lines to
match the original as closely as you can by eye.
LETTERING
Lettered text is often necessary to completely
describe an object or to provide detailed specifica-
tions. Lettering should be legible, be easy to create,
and use styles acceptable for traditional drawing
and CAD drawing.
3.65 ■ FREEHAND LETTERING
Most engineering lettering is single-stroke Gothic font.
A font is the name for a particular shape of letters. Fig-
ure 3.66 shows some common fonts. Most hand-drawn
notes are lettered 18 " high and are drawn within light hor-
izontal guidelines. CAD notes are typed from the key-
board and sized according to the plotted size of the
drawing.
3.66 ■ LETTERING STANDARDS
The modern styles of letters were derived from the design
of Roman capital letters, whose origins date all the way
back to Egyptian hieroglyphics. The term Roman refers
to any letter that has wide downward strokes, thin con-
necting strokes, and ends terminating in spurs called ser-
ifs. In the late 19th century, the development of technical
■ Serif and Sans-Serif Lettering.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 72
72 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
drawing created a need for a simplified, legible alphabet
that could be drawn quickly with an ordinary pen. Single-
stroke Gothic sans-serif (meaning without serifs or spurs)
letters are used today because they are very legible.
3.67 ■ COMPUTER LETTERING
Lettering is a standard feature available in computer
graphics programs. Using CAD software, you can add
titles, notes, and dimensioning information to a drawing.
Several fonts and a variety of sizes may be selected.
When modifications are required, it is easy to make
appropriate lettering changes on the drawing by editing
existing text.
CAD drawings typically use a Gothic style of let-
tering, but often use a Roman style of lettering for titles.
When adding lettering to a CAD drawing, a good rule of
thumb is not to use more than two fonts within the same
drawing.You may want to use one font for the titles and
a different one for notes and other text. However, you
may have a couple different sizes of lettering in the
drawing and perhaps some slanted lettering all using the
same font. It is sometimes tempting to use many differ-
ent fonts in a drawing because of the wide variety avail-
able on CAD systems, but drawings that use too many
different fonts have been jokingly referred to as having
a ransom note style of lettering.
3.68 ■ LETTERING TECHNIQUE
Lettering is more similar to freehand drawing than it is
to writing, so the six fundamental drawing strokes and
their directions are basic to lettering. Horizontal strokes
are drawn left to right. Vertical, inclined, and curved
strokes are drawn downward. If you are left-handed, you
can use a system of strokes similar to the sketching
strokes that work for you.
Lettering ability has little relationship to writing
ability. You can learn to letter neatly even if you have
terrible handwriting. There are three necessary aspects
of learning to letter:
• Proportions and forms of the letters (to make good
letters, you need to have a clear mental image of
their correct shape)
• Composition the spacing of letters and words
• Practice
3.69 ■ VERTICAL LETTERS AND NUMERALS
The proportions of vertical capital letters and numerals
are shown in Figure 3.67 in a grid six units high. Num-
bered arrows indicate the order and direction of strokes.
The widths of the letters can be easily remembered:The
letter l and the numeral 1 are only a pencil width.The W
is eight grid units wide (1 13 times its height) and is the
widest letter in the alphabet. All the other letters or
numerals are either five or six grid units wide, and it is
easy to remember the six-unit letters because when
assembled they spell TOM Q. VAXY. This means that
most letters are as wide as they are tall, which is proba-
bly wider than your usual writing. All numerals except
the 1 are five units wide.
Lowercase letters are rarely used in engineering
sketches except for lettering large volumes of notes.Ver-
tical lowercase letters are used on map drawings, but
very seldom on machine drawings. Lowercase letters are
shown in Figure 3.68.The lower part of the letter is usu-
ally two-thirds the height of the capital letter.
3.70 ■ INCLINED LETTERS AND NUMERALS
Inclined capital letters and numerals, shown in Figure
3.69, are similar to vertical characters, except for the
slope. The slope of the letters is about 68° from the hor-
izontal. While you may practice drawing slanted hand-
lettering at approximately this angle, it is important in
CAD drawings to always set the amount of incline for
the letters at the same value within a drawing so that
the lettering is consistent. Inclined lowercase letters,
shown in Figure 3.70, are similar to vertical lowercase
letters.
3.71 ■ GUIDELINES
Use extremely light horizontal guidelines to keep let-
ter height uniform, as is shown in Figure 3.71 (see
Page 75). Capital letters are commonly made 18 " (3.2
mm) high, with the space between lines of lettering
being from three-fifths to full height of the letters.
Lettering size may vary depending on the size of the
sheet. Do not use vertical guidelines to space the let-
ters this should be done by eye while lettering. Use a
vertical guideline at the beginning of a row of text to
help you line up the left edges of the following rows,
or use randomly spaced vertical guidelines to help you
maintain the correct slant.
A simple method of spacing horizontal guidelines
is to use a scale and set off a series of 81 " spaces, making
both the letters and the spaces between lines of letters
1
8 " high. Another quick method of creating guidelines is
to use a guideline template like the Berol Rapidesign
925 shown in Figure 3.72 (see page 75).
When large and small capitals are used in combi-
nation, the small capitals should be three-fifths to two-
thirds as high as the large capitals.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 73

