AI/cr/llllin's 27 (2()()2), SpcciallsslIt', 21-39

The Securitization of Migration

in Western Societies:
Ambivalent Discourses and Policies

Ayse Ceyhan and Anastassia Tsoukala*

\Vhcll "hall v.;c IWCOHH' 1\0\\' withouI the ht\rbarian~~

Those p('opk wert' ,\ solution, wen'n'l they?
-c. Caval\', "\V,tlling- for dH' B,u-harialls"

rhe bs\ <.kcades or the t\\"clItlcth (Ttltnry were marked lw a dra-

matic challge led hv the developmellt of glob<liiJ:atioll, the ell-
h(1)cclllcnl or tr,1I1sllalioIlai flov. . s, and the clId of hipolarity. Tht·
cOllstrllctiol\ of th(' Europe,lIl Unioll, the clIlergellce of Ilt'\Y cco-
nom it- a~r\'l.'m('I)\s s\\('h ,-\S l'\:\FTA, the dt'lt'rrilorialil.alion of mar-
kt'I..." phy<.;ical border.." and idclltities, the increase of lIligration
nows, the cOllstructioll of the Schcngt'JI area,1 and till' fragmellta-
lion Clr majm statn (t'.g., the Soyit'1 [lniol1 and Yugoslavia) have
raised q,w"tion.., it!>out manv old as:-;.nmptions, including those
made ;dJOut \Veslpilalian sl(ll(' sO\'crt'ignty and idclltity. Thesc pile-
1l0IlH'Il<\ significalltly al-feclcd tile forllls and the IIlcallillgs of" hor-

der .. , individual and cotlcctin' idellliti(· . . , and lilt' s('lIse alld n<llllr('
or SI a\(' SO\C1TiglllY and <llt!h()ril~. III 'hc Ille,llItillH', these (,hang'cs
h,lH' Icca..,1 the dOJllcstic order, challenged traditional strnCllll"eS,
tllOdified social arLltlgcIlH'IlI.. . , transfOrIl1cd the forcc<.; or integra-
tion atld haglllt'tll<-Iliolt. and accckr:ued the dynalllics or inclusioll
,HId exclusion. In ("onseqlH'Il('{', \Y('sterll societies ,UT witnessing
Ill(' cllwrg-(,IHt' oJ Inan\' ('xi.'itt'ntial and cOIlt"cpltlal LlIlXit'lies and
fears ;\h()ut Iltcil idt'lItit" securily, and well-heing. A.s ~LlIlill
llcisicr as .. crts,:'! Iltigl<ltioll is at lht' focal point of thc intcrrelated
dYllamics o! identity, horders, and orders. By its transnational char-
,lcltT, its (hlt;unic ;uld its impact Oil pcople and institutions at all

rlH' ;llllhor~ .lI(· rt'~(,d[( hn~ ,11 lilt' {:ClIll(' d't.tlldes sur l('s (,(lnnit~, Paris. (:e\,11all
i~ .Llsc) at Ih(' Jn~tlllll d·FIIl(k.~ Pn1iliqlll'S (IEP) (1(' Paris: '1~()lILlla u',Kh,'s <It Ih(' {'IJi-
\t'] ~ilY uJ RUlH']] ,ll]d lile I 'nin'J sil\ or J'<lris X·:'\,i'l[lh·]T('.

21
22 Tile Sccllritizatioll of Migrntioll ill Wl',,/crn Societies

levels, IIIigration is peH't'ived as posing a seriolls challenge to the

long-standing paradigms of certainty and order.
One of tht' prominent featllres of ",.tesleI'n societies in the post-
hi polar era has lwen tlwrefore the productioll of a discollrst' of
fear and proliferation of danger.'i \·vith reft'rence to the 'iceuarios of
chaos, disorder, ,\I1d clash of civilizations. It is easily tlotict'ahlc in
the public sphere that the tear i. . mainly ahout the different, th('
alicll, the 1I1l(\oCllllwnt('d migrant, the refuget', the :'duslim, the
"lIon-European," the ·'llisp'lllic." These dillerent expn'ssions con-
verge OIl til(' figure ot the Illigrant, \\.'hich appears as the allchoring
point of securilari<111 po\icit's and liClTt' public debates that gailled
11101lH'lltllm ill the I~l~)(ls.
IkcllIs(' of the \videsprcad pllblici/.atioll of prevelltivc and rc-
pr('ssivt, immigratioll polici{'<;, a politics of ft'ar was generally COIl-
..,ic\t>rcd as heing dew'loped . . pecifically in the ElIropean context
,lIld nol in the l."nitcd Slates, \vhich WtlS pn:selltcd as heing more
lolerallt ,\lId opell to migratioJl. Blit the production or similar dis-
cours('s and the adop[ioll of secllril<lrian policies in the l."nited
States as \-vt'll, made it diflindt [0 argue the singularity of Europe"
Indeed, although with diflert..'llu.'s ill social and economic contexts
ClS well as in immigration and illtq"~T<llion policies, both the Fl:

coulltrics and tht, United Stales have l;et'll marked, since the
I q~Os, by a IT\Trsal or tll(> image of migrants ,Illd asvlulll seekers in
the public span'. III hoth caSt's. migrallh, who we1"e vvekollled aftel
\-\'orld \Var 11 a.., a liscfullaiJor ("0 rct' , arc llOW pn'selltcd in political
discourses as crilIlinab, troublem,Lkt'rs, ecollomic and social dc-
frauders, [elTorisl.'>, drug traffickers, ullassimilablc persolls, and so
forth. They arc delI1olli/"t'd as heillg increasingly associated with or-
gani/.ed crime" Tht'v arc ,ICTllsed of taking.ioiJs <lway from lIation-
aI...., taking advantage of social sCn'ices, and harming lile identity of
host cOllntries.
IlItroduced in public debates as a political hot-button topic,
migratioll is thus tr<ltlsformed into a threat not ollly to tile slate hut
also 10 the secllrity ,lilt! Ihe idelltity of Iht, host society. Vv'hat is ilIl-
portant to stress here is that through sllch a presentatioll, the mi-
gratioIl isslle, which \va.., not at the origin inherently st'cllritari<Lll,
lH'came Ollt' involving lInv actors and leading to stricter puhlic
policie . . and to Ill'W sllrn'illallc(' and control (it-vices. More spccifi-
call\', it impliell the escalatiol1 of immigratioIl-colltrol policies mix-
illg restricted "thin" and extl'nded '"thick" policing at the hordeI'.
inside lht' territOl"V and in migrallts' cOlllltries of origill da the im-
pleml'lItation of a lOugh visa systcnl.: l The lumping together of all
people who (TOSS till' horder involved" policy of amalgamation of
lIligralll~ and asylulll seekers, and this led to the perception of
 A.'Isc Ceyhafl {:;r An(/~ta~sia Tsoukala 23

migrants as only economic-benefit seekers and to the weakening of

the le~al status of the asylum seekers. In fact, sHch <I perCl:'ption
conceals the TIlllltiplt' dynamics of coming and going, heing here
and there, ... cltling, moving, and leaving. I
"Vhy, alllong the Illan~' important social issues in puhlic dis~
cours('s, is immigration placed at the first rank of social problems
to he dealt \vith? "Vhy is it automatically associalPd with unemploy-
mellt, poverty, crime. sociall'xciusio)l, discrimination, and racism?
Why dol'S this issllt' llot disappear frolll tht' political debate hut-as
has occurred strikingly in France-keep OIl attracting the public at-
tcntioll( (In FralltT, sinc(' 19H2 immigratioll legislation has heen
amended fiftct'1I tillles lip to now.) \lVhy in hoth tht' EU countries
and the ellited Stales dol'," tht' dell1ollizatioJl of immigration lead
to tile tightcniJl~ 01 ('xlerlltll horder controls despitt' discourses of
glohali/.ation and open markets? Sevcral free-trade regimes (e.g.,
tile vVorld Trade Organization) include provisions on tht' free cir-
clllation of scrvict, workers as parI of the liberalization of inter-
natioll:tilLldc <lilt! invt','itlIwJl1. \\,1ily is the existellce of these provi-
sions little kllmvll ('\'t.'Jj among experts Oil ecollomic globalizatioll
:lIId illll}]igr;ltioll~
,\ccording In MlllTay Edellllan, it is possible to assert that a so-
cial prohlem is not <I H'I'itlahle entity hut <I construction depending
Oil dillclTllt intt'ITsts, and that its explanation Illust be considered

ill tertlls o! a process of social construction rather than forming Cl

'iet of I cflllahl(' proposals. For Eddman, social problems art' cre-
ated ".,:ith tilt' precise illtt~llti()1l to cOllvince public opinioll to ac-
cep' spccifit' l'<ltiOIl<llil.aliolls.:-' Since the 19HOs, migration has be-
cOllle tht' cat,tiyst supposed to be ahle to sllrIlmari/,e most of tht'
('lIITCIlI social prohklll.<;' of \iVestern societies. Bya sidestepping of
I hc IlOIlS('Cllritarian insighh of ecollomic, sOl"ial, and cultural <l1l<lly-
.. t's, immigration is !lO\\' apprehelld(,d under the Ilcarly cxclusive
;lllgk or 'w(,lIritarian and idcntitariall prt'occllpations.
The s("'("Itriti/alioll of mi~rati()ll is processed through symholic
politics and illlplie ... tlw trallsfi)rJnalioll of the logic of control and tht'
surveillallC(' oi" pcopit- eIltering and living inside the territory" More-
()ver, it involves 11('\V disnlrsin' "tI"atcgies and semantic creations.

