TRANSPIRATION & EVAPORTRANSPIRATION
Lenticels –are tiny openings that
TRANSPIRATION
 The process by which moisture is
carried through plants from roots to
small pores on the underside of
leaves, where it changes to vapor
and is released to the atmosphere.
 Transpiration is essentially
evaporation of water from plant
leaves. Transpiration also includes a
process called guttation, which is
the loss of water in liquid form from
the uninjured leaf or stem of the
plant, principally through water
stomata.
TRANSPISRATION BIOLOGICAL PROCESS
1. Dry air passes across the leaves and
causes water vapor to evaporate
out of the stomata
2. The loss of water from the leaves
creates a type of suction that draws
water up the stem through xylem
3. New water enters the plant through
the roots to replace the water
moving up the system
TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION
1. Stomatal Transpiration – The
process involves the participation of
the stomata or stomates,
microscopic pores in the epidermis
of the leaves.
2. Cuticular Transpiration –Loss of
water in plants via the cuticle.
Water vapor directly diffuses
through the cuticle on leaves and
herbaceous stems and escapes to
the atmosphere.
Cuticle –is a waxy or resinous layer
of cutin, a fatty substance, covering
the outside (epidermis) of leaves
and other plant parts.
3. Lenticular Transpiration –Loss of
water from plants as vapor through
the lenticels.
CLOSING THE CHAMBER) – INITIAL
protrude from the barks in woody
stems and twigs as well as in other
plant organs.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT TRANSPIRATION
 Light
Plants transpire more rapidly in the
light than in the dark. This is largely
because light stimulates the
opening of the stomata
(mechanism). Light also speeds up
transpiration by warming the leaf.
 Temperature
Transpiration rates go up as the
temperature goes up, especially
during the growing season, when
the air is warmer due to stronger
sunlight and warmer air masses.
Higher temperatures cause the
plant cells which control the
openings (stoma) where water is
released to the atmosphere to
open, whereas colder temperatures
cause the openings to close.
 Relative Humidity
As the relative humidity of the air
surrounding the plant rises the
transpiration rate falls. It is easier
for water to evaporate into dryer
air than into more saturated air.
 Wind and Air Movement
Increased movement of the air
around a plant will result in a
higher transpiration rate. Wind will
move the air around, with the
result that the more saturated air
close to the leaf is replaced by drier
air.
 Soil-Moisture Availability
When moisture is lacking, plants
can begin to senesce (premature
ageing, which can result in leaf loss)
and transpire less water.
 Type of Plant
Plants transpire water at different
rates. Some plants which grow in
arid regions, such as cacti and
succulents, conserve precious
water by transpiring less water
than other plants.
METHODS OF MEASURING TRANSPIRATION
1. BY MEASURING THE HUMIDITY OF
AIR METHOD
AMOUNT OF WATER TRANSPIRED =
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (AFTER
RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF CHAMBER
2. BY WEIGHING POTTED PLANTS
METHOD –a potted herbaceous
plant is taken and can be weighed
before and after the end of a certain
period of time
3. BY LIMITS –It will be reasonable to
employ this method of
transpiration measurement over
short periods only
4. THE POLYMETER METHOD –This
method involves the use of an
apparatus which consists of a
hygrometer, a bell-glass and a
water-proof base. It is used to
measure a variety of metrological
conditions including transpiration
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
 The sum of evaporation and plant
transpiration from the Earth's land
and ocean surface to the
atmosphere.
 Evaporation accounts for the
movement of water to the air from
sources such as the soil, canopy
interception, and waterbodies.
Transpiration accounts for the
movement of water within a plant
and the subsequent loss of water
as vapor through stomata in its
leaves.
 Evapotranspiration is an important
part of the water cycle. An element
(such as a tree) that contributes to
evapotranspiration can be called
an evapotranspirator.
TYPES OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
1. Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)
–It is the loss of water from a large
area, uniformly covered with
actively growing short green crop
when water is not a limiting factor.
2. Actual
Evapotranspiration/Seasonal
Consumptive Use –The total
amount of water used in
evaporation and transpiration by a
crop during the entire growth
season is called AET or seasonal CU.
So AET is the ET as governed by the
availability of water to plants.
FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
 Energy availability. The more energy
available, the greater the rate of
evapotranspiration. It takes about
 600 calories of heat energy to
change 1 gram of liquid water into a
gas.
 The humidity gradient away from
the surface. The rate and quantity
of water vapor entering into the
atmosphere both become higher in
drier air.
 The wind speed immediately above
the surface. The process of
evapotranspiration moves water
vapor from ground or water
surfaces to an adjacent shallow
layer that is only a few centimeters
thick. When this layer becomes
saturated evapotranspiration stops.