3.71 Guidelines 73

■ FIGURE 3.67 ■ Vertical Capital Letters and Numerals.

■ FIGURE 3.68 ■ Vertical Lowercase Letters.

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74 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 3.69 ■ Inclined Capital Letters and Numerals.

■ FIGURE 3.70 ■ Inclined Lowercase Letters.

GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 75

3.72 Guidelines for Whole Numbers and Fractions 75

■ FIGURE 3.71 ■ Pencil Lettering (Full Size).

3 REVERSE WITH INKING PEN

—
36 1
—
4

—5
32 3
—
16
1
—
8 5
—
32

—3
32 1
—
8
■ FIGURE 3.72 ■ The Berol Rapidesign 925
Berol.RapiDesign.
R-925 Template is Used to Quickly Create Guidelines for
LETTERING AID
Lettering.

3.72 ■ GUIDELINES FOR WHOLE NUMBERS
AND FRACTIONS
Beginners should use guidelines for whole numbers and
fractions. Draw five equally spaced guidelines for whole
numbers and fractions, as shown in Figure 3.73. Frac-
tions are twice the height of the corresponding whole
■ FIGURE 3.73 ■ Guide Lines for Dimension Figures.
numbers. Make the numerator and the denominator
each about three-fourths as high as the whole number
to allow enough space between them and the fraction
bar. For dimensioning, the most commonly used height
for whole numbers is 18 " (3.2 mm), and for fractions 14 "
(6.4 mm), as shown in the figure.
Some of the most common errors in lettering frac-
tions are shown in Figure 3.74.To make fractions appear
correctly:
• Never let numerals touch the fraction bar.
• Center the denominator under the numerator.
• Never use an inclined fraction bar, except when let-
tering in a narrow space, as in a parts list.
• Make the fraction bar slightly longer than the
widest part of the fraction.

■ FIGURE 3.74 ■ Common Errors.

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76 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 3.76 ■ Balanced Machine-Drawing Title.