Securitization Through Ambivalent Arguments

TIlt" scctlriril"<ltioll or migration involves a symbolic process and

tht' deployJIH-'ltt of a corpus or rhetorical arguments. It is interest-
illg to lIoticc that tlie rhetorical <trglllllt'nts put ror\',ranf in almost all
dtlti-illltnigratioll discoltrses arc mon' Ilr less similar. \vith variolts
24 Tht' ScclIritizlltioll (~fMigrati[l1l in Wf'sll'rn Sot'it'tic:;

strategies or argullIentatlon according to different contexts and

public policies. Often produced by politicians, security a~encies,
alld the media, tht's(' arguTTlents arc lIsually articulated around
fOIll" maill aXt's:

I. a socioecollomic axis, where migration is associated \-vith un-

employmcllt, tile riM' or informal t'COllomy, the crisis of the
\velfare statt', and urhan t'n\'iroIlIIlt'lIt deterioration
:!. a sccllritarian axis, where migration is linked to tht" loss of a
control narrati\"{' that ass()ci;ttes the isslles of so\'ereignt\',
horders, and both illternal and external s(,cllrity
:~. all idt'lltitari,1I1 (lxis, v"I\(,I"(, migrants arc cOllsidt"'H'd as heillg
a thn"l! 10 the host sociClit's' national idelltity and dClllo-
gr,tphic equilihrilllJl
.-1. a political axis, where allti-immigrant, racist, and xcnoph()~
hic di",coul"st's arc oftt~n cxpected to facilitate tilt' ohtaining
o/" political ht'llt'fi1."

Each of t1H'.'W axes is marked bv amhivalence.

SOllle discourses put forward the thn'<tt that illegal 11llllllgra~
l"iOIl might conslitulc for 'he c("()lJomy of the developed counlries,
and they point out its ncgative impact on l'mploYIllt'1l1 oppo!"tllni-
tit~S and wagcs for nationals as \vell as Oil the welfare system "lIlfi t'rI-
Ilealioll. ThC}.' as.'wciarc illega1 immigration 'with incrc.:!.~(' in IlneIH-
ployJllt'nt and thl' intcnsificatioll o/" thc exclusion o/" many social
gTollpS. l'vlorcovcr, tiH's(" disconrses closely link migrants with in-
formal lalw!". MUI th(' supporter. . of rhese (heses ovcr/ook IlIe l~tct
lli,\t tile inllux o/"sllch a cheap and casilv exploitable laboT" /"orce ,d-
lows tht· achit'vt'IIlellt of certain shorH('l"m economic goals, sllch as
reduction of production ("()sl~, increase or exports, ,lIld thc cC()-
1l0011ic 'iul"vivai or e\"l'1l Iht" d('\"t~l()plllt'nt of lllallY finns.
I"hi ... complex t'cOllolllic flltlctioll of migratiol\ set'lTls to havl'
hct'll oftt'n taken into cOllsidl'lalio(J fly politicialls-as is clead~
sllgges\('(l, to giyc Ollt' exampk, by c!lol"ts to reprcss immigratioll:
tht' reprt'ssioJl 01 illt'gal IJligrallls doe . . not . dways 111<11("11 what is cx-
pccted of the t'mploycr ... who USt' till' migrallts, eYen if the eJllploy-
er..., are ,'lOIIlCliIllC'l ;11 lilt' origin of Ihl' illegal IralTiekillg. And ill
gt'IH'I"aL the n'pressioll of thc in!"orlllal bhol" SOIlIT(' is yt't quitt,
weak in most \Vt'Slcrn coulItri('s.
Finally, til(' socIo('collomic argUJlH'nts aho do not <lckumv!cdgc
the illlporl<llll role thal legal migrallts can plav in Ihe safeguarding
of ("uITeul welfare lInd s()cial-s(,cllrit~ S)'\;tt'IllS thrcatened hv tht'
ageing of \-Vc ... tt'rn populations.
 A,lIse Ceyhan ["1' Anastass/{/ T.'>oukala 25

On the ~ecuritarian axis, the oemonization of immigration re-

lit's on the fear of a loss of sovereignty, the ft-ar of crime, and the
fear of tht' weakening of hordt'r controls. These fears pro"ide a
powt'l"fulnarrative and, as Peter Anflreas reminds liS,

tilt' <;tl,(,,<;~ Oil loss of cOlltrol Uncit'fst<ltes the degn't' to which lilt'
state has <lClu;tIl~' slrtlclured, conditioned, and evell enabled
(often unintentiollally) ctuHiestitll, bord('r crossing-s, ,1Ild ov('r-
SI<ltcs the degree to whi( h the SLUt' has been able to control its
borders ill Iht' pas!.l;

To resettle tht, sYlIlholic representation of state authority in today's

cont(,xt of glohali/,lIiOIl and detf'tTitoriali/atioll, authorities rt'-
dundanclv utilize the \vord horr/rr in their discourses; ill fact, hordrr
continut's to he the pivotal ttTIIl of s('cllritarian discourses_ As Mal-
coIm .\Ildcr"on explains_ hord(,rs have highly powcrful symholic
pOV.,Tr: as institutiolls, they d('Jine a 1c~~d under .. tanding of tht' sov-
t'rei~n statt': and as processes, tlley an' Illarkers of identity, invested
". .rill! nl~,thic 'lignificancc ill huilding nations <lnd political identi-
ties'! (kne(' the dis(tll',..,ivc foclIS of SC( lIritarian discourses 011 hor-
deI" and thc l'slahlishlllt'nt of a contilluulIl of threats thal do ...,cly
link ill('gal illlllligLltiotl with Cl broad rallge of crilllinal phcnom-
('na, frOllt pe[t~ n-llIH' and urban violcnce to orgalliLcd (Timc,
IIIOIH" laulldering, financial crilllt'. drug [Iallicking, and funda-
IIH'Jltalisl ll'rr()rislll,~
Thc "nilllill,iI tlligl;lIlt" tlH'sis, ".,hieh relit's primarily on statis-
tical <bta and c()1ll1l1(JIISCllsic,t1 argumt'l1t .. , is frcqlwlltly supported
h, politicialls and police officers <IS w('ll as hv the lllcdia, creating
<I "security . . l!ol'!-t'ilcuit" that prescllls illlllli~ratiol1 <IS b('ing svn-

ollymou'i \vitll ill,'.;('clIritv,'l Migrant.... ar(' therehy transformed il1to ,I

highh' threatcning Jigllre to tilt' internal sccurity of all host COIIIl-
tries. to Oll(, of thc Jll~lj()r aq~ulll(,llts put fonvanl hy tite supporter.,
Ill" tht, "crilllillal migrant'- th('sis is tlte high criminal-involvemcnt
ralt' of migl-,lllls and their o"crreprest'lltatioll in European and lJS
prisolls throughout tilt' 1~1~lOs_ But V'it' should lIote here that, 'wt'k-
ing to l, ...,t;lhlish ;t link h('tween illlllligTatioll and crimc by rcl~'illg
('XClllsin'h' Oil polict' and/or prison statistics, Illany lIIcthodological
problellls, ctmdllcin' to {,TTor, arise,
~OIC fir.";I Ihal ;tllV cOlllparisoll of tht' crilllinal involvement or
migranls with that or llation;lis i.'i hy defillitioll problematic because
lIot onlv arc lltigr<llllS uSllally nHlllg, male, 1I11lllalTied, (lnd POOI"-
C<le It o( ,,-h it" h \-;n-iahlc i~ itself Cl cri mill ogen ic factoJ"-hll t also t he~,
dn' oftclI discrimitlaled ag~tillst h~ tIlt' crilllillal.illstic(' svst('TII of
26 nU' SCCllriliZlltion of Migrafion ill Westcrn So(icti('~

tlwir country of rf'sidenn".ll Then we must always hear in mind

that police and prison statistics reflect police and judicial activities
olllv for a givt'll period and that police statistics' d(,"ll exclusively
with oflicialJ)' rccordcd crilJlinality, l~ Migrallts t('lld rhus (I) be o\'('r-
represcnted Iwc<luSC whcll tiley art' iIlvolved in criminal a\livity it is
u-;u,dly crime of a hig'hly visible kind.l~\ Mort:'o\'er, they are subject
to ~trong repression, espt~('ially when they arc illvolved ill drug of-
fell'i('s",j Rut mallv of thcllI arc in ran charged only with immigra-
lioll offcn.'iPs that n'prt'scllt 110 rl'al thrC,!l to interJJal st'Cllrit~,.,:,
j\ijorc()\'cr. sill(T the crimcs that tlligr,l11ts ,UT lISll,llly illH)I\'cd in arc
cliaraCl(Ti/,ul 1)\' a rather low elucidation ratt', it is plausible to
!WPpo.'iC that their· (Time-involvc1llcnt rate may /)(' in Etet ITIlIch
lll\\'('r Ihall the onc prcsented by police data.
Concerning th(' ()YCnql1TSclltalioll or migrants ill prison, \ve
should I10tice thaC becallse (lf sC\Tl'al Llnor-; rciated to tht, func-
tioning of' the Europeall and lIS,judicial systems. this pht'llOlllelloll
does not lle('(~ssarily reyeal a propensity or lIligrant~ to crime, First,
as llIallY scholars have pointed (llll, European courts st-IdorIl im-
pose Oil migrants sentences alternative to detelltion. rh is is hc~
cause llIigrant-; do not IlIcet the usually required legal conditioll'i
for these sentellces,ll; The ahscllce of these legal conditions call
,dso explain the high incidellce of migrants among pretrial de-
tainees and their low representation among prisoncrs released on
parok. COllSCfPH'lltly, not only do crimes committed lw llJost of tite
migrants iIlVoh(', ill thcory, prisoll sentellces, hut migrants arc
placed ill cltstod~' Illore Ont'n th;m nati\'(~-h()rll natioll,lIs charged
wilh equivalent crilllt's, alld they remain in prison for longer peri-
ods. FlIrtlItTIllOI'C, \VC should specdy that thi-; imprisonment rate is
increased ill ;Hl arlirjci~ll wa\! dill" to the d('tCllliol) of 1llall\' Illi-
gLllll..., awaiting explllsion.
La-;tly, lht' o\'crn'prcsentation of foreigners in prison call1lot 1)('
dis.'wcialed front I~J(' <jualit\, of tlwir dd(.>nsc during' Irial. SUr\'('Y"
cOJldlldcd in ll<ll~ in Ilw early 1990s ITH'akd that lawyers did Hot
dcklld foreigllcrs COJT(,Cllv during trial-;,17 and in Crt'{'ct' 1<I\\'1't'r';,
have dellollllced fhal {()rt'iglltTs havc 1Jt)/ ahvavs 1)t't'1l assisted h!
all inlerpn'lt'1" dllring the;l· Irial. 1fl In tit(' llniled St<tte~, it is gcncr-
;dly admitted that, (,speciallv ill drug-law en fo rn:' 1T1('I1 1. official de-
ClSIOJlS arc influellc('d hy Ihc oefcnder\ 1';:1('('; ill LICl. SOIllt' scholars
,lrgllc that institutiollal racism r(,mains a reality ill till' US cl"illlill<ll
justice sVSH'm in gelltTa1. 1'l Thc bllt'r LWlor is (ol1sidcred to 1)(' olle
of tht' main reasolls f'or the ovcrrcprnt'tlration of foreigners and
seconci-gelleLlIio1l migrants ill US prison'i.
\-·Ve 11O\V 111rll to org'lI1il.cd crime. :\ IH'n's~arv reminder is that
it has lI('w'r hCC1l provcd that tl1('IT is a particular link IH'twt'(,1I
 A!/~C CCylllll1 ti Anastassill TS()l1kalll 27