However, wind can remove this
layer replacing it with drier air which
increases the potential
evapotranspiration. Winds also
affect evapotranspiration
bringing heat energy into an area. A
5-mile-per-hour wind will increase
still-air evapotranspiration by 20
percent; a 15-mile-per-hour wind
will increase still-air
evapotranspiration by 50 percent.
 Water availability.
Evapotranspiration cannot occur if
water is not available.
Methods of measuring
Evapotranspiration
THE WATER BALANCE
CASE 1: CONSISTING OF SURFACE
WATER AND GROUND WATER,
PRECIPITATION SEPERATES INTO FOUR
COMPONENTS
P=E+T+Q+G
Where:
E: Evaporation
T: evapotranspiration
Q: Surface water runoff
G: Ground water flow (appearing
eventually as baseflow)
CASE 2: EXCLUDES GROUNDWATER,
PRECIPITATION, SEPERATES INTO FOUR
COMPONENTS
P = E + T + Q +I
Where:
E: Evaporation
T: Evapotranspiration
Q: Surface water runoff
I: Infiltration
GROUP 2 –INTERCEPTION ND DEPRESSION
STORAGE
INTERCEPTION
• The removal of water that wets and
adheres to plant foliage, buildings,
and other objects above ground
surface.
• The part of the rainfall that is
intercepted by the earth’s surface
and which subsequently
evaporates.
ROLE OF INTERCEPTION IN THE
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
• Interception as a rainfall reducer
• Interception as a spatial
for redistributor
• Interception as a temporal
by redistributor
THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF
INTERCEPTION
1. Interception Loss
The water that is retained by
vegetation surfaces that is later
evaporated into the atmosphere, or
absorbed by the plant
Prevents water from reaching the
ground surface and is regarded as a
“primary water loss”
2. Throughfall
The water which falls through
spaces in the vegetation canopy, or
which drips from the leaves, twigs
and stems and falls to the ground
3. Stemflow
The water which trickles along the
stems and branches and down the
main stem or trunk to the ground
surface
FACTORS AFFECTING INTERCEPTION
 The amount of water intercepted is
greatly variable and depends on
many things. Since the interception
affects the distribution of rainfall or
snowfall and subsequent run-off, it
is necessary to understand the
factors which affect interception.
 Interception Storage
The ability of vegetation surfaces to
collect and retain Precipitation,
 Vegetation characteristics
Interception varies with the species,
its age shape of the leaves, density,
thickness etc.
 Rainfall characteristics
o Duration of the rain - It makes a
big difference if rainfall falls as one
continuous storm or as a sequence
of several small events with dry
spells in between
o Intensity of the Rain
-When precipitation occurs in still
air conditions with low intensity
interception will be more. On the
contrary if rain drops come with
great speed their impact dislodges
intercepted drops and leaves
cannot hold much water.
o Wind Velocity
 Precipitation Type
o Rain
o Snow –clings to leaves and
branches more, but interception
loss is limited due to low
temperatures
 Season of the Year
Summer interception is 2 to 3 times
more than the winter season
interception.
MEASUREMENT OF INTERCEPTION
1. Gross precipitation
Raingauge in clearing or above
canopy
2. Throughfall
Network of raingauges
Sheet gauges
3. Stemflow
Collecting collars around trees
INTERCEPTION LOSSES ARE DESCRIBED BY
HORTON EQUATION:
LI = S + KET
WHERE:
LI IS THE TOTAL VOLUME OF WATER INTERCEPTED.
S IS THE INTERCEPTION STORAGE.
K IS THE RATIO OF THE SURFACE AREA OF THE LEAVES TO
THE AREA OF THE ENTIRE CANOPY.
E IS THE RATE OF EVAPORATION DURING THE
PRECIPITATION EVENT, AND
T IS TIME.
DEPRESSION STORAGE
 Precipitation that reaches the
ground may infiltrate, flow over the
surface from which the only escape
is evaporation or infiltration.
 It is the term applied to water that
is lost because it becomes trapped
in the numerous small depressions
that are characteristic of any natural
surface.
 When water temporarily
accumulates in a low point with no
possibility for escape as runoff, the
accumulation is referred to as
depression storage.
 The amount of water that is lost due
to depression storage varies greatly
with the land use
LINSLEY 1982
V = Sd(1-𝒆−𝒌𝑷𝒆 )(11.2)
Where:
V is the volume of water in depression
storage.
Sd is the maximum storage capacity of the
depression.
Pe is the rainfall excess, and
k is a constant equal to 1/Sd.