■ FIGURE 3.75 ■ Centering Title in Title Box. 3.74 ■ TITLES

3.73 ■ SPACING OF LETTERS AND WORDS
Uniform spacing of letters is a matter of equalizing
spaces by eye. The background areas between letters,
not the distances between them, should be approxi-
mately equal. Equal distances from letter to letter
causes the letters to appear unequally spaced. Equal
background areas between letters results in an even
and pleasing spacing.
Some combinations, such as LT and VA, may even
have to be slightly overlapped to secure good spacing. In
some cases the width of a letter may be decreased. For
example, the lower stroke of the L may be shortened
when followed by A. These pairs of letters that need to
be spaced extra closely to appear correctly are called
kerned pairs in typesetting.
Space words well apart, but space letters closely
within words. Make each word a compact unit well sep-
arated from adjacent words. For either uppercase or low-
ercase lettering, make the spaces between words
approximately equal to a capital O. Be sure to have
space between rows of letters, usually equal to the letter
height. Rows spaced too closely are hard to read. Rows
that are too far apart do not appear related.
In most cases, the title and related information are let-
tered in title boxes or title strips, which may be printed
directly on the drawing paper or polyester film, as
shown in Figure 3.75. The main drawing title is usually
centered in a rectangular space, which is easy to do in
CAD. When lettering by hand, arrange the title sym-
metrically about an imaginary centerline, as shown in
Figure 3.76. In any kind of title, the most important
words are given most prominence by making the let-
tering larger, heavier, or both. Other data, such as scale
and date, can be smaller.
3.75 ■ WEB SITES FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
Check the sites below for engineering graphics supplies
and equipment:
• http://www.reprint-draphix.com/
• http://www.eclipse.net/~essco/draft/draft.htm
• http://www.seventen.com/art_eng/index.html
These sites feature typography information:
• http://www.graphic-design.com/type/
• http://www.webcom.com/cadware/letease2.html
To find other sites like these, use keywords like
reprographic supplies or engineering type fonts.