immigration and organized crime. Oil the contrary, Illany scholars

have concluded that migrants art' hardly or Il('ver involved in or-
g<ll1il:cd crillle activiti('s.~w Bllt despite thest' conclusions, official rc-
ports and puhlications of various security agencies,21 and several
judge .. ." "agrc(' to ('ollsider immigration as a fact involving hence-
forth illegal migT<lllts and drug traffIcking, under the Mafia's con-
trol.":!'! According to Salvatort' Palidda, this thesis, which is strongly
accepted Iw European anthorities, reproduces in bet the pattern fol-
lowed, li'OIll the early I qHOs, by the US intelligcnct' services with re-
gard to threats coming frolll the cOlltltrie'> of the South, and i1l par-
ticular to the threat coming frolll Latin American drug traffIckers.:.!'1
Indeed, in the lIuited Stat(,s this policy led to the llIilitarizatioll of
tll<' Llliled St,\tcs-I'vkxico border and 10 the rise of tlw "Amcricall
crilllei'are ,"'(;Ile." Sillce the beginning of the so-called \-Var on Drugs
ill 1~H-H), the southtTTl border has bccn tJ'<lIlsfonned into a military-
"tdc flo]]t oil \vliieh ;Ire deployed tht' lIS Anuy, the US Border Pa-
tro] and lIS CustolllS. tht' Drug Enforcement Agellcy, the FHI, [lie
\lational ClI<lnL and otiJer security agellcics. III COIlSCf)IH'IlC(" as
Peter ,\Ildrc;ts rc'lIIillds liS, the '>pendillg Oil federal Lnv {,llforct'nH'nt
ll('arh' douhled \Wt\\Cl'll l~)ql ;md Iq~Hi, awl it cOl1tinw's to grow at
.\ rapid pact'. I1 i~ ;ilSd ilHen'stillg to tlotice that inf1att'd rhetoric gen-
eratt's arglllllt'!IIS in Lt\'or ()f budget increases; for instance, the US
Jllstic{' Ikp,lI·tllH'II(S hudget illcf('a'>cd cOllsiderably (frolll $5t9 hil-
lion to U.7 hillion) lH't\\,tTII FY1QHb ,lIld IY9:), making it the EIStt'st-
gTm\ illg liS cahinet cit-partlllcnt:'.! I the question of courst' arist's as to
ho\\" ullder .';,nrh ;\ t rilIllnaliJ.<tIIOIl process, c;lI1 one figure out tilt'
lillt' !ill(' IWI\\'(,{,1l illcg~d migrants alld drug traffickers. It should be
"tresscd that tht' 1l10]'C the ;Illlhoritics hardell their altitude toward
Illi?;rants, fo( usillg oil a discourse rt'Llled to human trade, the more
they pnt fo]"\vard ;1 discllrsiH' link hel\vef'1l migr<lllts and organiJ:ed
(TillH', III Europe, the fight against this form of organi/,eci crillle,
\vhich is <lctually placed lInder the llI'dndate of tilt' EUl'opol Drugs
Unil,~r) \vas ('\'en llsed as ajllstific<ltio]) for the participatio]) of Italy
111 111(' KosO\'() war: l)'Aletlla, the former Italian prilIle minister,
~tatt'd that the W,ll" ill tlit' Ba]k~lJl'> W,ts tll'Ct~ssar~ in orot:'l" to prnTnt
II<dy fr()Ill heing' invaded by refugee'> ,-UHt illegal migrallts.~(i
Thes(' LICIOl's, \\hich arc ortell llnknown or silllply cOllcealed,
(H'(> not takell into cOllsidl'ration by politicians, s('curilY agents, Of

Ih(' llH'dia-<llId llol ('H'II hy SOl1lC scholars. The latter either cOlltl'nt
tht"IIlSt'h'('S with reproducing tht' seclIril,lrian "criminalllligrant" the-
sis hy llIohilizing to this t'nd all availahle data or Ihey seck to explain
lilt' "prohlclll" b~' It'ilTt'IICillg cultlll'a]i", thcOl'it, ..... :!, Thes(' Iheorit,s,
which iIllP"\(' till' "Pl'oJlt'lIsit\", of lllig-I<tnls to crill\(> to cultural fe<t-
IIII"('S, hav(' fOCIISI'c1 Oil th(' hckt\'ior 01 s('("olld-geJlcl'ation migrallts.
28 Tile SccuritizlltioH of Migratiol/ in Western Societies

} lowf'vef, as early as 19;:)8 Thorsten Sellin was explaining that the

high crimc-iTlvo\vf'ment fatt' of migrants was primarily dut' to their
sociocu>1lomic position, which, determined by precarious and !O\,,/-
paidjohs, rcslilted in broken homes alld inadequate f'ducatioll and
leisure opporlunities.~K
Onc of the striking- consequeIlces of the criminalization of mi-
gratioll is th(' progn'ssiv(' \veakening of aIlV distinnion ht-'lwecn mi-
granL. . and <l"yiul11 seekers. This h,IS dramatically reduced lhe num-
her ofa"yilllll s('ekers granted l"t'fllgn' status. Becollling the slll~iects
ClI <111 increasing suspicioll, asylum seekers are henceforth divided
into the "gcl1l1ini'," who '\-vish 10 avoid perseclltion in the;,- ('oll11lr),
of origill, and the "Cllse," \\"110 art' said to emigrate for ecollomic
reasons. III gelwral, th(' :tlltiloriti<-'s cOllsider that IJlOst asylum seek-
er:.; arc "/;t/sc. ":}') Fllrthcrlllorc, Ihe crimillali;:(triol! (If illq.!;aJ immi-
gratioll iltlS lransflnmed ulldoClllllClltcd migrants intl) "deviants"
who lllust he put under control. In consequt'tlce, allllligrallts (doc-
IlIlH.'Tllt'd alld undocumented) arc scell as slIspecl persolls whose
hehavior is to he controllcd. Bllt as identity checks rely more and
morc heavilv on the }J1l~'si("al appearancc or persons, this seclIritar-
ian policy, \. ..'hidl i" presented as esselltial to the tight against illegal
immigralion, dramatictlly jeopardizes the civil rights or all mi-
gr,-!II1s awl, more gCll('raJl~', all (·ilizt-'n.." alld mcmbers of the SO{'JCIV
it is supposed to pro\t'ct.
On tht' idcJllilarian IcH.'L we notiet' that there is an increasing
rocus Oil \vh,1I is callf'd ·'socictal" Llctors sHch a~ culture and idell-
tit\'. In s('cllritarian discourses, CUltllrt'. migratioIl, and idt'ntity are
linked onc 10 another by the perceptioll of tht' migrant as a "cul~
[lIral other" who CO\llt·~ into \-V('stcrn coulltries and dislllrhs tht'ir
cultllral idt·ntity.:w There is a s(-'cllrit;.uiall focalizatioll Oil groups
who CJ"OS:-, tilt' horder or who are alread\' inside and to \vholll onc
attributes dillcl"(,1l1 cllhllral idclltities: this fonls can b(' st'cn llOl
only wlH'11 qIH'stio!l:-' arist, rclaled to crillle, illciyilitit's, and ilew
for illS of vioicnce', IHI! al:<;() \-"i/i('1! qucstion" a/"(' (Toked ("ol!u'l"l!ing-
qllality 0\ edllcatioll, pr(,~{,l"\"alioll or tile national langllagt', way or
life. {tlld falllily. The rhetoric of rear relet's to the "clash or civiliza-
tioll<' th('si~, 10 till' llo11(lssimil,lhilitv 01" migrants origill'lting frolll
the "South," tiw iJl("()lllpalihilil~ o! '\-\.'av" of life. thn'<lb to Cllitur,ti
and ethnic ideJuity, ,uld los..., or dt'lllographic cqlliIihrilllll.:1!
(hH' of the focal poillts of the s(,("lIrittlrian discollrscs is IIllllti-
culturalislll. Thi . . qucstion, which appeared at firsl as;1 philosophi-
cal inquiry OIl Ihe pL!c(' ;md the statlls or ntilllral dillcn'lH"(.'~ ill lih-
el"al societies, lIas hn'll }wnTivcd ,IS a claim or . . eparatis11l and
transformed into a politictli prohklll. \-\'c call list llUIIH'J"Oi\S cast:s:
Ill(> Rw.;hdi(' afbir; (/w lsl;lIl1ic ,..,carl" issue; Ill(' (;aJifol"nian </('/);111'
 Aysc C'yhan t:.- Anastassill Tsoukala 29

on bilingualism; the question of the "national language" in France;