FACTORS AFFECTING INTERCEPTION
 Nature of Terrain
 Slope
 Type of soil surface
a. Pervious Surfaces
b. Impervious Surface
 Land Use
 Antecedent Rainfall
3 TYPES OF SUB-CATCHMENT FLOW IN
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT MODEL
(SWMM)
1.) Impervious area with depression
storage –The runoff from the
precipitation is delayed due to the
depression storage.
2.) Impervious area without
depression storage-The runoff from
precipitation is NOT delayed.
Evaporation does occur based on
the depth of water in the subarea of
the Subcatchment.
3.) Pervious area with depression
storage –The runoff from the
precipitation is delayed due to the
depression storage. Evaporation
and Infiltration occurs based on the
depth of water in the subarea of the
Subcatchment.
GROUP 3 –STREAMFLOW
STREAMFLOW / CHANNEL RUNOFF –is the
flow of water in streams, rivers, and
other channels, and is a major element of
the water cycle.
SOURCES OF STREAMFLOW
 Channel Precipitation
 Ground Water
 Interflow
 Overland flow
TYPES OF STREAMFLOW
 Laminar Flow –occurs when a fluid
flows in parallel layers, with no
disruption between the layers. In
laminar flow, the motion of the
particles of the fluid is very orderly
with particles close to a solid surface
moving in straight lines parallel to
that surface
 Turbulent Flow –Turbulent flow is a
type of fluid flow in which the fluid
undergoes irregular fluctuations, or
mixing. The speed of the fluid at a
point is continuously undergoing
changes in both magnitude and
direction.
 Helicoidal flow –the cork-screw-like
flow of water in a meander. It is a
contributing factor to the formation
of slip-off slopes and river cliffs in a
meandering section of the river.
STREAM FLOW GENERATION –controlled by
gradient of the channel bed, volume of water
within the channel, the shape of a channel,
and channel roughness
HORTIONIAN FLOW –applicable in impervious
surfaces (urban areas), steep slopes, and
hydrophobic/compacted soil.
SUBSURFACE FLOW –Lateral movement of
water occurring through the soil above the
water table. Primary mechanism for stream
flow generation.
SATURATION OVERLAND FLOW – Soil is
saturated from below by sub surface flow. Any
precipitation occurring in the over a saturated
surface becomes an overflow land.
PROBLEMS FACING STREAMFLOW
1.) Water Quantity- Stream flow slowly
increases to a peak flow, and later
slowly decreases to a stable flow
maintained by water stored in soils.
Ex. Pumping
2.) Water Temperature- Increased
decomposition produced by
elevated water temperature can
cause dissolved oxygen levels to
decline, resulting in the death of
stream organisms, including fish.
Ex. Climate change
3.) Pollutants- chemical waste
products
4.) Channelization- it is detrimental for
the "well-being" of streams and
rivers through the elimination of
suitable habitat and the creation of
excessive flows.
5.) . Inadequate Substrate- riffles, runs,
and pools characterize areas within
streams. Riffle is the shallow area
within a stream where the flow of
water is constricted and forced over
rocks and ledges.
MEASURING DEVICES
STAGE MEASUREMENTS (mainly made with
gauges)
 Manual Gauges
o Sectioned Staff Gauges –series
of post each overlapping
o Inclined Gauge- inclined at a
certain angle to measure the
water stages
 Recording Gauges
o Float Gauge- fluctuates with
change in stage and this
recorded by chart
o Digital Recorders –they have
clocks and used for hourly
measurements. The recorder
should be placed at a height
more than the expected peak
stage. To know the maximum
stage expected.
o Crest Stages-they only measure
peak flows. It is cylindrical tube
sealed below with only a few
holes to allow the water to
enter.
METERS –devices that measure the stream
flow by directly measuring the current.
 Pygy meter –a wheel is rotated by
water flow and the rate of the
rotation signifies the water velocity.
It is primarily used in measuring
discharge.
 Vortex Meter –velocity is
proportional to the downstream
frequency of the vortex flow and is
read on a digital readout. It is used
for measuring flow in pipes.
 Current meter –electronic pulses
determine water velocity. It is used
in large bodies of water like oceans
to measure the current.
 Flow Probe –the flow turns a
propeller that sends the water
velocity data to a digital readout
display in ft/s or m/s.
MEASUREMENT OF STREAM FLOW
(flow rate)
 Bucket method is a simple way to
measure the flow rate using household
items. It requires a stopwatch, a large
bucket, and preferably two to three
people.
 Float method -also known as the cross-
sectional method used to measure the
flow rate for larger streams and rivers. It
is found by multiplying a cross sectional
area of the stream by the velocity of the
water.