KEY WORDS
CAD IRREGULAR CURVE OBLIQUE SERIF

SCALE LINE TYPE GRID PAPER INCLINED

ALPHABET OF LINES HORIZONTAL HIDDEN LINES STABILITY

PARALLEL DIAMETER CENTERLINES SPACING

VERTICAL TEMPLATE SHADING GUIDELINES

RADIUS COMPASS SKETCH TITLE BLOCK

DRAWING MEDIA DIVIDERS PROPORTIONS KERNED PAIRS

PROTRACTOR PERPENDICULAR LETTERING

TRIANGLE FREEHAND SKETCH GOTHIC

T-SQUARE CONSTRUCTION LINES ROMAN

GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 77
CHAPTER SUMMARY
■ An understanding of the basic principles of drawing is re-
quired to draw with either a pencil or with CAD software.
■ The line weight (thickness) and type (dashed or solid) has
specific meaning in all technical drawings. This is called the
alphabet of lines and is essential knowledge for every drafter.
■ Both CAD and traditional drawing have specific methods
for drawing lines, arcs, and circles. Proper understanding
of the elements of this basic geometry is essential for both
mechanical and CAD drawing.
■ Every drawing tool, including every CAD software pro-
gram, requires careful study of the tools and procedures
for using the tools. Proper use of each tool facilitates the
creation of neat, accurate drawings. Improper use of a tool
creates sloppy, inaccurate drawings.
■ The proper sizing of a drawing requires complete under-
standing of the use of scales. Paper drawings are scaled be-
fore they are drawn. CAD drawings are scaled when they
are printed.
■ Complex circles and arcs are difficult to draw using either
CAD software or a mechanical compass. The prescribed
techniques for either tool require understanding of the
proper technique and practice with the appropriate tool.
■ ■
There are many drawing and printing media used in the
creation of traditional drawings and the printing of CAD
drawings. Each media type has specific advantages. Draw-
ing and printing media are chosen based on the cost, dura-
bility, image quality, and reproduction capability.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What tools are used to draw straight lines?
2. What tools are used to draw arcs and circles?
3. Draw the alphabet of lines and label each line.
4. Describe the proper technique for erasing a line using
an erasing shield.
5. Why is the pencil pulled and never pushed when draw-
ing lines?
6. Which architect’s scale represents a size ratio of 1:24?
Which metric scale represents a half size? Which engi-
neering scale would be used for full size?
7. Which scale type is the only one to use fractions of an
inch?
8. Is the bevel of a compass lead sharpened on the inside or
outside surface?
9. What are the minimum number of points that you should
connect when using an irregular curve?
Review Questions 77
■ Sketching is a quick way of visualizing and solving a draw-
ing problem. It is an effective way of communicating with
all members of the design team.
■ There are special techniques for sketching lines, circles,
and arcs. These techniques should be practiced so they be-
come second nature.
■ Moving your thumb up or down the length of a pencil at
arms length is an easy method for estimating proportional
size.
■ Using a grid makes sketching in proportion an easy task.
Grid paper comes in a variety of types, including square
grid and isometric grid.
■ You can sketch circles by constructing a square and locat-
ing the four tangent points where the circle touches the
square.
■ A sketched line does not need to look like a mechanical
line. The main distinction between instrumental drawing
and freehand sketching is the character or technique of
the line work.
■ Freehand sketches are made to proportion, but not neces-
sarily to a particular scale.
Notes and dimensions are added to sketches using upper-
case letters drawn by hand.
■ The standard shapes of letters used in engineering
drawing have been developed to be legible and quick to
produce.
10. What are the main advantages of polyester film as a
drawing media?
11. What are the four standard types of projections?
12. What are the advantages of using grid paper for sketching?
13. What is the correct technique for sketching a circle or an arc?
14. Sketch the alphabet of lines.Which lines are thick? Which
are thin? Which are very light and should not reproduce
when copied?
15. What is the advantage of sketching an object first before
drawing it using CAD?
16. What is the difference between proportion and scale?
17. What font provides the shape of standard engineering
lettering?
18. Describe the characteristics of good freehand lettering.
19. Why must guidelines always be used for lettering?
20. How are sketches used in the design process?
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78 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques
DRAWING PROBLEMS
The constructions in Figs. 3.77 to 3.87 are to be drawn in
pencil on Layout A–2 (see the inside front cover of this book).
The steps in drawing this layout are shown in Fig. 3.43. Draw
all construction lines lightly, using a hard lead (4H to 6H), and
all required lines dense black with a softer lead (F to H). If
construction lines are drawn properly—that is, lightly—they
need not be erased in the final drawing.
If the layout is to be made on the A4 size sheet, width di-
mensions for title-strip forms will need to be adjusted to fit the
available space.
The pencil drawings of Figs. 3.82 to 3.87 should be
done on tracing paper or vellum; then prints should be
made to show the effectiveness of the student’s technique.
If ink tracings are required, the originals may be drawn on
film or on detail paper and then traced on vellum or trac-
ing cloth. For any assigned problem, the instructor may re-
quire that all dimensions and notes be lettered to afford
further lettering practice.
Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a gen-
eral nature, they can also be solved on most computer graphic
systems. If a system if available, the instructor may choose
to assign specific problems to be completed by this method.
Prob. 3.1 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), divide
working space into six equal rectangles and draw visible lines,
as shown in Fig. 3.77. Draw construction lines AB through cen-
ters C at right angles to required lines; then along each con-
struction line, set off 0.50
spaces and draw required visible
lines. Omit dimensions and instructional notes.
Prob. 3.2 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), divide
working space into six equal rectangles and draw lines as
shown in Fig. 3.78. In the first two spaces, draw conventional
lines to match those in Fig. 3.9. In remaining spaces, locate
centers C by diagonals, and then work constructions out from
them. Omit the metric dimensions and instructional notes.
■ FIGURE 3.77 ■ Using Layout A-2 or A4-2 (adjusted),
divide working space into six equal rectangles and draw
visible lines as shown. Draw construction lines AB
through centers C at right angles to required lines; then
along each construction line, set off 0.50" spaces and
draw required visible lines. Omit dimensions and
instructional notes.
Prob. 3.3 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views
in pencil, as shown in Fig. 3.79. Omit all dimensions.
Prob. 3.4 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw fig-
ures in pencil, as shown in Fig. 3.80. Use bow pencil for all
arcs and circles within it radius range. Omit all dimensions.
Prob. 3.5 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views
in pencil, as shown in Fig. 3.81. Use bow pencil for all arcs and
circles within its radius range. Omit all dimensions.
Prob. 3.6 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
pencil the friction plate in Fig. 3.82. Omit dimensions and
notes.
Prob. 3.7 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views
in pencil of the seal cover in Fig. 3.83. Omit dimensions and
notes.
Prob. 3.8 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
pencil the Geneva cam in Fig. 3.84. Omit dimensions and
notes.
Prob. 3.9 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw ac-
curately in pencil the shear plate in Fig. 3.85. Give length of
KA. Omit other dimensions and notes.
Prob. 3.10 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
pencil the ratchet wheel in Fig. 3.86. Omit dimensions and
notes.
Prob. 3.11 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in
pencil the latch plate in Fig. 3.87. Omit dimensions and notes.
Problems in convenient form for solution may be found in Technical
Drawing Problems, Series 1, by Giesecke, Mitchell, Spencer, Hill,
Dygdon, and Novak; Technical Drawing Problems, Series 2, by Spencer,
Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; and Technical Drawing Problems, Series 3, by
Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; all designed to accompany this text
and published by Prentice Hall.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 11:46 AM Page 79