"political correctness"; affirmative action: the claims of certain na-
tional minorities for independenct'.:I;! One attributed to all this a
status of ,,,,ecllrittlrian preoccupalion. It has bet'n presented as
"destabililing" and "disuniting" the society, and a~ a "threat of
halkanization. ":\'I
After tilt' puhlication of Samut'i IllllltingtoIl's Clu,\/t (~l Civiliza-
tioNS ill 19q~~, migranls frOlIl nOll-Europeall coulltrics or even those
ofJloJl-El' origin round themselves heing presented as different and
nonadaptahle, The fear or mlllticulturalism has heen linked to the
argullwlll of ,l lack of assimilation of migrants to the sof'iety: lIis-
pallics in tht, United Slates, l'\orth Africans in France. Turks in Cef-
many, and Afro-( :arihhcans in Britain have heell accllst'd of heing
lInwillillg to integrate with the host society hy maintaining their own
languages. avoiding mixt'd Illarriag-l"s. kccping- close links with thl"
hOlllc COllllln, and staYIllg away froIll tilt' indigenous people. Such
prt'SllppositiollS transrorm the prohlt'llI of integration into a cllhllral
isslle. Follmvillg this perception. migTants arc casl Wilh cuhural cha1'-
,lcteristics atlribll1t'd to thellI through csst'lltl,tiist and tixist cultural
COllstrtlClIOIlS ha'ied Oil religion, traditioTls, lifestylcs. and so 011. It is
import alii to stn'ss here til,lt highlightillg· cultural differellces posi-
tioll.'" Ill(' lIIigrant as Ill(> "cultural other" and shapes the lIligrant's I't'-
lation to till' ..,oeil,t\ ill a c()nflictual way. Hc or slw is se(,1I as dis-
turhing ,\ nt1turallv harmonious socicl\' hy olilcT'lless and presence.
These disc01IP;CS underestimate or ignore lile fact that all host
'iocielics arc lill' r'('stdt of Illultiple migratioll and cros~hreeding
pnlC('",SC'i ,1Ilci Ihat tilt' host cllltllrt' is dccply infhl{'Ilccd, {'ven
somctimt's ciet(,rTniTlcd. hy migrant cultures. They Ilcglt-'ct the im-
pact or immigratioll Oil the dClllogr,tpily or the host countrit-'s. But
\vith tile publicatioll ill ~ooo of Iht' llllitcd Nations reporl on the
declining alld ageing p()pulation in Western societics,:I.l this impact
has started to be takcn into cOIlsidcf<ttioll. To f~lce tht' ovcrall age-
ing of till' populatioll. its ~hrinkillg, and the labot' shortage that
~vill rt'sult frolll it, tht' llnitcd Natiolls suggests a "repiacemt'llt im-
migratioll" for Ellrope and the l!llited States. According to the
('oncillsiolls of the study, hy 2050 European countries willllef'd S{'\'-
eral 1IIi1liollS of ~!oullg migrallts to ket'p the populatioll frol11 de-
creasing. ""hat is intt'ITsling to stress here i ... that this report has
led to different political inlerpretations: whilt' (~t'rmany, Britain,
"nd tht' llnitcd Stall'S secm ,"villing to rt'('xaminc tileir "zero immi-
gratioll" policies, Fr,UI(T still secllls n·luctanl to discuss puhliclY the
"replacclllent imndgratioll ,. solution.
Oil Ihe political (lXI.'i, wc can notice that almost all politici<-tns
positioll lilemscl\e:-. in terllls 01' tht' delllonizatioll of migratioJl,
30 Tile Sewritizalion of Migraliol1 in WCc'tafl Socicties

which appears Lo lhem as a political gambit for llH'ir positioning

games in the field of security for electoral purposes. Such a strategy
has bccomc a politicalnccessily and ha . . led to the making of sOJlle
strange bedfello\vs. For instanCt~, in the L1llited States, at the be-
ginlling of the 1990s !lot only Republica!ls but also Democrats en-
dorsed allti-illlllligrtltioll discourses. \Ve thus saw a politician like
(:alifornia sella tor Dianllc Fcinstt'in, who in tlU' IYROs actively sup-
ported the illlmigration and asvlulll cause, passionately sharing the
allti-immigration rhetoric developed during the 1~)94 campaign h)r
the adoption ofCaiifornia's Proposition IX7.:F) And President (:lill-
(Oil joint'd the mainstream disclI . . sion when he stated in the Slllll-

UHT of I ~l9g, "\Ve IIIllst not-wt' will llot-sllrrender ollr honier..., to

those \vho wish to exploit our history of compassioll and justice"-

and Iw sellt 10 (:ollgress a $17'2..:-) millioll proposal tu o.;trcngthcIl
lli(' US Border Patrol alld crack down 011 visa fraud and false asv-
111111 claim ...,. III Eur()pe, the r~lcist ~IJld xenophohic discollrses de-
veloped by exlrellw righHving partico.; has scrved as a support for
electoral games sincc the policic ..., of the other parties rc\'oln'd
;trOllllct thoe discourses either by idelltification or lw oppositioll.
Thus the primary reaSOll behind the French Socialist governlllenI's
reluct,mce to proceed ill the M~COIHI hall' of Ihe 1~)9()s with the Ic-
galiDltiOIl or around 1.')0,000 IIlHloClIllle!lted migrants \\-'as its rear
of losing that part of its electoral hasis Ihat was sellsitive to ex-
IIT!lIc-righL xellophobic discourse.
BIll hy tile end of the I~l~l()s, especially ill tht' llnited Slates,
politicians recognized that illlllligrants' votes \vere pivotal in some
I-aces. \Ve noticcd (luring the ~OOO presidential f'leClion, for in-
stancc, that immigratioll, \. . hich was ollce a hot-billion topic, be-
came a llIuted qUt'stioll. Several rea . . Olls may explain this: the back-
lash created hv Propositioll 1H7, the mass natur,di/ation of Latinos
(Illall\, rllshed 10 H)tt' and thousallds of new citiL.cIls \V{'rt' ready 10
\'ote), alld the healLliiness of the ecoIlolllY. Recogni/.ing- that mi-
grant votes might 1)(' tile determinant ill SOIlH' race", politicialls
ahalldollcd tht' scapegoating of Illigrants as the C,t1iSC or eHTV
prohkm of society,
Vlorcovcr, tlie s('ctlriti/atioll ot immigration implies a dramatic
dlaJlge ill tile cOlltrol methods, Ilt'IHTfortli, these controls llot
only target Iho..,c cJltering the COllllt!'\' hilt also 1l10M: \vho have al-
Il"ad\' legally settled ill it.

The Adoption of New Control Mechanisms

\Vith the adoptioll or the securitariall discollrsc, immigratioll leg-

i,datioll ill S(,\TI,d Europeall cOllntril's ullderwcII1 ;1 ",clll<lntic shirt
 Ayst' C('yhall & Al1asfassia TSOllkal1l 31

III enunciation, France, for instance, \vhen legislating migration

nows, replan"'d the term Tf'/.,"ulalioYl with (rml1"o/, This resulted in the
adoplion of a system in which thrt'e types of control coexist: exter-
nal controls (hefore the borders and at the borders), intt"rnal con-
trois (illside the territory), and societal controls (control of Ihe
ways of life),
External conlrols are aimed to mttT "desirable" and "undesir-
able" migrants, either before tilf'ir arri\';.d in \\lestcrn socit'ties or at
Ilational honler IOIH'S, In tht' first case, the [lew type of controi-
kno\vlI as "r(,lllote " iIIlmigT<ltion control-is implemcnted far be-
yond the national horders ill the territory of emigrant countries.
This cOlltrol comprises a highly selective=' visa-granting syst.em, sllr-
veillan et' of pc It t'n tial emigran ts, penalties for transporters of i IIt'ga I
migrants, tht' rcinft)lTt'III('nt of cooperation \\'ilh third countries,
and the creation of Jatah,\st's. The latter result from transitional
European polic(, cooperation by El: coulltries or lhc investigations
of lIS St'CI1I ity agt'IH'jcs in cOlllltrit,s dt't'lIIcd "dangerous."
III ceruin cast's. sllch proactiw' control Inay ('vcn lead to direct
interventioIl in the intt'rJul affairs of a hordering country that is
considercd ullable to cOlltrol its borders eHicit'ntly'. For instancc,
Iht, dcYclopnJ('nl (If cooper;! t iOIl lH't v.,'('(' 11 Italv a nd AI hania iIll pi ied
,l perlllant'nt dcploYlllcnt of hundreds of lfalian polin' officcrs ill
Alh,lllia ,tnd !Il(' u'\c or It~t1iall palrol hoa'" along tilt' Albanian
CO<l .... I.:lll Tht' rt'infolt'<'lIIcllt of sllch proacti\'{' controlled to tht' in-

It'Jlsifit';uioll of police,force training, thc police coming from

future ll1('llIl)('rs of dlc ElIlopcan l!lIion. This kind of II"ailling he-
t alllc lht' object of an illtt'rn<ltioJl<lI-rt'latioll."i lIIaller: it led indi-

!"t,etly to llie cl"(',ltion ;lIlci/ol' extcllsioll of important lont's of

gcopolitical influt'nce in Ellrope.:!'; The l.inited Stales recoglliJ:cd
(ht, illlporLlllct' or this ""itakc in vt'ry t'ady days: the FBI created <l
police acadelllv ill Hllciapt'."i1 in l~)~}:). The FU's European Policc
\ca<lelllv wa~ crnlled ollly in Jallu;}!"\, 200 I .:IK
AI their hordcrs. hoth Europcan ,md US authorities have
.'-IrcllgliIcIlcd horder controls hy deploying lIot only law-cllforct'-
llJ('nl ag'cll<'it,s hilt also military force ... and 11('\\' lechnolo~y. Tht' in-
('rca~t'd use of the military is t'specially true at the US iJorder with
Mexico: ill ill(' last tell years, tht' llnil('d States has Illore than dOIl-
bled tilt' hudget and tht, manpower of the I;\iS in an effort to cOlltrol
ils southern horder. In Europe, the pn'valcllce of the ~(,cllritarian
appro<tcil-yvhich illlpli('s a silllultaJlCOlIS di."'Ill<lntiing of internal
horder controls alld reillforcclllcnt of thost' at tile t'xternal hor-
ders-has O(tCIl Iwell associalt'd \Vllb tlw proccss of EllrOpC;tlli/a-
tlOIl.: 1q rllis explanafion hO\,,.'{'HT n'Jnains limited insoLlr ;is, for in-
slance, rht' illllltigratioll-collll'ol policies impicllH'llteti ill tile llnitc'd
Statl's St,(,1ll 1011,1\(, IW(,1l (,Lthorated according to PITOCCllpatiolls
32 Tile Sf'curitizatioll ofMigralioll in Wl'~tcm S(lcictit'~

similar to thosf' ohserved ill Europe, and the controlling mecha-

llisllls show rcsernblanc('s. The lllain argument put forward to jus-
tify this Ill'W svsf('m in the Ell cOlllltrit,s refers to the European
c()llstruction proce.'i.'i and to the "seclIrity deficit" that the free
lllOVt'IlH'llt of Iwople inside tilt-' unioll Illay pn)\'okc, vdwreas in
the l;llited States, lwhind the rlH'toric of maintaining the s()\'(>r-
cignty of thc state and protecting tIlt' horders, the argument
hrollght I"onv,ud is the fear of a slow hut stt';uly Hispallicization of
the socit,tv.
(:oncerning" the horders, wc should noticc that, if in the
('nited States traditional state borders arc still maintained, in the
1'.11J"olH'dn linion the internal horders of the sigllatory countries of
the SdH'llgen AgreelIlents have been replaced hv the concept of the
"honk!" /.olle.'· This modificatioll h<ls proou(Td a triple shift of
the honkr cOIltH)ls insidc the EurOpe;trl L:llioll: a spatial shift,
since these COil trois ,In' now cIlTied at randoIll hv mobile polict'
forces in a 'i()-klll horder I_Olle: a tl'IIl{)()ral shift, sincc tht'Y do not
takl' place anymol"{' in a Cle,lriV specified time schedule; alld an in-
stitlltional shil"l, sin("t' they arc implcIIH'lltt'd not olllv hy puhlic se-
curity agencies bllt also bv privatc OIlt'S. This . . plit of hordef COIJ-
trois has then implicd the multiplicatioll or idelltity checks inside
tile terriwrv of lilt' European host countries. The telldency is now
to impose cOlltrols all over the rcic\'(lllt points of the territory and
IlOt to concentrate thcm specifically on the bon-ier. 111 conse-
quellce, these checks are potentially applicable to both foreigners
and nationals. To cater to puhlic opinioll, thcv are legitimated, ac-
cording to the circlll1lstaJl("t's, as Ileet'ssar), mcasures to fight ille-
gal illlmigration, drug trafficking, terrorism, and so on.
The implemcntatiol} or horder cOlltrols ,tiS{) made it ohvious
that the execution of illlt'rnal-seclIrity policies gent'rally requin·s
increasing assi~t<lIllT froIIl lIlt' army. Ilowever, there arc two aspects
to this illcreased military participation ill the lQ9()s. Finn, greatel
liSt' of tilt' militarv is ~\ lllort' or kss foreseeable cOllseqlH'IH"t' of the
infbtt'd rhetoric ahout and pelTt'rllioll or thn'ats rciated to migra-
tioll and criminal phellolllella (organil.t'd crillH', terrorism, drug-
trafficking, urhan violence, soccer ilooliganislll, t'tc.). The threats
render the pllhlic 1TSI)()llses to tht'1ll more alld mort' st'clIritarian.
BUI this requcst fin illcn·ased "il'("uritizatio!l h~ tht' civil <llltilOritic . .
wOllld lIot lw satisfied if it did !lot coillcide \vilh <!vailahilitv of the
'Irllly~alld alttT the (:01<1 V\"',\I- armies wen' lookillg fm- ne\-\' mis-
SiOIl,'" thal \. . .'mild ('II,"'U)"(' the preservati()ll ()r tlH'ir hudgets and
mallpO\ver. In the abSCllce of ('xtcrllal enelllies. milit~lry lorc<'s
started to CO!lVCI'1 thclllst'!\,c'i into illll'l'll(ll-st'Cllrily missi()l1s ill or<i(T
to handle IIi(' Ilew threats to Fl' S(,("llril\ represented I1\', llLtilliy,
 Ayse Ceyhlln & Ana~tassia Tsoukala 33

organized crime and migrants:to This is a two-way strcet: the mili-

tary is becoming increasingly domesticated and rivilianized as it in-
corporates more policing missions; anrl civilian law enforcemeIlt is
ht'collling more internationalized and militarized as its focus
widcns J~-I.r hevond local crime controL!!
Howt'ver, it must ht' stressed that if, as a place of controL bor-
der continucs to make sellse to political authorities and security
agencies, it is less signiJicant in the t'verydav life of populations liv-
ing ill transbordt'r areas. Porous relationships affcct the cid/.t'ns of
the ncighhoring states (e.g., the Unitf'd States and Mexico; Cer-
many and Poland). Ofcourst', the symbolic power of the horder-
rt'prescllting sovereignty, marking tht' national identity, and pro-
tecting populatiolls against external threats-continues to fuel the
securitarian discourses, bit!, contrar\! to the image cO!lveyed hy of.
Ilcial discotlrses, the effectiveness of border controls remains al-
ways Im\'. f"his cOlltradiction becomes obvious \vhen \VC notin' the
divergeJ}ce hel\vet'J\ official statelIlcnts ahout the security agellcies'
Ltpaci(v to lll,lkc horders "impermeahle" and tilt' nllrnlwr of illt').~al
rnigTanls Oil Fll terrilory and ill Ihe United Slates.
This J><lradoxicd situatioll ["esults neither froJll faults ill the
bonkr cOlltrols IlO)" from tbe incolllpetellce of security agents. It
I"t'slilts frolll, ,lbo\"{' all, tl\e incoherellCl' and the ambivalence of the
WT\! dis(OIII"S(, Oil 1IH' Ilced, at all cosls, to fight illegal immigration.
Mailll~ relying Oil IIlvtlts and concealing man\! economic and polit-
ical iJlH'.'itlllt'lItS< this di'icollt"st' has kd to ind"ficient control Illca-
."tIITs-either ht'(";IlL"t' measures Wt'H' seeking to recollcile contra-
dictor~ interests or hCCllISC they could not become efficient without
.ie()panli/ing dCIIIIHT,lIic valucs, threatening libcral-economy prin-
ciples ,IIU{ illyol\·illg an exorbitant t'ColloJ1lic cOSL Moreover, the ef·
f"icicTln· of horder cOJltrols in the right against illegal immigration
i'i qllite limited; indeed, in 1110st El' countries and in the llnited
Statt'S the ('[IITellt prohlem of illegal lIligratioll is Illore subtle: the
COlT is . . llc rdates not only to illegal entry but also to visa o\'crstay.4:!
.-\Ithough it is wdl kllo\,.:n hv politicians and stTuritv agencies, the
J"t'ality hardlv appears ill the st'clIritarian di . . collrst's. \;\-'hether the)
support the bordcr-colltrol HlcaSllrt's or criticile thcnt, actors ill-
\'ok('d in thi!>. pr()cc<,;s arc relllctant 10 acknO\vlcdgt' tlu' illcJTectiH'-
Iless of the controls.
Such all ;ICkllClWkdgllH'1l1 would \)(' equivalent to calling into
question the Vt'n' capacity of tht' state to ensure one of the pril1("i~
pal functiolls of its ... ()vt'ITigntv-thc cOlltrol of its populations ill-
. . idt, it... horcier .... Such a calling into quc . . lioll \vollld Iw all the more
frightelling . . illc(' lIlt' ",oH'reignty of tht' \Vestern ("olllltries secllIs to
\1(' fIlOl (' ;lI1d lllO["C ( iJ<lllellgcd by tilt, glohalization proccss and hy
34 Till' Sccuritizlltioll of Migration ill Wl'~km Societies