Drawing Problems 79

■ FIGURE 3.78 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–3 (adjusted),

divide working space into six equal rectangles, and draw lines
as shown. In first two spaces, draw conventional lines to match
those in Fig. 3.9. In remaining spaces, locate centers C by
diagonals, and then work constructions out from them. Omit the
metric dimensions and instructional notes.

■ FIGURE 3.79 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted),

draw views in pencil as shown. Omit all dimensions.

■ FIGURE 3.80 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–3 (adjusted), draw

figures in pencil as shown. Use bow pencil for all arcs and
circles within its radius range. Omit all dimensions.
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80 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 3.81 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views in pencil as shown. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles within its radius
range. Omit all dimensions.

■ FIGURE 3.82 ■ Friction Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 ■ FIGURE 3.83 ■ Seal Cover. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted),
(adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes. draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.
GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:39 AM Page 81
■ FIGURE 3.84 ■ Geneva Cam. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2
(adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.
■ FIGURE 3.86 ■ Shear Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2
(adjusted), draw accurately in pencil. Give length of KA. Omit other
dimensions and notes.
LETTERING PROBLEMS
Layouts for lettering problems are given in Figs. 3.88 through
3.91. Draw complete horizontal and vertical or inclined guide
lines very lightly. Draw the vertical or inclined guide lines
through the full height of the lettered area of the sheet. For
practice in ink lettering, the last two lines and the title strip on
each sheet may be lettered in ink, if assigned by the instruc-
tor. Omit all dimensions.
Prob. 3.12 As shown in Fig. 3.88, lay out sheet, add vertical
or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital let-
ters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millimeter equivalents
of given dimensions, see table inside of back cover.
Prob. 3.13 As shown in Fig. 3.89, lay out sheet, add verti-
cal or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined cap-
ital letters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millimeter
equivalents of given dimensions, see table inside of back cover.
Lettering Problems 81
■ FIGURE 3.85 ■ Ratchet Wheel. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2
(adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.
■ FIGURE 3.87 ■ Latch Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted),
draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.
Prob. 3.14 As shown in Fig. 3.90, lay out sheet, add vertical
or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital let-
ters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millimeter equivalents
of given dimensions, see table inside of back cover.
Prob. 3.15 As shown in Fig. 3.91, lay out sheet, add verti-
cal or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined cap-
ital letters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millimeter
equivalents of given dimensions, see table inside of back cover.
Lettering sheets in convenient form for lettering practice may be found
in Engineering Drawing Problems, Series 1, by Giesecke, Mitchell,
Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; Engineering Drawing Problems,
Series 2, by Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; and Engineering
Drawing Problems, Series 3 by Davis and Juneau; all designed to
accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall.
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82 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 3.88 ■ Prob. 3.12. ■ FIGURE 3.89 ■ Prob. 3.13.

■ FIGURE 3.90 ■ Prob. 3.14. ■ FIGURE 3.91 ■ Prob. 3.15.