thL' cOllstruction of the European t'nion and NAFTA. Each di.'S-

coltrse associating thc control of migratioll flows to the rf'illforcc-
lllcnl or border-colltrol llICaSllres rciics, lht'IL on the myth of tht'
{'xi,qcllct' of thc ,..,o\'t,t'f'ign statl' fullv <thle to control its telTitory.
Tili ... myth comforts public opinioll, \\'hich secs ill the trallsllatioll,\1
llIovement of pt"uplc ,\ threat to its safdv and identity.
The same 1Il},th 01 tile sovereign '>tate IInderlics the ,vay that the
media pn"sf'llt pojiu' explllsions of Itndocumented lIIigrants. Prc-
,'.;('IIL-Itioll (11 ('\'('1' Iliorc impressive results strcngtl](~lls the illlage 01
polic(, force'> lIghtillg' t'['jici(,IlIl~' againslth(' \V<lH'S ofillegalllligrallts .
.-\("111<111\, this illlagc-which in tllrll reiniorces the "migratory ill-
\"I.'iiOll" Ilwsis-is l'l rOll('OIlS 10 the cxtent that, ,IS ill most (',1St',..,
where police expel 1Illdo{ Htll<"lIted migrallts. the \voltld-Jw iIIlllli-
gTarlls try to cnt(T again. J'lH' samc Iwrs()n call Jw expelled lIlall~
tillles per ),C,ll', or C\'l'lI pt'!" \vcck, alld aplw;lr s('\'('I-;1I timc'i ill tlw ()I~
lictal ,..,tatistics. Ironically. although stat('s hcli('H' that through hcight-
clwd border cOlJtrols tilcy reducc illegal immigration, their efforts
lIIay ill i'act havc Iltt' revcrsc t'fit-ct, perpetuating tht' phcllomcIlon.
Horde!" cOlltrols and idcntity checks are often Illl'rged with
socioeconomic cOlltrols. 111 somc countrics tht, allthorities not on I\'
do not grallt so('ic-ti rights to llndocumented migrants, they give
only limited a('ccss to certain social hellcfits t'\"('l1 to kgalmigTanl.'i.
In SOIlle C<l'iCS it is even proposed to reduce, by thc cstahlisilrrwllt
of quotas, employmcllt opportunities for legal migrants.
VVelfan' COil trois constitute all illdi rt'ct means of (' hee king immi-
gTation status aIld identity. Sincc the 1~)HOs, first in the l:nited States
;llld latt'r ill some El' cOlill1rit,s, a hr,wd of st'cllril,H'ian logic has fo-
('used Oil wcll'an'. This ;lppro<-lch prcscnl.'i wclfare ]wnclits-sllch as
social s('Cllritv' (in El' cOlllltrics). IIlwrnployllH'llt insllrancc, f~llnjly
aIlO\v;lIlccs, food stamps, health LilT, I\'kdicaid, public h()llsing, and
sdwoling-,I:-' constituting ;1 "lllagnet'" for migrants originating ill
poor countrics. This dH't()ric;d argulIlellt came to he '>t<lted officially
ill the lq~)(i L'S welfare It'gislation as, ·'rhe availability ofpuhlic hell-
("lit-. llluSt not co]]stitute all incclltivc ror immigration to the L:nited
Slates."I:1 111 CCrTII,lll\, tile -;cCltritarian dchate j()('ll'wd on asylum
:-.('('],:,crs; 1H'ITcivl'd ,IS "ral~l'" ~lpplicallts, tltey wcre said to Jw migrat-
ing for ('COIHllllic rcasons and to \wlIcfit In)]]l the Cel'lll;tll wdfarc
SY'i!t'1ll. 11 In Francc, tile ;ISSlIlllptioll that llIan~' lIlig-ralll.'i \,vert' at-
tracted hy wcilare henefits heLlll\{' <I ]]or]Jl-a lwlier Ill;tgnified b\
tile idea that \\'dfar(' driH's pcople wilo ar(' already ilkgally '·infil-
trated·· to stay ill th(' coulltry and at tilt' eXpt'l1s{' of nationals. I:"'
It is worth Iloting herc that ill Frallc(' tile delllOlli/atioll of illl-
migration \V,IS started precist'ly hy thc political 11 .. (' 0[' this rep-
resentatioll. The FrcTlch Pasqlla I.aws of lq~n, (:aliforllia's IQQ,1
 Ayst' Ceyhllll {" Al1astassia Tsot/kala 35

Proposition IH7, alld the 1996 US welfare lav·,.' all integrated into
legislation the argument that illegal migrants wefe fref'-riders on
welbuT, adopting provisions that denied social security, unemploy-
ment insurance, f~lI11ilv allowallccs, public hOllsing, and retifement
henefits to llTldo('ulllCllted migrants ('ven if they paid taxes. Propo-
sition IH7 walltcd to go further-to refuse access to fJublic schools
for childrcn of illegal migrants; but Ihis provision was overthrmvll
by thc federal .jurisdiction. The practical consequence of this has
bce!l the crt',lIioll of a !It'w control mechanism for finding illegal
people: plan-'s slIch as henefit agellcies havE' hct'Tl transformt'd into
immigratioll-statlls ch('( kpoints. Hi
In s('\'('ral cOllnlrie . . , procedures for the regrouping of" families
and for naturali/.atio!l have heell rcstricted. For instance, in France
tile IegislatioJl OIl 1l,ltionality has heen amended in ordf'r to limit
the ,1IIlOTllatic illlplt'lIlt-'Jltatioll of tht' jus soli principle, and mixt'd
marriages haw' ht't'll sul~i('ct to cOlltrol. In Crt't'ce, mixed mar-
ri,lges ha\'t' 110 more df('(', on lile naturalization procedure. In
'iOIlH' {Olllllries (e.g., Francc), public schools are ht-'ing transformed
into cOJltrol poillts, \.... I1(,l"e parents, while registering tlu-ir childrcn,
Illay Ill' chcckt-d tor immigratioll slat liS (this is forbiddell hv Ll\v,
1)11t ill pr;lctic(' (1 happt'll.s).
Arc thest' policies .just symbolic galllcs~ 01' do they, by deter-
mining the pattern (If iJltcrac1ioIl, go flirt her? It dot's indecd seem
llial, Llr frolll beillg silllplv symbolic, these policies transform tht'
'i1ructlllTS or signil'ic(lt]()ll and h,I\'{' profoulld effects on social
inciusillll/ intt-'gl atioll proc(','ises. This can he ,.,,('en c1earlv ill horder-
control practic(',<;, ill tlH' facc-to-fact' relations betweell police offi-
cers and people submitted to idel1tit~, checks alld immigratioll-
>;tatns COil trois. Quitt' ortell, controls operatc tlcconling to criteria
()ther than those fixed hy law. These practiccs in fact rcl1ect the ,'ie-
(,lIrity ~lg{,ll('i(',,,' perception .." of \vlio is <t Illigrant and \vho is a citi-
I.ell, as 111,1\1\' scholal s havt:' poillted nut.- I , Such perccptlOlls arc not

givclls hilt <Ire socially constrllctt'd through illteractions in tile sYm-

holic ;111(( positi()ning g'~lIn('S in tilt" field of M'Cllrity.
\Ve wallt to point Ollt that these policies, insoLlr as they block,
directly alld illdircctl\', the >;ocial integration process, ,\IT likely to
pllt in d,lllger till' s(){'ial cohesioll 01' tll{' host coulltries. As a m,llIer
of bet, illtegration i'i directh jCOflal di/cd whclI the tigillt-nillg of
(ontrol IllC;lStll'('S is lIot limil<'d to t'lItrv-and-expulsioll provisiolls
hut also illcludes the hardcning ofillsi(k-thc-horcit-'r legislation (('.g.,
It'sidence and \I/ork pe rill it ..... 1;lIuily rcgrolLpillg, 1I<lturali/,(lLion, llIar-
I iaW' to ;1 Ilational. and aeee>;s 10 wdb\r(' service's). Social illtegration

is ;dso.i('opardiled. illdin'ctl\, hy St'Cllrirari;\11 discourse ilSclfsillc(' it

prodllce.... ill('\itablc .llllalgallls Iwtw('('1I kgal d.nd illegal lIIigrallts,
36 The Secllritization l:f Migration ill WcstCrII Sociclil'c;

between migrants and criminals, and between migrants aud nation-

als of different origill or color. These <lmalgarnsjuslifyor strength ell
I he discriminations that are suffered by targeted populat.ions who,
generally, arc alreadv weakelled or even marginaliled in their t'f:{)-
Ilomic and social lin's.
These securitariau dis("(Hlrses, ambivalent as they arc, arc COIl-
strncted around myths: they generate multiple side dfects alld pro-
duce llIwas(' in the host societies. But they dominate contemporary
immigratioll policies ill all \i\-'t'stern coulltries and actually art' noth-
illg hut the reflectioJl of" the propel" image of the societies that pro-
duct' theIll. Do tht,\, therefort' reflect a rcactioll that is laking place
ill these societie.'l? Is it that these societies, having hecoIIle rich ,md
powt'ri"lll at tile expclIse of poor alld dqJt'lldclIt ont's, nmv wish, ,ll
any cust, to express t heir superiority-a sLlpt'riority lktt they arc
perhaps losing or, at least, .'iharing with others~ Is this a backlash
of stalt's in respollse to dcterri1.oriali/atioll alld gloilali/atiol1? Do
Ihest' discourses reveal the reactions or socidies who, feeling that
they art' drifting toward the unkllown, arc foldt'd in upon them-
sel\'cs ,1Ild looking for a new identity that \vill be defincd, accord-
ing to the Schlllittian ...,ChCIllC, hv opposing thclIlsdvt's to all cnemy
goillg ullder tilt, nallle of immigrant or IIlhrr?
Call Wt' therefore alfi.rm that thinking ideJltity froIll samt'IH'SS
and the idea of thrcat henceforth replaces the social-contract th(,-
or\-" that uIItil IHH'-i has iWCIl constitutive of IlllH.lern politics?

Notes

.\ shorlC! versioll 01 this ,[nick appeared as "COlltn'lle dl' rilllllli~t"ation:

\1\"tllt"'.; cl rt'aJilt',s," Clllf 11 /"f'.1 & Con/h/.I ~() ,. '27 (I ~)97): ~)~ 14. The epigraph-
("rOlll a pot'l11 fir"l puhli"ht'd ill lqO-t-c;tn 1)(' found ill C C(\\"<lf\", /'on/I\'
\ /) (,\tiJt'llS: 1C.11"O'i, 1~)77).
I. The SdH'llgCtl ;Itca iLtcliH\cs fiftcell European cotllltric", of which
1WO (Not"w;n ,lilt! kcLtnd) ;In' Ilot 1I1t'miwt"s 01 thc .... uropean UlliuJJ; Oil
Iht, ollwt" hdll(L [\\"o Fll LI\('ILlIH"rs (Hrilditl <LILd IrelaILd) dJ"(' ILot 11It'ttJiWt""
01 lilt' SclH'llgi'tI ,Ire;l.
~. \"1. Ilcis\cr. "'!'\()\\' ~Htd Thcll. line (Lilt! Thete: MigT,llioJ[ ,lItd tht'
Tr;ItISfol"lII:tlioll {)I Idl'lItitie~, Honkrs. ;tILd Oldet"," ill A. l\LlIhia~, D.Ja-
cobs()tl, and Y. I,apid, cd"., 1III'IIIilit·.I, Urmfl'r.l, ()rrfnl (!'.lintll'ap()1is: II of
\litlll('S()t<l Prcss. ~()O()).
:). F()t "thill" :tLld ",hick" policing, ~CI' 1'. ;\lIdtt';IS, nllrdn (;I/!/II'.\: J>olil
illi!:lhl' {'.\- . \fl'.yim IJh'ilil' (l[kICI, :\.Y: ('OI"1H'1! l'P, ~()()()).
I. I ici"ln, note ~.
!""l. :\,1. bklnt,ltL CO/lI/rUI"/IIJ/I 0/ fhl' /'oli/imf '\/Ja/or/I' «:hic:tg-o: l' Ill"
:1ricago Pre"s, I~)HH): wc refer to the Frellch Ir;l1lsiatioll, /),/;0'.1 d )"/;gll'l dll
il'lI //OIi/illllf: (Paris: Sl'uil. I ~)~-) I), p ..')-1.
il. Andl"t';ts, note :1, p. 7.
 A.!lse CcylulII tf AlltlsttlSSJa TSOllka/1I 37

7. M ..\Jl(il'l"sOJ}, Fronti!'/"\", jprritol"\' mill Stale Ji(ntnalioll in till' /\-/odeTlI

vl/orld (Cambridge: Polity Press, i~I!lfi): pp. 1-11; see also his analysis ill
"Les frontit. . rt's: un di-hal ('ontl'lIlpomin," (;u/llI/"I).\ & Conjlif\', 1997,26/27,
pp. 1:)<~4.
H. For ,1Il ,lIwly"is of this process, s{'c I>idit'r Bigo, Po/ir(',1 PT! rp.\'I'(1I1X
(Paris: Prt'sst"s de Sel('un''i Po, 1~196), chap.:',
~). S. Palidda, "1.<:1 crimiu<:llisalioll de'i migT<lu1s," Art(',1 riP m("/uTf'hI' f)n
\(if"I/(('.\ Hlrifl/t',1 I'2Q (l1Jml): '10.
10 Ttlt' !ernl II/I('rl/II! 1(,(loil)' is <I European COIl(CP!. In the llnit{'d
Sla!l's, tile ('qlll\'alcll! !{TIll is rlm/wltil" \('('/(I1'(\,.
11.:\. TsollLtla, "1.1' dis(ours g-n'c SIll' la nilllinalitt> des immig-d's,"
I/olfln/n U :\ligmlio/l,\ 121H (l~j\I~)): 7H-7Q.
12. For allalvsi.., 01 [Ilt' s(lcial ('otlS!rll("tioll of the "crimillc-ilmig-ran!" !Iw-
sis in EUfOpt' ill the 1~190s, St'(' B. Ag-o/ino, "Ch,tlIges ill the Social COllslruct
ofCrilllinali!\' ,1I11ollg illltlligT,lIl1s ill the l'nilt'd Killg-dotn," in S. Palidda,
('d. /hlil rI'llIlIlIigl(fliol/ (Brllxclks: COST ,\~ Migrations, COlIllllissioll Ell-
ropi'('Il11t', 1997), pp. I01-I:H: ;\. (;t'Yh<tll, "J\1igr·,Ill!\o. ',lS a Thrcal::\ COIll-
p,lLuin> ,\!I.dv.,i'i oj Se( III i[ar"i;w Rhe!oric: Francc <lud Ihe liS." ill V. Gray,
tot! ... \ 1';!lmIN'1I1/ /)ilf'tl/IIIII: hl/J/IIKmtioll, Cili:(-'m'hil!, (fllri Idelltil'\' (~('\\, York:
Ikrgh~lhn, tOl"!hcoJlling):.J. Ihn'sm<lns, "l\ligranls as;1 Sectlril} Probklll:
J);mg-cl'" of SCI IIri[il:ing" SOcl('tal Is'iw's," in R. Mile,s and n. Thr~illhardt,
eds., Migml/Of/ alld Fllmllf'at! Inlf'j(mlion: [ht, /)}'lwmi(',\ I!f Indll.l'ion and I'::\~
1'/ll.\IlIfI (LOlldoll: PintCf, lq~l!)), pp. :):~-7:.!; F. Hrion, "(:hiJlrn, dhhiflrn:
IIlCal"(('ratioll dl's (tLlllgCI'S (>[ ("OIlS!rll('lioll .,ociaie de la criminali1(' dC's
illlIlIigl (',S {'Il Iklgiqll('," in P<llidd<t, cd., pp, I [):~-~~:'~; F. Brioll and F. Tlllk-
('ns, "( ,ontli! dc ('1111111-(' cl (klinqll,mn·: 11l(('tTogTr 1'{'\'id(,lI('e," I>hJiat/(('
1'1 l'Of'IAI;:~ (1~1~)H): ~:)!,,)-~62; (: W('!JS1cr, 'TiI(' (;onsII"u('\ioll of Brili'ih
'Asian' Crilllin,dily," !ntITIUlIIf!llril./ollulld (If /Ill' ,\IIf'iO/Of!,), I!I !.fllll 1 (19!l7):
/):-I-Hli; P. Toul"llicr, "La d{'linqll<lllce dt'~ i,trangers CII France-<tllalvse d(''i
st"tistiqllc~ p{'llaks," in Palidda, ('d., pp. l:n-Ili~; A. Dal Lago, i\"Ofl-
Pn.I/!flt: l:t.I!I/I.\i/!III' dri IlIIKYallli ill ufla .\()(Hlri K{o!Ja!I' (Milan!): Ft'itrindli,
1~)q~I); .\. Sa\(tti, "IIllllligT<ltioll et 'pt'IlSt'C d'Et;I[,'" Adl'.\ tit' {fl inhm111' en vi-
('1/(('1 IOI'i(//I'\ I~q (1~199): ,-)-1'1: A. TsoukaLI, ""I'll(" Social (:olls!rtlction of

!\'Iigra!ioll ,I~ <I Ttllt'''1 ill SOIlIhern Fllropcan COlllllrics," paper pl-est'llted
,It the ·llst :Inllll,,1 (OIl\'t'lI[iOIl of IS,\, I.()~ Angeles, \1arch 14-1H, ~OOO;
"( :ri me {'I i Illtll igT,11 iOlll'Il FIll-opt"" \\'orkill,~' papn" 00/04, (:('I)! re d 'Ft lIdes
de IT11lIlicil{" ('I d(',~ \1igl,ltiou'i, llnin'l"sill"' de Lii'g'(', /\pril ~O()O; "La nilll-
IIlCllisati()1l des imIlligH~~ VII Ellropt'," ill L HOllclli and C. Sainali, ('(is., 1.(/
,Hw'hilll' rll}lUII),: Pmfiqlu,\ 1'1 di,\((II1r1 ,\l'l'Iuilllirn {1';lIis: I.'Espri! f'r<lppCllr,
~(J()11. pp. ~:~.-)-~~n: 1. \\',I("(jlIJtll, 1.1'1 firi,IUIII dl' la /I//Ih'f' (P;lris: RaisoIls
(l'<lgir, 1~lq~IJ,
I:~. 11'\\'(- IIII Il()! lake 111!t1 a("etlunt illlllligr<ltil)ll oll"t'I1St'S, Illtlsl migrants
.lIT ch,lrp,Td with pr0l'('ll\ or drug olfcll'ics: H. I, A.lbr('("hL "Milloriti('s,
(:1 inl{', and (:ritllill,tl./II,'ili( l' ill tilt' Fcdnal J{{'pt"~lic of CtTm<tll\'," ill I. H.
\1<tr~ltall, ('d., HillOlilin, ,\/igmrll.\, find (:rillll' (l.ondoll: Sage, 19~i7), p. ]01;
I, \!\:'anjllilllt. "Iles 'CllIWlllis COtllllHHics,'" \('11'.\ dt' la }('I"hni"lu' ('}I ,\(if'no',., \()-
,.ialn I::!!J (1~)~lql: ('l.l: 1\1. Barb;lg-li, Immi,l!,Tfl:.iont, f'l l'I'imirlfllilrl In !/ah"
(Bologll;'; 111\11di!lo Iqq~,\). pp. :~I()-:-l~: L H. ,'vLtrsh<ll1. "\1inoritl{'s, Crlm(',
,wd (:rillliu<ll.lll ... tic(' ill th('l'nilC'd Statn," ill i\Lu-sllall, lIotel:~, pp. ~l-~::!.
! 4, ])IW I() lIlt" inclca..,iIlg ,Iltcn!ioll p<lid to IHlhlic h(';\lth aIlt! Ill!(TlIal
"'{'Cllri!\' i:;,'ill('s ,11 tht' n;Ui{JlI.d, EuropeaJl <1lld inlt'rllational political it'\'cls,
,dl WCSI('1"l1 {Olllllril's have hardt'llt'li ill the I !190s tll(' rqll nsioll of drug
(Inl'n~{'",.
38 The St'CIJritizatio!1 of Migration ill Wl'slcrn Soeidies

15. Illegal entry, illegal rcsiricllct', forgery, ami ~o forth.

1!'I. U'iually they ha\'{' neither fixt'd addrt'ss, pt'nnancnt job, nor a Ilet-
work of Ltrnilv or social relatiolls that mighl bcilitalc their·.'iOcial integra-
t i () 11.
17. U. (~atti, n. Malfalli, anri A. Venit', "~1iIlOI'iti('s, Crime, and Crimi-
nal.lusticc ill Itah." in J\Lu·..,hall, note U, p. IlK.
IH. I. COllrto\'ic, "To lIolIliko KadH'stos ton nH'lanastoll tTg,lton still
FILlILI" ('I'll<" kgal 'ilalU'i Id' llligrant wllrkcr'i in (;ree("('), in Marangopol1-
los Foundation for Illllnan Rights, 'I'hl' f'rotl'rlion o/IIiI' Uigh/.\ 0/ Mi,!.,'IWI/
H'mh/'f,\ ({nd Thl'irFflmilin (Athens: fle'ilia, 1~)94), p. 192.
I~). L 11. J\,brshaIL "1'vlinoriLit's:' no le I:), p. 1Of. For (\ furtiH'r analysis
01 discrilllin;llion,'i within the US niminaljllstic{' wstem in g'cncral, see L
Wacqll<l1l1, notc 1:1, p. ('IlL D. Hllrton-Rost', D. Pt·:m, 1'. Wright, t'ds., The
(;('lIiIlK oj AtIIl'fi({f: An /ill'idl' 1./)01< III 11i!' [.',\' I'riwn Inriu,\In (\1onnH" Mc.'
(:UlllTllOIl (:ollragt' Plt''iS, 19~1H);.J. :vlilln, "';N/rdl IInd /)1'.11)'0.';: Ajiimu-Alfll'ri-
((Ill iV/(//!',\ III 1/11' L"riminol./u,\II({' S-",\it'llI (Calllhridge, Eng.: (:,\Inhridge LP,
1~)97); .\1. TOllry. A1o{igll :Vf'.!!.·I{'(I: N(/(!', Lr/IlII' ({lid PlIni\'hlllflll ill /\1II('(i((/
(>Jew York: Oxford lIP, 1!I!FI).
:20. Barhagli, Hot(' I:'), p. 7:2; R. \Villollghby, "llllmigration, race et S("("H-
rilt, :l LI f'rontii'rc m('xic,llIO-(',ilifornit'TlIII'," Cnllllfl',\ & (,'(m/lil.\ :26/:Z7
(lq9/): 2:Hl.
~l, Policc forct's. police forces wilh military statu~ (such as the gf'll-
donnl'll/' in Frall("(' and Belgiulll, the ('({mhillin'i ill Italv, and lile Glwnlio
r:illi/ in Spaill), nlstollls, itl[('l\igcnn' s('l'\'i{'('s, 1he anll\', ,ll\d so OIL
~2. I',Jii(hb, note \), p. -I-[L
~:L Ihid.
21. P. An<irca'i, 'Thl' Rise ortlw American Crirndar(' State," Wmld IJ(I{_
in'./IIIIJ"!!{(I (fall IDq7); :)/, :)\1.
~:I. 1'\'1. dCll Bot'l, "(:rill1(, et inlmigT,Hioll (icl1lS I" LllilJlI {,llrop<'ellTJe,"
(,'ullll/P\ & Con/til,\ :\I/:)~ (1~)\IH): liS.
~(i. Palidda, n(lll' \1. p .. 1:")'
~7. ,\llloug works by 'iclio\ars reproduf."ing· the "criminalmigrant" the-
sis ,ut' (:. Stnlillg, Fhil'"1!(,\' H'Uild (New York: ~illloll & SChllstlT, 19~)4); A. P.
Schmid. "\iig-Lllioll dl1d (,rime:;\ Framc\vork for DisCllS'iioll," ill ISPA(~,
;iligraliu/I (fild Ltillu' (\'Iiiallo; ISPAC, 19~)(l), pp. ;-)~/12; F. BO\'l'llkerk, "Crimc
:Illd tIlt' Mllili-t'tilllic Society:.\ View ftolll Fllropt'," Lrilfll', IJI7II, oud .\'o(il1/
C'hongl':) (l\)~n): '!./I--~HO.
~H. I'. SI'llill, (;11111111', (:un/lil"!. (Juri Lrilll/' (~t'w YOlk: Social Science Rt,-
w:lrcli COIIHell. I~UH; F["('I\("h transLlIioll. Con/li/.\ ill' !ldlIlIP I'I/rilllinali!!;
(Paris: I)('de)!}(', lQH4), 11. ~)K.
~\l.
(. BlI1ter\veggl', "\L!ss I\kdia, IllllnigT,lIlh, and Racism ill Ct'r-
mally:..\ (:0IIU'i1l1lIioll to an Ong-oing lkb:III':' Cn/llnllfnimllllil,\ '!. (HH)(i):
:.!()/~20H; Hon, Hotl' '2:'), pp. I O!)~ lOf).
:\0.
(;('~ hall, Dote 1'2.
:) I. {:cviJall, Hotl' I '2, and idem. "IllllnigT<llioll, Foreignness, ,\lid :0\11\11-
ticllilllralislll: rlit.' COllS1itlllion 01 a :\cw S('cllrilariall (;ontiJlIlIIIll." p'lJH'r
plI'"ellted ,11 1lH' lq~)~) llWt 1ing' 01 11Il' AllH'lic,11l Political Science ;'\SSOci,l-
J

lio[J, ,\llanl.[ .
.'1'2. SIICI! as the {;()I·si("all:>. ill France and till' Ba.'i<jllt·S in Spain and
Fr(lll('(, .
:-U. (;eyiJdll, llote 1'2.
:1'1. Repian'llwllt I'\'fig-r<ltioll: b it <l Solutioll to Declining ,1Il(\ Ageing
P()pllblil)ll'i~ ( ;'\J Rt'IH)I"1. ~OO().
 Ayst' Cl'yh{/1I t"7' Anllstllssill T.~nllklllll 39

~3:1. Cn·hall, llOt(' 12, and "Etal:o.-lilli:o., frontit. . re stcuri'il·'(', idt'lltitds)

«()nt]"()lt,l'(~)?" Cultltrl's & COli/fil.l ~fi/:!7 (199H).
~Hl. In Eurolanguagc, the term third (mwtni's designates countries that
arc not members of the European l..-lnion.
37. Germany and Britain are the major trainers of polict'" forces for
most ("ountrie.'i in Central ,md East Europe, followed, in the Balkan'i, by
Itah ,tlld Frallu'. Such infllH'l\ct'" ("all take tile fOl"lll ofsimplv exporting ll<l-
tiol;,ti polidng tlIodt'ls. hIlt it call <l1'i0 take an indirect for;n-thc pmlllo-
lion of national industrial production. Training st'llIillar'i and finallcial
SllppOrt for Ihird-colllltn border contl ols oftelL go togellwr wilh 1IH" {'X-
p{)rtali(lll of national (·(I1lIJ"(llling devin·:o..
:1H. The location of tIlt' hcad(I1I<1J"\('rs orlhi~ p(llin' academy is not yet
IlX{'ti.
:{~). The imp,ln of thi:o. proct':o.s ha:o. beell panicularly strollg ill the
("outllri{'s of SOlllh l':nrop(', which nntil tht, 19ROs \\'('1"(' primarily emigrant
'>(llll"("(,S.
lOo For all (ltl<-llysi~ (II' tht' inrre,I<lllg partif"ipatioll of tilt' m·tlitary
rOl"n':o. ill interl1al s('curit\·. ~ee J)jdin Bigo,J. P. HanoI!, and A. Tsollkala,
lp/no("hf' mmt)(Jmll1't' df'.1 tJloblhnt'.\ rlt, .\/;(·/11"/1(; inl!;ri('lut: AI/onap'f', flalif', I:"Ifl(.I·"
[.-"11;\' (I',lris: Ministere fit, LI Dekm(', 1999).
11. Set' Andrc'as, 11Ot(' :!·1.
I~. Th,l! i:o., ill the Etl!"opean Union, it! ("ollntrit,'i apart from Ihose <\1
th(' Elf periphery.
u. Law 104-HI.'L AlIg :!:!, IQ9fi, Tillt' '1-Rorricting V\'('lral"e and Pllh-
lie LklH"fits fOI :\Ii('n:o.. :0.('(" 'toOA-
I·!. Late!", ttw salllc 1"(';l("lion was adopted tow<lrd the ,.lu.I.linflr'f (ethnic
(;nlll<lll'i origillating froJll Ill(' former Soviet l:nioll), On this point, set'
W. Ikrglll<lllll. ·'Anti-SClllitislIl allt! Xenophohia ill (;(,flllan\' sinc(' l;nillca-
tiOIl," ill H. Kllrt1ll't1, \V. Ikrgll1<lllll, K. Erh, ('ck, Anll-Sf'mifiHII flnd XN/O-
/)liohia in (;f'n!l(lIl} (f/t('/" {'lIijimtion (Oxford: Oxford LTI', 1~1~17), pp. ~1-:1R~
Bllttl'r\\·egge. lIote ':!.~). pp. ~07-~()H. Accordillg to certain earli{'r sllldic:o.,
rbi:o. opinion V."IS ~h;\r('d hy tht" vast Illajorit\' of the (;{'!"m,m pllblic opin-
ion {'\"("ll ill the IqHOs (M. I\.lIccbln. '·(;t'I"llI<1l1S and 'Othns': Raci:-.m,
XI.'TlOphohi'l, or ·'.t'gitilllatc (:ollscrv(ltislll'~" (;pnnall Polilic,\, 19~H, 1,
p. :)S). HO\,·i\'V('[ it "hollld Iw :o.llt'sscd th;lI tht' arrival in (;n't'Cc of 1Il,1Il~
I'Ollli,\Il'> (ethllic (~rc("k.;; originaling rronl the rOrnH'r Soviet ('nion) ill lhe
1990:0. provoked stl"Otlg x{'llophohic n',lniolls, in spilt' of tilt' fact that, du('
!o st'v('ral \Vt'akne~st's ()f the n;uiollal welfare sy~telll, lilt'\' could Ilot 1)('
flualiflcfl as "pnllitcct"." ()n this point, SCt' A. TSflllkal:t, "Thc pern'pti(lll
of the 'olht'!"· alld titc integratioll of illllllig;r<lllts in (~r('cc('," ill A. C('ddc:o.
,lIld A. ]<,n·{'11. cds .. nit· Po/itin 0/ JJdOIlf(illg: MiKtmlf\ (llId lHillor;li('\ in COf/-
Inrl/mml).' /,'1110/11· (Aide 1 "ho!, Ellg.: Ashg,t!(', 1~)q~I), pp. Il.'~-Ilti.
1:1. For d sllldv (If rh(" prcv;t!t-nu· of the "profilecr migT;\Ilt" image in
Fr,lllc(", st'C \'. Ik Rllrld('I" {'I <11 ·"·.t si 1'011 parbit de.;; Fral1(ai'>f Perceptiol)
de:-. itllllligri':o. t']I Franc(', artillld('~, opiniolls, et comportl'tlH'llts," Nf'V/lf' in-
INII(II iOlla 1/, d ·(It"! lOll (fltl! m//lutlll (111"1' (spri 11 g [~)9-1): I:~ 7.
·Hi. (:eyirall. 1101(' t~.
17. For ;In ;lll,lh"i~ of thl'st' perception:-. and of the politics ofht'lollg-
ing ill EllT"OPt". :0.('(" (;eddes and Favell, Hote- .1-;-).
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